Regrid: Frequency and Voltage Regulation in Electrical Grids

ReGrid: Frequency and Voltage
ReGrid: Frequency and voltage

regulation in electrical grids
I.
Introduction
2
II.
Table of contents
III.
1
1. Assessing the solar thermal potential (potential analysis)
2. Awareness raising: broad campaigns targeting the general public
3. Awareness raising: targeted campaigns to develop specific market areas
10
4. Financial incentives: VAT reductions
12
5. Financial incentives: public loans at preferential conditions
14
6. Regulatory measures: energy efficiency requirements for buildings
16
7. Regulatory measures: solar obligations
18
8. Building permits solar thermal in listed buildings
20
9. Quality Assurance: product standards and certification
22
10. Health & Safety requirements
23
11. Qualification of skilled personnel
24
12. Research & Development programmes
25
Further Reading
27
Table of Content
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................3
LIST OF SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................4
LEARNING TARGETS .............................................................................................................5
1
BASIC CONCEPTS.....................................................................................................5
WHY FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE CONTROL?.......................................................... 12
2.1
CONTROL VARIABLES FOR FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE STABILITY IN AN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM ....... 15
POWER QUALITY IN ELECTRICAL GRIDS ................................................................. 22
CONTROL OF INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS ................................................ 25
4.1
4.2
REQUIREMENTS IN DIFFERENT INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS ......................................................... 26

PROVISION OF ANCILLARY SERVICES IN ELECTRICAL GRIDS ........................................................... 27
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM FREQUENCY AND ACTIVE POWER REGULATION ..................... 27
5.1
5.2
FREQUENCY CONTROL IN POWER SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 28

EXCERPT: ELECTRICAL SYSTEM FREQUENCY AS A COMMUNICATION LINK FOR ACTIVE POWER SHARING .. 32
REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL ........................................................... 34
6.1
6.2
6.3
EFFECTS OF ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER FLOWS ON VOLTAGE ................................................... 34

LOAD FLOW CALCULATIONS .................................................................................................. 34
MITIGATION OF VOLTAGE STABILITY PROBLEMS/REACTIVE POWER MANAGEMENT............................ 35
INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATION IN POWER SYSTEMS ............. 41
7.1
7.2
7.3
VOLTAGE EFFECTS .............................................................................................................. 41

ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATORS ........................................ 42
CODES AND REGULATIONS ................................................................................................... 44
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 46
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING ...................................................... 47
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... 48
List of abbreviations
AC
Alternating current
DC
Direct current
ENTSO-E
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity
FACTS
Flexible alternating current transmission system
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
kV
Kilovolts
LV
Low voltage
MV
Medium voltage
PWM
Pulse width modulation
PV
Photovoltaic
RE
Renewable energy
STATCOM
Static synchronous compensator
TSO
Transmission system operator
UCTE
Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity
VAR
Volt-ampere reactive
List of symbols
Symbol
AC
Description
AC generator providing a sinusoidal voltage source
Resistor
Inductor
Voltage node
Load
Earth
Capacitor
Thyristor
Transformer
DC-AC inverter
Solar photovoltaic generation
Learning targets
After studying this chapter you will:
Understand the basic technological principles governing the operation of electrical

power systems.
Be aware of the parameters that affect frequency and voltage stability in power systems.
Be familiar with the methods and tools available to guarantee frequency and voltage
stability in the event of contingencies in power systems.
Learn about the principles governing power flow in electrical power systems in additional mathematical modules.
Understand the differences in electrical grid interfacing between conventional generation units and renewable energy generation units.
1 Basic concepts
The purpose of this section is to introduce the main electrical concepts necessary for an understanding of the operation of electrical systems.
A very simple electrical circuit can be built by connecting a 100W (watt) incandescent light
bulb to an electrical socket. 100 watts is the nameplate rated electrical power of the incandescent bulb. The electrical power supplied by the mains to the incandescent light bulb enables it
to do work (in this case in the form of light). The simplest way to calculate the electrical power
in watts (W) consumed by an appliance such as an incandescent bulb is to multiply the applied
voltage, in volts (V), by the current which flows through it, in amps (A). Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two points. The higher the potential, the more energy
that can be transferred between those points. In good conductor materials, electrons are not
tightly bound to the nucleus of the atom. When a voltage is applied, these free electrons
wander from atom to atom, constituting an electrical current. There are two types of current,
as shown in figure 1.
When free electrons flow at a steady rate in one direction only, the current is said to
be direct current (DC).
When the amount of free electrons and their direction change cyclically, usually sinusoidally, the current is called alternating current (AC). The number of times the current waveform reaches its positive peak per second is called the current frequency. In
Europe, the AC electricity delivered by utility companies has a frequency of 50 cycles
per second, or 50Hz (hertz).
Figure 1: a) Direct current (DC) waveform, b) Alternating current (AC) waveform. Source: RENAC
The amount of electrical energy used by an appliance is found by multiplying its consumed
power by the length of time of operation. Thus, for example, a 100W incandescent light bulb
that is operated for 10 hours will consume 100Wx10h, that is to say 1000Wh or 1kWh (kilowatt hours) of energy.
Electrical circuits are composed of a limited amount of different components. The basic circuit
elements which can be found in electrical models of power systems are generators, resistors
and inductors. Generators are usually modelled as voltage sources. Voltage sources generate a
given voltage independent of the current drawn from the generator. The general expression
for the sinusoidal voltage waveform delivered by a conventional generator is:
() = ( + )
(0.1)
where v(t) is the voltage, a function of time; Vpeak is the amplitude of the voltage waveform;
is the angular frequency (measured in radians/s); and is the phase angle (radians) shows the
different parameters that define a voltage sinusoidal waveform.
Figure 2: AC voltage sinusoidal waveform. Source: RENAC

6
The meaning of the peak voltage (Vpeak) is straightforward. The angular frequency of a sinusoidal waveform is related to the linear frequency f mentioned above by the following expression:
= 2 (radians/cycle) f (cycles/s) = 2f
(0.2)
Regarding the phase angle , it must be mentioned that any sine wave that does not pass
through zero at t = 0 has a phase shift. is the phase angle in degrees or radians that the
waveform has shifted either left or right from the reference point along the horizontal reference axis. There will usually be a phase difference of the same frequency between two sinusoidal waveforms.
Sinusoidal waveforms can be represented by vectors called "phasors", where the vector
length is determined by the peak amplitude and the direction given by the phase angle (see
figure 3).
Figure 3: Phasor representation of sinusoidal waveforms. Source: RENAC
Resistors are passive elements that model the effect of electrical resistance in electrical circuits, defined as the opposition of a material to the flow of an electric current. As stated by
Ohms law, the voltage drop through a resistance is directly proportional to the current across
it. The constant of proportionality is the resistance value R measured in ohms ().
Figure 4: Symbol and voltage-current relationship in a resistor. Source: RENAC
When connecting an AC voltage generator to a resistor, the voltage across the resistor is the
same as the voltage delivered by the generator. The current that flows though the resistor can
be calculated using the expression as follows:
()
()
(0.3)
The phase angle of the resulting current is the same as the phase angle of the voltage (zero),
as can be observed in Fig. 5 b) and c).
Figure 5: a) AC voltage generator connected to a resistor, b) Voltage and current through the resistor, c) Phasor
representations. Source: RENAC
Another passive element that is often used in electrical circuits that model power systems is
an inductor. An inductor is a passive electrical component which stores energy in a magnetic
field. The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes in current through by developing a voltage across it proportional to the rate of change of the current. The relationship between the time-varying voltage v(t) across an inductor with inductance L and the time-varying
current i(t) passing through it is described by the following expression:
() =
()
(0.4)
The inductor is again connected to an AC voltage generator, as in the case of the resistor. The
voltage across the inductor is the same as the voltage delivered by the generator. The current
can be calculated using relation (0.4):
() = () = () =
()
(0.5)
The current and voltage waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 6. As can be observed from relation
(0.5) and
b):
The current through the inductor has the same frequency as the applied voltage.
The current lags behind the voltage by a quarter of a cycle. Referring to relation (0.2),
where the concept of angular frequency was introduced, a complete cycle is equivalent
to an angle of 2. Therefore, a waveform lagging behind by a quarter cycle corresponds
to a phase shift angle of = 90. The corresponding phasors for voltage and current
are illustrated in
c).
The proportionality factor between voltage and current is not just the inductance L,
but the reactance L. The reactance will be denoted by the abbreviation X in the remainder of the module, and depends on the inductance value of the inductor and on
the frequency of the voltage applied through the inductor.
Figure 6: a) AC voltage generator connected to an inductor, b) Voltage and current through the inductor, c)
Phasor representations. Source: RENAC
The expressions derived for the relation between current and voltages for different electrical
components form the foundation for the introduction of the very important concepts of apparent (S), real (P) and reactive power (Q).
9
In order to calculate the instantaneous power supplied by the voltage source to the resistor
and inductor, it is necessary to multiply the waveforms of the voltage and current. The results
are illustrated in Fig. 7, with the green waveform being the instantaneous power transferred
from the generator to the load (resistor or inductor). In the case of the resistive circuit, the
product of voltage and current is positive at all times, indicating that the power flow direction
does not change. Real power is transferred from the generator and is dissipated at the resistor.
The situation changes in the second circuit, with an inductor as the load. During every cycle,
for half of the cycle the product of voltage and current is positive, but for the other half of the
cycle the product is negative. On average, exactly as much energy flows from the generator to
the inductor as flows back. There is no net energy flow over one cycle; only a transfer of reactive energy takes place.
Certain appliances do not have a purely resistive or inductive character. A good example is a
motor. There is a portion of the current absorbed by a motor which is in phase with the voltage in the motor. This is the current that creates real power in the motor and which can be
used to create mechanical work. There is another part of the current which is required by the
stator of the motor to create the magnetic field necessary for the motor to operate. As mentioned above, inductors are the components that store magnetic energy. The stator of a motor
can therefore be modelled as an inductor and, as we have seen, the current in an inductor lags
behind the voltage by 90 degrees. This magnetising current in the motor does not create real
power, but reactive power.
Figure 7: Instantaneous power in resistive and inductive circuits. Source: RENAC
10
A concept that is very useful in analysing the relation between load current and magnetising
current that is to say, real and reactive power is what is known as the power triangle. For
appliances like motors, voltage V and current I are not in phase, but instead present a certain
phase shift . The pure product of the current drawn by the motor (amps) and the voltage
(volts) across the motor equals the apparent power consumed by the motor (S, measured in
volt-amperes). The real power consumed by the motor, which can be used to produce mechanical torque, is the horizontal projection, which is given by the expression
S*cos=V*I*cos (measured in watts). The vertical projection is the reactive power, which
cannot be converted into work, and in the case of motors is mainly used to magnetise the stator. Reactive power can be calculated using the expression S*sin=V*I*sin, and is measured
in VAR (volt-amperes reactive).
Figure 8: Power triangle. Source: RENAC
The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power (P)
flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit (S). In purely resistive circuits, voltage
and current waveforms are in phase and therefore all the apparent power is real power and
can be consumed. In this type of circuit the power factor is 1. Circuits containing purely resistive loads, for example a filament lamp, have a power factor of 1. When the load is not purely
resistive e.g. induction motors the apparent power does not equal real power. The power
factor will consequently be less than 1.
The apparent power is a vector quantity that can be represented as a complex number:
either in rectangular format with real and imaginary components, such as

= +
or in polar format
with S being the amplitude (S=V*I). is simply a symbol to denote that the value beside it is
an angle, in this case , the phase shift of the apparent power S.
11
2 Why frequency and voltage control?

The main purpose of an electrical power system is to efficiently deliver reliable electricity to
consumers. Voltage and system frequency are the main variables to guarantee the stability of
an electrical system.
The simplest electrical power system consists of a single electric generator and a load. An electric generator converts rotational kinetic energy to electric energy. The law of energy conservation requires that, at any instant, the power demanded by the load is supplied by the generator and/or by energy stored within the system1. If the consumption in the load increases, the
extra energy demand is initially supplied by the rotational inertia of the generator through a
decrease of its speed. The frequency of the voltage in an electrical generator is directly proportional to the rotational speed of its rotor. All the alternators connected to an electrical system rotate with the same electrical angular speed, according to the relation
=
(1.0)
where f is the frequency, p the number of poles in the alternator and n the rotational speed of
the rotor in rpm (revolutions per minute). Consequently, the decrease in rotational speed will
be accompanied by a proportionate decrease in the frequency of the voltage generated by the
generator.
An electrical power system consisting of thousands of interconnected generators and loads
behaves much like a simple one-generator one-load system, with the frequency being the
same for the whole interconnected power system. However, there is never a perfect equilibrium between generation and demand in a power system; since the amount of storage is usually
rather limited in a power system when compared with the load demanded, there will be frequency shifts as a result of the imbalances between generation and demand, as shown in Fig.
9. Frequency drifts downwards when demand exceeds supply and vice versa.
Leon Freris, David Infield (2008): Renewable Energy in Power Systems. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY. p. 55
12
Figure 9: Frequency behavior due to imbalances between generation and demand. Source: RENAC
Regarding the first variable necessary to guarantee the stability of an electrical system, there
are several reasons why it is desirable to keep frequency in a power system within narrow
bounds, as mentioned by Freris et al [2]:
It ensures that electric motors operate at a virtually constant speed. A fixed speed is
required in many consumer applications where an AC electric motor is used to drive a
device at an approximately constant rate, e.g. a pump in a washing machine.
In electronic applications, the mains frequency can be used as a basis for timing various processes.
Transformers are sensitive to frequency variations and may be overloaded if the frequency drifts substantially from the nominal value.
Finally, and most importantly, in traditional power stations the performance of the
generators is dependent on the performance of all the auxiliary electric motor drives
that deliver fuel and air to the boiler, oil to bearings and cooling services to several systems. If these auxiliaries underperform due to low speed caused by low frequency,
power station output can be reduced. This phenomenon could lead to a runaway situation with cascaded shutdowns of power stations and blackouts.
Regarding the second variable voltage manufacturers of electrical appliances design their
products to operate with a certain nominal voltage in order to achieve effective performance
and comply with safety standards. The electrical grid operator is therefore obliged by law to
provide electricity at consumer terminals at voltage levels that do not deviate from a nominal
value by more than a certain percentage. So, for example, following voltage harmonisation,
electricity supplies within the European Union are now nominally 230 V 6% at 50 Hz 2. Operating appliances outside the specified voltage level range can lead to overheating, malfunctions, reductions of the expected equipment lifetime, etc. Electric drives and motors are affected by voltages below and above the nameplate voltages:
2
CENELEC Harmonisation Document HD 472 S1:1988
13
Since power is proportional to the product of current and voltage, when electric motors are subjected to voltages below the nameplate rating, current must increase to
provide the same amount of power, which increases the build-up of heat within the
motor. Furthermore, the mechanical torque is inversely proportional to the square of
the voltage. Thus a 10% reduction from nameplate voltage would reduce the torque by
a factor of 0.9 x 0.9, that is to say, the resulting torque would be 81% of the original
value.
Contrary to what would be expected, a higher than nominal voltage also leads to overcurrents. High voltage to a motor tends to push the magnetic portion of the motor into
saturation. This causes the motor to draw excessive current in an effort to magnetise
the iron beyond the point to which it can easily be magnetised3.
In order to achieve voltage stability at consumer terminals, the voltage at all nodes in a power
system must be maintained within limits. This is a task which is performed by TSOs and DSOs
(transmission system operators and distribution system operators), which are the entities entrusted with carrying electrical power over long distances, allowing for generation and consumption to be geographically separated. The lower voltage levels of an electrical power system are commonly named distribution systems, while higher voltage levels are commonly
named transmission systems. Increasing the voltage reduces the current in the transmission
lines, and hence the size of conductors and distribution losses, making it more economical to
distribute electrical power over long distances. Fig. 10 shows a simplified diagram of an electrical power system with different voltage levels. Transformers are the interfaces between the
different voltage levels.
Discussing the operation of electrical motors is beyond the scope of this webinar, but further details
can be consulted in references [2] and [8].
14
Figure 10: Voltage levels in electrical power systems. Source: RENAC
Furthermore, the following table lists typical voltage ranges for the different voltage levels
present in electrical grids.
Voltage level
Voltage range
Low voltage
<400V, for industrial applications up to 690V
Medium voltage
6kV to 30kV
High voltage
From 50kV to 750kV
Table 1: Voltage ranges for different voltage levels in electrical grids. Source: RENAC
2.1 Control variables for frequency and voltage stability in an electrical power
system
2.1.1
Frequency
As explained in the previous section, for a near constant frequency to be maintained, the production and consumption of active power has to be in equilibrium at every point in time. The
better the balance between generation and consumption, the smaller the frequency variation
in the grid, and consequently the better the electricity quality.
The electricity demand for a single load is characterised by a high variability. Fig. 11 shows the
load curve for a single household in Germany, with a time resolution of 1 min and partially
averaged. With a finer time resolution the variability would be higher and the ratio between
minimum and maximum demand would be greater (for example, due to power spikes from
switching off appliances, etc.).
15
Figure 11: Demand curve for a household in Germany. Source: RENAC
However, the electricity consumption of different consumers is not correlated. By combining

the loads of different electricity accounts, the demand curve is smoothed and the ratio of peak
demand to lowest demand decreases. This effect becomes stronger as more electrical power
systems are interconnected. For large power systems, demand aggregation and interconnection makes it fairly feasible to forecast the expected load for the day ahead, thus facilitating
the task of scheduling the generation required to supply the demand, plus a reserve which will
be needed to regulate frequency in the system.
Figure 12: Power generation scheduling in electrical power systems. Source: RENAC
The transmission system operator is the entity in charge of plant scheduling. In systems in liberalised electricity markets, the main criteria used to decide which generators meet which
16
part of the demand is economic, and allocation is usually carried out through bidding systems.
In national power systems without electricity markets, the dispatch centre is responsible for
allocation.
Base load is usually defined as the minimum level of demand on an electrical power system
over 24 hours. This continuous energy demand is covered by what are known as base load
plants, which are production facilities delivering electricity at a constant rate, usually at a low
cost relative to other production facilities available to the system4. Their efficiency decreases
at less than full output. Base load power plants include coal, nuclear and biogas plants. Medium load power plants operate for between 20% and 60% of the day, typically during the daytime and early afternoon. They fill the gap between the base load and peaks in electricity demand. Intermediate load power can be increasingly supplied by renewable energy sources
such as wind and solar power.
To meet peak demand, peak load power stations are designed to run for short periods of time
each day. They can be started quickly from cold, and vary the quantity of electrical output by
the minute. Gas-fired plants as well as hydro-electricity are typically used to provide peak load
power. As mentioned in section 0, if power consumption is greater than production, the grid
frequency is below the nominal value. Similarly, if production is greater than consumption the
grid frequency is above the nominal value. A certain portion of the peak power generation
capacity available in a power system which is highly responsive to changes in electrical demand is used to guarantee frequency stability in the system. These reserves will be used by
the different frequency control levels (primary, secondary and tertiary) which will be explained
in detail in section 5.1. The active power reserves that can be activated automatically by frequency changes are usually classified as below:
The frequency response reserve is provided by generators usually equipped with governors. Following a loss in supply, the additional energy demand is initially supplied by
the rotational inertia of the generator, and its speed is decreased due to the increased
mechanical load. The function of a governor is to sense any changes in speed and to
adjust the fuel supplied to the prime mover so that the speed (and therefore the frequency) is controlled. The frequency response reserve is used for primary frequency
control and, therefore, is usually named primary reserve.
The spinning reserve is extra generating capacity available by increasing the power
output of generators already in operation (used as secondary/minute reserve).
The operating reserve includes generating capacity available within a short period of
time to meet demand in case a generator goes down or there is a disruption in supply
(used as secondary/minute reserve).
The replacement or long-term reserve is reserve power provided by generators that
require a longer start-up time (30-60 min) and is used to relieve the generating capacity available to meet demand in case a generator goes down, in case there is a disruption in supply or to cover system capacity or congestion.
"Energy Dictionary - Baseload plant". Source: EnergyVortex.com:

http://www.energyvortex.com/energydictionary/baseload_plant.html/ Accessed 2011-08-05.
17
The Time responses for different kinds of reserve power are illustrated in Fig. 13.
Figure 13: Time response for different kinds of reserve power. Source: RENAC
2.1.2
Voltage
In order to guarantee voltage stability at the different nodes in an electrical power system, the
line impedances in the transmission system must be considered. The Fig. shows a simplified
equivalent circuit of a transmission line. Cables used in overhead lines or underground cables
are made out either of copper, aluminium, steel and alloys. These materials present a small
but not negligible resistance to the flow of electrical current when considering the long distances covered by transmission lines . The most common method for alternating current power transmission and distribution are three-phase systems, where three circuit conductors carry
three alternating currents (of the same frequency) that reach their instantaneous peak values
at different times5. Fig. 14 shows a high voltage overhead line. The steel towers carry doublecircuit three-phase lines with two conductors per phase bundle. Furthermore, an earth wire
conductor has been strung at the top of the steel towers in order to shield the phase conductors from direct lightning strikes and to provide a low impedance path in case of faults.
The current that is carried by single-phase conductors creates a magnetic field around the
conductor. When the current changes, the magnetic flux changes correspondingly. Consequently a voltage is generated within the conductor itself as well as in the conductors around
it. Therefore, conductors in a transmission line behave like an inductor. The conductors exhibit
self and mutual inductance. As explained in the introductory section 1, the reactance XL can be
calculated easily once the line inductance has been obtained.
5
William D. Stevenson, Jr. (1975): Elements of Power System Analysis. Third Edition, McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY. p. 2. ISBN: 0070612854.
18
Figure 14: High voltage overhead lines. Source: RENAC
Assuming that the three-phase system is balanced, the transmission line can be simplified to
the single-line circuit in Fig. 15 a). Both the line resistance RL and the line reactance XL have
been included. Fig 15 b) shows the voltage drops across the different elements of the transmission line. As already mentioned in section 1, due to the presence of an inductive element
the current I is not going to be in phase with the voltage UA. The voltage drop in the line resistance UR=RL*I will be in phase with the current I, while the voltage drop in the line reactance XL will lead the current by 90.
I
RL
XL
UAB
UR
U
UA
UX
-UAB
UAB
UX
B
UR
b)
a)
Figure 15: Equivalent circuit of a transmission/distribution line and phasor diagram of voltages and currents.
Source: RENAC
19
In order to calculate the voltage at the two ends of this transmission line, the voltage across
the line impedance is calculated according to Ohms law6:
= = = ( + )
(1.1)
The complex impedance ZL includes the resistance RL as well as the reactance XL mentioned
before. Due to the reactive and inductive character of the line impedance, there will be active
power (P) flowing through the line as well as reactive power Q. The apparent power S flowing
through the transmission line is related to the voltage and current by
= + =
(1.2)
where I* is the complex conjugate7 of I.

Combining equations (1.1) and (1.2), a general relationship for the voltage drop can be obtained:
= = = =
()( + )
( + )
( )
(1.3)
Usually the main interest is in the real (or scalar) value of the voltage drop in the line impedance, which equals the voltage difference between the two nodes A and B. As can be observed
in figure 15 b), this scalar difference is mainly influenced by the real part of (its horizontal
component). Equation (1.4) can be simplified to the scalar relationship:

(1.4)
This relation provides a convenient way to estimate the voltage drop in a transmission line
given the active and reactive power carried by the line.
Expression (1.4) can be further simplified if the characteristics of the transmission line analysed are taken into account. Due to the geometry and low resistance of the conductors used,
medium and high voltage transmission lines present a higher value of reactance XL than resistance RL. This transmission line ratio, often denoted X/R, varies depending on the voltage
level.
The detailed derivation can be found in: Leon Freris, David Infield (2008): Renewable Energy in Power Systems. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. p. 158
7
The complex conjugate of a complex number is another complex number with the same real part but
with imaginary parts of equal magnitude and opposite signs. For example, 2+5i and 25i are complex
conjugates.
20
Line voltage (kV)
X/R
400
16
275
10
132
33
11
1.5
Table 2: Transmission line parameters. Source: Leon Freris, David Infield: Renewable Energy in Power Systems,
John Wiley & Sons
High X/R ratios mean that the first term in equation (1.4) will be small compared to the second
term, and therefore the following approximation can be made:
(1.5)
Equation 1.5 provides a very important insight into the voltage stability of electrical power
systems: network voltages at the different nodes of the middle and high voltage distribution
layers of an electrical power system are mainly determined by reactive power flows. Therefore, in order to guarantee voltage stability and maintain a flat network voltage profile, it is
necessary to control components of the electrical power system capable of absorbing or injecting reactive power.
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3 Power quality in electrical grids

Different IEEE8 standards define power quality in a different manner, but an overall valid definition would be a set of conditions for the provision of electrical power so that the user of an
electric system can utilise electrical energy from the distribution system in their intended
manner without interference, interruption or significant loss of performance.
Ideal power quality for an electrical system with a defined line-neutral voltage for each phase
of 230V and 50Hz providing electrical power to single- and three-phase loads is represented by
the corresponding single-phase and three-phase waveforms of voltage depicted in Fig. 16.
Figure 16: Ideal single- and three-phase voltage waveforms. Source: RENAC
There are several types of distortions of the voltage waveforms that might occur in an electrical power system. The following table summarises the main distortions that frequency and
voltage instability might cause:
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
22
Disturbance types
Description
Causes
Deviations in the freImbalances bequency of the transtween demand

mission system from
and supply.
the nominal value (50,
60Hz) during several
cycles.
Variation in the amplitude of one or more

phases relative to the
other three-phase
voltages and their
nominal value.
Imbalance in
the electrical
loads on the
phases, lightning, etc.
Variations or repetitive fluctuations in the

voltage amplitude,
either positive or negative, for several cycles. In an extreme
case an outage occurs, when there is a
zero voltage condition
for one or several
phases.
Sudden variations in electrical loads,

ground faults,
lightning, etc.
Table 3: Overview of power quality disturbances relating to voltage and frequency instability. Source: RENAC
23
Different frequency quality indices can be used in order to characterise the frequency quality
in a power system:
The absolute frequency deviation

=
where fn is the rated frequency (50Hz or 60Hz) and f is the actual frequency (Hz).
The relative frequency deviation (in %)

=

The integral deviations during the day
Various standards address the issues of power quality in electric systems. Standards are needed so that all end users (industrial, commercial and residential) and transmission and distribution suppliers (the utilities) speak the same language when discussing power quality issues9.
Standards also define recommended limits for events that degrade power quality. A good
overview of applicable standards (e.g. IEEE Standards 519 and 1159) to power quality can be
obtained from references [3] (chapter 3) and [4].
Alexander Kusko and Marc T. Thompson: Power Quality in Electrical Systems. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 15. ISBN: 0071470751. DOI: 10.1036/0071470751
24
4 Control of interconnected power systems

The positive effect of interconnecting electrical systems in terms of the smoothing of electrical
demand curves associated with aggregating electrical loads has already been mentioned in
section 2.1. Furthermore, the interconnection of electrical systems presents other advantages:
It increases the possibilities for electricity trading.

It improves the reliability of electricity supply.
The overall peak load is lower than the sum of the peak loads of the individual interconnected power systems. This in turn reduces the installed capacity needed.
As a consequence the reserve capacity needed is also lower.
It produces more favourable operational conditions for individual generation units, increasing their efficiency which again reduces fuel consumption.
Interconnection also has some drawbacks. It increases complexity and also the impact of disturbances, since the number of electricity consumers affected is higher in large interconnected
systems. Therefore, the stability of power systems is a major concern in the operation of large
interconnected power systems. Power systems can be expanded by connecting the power systems of several countries to work synchronously, i.e. with a common nominal frequency.
Dy Liacco [5] classified the possible states in an electrical power system into five different
states according to their operational conditions. These are classified in relation to the grid or
load/frequency risk levels and urgency of actions related to risks of propagation.
A prerequisite for power system reliability is a Normal operating state. Any other state decreases system reliability. During this state there is no risk to interconnected system operation.
Frequency and voltage are within their predefined allowed limits. After one or more contingencies the new state will be Alert, which implies some degree of risk to interconnected system operation, although the system is still within acceptable limits. If the situation deteriorates, there may be a transition to an Emergency state. The system, however, would still be
intact, and emergency control action could be initiated to restore the system to an alert state.
If these measures are not taken in time or are ineffective, the system will break down and
reach an In Extremis state. This state is equivalent to a partial or total blackout, which is characterised by a partial or total absence of voltage in the transmission power system. Restoration is carried out from this state, gradually re-energising and re-synchronising the power system. From this state, the system can transition to either the alert or the normal state, depending on the circumstances.
25
Figure 17: Electrical power system operating states.
Overall, the stability of interconnected electrical power systems requires effective control of its
operational conditions in normal and emergency states.
4.1 Requirements in different interconnected systems

The control performance requirements for an interconnected system are normally prescribed
and regulated by a coordinating authority10. A good example of an interconnected system is
the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E), representing 41 transmission system operators from 34 European countries. Through the ENTSO-E grid,
532 million customers are served, and 880GW net generation capacity is connected, supplying
3,200TWh of electricity consumption through 305,000km of transmission lines managed by
the TSOs11.
10
Antonio Gmez-Expsito, Antonio Conejo, Claudio Caizares (2009): Electric Energy Systems Analysis and Operation. CRC Press. ISBN: 978-0-8493-7365-7
11
http://www.entsoe.eu/
26
The operation of the ENTSO-E/UCTE system is regulated through the UCTE Operation Handbook. The Handbook prescribes the following requirements regarding frequency regulation:
Activation of primary control: primary control is activated if the frequency deviation

exceeds 20mHz.
The quasi-steady-state deviation in the synchronous area must not exceed 180mHz.
The instantaneous frequency must not drop below 49.2Hz.
Load shedding (automatic or manual, including the possibility to shed pumping units)
starts at a system frequency of 49.0Hz (or below).
The electrical grids of several countries within the scope of the ReGrid project - Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia - are synchronous with ENTSO.
Frequency
Deviation
Actions
50Hz
Nominal frequency
49.98Hz / 50.02Hz
20mHz
Activation of primary control
49.95Hz / 50.05Hz
50mHz
Disturbed operation
48.8Hz / 50.2Hz
200mHz
Maximum steady-state frequency deviation
49.2Hz / 50.8Hz
800mHz
Maximum instantaneous frequency deviation
49Hz / 51Hz
> 1000mHz
Load shedding frequency criterion
Table 4: Maximum thresholds of grid frequency for safe operation.

Source: ENTSO-E (Draft Network Code on Load-Frequency Control and Reserves, Jan. 2013)
4.2 Provision of ancillary services in electrical grids

Apart from frequency and voltage regulation, there are further ancillary services needed to
guarantee stable operation of electrical grids. (System) ancillary services are services necessary for the operation of an electric power system provided by the system operator and/or by
power system users according to IEC 60050-617. Some examples of ancillary services are:
Black start: includes all the services and activities necessary for a transition from the
restoration state explained in section 0 (gradual re-energising, re-synchronising of the
power system, restoration of unsupplied load, etc.).
Islanded operation, which is also part of the above mentioned power system restoration process as a follow up to the black start.
Reduction and compensation for active power losses in the transmission system, since
the transportation of active or reactive power in the network leads to active power
losses. These power losses must be compensated, either by producing or supplying
power in addition to the power delivered to end consumers.
5 Electrical system frequency and active power regulation

27
As already described in previous sections, imbalances between electricity supply and demand
for active power lead to increases or drops in grid frequency. Disturbances in this balance,
causing a deviation of the system frequency from its set-point values, will be offset initially by
the kinetic energy of the rotating generating sets and motors. In practice, the grid frequency
almost never equals the nominal grid frequency, as can be observed in Real-time frequency
graph of Continental Europe. Source: ENTSO-E.
Figure 18: Real-time frequency graph of Continental Europe. Source: ENTSO-E
Tthe tolerance ranges for grid frequency are kept strictly small. Consequently, in order to compensate imbalances, synchronous electrical systems need rapid responses in order to follow
variability of demand as well as respond to sudden mismatches between active power generation and consumption, such as during system faults.
5.1 Frequency control in power systems

Frequency stability involves responses from generators over different time scales. Fig. 19 illustrates the behaviour of a synchronous electrical power system after a disturbance. In undisturbed conditions, the system frequency is maintained within strict limits. At some point in
time a contingency occurs, which in this example provokes an excess of consumption compared to generation. Fig. 19 indicates two magnitudes used to quantify the rate at which the
frequency drops after the contingency. The first one is the dynamic frequency deviation, which
is governed mainly by the following12:
The amplitude and development over time of the disturbance affecting the balance between power output and consumption.
The kinetic energy of rotating machines in the system.
The number of generators subject to primary control, the primary control reserve and
its distribution between these generators.
The dynamic characteristics of the machines (including controllers).
The dynamic characteristics of the loads, particularly the self-regulating effect of the
loads.
The second one is the quasi-steady-state frequency deviation, which is mainly influenced by
the following:
12
ENTSO-Es Continental Europe Synchronous Area Operation Handbook. Available at:

https://www.entsoe.eu/resources/publications/system-operations/
28
The drop of all generators subject to primary control in the synchronous area.
The sensitivity of consumption to variations in system frequency.
The frequency control structure of synchronous interconnected electrical systems performs

three levels of control, called primary, secondary and tertiary frequency control. After a disturbance, as soon as the frequency exceeds a predefined threshold value, a control mechanism is activated within 15 to 30 seconds. This is denoted as primary frequency control and
aims to restore the balance between generated and consumed active power at a certain frequency level.
Figure 19: Frequency behaviour after a grid disturbance. Source: Adapted from ENTSO-E Operation Handbook
Conventional power plants usually have primary frequency or droop controllers installed. In
the case of conventional fossil fuelled generators, the steam flow from the boiler to the turbine is regulated by a valve. The control signal to open or close the valve is provided by a governor, which measures the rotational speed of the generator, compares it to the reference
value (50 or 60Hz) and, based on the error signal, opens or closes the steam valve. This proportional control is the droop of the generator, expressed as:
29
(4.1)
fn and PGn are the nominal frequency and nominal power of the generator, P is the decay in
generator power when the increase in frequency f in the system takes place. Fig 20 shows a
diagram of variations in the generating output of two generators (a and b) with different droop
under equilibrium conditions. The droop of the generator is the slope of the P/f (power/frequency) characteristic of a generator. The contribution of generator a (which has the
controller with the smaller droop) to correcting the disturbance will be greater than that of
generator b, which has the controller with the greater droop. The frequency offset (f a) at
which the primary control reserve of generator a will be exhausted (i.e. where the power generating output reaches its maximum value Pmax) will be smaller than that of generator b (fb)
13
.
Figure 20: Frequency power characteristics of two different generators equipped with a governor.
Source: ENTSO-E Operation Handbook
The second step is to bring the system frequency back to the set-point value. This task is accomplished by the secondary frequency control, which delivers reserve power at short notice.
Secondary reserves must be able to increase active power output within 15 seconds and be
able to maintain the response for a further 30 minutes. Hydropower and pumped storage
plants are commonly used as secondary reserves.
Beyond primary and secondary reserves, power systems have tertiary reserves (also called
minute reserves). The tertiary frequency control involves a manual or automatic change in the
dispatching of power. Changes may be achieved by14:
13
Connecting and tripping power (gas turbines, reservoir and pumped storage power stations, increasing or reducing the output of generators in service).
Redistributing the output from generators participating in secondary control.
Changing the power interchange programme between interconnected undertakings.

14
30
Load control (e.g. centralised tele-control).
Overall, the combined action of primary, secondary and tertiary frequency control must guarantee that the variations in frequency caused by the contingency are rapidly decreased. The
response time and the return of the system frequency to its initial value are monitored by using what is called the trumpet method15. In order to assess the quality and compliance of
frequency control, trumpet-shaped curves of the type:
() = /
(4.2)
have been defined on the basis of values obtained from experience and the monitoring of system frequency over a period of years. In equation (4.2), A is an experimental value, which is
equal to 1.2* f2 (f2 being the maximum frequency deviation expected f0 is the set frequency value. The system frequency must be restored to within a margin of d = 20mHz of the setpoint frequency by 900 seconds (15 minutes) after the start of an incident. Hence, the time
constant T of the trumpet curve results from the relation:
=
()
|| =
(4.3)
Figure 21: Frequency variation during a fault in a power network. Source: ENTSO-E Operation Handbook
15
UCTE Operation Handbook. Available at: https://www.entsoe.eu/resources/publications/systemoperations/

31
5.2 Excerpt: electrical system frequency as a communication link for active

power sharing
The droop properties of conventional generators introduced in section 5.1 can be used as a
load sharing scheme in interconnected electric power systems with multiple generators.
Figure 22: Two generators connected to a load. Source: RENAC
Fig. 22 hows two generators connected to a load through two transmission lines. As listed the
X/R ratio for medium and high voltage lines is rather high, and so the transmission line is predominantly inductive. Therefore, for the purposes of simplified analysis, the transmission lines
will be represented by pure inductances.
The complex power provided to the load by the generator i is given by:
= + =
(4.4)
where is the complex conjugate of the generator i current, which can be expressed as a
function of the line voltages using Kirchoff s voltage law:

= (
(4.5)
Substituting (4.5) into (4.4) and using Eulers formula to break the total power into real and
imaginary:
= = ( ( ) ) = ( + ) (4.6)
32
The former relation gives us the active and reactive power flowing from the ith generator:
=
(4.7)
(4.8)
Relations (4.7) and (4.8) are important in power systems technology as they describe the flow
of active and reactive power in grid-connected synchronous generators. Equation (4.7) states
that real power flow (Pi) is mostly influenced by the phase shifts of the power generators ( ).
Equation (4.8) shows that the reactive power flow (Qi) between the generator i and the load
depends on the difference between the load voltage (V) and the voltage at the generator I (E i).
Therefore, the flow of active power (P) and reactive power (Q) in an electrical power system
can be regulated by altering the voltage magnitudes and power angles. While the power
phase deviation angles can be controlled by altering the system frequency. It is for these reasons the droop method uses frequency instead of phase to control the active power flows and
the share of loads between the generators connected to an electrical system.
33
6 Reactive power and voltage control

There are several definitions of voltage stability. The IEEE defines voltage stability as the ability
of a power system to maintain steady voltages after a disturbance (IEEE-CIGRE, 2004)16. Voltage disturbances are commonly associated with reactive power deficiencies.
6.1 Effects of active and reactive power flows on voltage

Expression (1.4) obtained in section 2.1:
=
provides a method to estimate the voltage drops in transmission and distribution lines. According to this expression, both active and reactive power flows over distribution and transmission lines will affect the voltage profiles of the different nodes in the network. Which component active power flow or reactive power flow affects voltage stability more strongly
depends upon whether the corresponding lines are predominantly resistive (RL>XL) or reactive
(XL>RL). In the event that the line is predominantly resistive, the term will generally be
more important in the relation than , and therefore voltage nodes will be affected by active power flow due to voltage drops at the resistive part of the line impedance. The opposite
happens when the line is predominantly reactive. The line parameters are different for distribution/low voltage lines and for transmission/medium and high voltage lines:
Distribution lines are predominantly resistive. Consequently voltage in distribution

lines is affected by active power flow rather than by reactive power flow.
The higher the voltage of the line, the stronger the reactive character of the line impedance. Therefore, in medium and especially in high voltage lines, voltage profiles are
affected more by the flow of reactive power.
6.2 Load flow calculations

The equations obtained in section 5.2 can also be applied to a transmission line linking two
buses as depicted in Fig. 23
16
P. Kundur, J. Paserba, V. Ajjarapu, G. Anderson, A. Bose, C. Canizares, N. Hatziargyriou, D. Hill, A.

Stankovic, C. Taylor, T. V. Custem, V. Vittal: Definition and classification of power system stability
IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and definitions in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.
Vol. 19, No. 2, August 2004. p. 1388
34
Figure 23: Transmission line linking two nodes. Source: RENAC
The equations can be generalised for the transmission line as follows17:

0 = PL
V1 V2
sin
XL
V2 2 V1 V2
0 = QL
cos
XL
XL
0 = QG
V1 2 V1 V2
+
cos
XL
XL
There are several variables associated with each transmission line linking nodes of the electrical grid: active and reactive power injected or extracted at the bus; bus voltage; and voltage
phase angle. These equations are not linear since they contain products of variables and trigonometric functions. Electrical power systems have thousands of interconnected nodes, and
the equations listed above need to be solved for all the nodes simultaneously. These are the
types of calculations that are carried out by power system simulation packages.
6.3 Mitigation of voltage stability problems/reactive power management

Voltage, unlike frequency, is not the same in all the nodes of an electrical power system.
Equipment used to mitigate voltage stability problems behaves with certain time constants
that need to be taken into consideration, and as such different time windows need to be considered. The simplest differentiation is between short-term and long-term voltage stability.
Short-term voltage stability (with a time frame of several seconds) comprises the time between voltage digression after a disturbance occurs and the activation of a transformer tap
changer close to loads. Short-term voltage stability dynamics are associated with the behaviour of induction motors after a voltage disturbance. So, for example, a short circuit on the
distribution/transmission grid will slow induction motors, which in turn leads to high currents
17
35
Leonard L. Grigsby (2007): Power System Stability and Control. CRC Press.
of the order of the starting currents and voltage sags. If voltages at the nearby buses drop by
more than a certain threshold value below their pre-disturbance voltage, a cascade of motor
stalling will occur within a few seconds. This will lead to a sudden loss of load. In order to avoid
incumbent voltage instability, corrective actions are taken through automatically controlled
power system equipment.
The following fast acting devices can act over several cycles to guarantee voltage stability within the timeframe18:
Synchronous condensers.
Automatic switched shunt capacitors.
Serial compensation devices.
Shunt reactors.
Static VAR compensators.
Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices.
Voltage-dependent loads.
Induction motor dynamics.
Long-term voltage stability is associated with the topology of the concrete electrical power
system. Due to large distances in transmission lines and their electrical properties (reactances,
etc.) there is a need for voltage regulation. The main components employed for long-term
voltage regulation are tap changers close to loads with a time constant of tens of seconds to
minutes.
6.3.1
Static compensators
The first group of devices used for short-term voltage stability regulation are static compensators (capacitors, serial compensation devices, shunt reactors and static VAR compensators). All
these devices compensate reactive power using a similar operating principle.
The connection of shunt capacitors or reactances is probably the simplest and most widely
used form of power factor correction and therefore also widely used for reactive power management. Switchable capacitors or inductors are distributed in the transmission network to
compensate reactive power under varying load conditions. Their capacitive or inductive character is controlled in steps; mechanically through switches or relays, or electronically using
electronic switches. The usage of power electronics in VAR compensators enables finer control, allowing for infinite steps in the amount of positive or negative reactive power provided
by capacitors or inductors. Static VAR compensators are voltage-controlled shunt compensation devices.
Typically, the electronic switches used are thyristors. So, for example, in a thyristor-controlled
series capacitor, a variable number of capacitor units are connected to the transmission line
18
G. Morison, B. Gao, and P. Kundur: Voltage stability analysis using static and dynamic approaches in
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. Vol. 8, No. 3, August 1993. pp. 1159 1171
36
using thyristors as switches. Additionally, these devices can be used to filter resonances in a
certain frequency range.
Figure 24: Static compensators a) shunt reactor, b) serial compensation device, c) static VAR compensator. Source:
adapted from Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. I. Erlich, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
6.3.2
FACTS (flexible AC transmission system)
FACTS are defined by the IEEE as "power electronic based systems and other static equipment
that provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability"19. FACTS devices can be classified into series and
shunt compensation devices:
Series compensation: FACTS devices are connected in series with the power systems.
As mentioned in previous sections, medium and high voltage transmission lines are
characterised by high X/R values, that is to say, their character is reactive rather than
resistive. On long distance lines, the flow of high currents provokes significant voltage
drops in the inductances. In order to compensate, capacitors are connected in series,
decreasing the effect of the inductances.
Shunt compensation: in this case, the power factor correction system is connected in
shunt to the transmission line. Compared to series compensation devices, which act as
a voltage source, shunt compensation devices act as a current source.
Fig. 24 shows the simplified principle of compensation. The transmission line a) shows a low
power factor due to the connection of an inductive load to the transmission line and due to
the inductive character of the transmission line itself. The inductance consumes reactive power (Q). Consequently, the ratio of the real power flowing through the transmission line (P) to
the apparent power (S) is rather low.
19
Proposed terms and definitions for flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) in IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. Vol. 12, Issue 4, October 1997. pp. 18481853
37
Figure 25: Shunt compensation principle. Source: RENAC
In order to compensate the inductive character of the transmission line with an inductive load
connected, a capacitive element is connected to the transmission line (Xc). Capacitive elements deliver reactive power (QC). Therefore, the overall reactive power consumed in the line
is reduced (Q-QC). For the same amount of apparent power (S) for which the transmission line,
transformers, etc. have been dimensioned, more useful real power (P1 > P2) can be transferred. As such, the power factor improves.
A very common FACTS device used for compensation and dynamic voltage support through
reactive power management is the static synchronous compensator (STATCOM). This device is
usually composed of a voltage converter that produces a line voltage with variable magnitude
and phase. The DC voltage for the voltage converter is supplied by a DC capacitor. STATCOMs
are interfaced in shunt to the transmission line through a coupling transformer. When the
feeder voltage (Vp) is larger than the voltage of the converter (Vsh), the STATCOM generates
reactive power. When the converter voltage is higher than the feeder voltage, the STATCOM
absorbs reactive power20. Fig. 26 shows the components and shunt connection of a STATCOM
device to the transmission line.
20
HF. Wang, M. Jazaari, JY. Cao (2005): Operating M and control interaction analysis of unified power
flow controller in IEEE proceedings (Generation, Transmission, Distribution). Vol. 152, No. 2. pp. 264270
38
Figure 26: STATCOM interfaced in shunt to a transmission line. Source: RENAC (adapted from Erlich and [7])
V1 1 and V2 0 are the generator voltages, X1 and X2 the reactances of the transmission
lines, and VP the voltage at the node where the compensator has been connected. Both
the active and reactive power components are given by21:
PSh =
QSh =
VSh VP
sin( )
XSh
2
VSh
VSh VP cos( )
XSh
To summarise, a STATCOM can act either as a source or a sink of reactive power and, therefore, can dynamically support voltage stability in the electrical network. Furthermore, network
losses are reduced and adequate power quality is provided to the electric energy end-users.
21
39
R. Strzelecki, B. Benysek (2008): Power Electronics in Smart Electrical Energy Networks. Springer. pp. 221-222
6.3.3
Tap changers
Transformers are indispensable devices in electrical power networks. Transformers transfer

electrical energy between different transmission lines through inductively coupled conductors.
The induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp),
and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil (Ns) to the number of
turns in the primary coil (Np) as follows:
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
Transformers equipped with tap changers are equipped with connection points (taps) to the
windings. The number of effective windings can be changed, allowing the voltage ratio to be
continuously adapted. These are the most widely used devices for voltage control in electrical
networks nowadays.
40
7 Integration of renewable energy generation in power systems

The use of renewable energy generation (wind turbines, solar power plants, etc.) is continuously increasing. Renewable energy generation often takes place with decentralised units connected to the distribution network, and is not centrally planned or dispatched. Also, renewable energy generation is increasingly being implemented on a utility scale, with generation
units with a capacity comparable to conventional generators being directly connected to the
transmission network.
The question of grid stability and distributed generation is not straightforward. Supporters of
renewable energy generation claim that distributed generation contributes to the improvement of power quality. So, for example, in areas with a weak grid and where voltage support is
non-existent, distributed generation can improve the voltage profile and correct the power
factor. Detractors of renewable energy generation claim that large-scale introduction of decentralised power generating units may lead to grid instability. The next section will deal with
some aspects of renewable energy generation and grid integration and try to throw some light
on this controversial issue.
7.1 Voltage effects

Larger amounts of distributed generation affect the load flow in distribution systems, but also
the load flow in transmission systems. The connection of a distributed generator usually has
the effect of raising the voltage at the point of connection, and this can lead to over-voltages
for nearby customers22. The voltage profile in a distribution line can be calculated using relation (1.4) obtained in section 2.1:
=
(6.1)
In the case of a distribution line with only consumption and no generation, the active (P) and
reactive (Q) power is negative. U in equation 6.1 will therefore be negative. The voltage in
the distribution line predominantly exhibits a decaying profile (see upper black line in Fig. 27).
With an increasing amount of distributed generation, the active power P might become positive and the voltage profile tend to increase through the distribution line. The voltage increase
would be more pronounced the higher the impedance of the distribution lines, and the longer
they are. Through compensation measurements and flexible power factor control of the distributed generation sources, the amount of distributed energy sources that can be connected
to a distribution line can be significantly increased (orange lines). The variability of the voltage
at the nearest transformer connected to the voltage line can change the starting point of the
voltage profiles. Furthermore, the connection of heavily inductive loads to the distribution line
leads to a higher consumption of reactive power, further leading to a steeper decay of the
voltage profiles, as shown in the lower part. Overall, distribution network operators must en22
York, NY.
41
sure that maximum and minimum acceptable limits for voltage are not exceeded (red lines in
Fig. 27). The ability of distributed generation units to inject reactive power increases the
amount of renewable energy that can be connected to a distribution line.
Figure 27: Voltage profiles in distribution line. Source: RENAC
7.2 Active and reactive power from renewable energy generators

The approaches introduced in the last sections for active and reactive power generation from
conventional generators are not directly applicable to renewable energy generators. Renewable energy generators rely more heavily on the use of power electronics for active and reactive
power management. As an example, the active and reactive power management of solar photovoltaic generators is examined below:
42
Active power management can be accomplished easily in solar PV systems by forcing

operation from the maximum power point towards operation points of the solar PV
generator where energy delivered is less than the maximum power point.
Regarding reactive power management, PWM (pulse width modulated) power electronic inverters used in solar PV systems can control reactive power injection and extraction. PWM inverters are devices that convert DC power delivered by the solar PV
generator into AC power delivered to the grid. By adjusting the switching times of the
four switches S1 to S4, a sinusoidal AC waveform is generated. The phase shift of the
waveforms can also be adjusted and, as has been seen in previous sections, this means
that the amount of reactive power being consumed or injected in the grid can conse-
quently be adapted.
Figure 28: PWM inverter. Source: RENAC
43
7.3 Codes and regulations

An increasing number of countries are already continuously connecting significant amounts of
renewable energy generation to the grid. As a consequence, transmission system operators
increasingly require an active contribution of distributed generators towards power system
frequency and voltage stability during contingencies. In systems that aim for a high penetration of renewable energies, it is essential that renewable sources contribute to grid control
and stability.
There are two categories of required behaviour determined by grid codes:
Static grid support: regulates performance under normal operation, where response
times are not of paramount importance.
Dynamic grid support: defines behaviour in critical situations, where equipment must
react quickly to ensure grid stability.
Compliance rules regarding power factor requirements are an example of static grid support.
An example of these rules is the German Static Voltage-Var Requirements. The red line in Fig.
29 sets the limits for the operation of renewable energy generating units. The shape and limits
of the curve are determined by the grid layout and operating parameters.
Figure 29: German Static Voltage-Var Requirements. Source: Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. I. Erlich, University of DuisburgEssen, Germany
One example of dynamic grid support is fault ride-through capabilities. Wind generators in
Germany at the beginning of 2000 and photovoltaic systems even today are required to shut
down immediately in the event of significant disturbances on the grid (e.g. a voltage drop
higher than 20% or significant frequency deviations). The rationale behind this has been to
avoid islanding. A generator is said to be islanded if it continues to supply a local load after
44
being disconnected from the main network23. Islanding is a dangerous situation when maintenance works are performed since utility workers may not realise that a circuit is still powered.
However, as more renewable generation units come online, if a widespread disturbance
across the network occurs, it would cause a large number of renewable energy generation
units to trip simultaneously. This would be highly undesirable in the context of controlling the
voltage and frequency of the overall power system. Therefore, in 2003, German grid operators were the first to introduce new requirements including fault ride-through. Fault ridethrough describes the ability of renewable sources to remain grid-connected for a specified
time span in the event of voltage drops. Fig. 30 displays fault ride-through characteristics as
proposed by CENELEC, the European Standardisation Organisation.
Figure 30: Fault ride-through voltage profile for dynamic grid support of RE generation units. Source: E. Troester:
German Grid Codes for Connecting PV Systems to the Medium Voltage Power Grid, Second IWCPPP Proceeding
The red line defines the most serious fault generators have to withstand, which means they
have to ride through a fault of 0.5 seconds where voltage drops down to 30% and doesnt
reach 90% of nominal value until 1.5 seconds after the disruption. Generators are allowed to
disconnect if voltage drops below the line.
The details of the different grid code requirements for renewable energy generation differ
from one country to the next, and to a certain extent may be somewhat arbitrary.
23
York.
45
Summary
46
System reliability in terms of voltage and frequency is absolutely crucial for the operation of modern electrical power systems.
Power generation either in electricity pool markets or centrally dispatched markets
is allocated according to economic criteria (cost optimisation) as well as supply reliability (by guaranteeing a necessary amount of reserve capacity available for reliable system operation).
Frequency stability is mainly related to the balance between generation and consumption in an interconnected electrical system.
Voltage stability in medium and high voltage layers is mainly related to power reactive
flows.
Renewable energy generation units are usually interfaced to the grid through power
conditioning devices with a fair degree of flexibility in terms of active and reactive
power compensation.
The increasing amount of renewable energy generation introduces further generation
fluctuations and uncertainties; the technical solutions for a reliable integration of renewable energy generation into electrical grids are already available.
Clear and adequate formulation of grid codes is essential to guarantee a smooth integration of renewable energy generation units.
References and recommended further reading

[1] Danish Wind Industry Association: Guided Tour on Wind Energy. Available at:
http://www.vindselskab.dk/en/tour
[2] Leon Freris, David Infield (2008): Renewable Energy in Power Systems. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, N.Y.
[3] Alexander Kusko and Marc T. Thompson (2007): Power Quality in Electrical Systems.
McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN: 0071470751. DOI: 10.1036/0071470751
[4] Angelo Baggini (2008): Handbook of Power Quality. John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y.
ISBN: 978-0-470-06561-7 760pp
[5] T.E. Dy Liacco: The adaptive reliability control system in IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. PAS-86(5). May 1967. pp. 517531,.
[6] Antonio Gmez-Expsito, Antonio Conejo, Claudio Caizares (2009): Electric Energy Systems Analysis and Operation. CRC Press. ISBN: 978-0-8493-7365-7
[7] R. Strzelecki, B. Benysek (2008): Power Electronics in Smart Electrical Energy Networks.
Springer. pp. 221-222
[8] G. M. Masters (2004): Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems. John Wiley &
Sons.
47
Glossary
Active Power - A term used for power when it is necessary to distinguish between apparent
power, complex power and its components, or active and reactive power.
Alternating Current (AC) - An electric current that reverses direction at regular intervals, with
a magnitude that varies continuously in a sinusoidal manner.
Alternator - An electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
in the form of alternating current.
Apparent Power (volt-amps) - The product of the applied voltage and current in an AC circuit.
Apparent power, or volt-amps, is not the true power of the circuit because the power factor is
not considered in the calculation.
Bus - A conductor, which may be a solid bar or pipe, normally made of aluminium or copper,
used to connect one or more circuits to a common interface. An example would be the bus
used to connect a substation transformer to the outgoing circuits.
Capacitance - 1) The ratio of an impressed charge on a conductor to the corresponding change
in potential. 2) The ratio of the charge on either conductor of a capacitor to the potential difference between the conductors. 3) The property of being able to collect a charge.
Capacitor - An electrical device with capacitance.
Direct Current (DC) - Electric current flowing in only one direction.
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) - Association
of Europe's transmission system operators (TSOs) for electricity. It is a successor of ETSO, the
association of European Transmission System Operators founded in 1999 in response to the
emergence of the internal electricity market within the European Union.
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) - A system composed of static
equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to enhance controllability and increase the power transfer capability of the network. It is generally a power electronics-based system.
Frequency - In AC systems, the rate at which the current changes direction, expressed in hertz
(cycles per second); a measure of the number of complete cycles of a waveform per unit of
time.
Grid - A term used to describe an electrical utility distribution network.
Impedance - 1) The total opposing force to the flow of current in an AC circuit. 2) The combination of resistance and reactance affecting the flow of an alternating current, generally expressed in ohms.
48
Inverter - A device that converts DC electricity into single- or multi-phase AC electricity.

Load - 1) The amount of electrical power required by connected electrical equipment. 2) The
total impedance of all the items in the output circuit.
Load Shedding - The act or process of disconnecting the electric current on certain lines when
the demand becomes greater than the supply.
Maximum Power Point - The point on an I-V curve that represents the largest rectangle area
that can be drawn under the curve. Operating a PV array at that voltage will produce maximum power.
Nominal Voltage - A nominal value assigned to a circuit or system for the purpose of conveniently designating its voltage class.
Power Factor - The ratio of energy consumed (watts) versus the product of input voltage
(volts) times input current (amps). In other words, power factor is the percentage of energy
used compared to the energy flowing through the wires.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) - A commonly used technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices, made practical by modern electronic power switches.
Reactance - The opposition of inductance and capacitance to alternating current equal to the
product of the sine of the angular phase difference between the current and voltage.
Reactive Power - A component of apparent power (volt-amps) which does not produce any
real power (watts). It is measured in VARs (volt-amps reactive).
Resistance - The opposition to current flow, expressed in ohms.
Shunt - A device that allows electric current to pass around another point in the circuit. The
term is also widely used in photovoltaics to describe an unwanted short circuit between the
front and back surface contacts of a solar cell, usually caused by wafer damage.
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) - A regulating device used on alternating current
electricity transmission networks. It is based on a power electronics voltage-source converter
and can act as either a source or sink of reactive AC power to an electricity network. If connected to a source of power it can also provide active AC power. It is a member of the FACTS
family of devices.
Static Var Compensator - A device that supplies or consumes reactive power comprised solely
of static equipment. It is shunt-connected on transmission lines to provide reactive power
compensation.
Three-Phase - Three-phase refers to one circuit consisting of three conductors where the current and voltage in each conductor (phase) is 120 out of phase with each other phase.
Thyristor A solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N- and P-type
material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current pulse
and continuing to conduct while they are forward biased (that is, while the voltage across the
device is not reversed).
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Transformer - An electromagnetic device used to change the voltage in an alternating current

electrical circuit.
Transmission System - Normally, the highest voltage network of an electric utility system. This
is the portion of the system that carries high power over the longest distances. Typically operating at voltages in excess of 100kV, and most usually at 200kV and above.
Transmission System Operator (TSO) - An entity entrusted with transporting energy in the
form of natural gas and/or electrical power on a national or regional level, using fixed infrastructure.
Winding - Material (as wire) wound or coiled about an object (as an armature); also: a single
turn of the wound material.
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Renewables Academy (RENAC) AG

Schnhauser Allee 10-11
10119 Berlin (Germany)
Tel: +49 (0) 30-52 689 58 70
Fax: +49 (0) 30-52 689 58 99
E-Mail: regrid@renac.de, June 2013
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http://www.renac.de/en/projects/regrid/

Regrid: Frequency and Voltage Regulation in Electrical Grids

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