Carbohydrate metabolism

O
O
1

4
O
1

O
1

1 O

O
1

6
4

O
1
4

1
1
O

4
1
O

O
1
4

O
1

1
O

O
1

O 1
4

1
O

1
O

4
1

O 1

1 O

1
O

1
6 O

4
1

Fig. 4.2 Macroscopic structure of glycogen. Hexagons represent glucose monomers. Note that both (14) and (16) carbon-tocarbon bonds are present (examples shown within the dotted boxes). These bonds are detailed in Fig. 4.12.

gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway.

These will be discussed in turn.
HINTS AND TIPS
Six-carbon carbohydrates are also known as hexose
sugars. Pentose sugars are five-carbon carbohydrates.
Triose sugars are three-carbon carbohydrates.

Glucose entry into cells

Glucose (or its derivatives, such as glucose-6-phosphate)
participates in all the carbohydrate pathways of metabolism. As phospholipid bilayers are impermeable to
polar molecules, glucose cannot directly diffuse across
plasma cell membranes. To allow glucose to move into
and out of cells, specialized transporter structures span
the membranes. Regulating transporter function therefore allows integrated regulation of glucose traffic across
the cell membrane.

24

Facilitated diffusion
In certain environments, glucose is a greater extracellularly than intracellularly. The concentration gradient
is thus favourable for glucose to passively enter the
cell. However, a route is required to traverse the
phospholipid bilayer. This is provided by the GLUT
facilitated diffusion transporters. The different characteristics of the most important subtypes are shown in
Fig. 4.3.

Secondary active transport

When the extracellular glucose is lower than the
intracellular glucose, glucose entry is coupled to sodium
transport, via the sodiumglucose symport (Chapter 1).
This allows the Na gradient to power the energydemanding import of glucose against its concentration
gradient. Such a system operates, for instance, in the
gastrointestinal tract, allowing the absorption of
glucose.