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index

Units:
unit-1 About the founder of Linux.
unit-2 Linux VS Windows.
unit-3 Linux Flavors.
unit-4 Introduction to Redhat Linux.
unit-5 Kernel.
unit-6 Types of shells
unit-7 Dos Vs Linux.
unit-8 Redhat Linux Installation
unit-9 Hardware Requirements
unit-10 Installation Methods
Unit -1
About the founder of LINUX
•Linus Benedict Torvalds (born
December 28, 1969) began the
development of Linux, an operating
system kernel, and today acts as the
project coordinator.

•Inspired by Minix (a kernel and


operating system developed by Andrew
Tanenbaum), he felt the need for a
capable UNIX operating system that he
could run on his home PC.

•Torvalds did the original development


of the Linux kernel primarily in his own
time and on his equipment.
Evolution of Linux
•Torvalds originally used Minix on his
computer, a simplified kernel written
by Andrew Tanenbaum for teaching
operating system design.

•The Linux system quickly surpassed


Minix in functionality.

•The first version of the Linux kernel


was released to the Internet in
September 1991. with the second
version following shortly thereafter in
October
TUX - the penguin

•Penguin is the official mascot of


the Linux operating system.

•Tux, is a chubby penguin that


looks content and satisfied.

•The concept of the Linux mascot


being a penguin came from Linus
Torvalds, the creator of the Linux
kernel.
GNU’s (Not Unix)

• The GNU project was started in 1983 for developing a complete


Unix-like operating system, including software development
tools and user application programs, entirely of free software.

• By the release of the first version of the Linux kernel, the GNU
project had produced all the necessary components of this
system except the kernel.

• Torvalds and other early Linux-kernel developers adapted their


kernel to work with the GNU components and user space
programs to create a fully functional operating system.
FEATURES OF LINUX

• Open source development model.

• Supports wide variety of hardware.

• Supports many networking protocols and configurations

• Supports more File systems.

• Linux has a reputation for fewer bugs (programming


mistakes) than Windows.
Linux Vs Windows

Open Source Development ModelIt is not an open source and hence


and so the programmer can redesigncannot be redesigned by the
the OS. programmer.
Linux is robust and very much secureWindows gets affected by virus very
from virus. easily.
The Linux servers has surpassedSecurity is the main issue which has
windows server operating system inmade windows to think to survive.
security.
It costs less to design and implementIt costs more to implement Windows
a Linux Network. Network administration, when
compared to Linux.
There are 250000+ developers behindCompared to Linux, windows is
Linux for open source deployment. developed by few thousands of
people.
Linux Flavors
• Red Hat Linux (Red Hat)
• Fedora Linux
• Open Linux (Caldera)
• SuSE Linux (Novell)
• Mandrake Linux (Mandrake)
• Turbo Linux (Pacific Hi-Tech)
• Linux PPC (MAC Power PC version)
• Info magic
• Slack ware Linux Project
• Knoppix (Live CD) etc.,
Introduction to Red Hat Linux
• Red Hat has split its Linux development into two lines :
• Red Hat Enterprise Linux and
• The Fedora Project.

• Red Hat EL features commercial enterprise products


for servers and workstations, with controlled releases
issued every two years.

• The Fedora project is an open source initiative whose


Fedora Core release will be issued every six months.
Kernel
• The kernel is the essential center of a computer
operating system, the core that provides basic services
for all other parts of the operating system.

• A kernel can be contrasted (compared) with a shell,


shell is the outermost part of an operating system that
interacts with user commands.

• Kernel and shell are terms used more frequently in Unix


operating systems than in IBM mainframe or Microsoft
Windows systems.
Shells
• Bash shell (Bourne again Shell)
– Developed for the GNU Project
– The actual standard Linux shell
– Default shell for Red Hat Linux

• Borne shell (sh) – Original Unix shell written by Bill


Joy at UC Berkeley

• C shell (csh)
– Added many features such as command, history
and job control
Continue…
Shells

• Korn Shell (Ksh) – Written by David Korn


• Implemented many csh features such as command
completion and history

• The Enhanced C shell (tcsh) –a community effort


• More features like command-line editing and more
sophisticated completion
Shells

command
prompt for bash
shell

Type bash and


hit enter
Shells

command
prompt for c-
shell (csh)
Shells

command prompt
for enhanced C
shell (tcsh)
Shells

command
prompt for
bourne shell
(sh)
Shells

command
prompt for korne
shell (ksh)
DOS Vs Linux
DOS LINUX Command Action
Command

DIR ls -l List directory contents

TREE ls –R List directory


recursively
CD cd Change directory

MKDIR mkdir Make a new directory

RMDIR rmdir Remove a directory

CHDIR pwd Display directory


location
DEL rm Remove a file
DOS Vs Linux
DOS Command LINUX Action
Command
RMDIR /S (NT) Remove all directories and files below
rm -r
DELTREE (Win given directory
95...)

COPY cp Copy a file

XCOPY cp -r Copy all file of directory recursively

RENAME or
mv Rename/move a file
MOVE

TYPE cat Dump contents of a file to users screen

MORE more Pipe output a single page at a time

HELP or man Online manuals


COMMAND /?
DOS Vs Linux
DOS LINUX
Action
Command Command

CLS clear Clear screen

EXIT exit Exit a shell

FIND find Look for a word in files given in command line

FC diff Compare two files and show differences. Also see


mgdiff and tkdiff.

SET set and env Show environment variables

ECHO text echo text Echo text to screen


DOS Vs Linux
DOS LINIUX Command Action
Command
SET Set environment variables
export variable name
variable
PATH echo $PATH Display search path for
executables
DATE or date Show date. (also set date -
TIME DOS only)
SORT sort Sort data
alphabetically/numerically
EDIT Edit a file. The Linux editor
filename.txt vim which looks most like DOS
edit is probably Pico.
\ / Directory path delimiter

.\ ./ Current directory

..\ ../ Parent directory


DOS Vs Linux
DOS Command LINUX Command Action

tar -cvf /dev/fd0 Save backup files to floppy


BACKUP files A:\
files

tar -xvf /dev/fd0 Read files from floppy.


RESTORE A:\ files
files See Using DOS floppies

Change file to a hidden file - rename


ATTRIB +h or -h mv file .file
file with prefix "."

PRINT lpr Print a file

free
MEM Show free memory on system
top

Show system info (Command


MSD lsdev
borrowed from AIX)
DOS Vs Linux
DOS Command LINUX Command Action

SCANDISK
fsck Check and repair hard drive file system
DEFRAG C:

FDISK fdisk Tool to partition a hard drive.

mke2fs Format drive file system.


FORMAT
See: fdformat for For floppy drive use see YoLinux Tutorial
floppy Using DOS Floppies with Linux

VER uname -a Operating system version

Compress and uncompress


tar, gzip and
pkzip files/directories. Use tar to create Linux
bzip2
also has compress, gzip

HOSTNAME hostname Print host name of computer


DOS Vs Linux
LINUX
DOS Command Action
Command

PING ping Send packets to a network host

Show routes and router hops to


TRACERT traceroute
given network destination.

IPCONFIG (NT)
ifconfig Display/configure network interface
WINIPCFG (Win 95...)

NBTSTAT (Netbios info:


-n, -c) nslookup host-
Print DNS info for host.
NBTSTAT -a host-name name
NBTSTAT -A IP-address

ROUTE PRINT route -n Print routing table.


Network Commands
LINUX
DOS Command Action
Command

PING ping Send packets to a network host

Show routes and router hops to


TRACERT traceroute
given network destination.

IPCONFIG (NT)
ifconfig Display/configure network interface
WINIPCFG (Win 95...)

NBTSTAT (Netbios info:


-n, -c) nslookup host-
Print DNS info for host.
NBTSTAT -a host-name name
NBTSTAT -A IP-address

ROUTE PRINT route -n Print routing table.


Hardware Requirement
32-bit Intel based processor, at
least an Intel or compatible 80386,
80486, or Pentium-class
microprocessor is required.

400 MHz Pentium is recommended


for a graphical interface and 200
MHz for text.

Normally 64MB RAM for Text, and


192 MB for graphical. (Linux can
run on as little as 12 MB RAM).

At least 2GB free hard disk space


for a standard installation, including
applications; 3 to 6 GB or more is
recommended for a full installation
(all applications).
Installation Methods

 Red Hat Installation CD-ROM.

 NFS Image.

 Kick Start

 FTP

 HTTP
Red Hat Installation through CD

• To boot from a CD-Rom or DVD-Rom, you may first

have to change the boot sequence setting in your

computer’s BIOS so that the computer will try to boot

first from the CD-Rom.


NFS Image

• NFS (Network File Sharing): It is a common method

to share files.

• An image of an operating system is taken already

which is connected remotely to install the image in a

system.

• The image system is first mounted and operating

system path is given to get into the installation.


Kick Start Installation

• Till now we have seen attended installation, where the user


have to interact with the system.
• The kick start installation is known as unattended
installation where the user appearance is not necessary.

• The system will automatically install the operating system


into the machine including the device installation, hard disk
partition, assigning of ip address etc.,
Red Hat Installation

Press Enter, to
install in
Graphical mode.
Red Hat Installation

Type linux
text, to install
in Text mode.
Red Hat Installation

Type linux askm


to install either th
FTP, HTTP, Har
and NFS.
Red Hat Installation

Type linux text


askmethod to install
either through FTP,
HTTP, Hard disk and
NFS.
Installation Setup Screen
The Installation
Mode is selected here

Type Linux Text and


press enter for Text
mode Installation
Just press enter
for graphical
mode Installation.
Hardware Detection

Hardware
detection
process
Select the
Installation
language.
Redhat Installations

Select the type


of keyboard
layout.
Redhat Installations

Select the
appropriate
type of
installation.
Redhat Installations

Select the
appropriate
NFS type
installation.
Redhat Installations

Select this
option to assign
an dynamic ip
address.
Redhat Installations

Enter the
appropriate ip
address
Redhat Installations

Enter the
information of
server ip address
and directory.
Redhat Installations

The Anaconda-
Red Hat
Installer begins
the Installation.
Redhat Installations

Hardware
detection
process
Redhat Installations
Redhat Installations

The Red Hat Linux


Welcomes
you.
Select the Partitioning Type

Select this for


simpler automatic
partitioning.

Click here for manual


partitioning. Raid and LVM
also can be configured
(Disk Druid tool can be
used only while installation)
Redhat Installations

Click here to
create new
partition in the
free space
Creating Partition for /boot directory

Select the file system


Enter the type here.( ext2, ext3
mount points for normal partition
here.( /boot ) and swap for swap
partition)

Enter the size


of the
partitions
here.
Creating Partition for / directory

Select the file system


Enter the type here.( ext2, ext3
mount points for normal partition and
here.( / ) swap for swap
partition)

Enter the size


of the
partitions here.
Creating Partition for swap directory

Enter the
mount points
here.(swap)

Enter the size


of the
partitions here.
Redhat Installations

The final view


all the
mounting
point.
To Set Boot Loader

Click here to
change the
default boot
GRUB and LILO
loader
are the Red Hat
Linux boot loaders.
GRUB is the Default
Loader of Red Hat
Linux 8.0
The default boot
operating system
can be changed or
added here
Redhat Installations

eth0 means first


Ethernet card its
address getting
from DHCP.
Hostname
also getting
from DHCP
server..
Firewall Configuration

No firewall option
allows all network
services to your
machine
No firewall option
allows all network
services to your
machine
Redhat Installations

Activate your
SELINUX options Enable firewall
option allows
specific network
services to your
machine
Redhat Installations
Redhat Installations

Choose the
default language
for the system.
Redhat Installations

Time zone is
selected here.
Redhat Installations

Enter the
password for the
root (Super User)
Redhat Installations

Its reading
package
information's.
Redhat Installations

Select customize
This is used to select
options to customize
the default package.
the package selections
Package Selection

The Packages to be
installed are selected
here. Even the office
(Like MS-Office
in windows)
Packages are
available inbuilt
in Red Hat
installation CD
Package Selection

Checking and
installing the
packages.
Beginning of Installation

Click next to begin


the actual installation
which begins writing
the operating system
in the hard drives.
Installing Packages

Creating the file


system in the
installation
partition.
Installing Packages

The installation
image is copied
to the hard drive.
Installing Packages

Initializing the
installation
process
Installing Packages

Preparing for the


installation
process
Installing Packages

Installation of Installation of
packages under tzdata packages
progress
Installing Packages

Installation of
packages under
progress
Installing Packages

Installation of
packages under
progress
Installation of
packages under
progress
Installing Packages

Installation of
packages under
progress
Installing Packages

Installation of
packages under
progress
Installing Packages

Performing the
post install
configuration.
Reboot the System

The Red Hat Installation is


completed successfully.
Remove any Installation
media and boot disks.
And reboot the system.
Rebooting
GRUB boot loader

Highlight the operating


system and press enter
to boot.
Loading Kernel
Initializing hardware devices
Initializing services
Welcome to Red Hat Setup

Welcome
The Red Hat to
setup agent Red Hat Linux
will proceed Setup agent
some
More basic
configurations
Before the system
is ready
to use.
License agreement
Setting date and time
Graphics configuration

Select the screen


resolution suiting your
Select the Colour depth-
monitor and display
the number of distinct
card
colours required
supporting the video
card Installed
Red Hat Login

To register the system


to Red Hat enter the
Login name and
password.
Red Hat Login

If you don’t have redhat


login select this option
to create a new login.
Red Hat Login

Enter this option


to know the
details
Red Hat Login

Click here to
The update agent register with the
registers the Red Hat network
machine with
Red Hat network
So that the latest
Software packages
Get updated
Click here to
automatically
skip registration
System user creation.

Create non
administrative user to
access the system.
Sound Card Configuration

Tests sounds for the 3


Sound getting channels in sound card
Configured can be heard by
automatically selecting play test sound
To Install additional softwares

Click here to install


any additional
software.
Finishing Setup

The Red Hat


setup agent
Finishes the setup
Login Screen
Login Screen

Red Hat supports


many languages,
the language can
be selected before
login.
Login Screen

The kind of desktop


can be selected
here.
Login Screen

The system can


be rebooted using
the option.
Login Screen

The system can


be restarted using
the option.
Login Screen

Enter the user


Name
Login Screen

Enter the user


Password.
Loading the user settings.
Red Hat Startup Screen
Now the Red Hat
Linux
is ready for use.
Kernel initialization
• As systems boots, kernel get initialized and the
following functions are occurred.
• Device detection: kernel will compile the device
drivers and locate it to the corresponding devices.

• Mounts root file system: After the device detection


the kernel will mount the root file system as read
only.

• Load initial process: The very first process (init) is


then loaded.
Initial process
• Init :

• It is the superior of all processes.


• As soon as init process is loaded the control is
passed from kernel to this process.

• /etc/inittab:
• File which contains the information on how init
should setup the system in every run level, as well
as the run level to use a default.
Run levels

init 0 : Shutdown the system or halt

init 1 : Single-user mode.

init 2 : Multi-user mode with out networking support.

init 3 : Multi-user mode with networking support.

init 4 : Unused.

init 5 : Graphical user interface.

init 6 : Reboot the system.


Run level configuration file

Get in to the
inittab file, the
init configuration
file.
Run level configuration file

The default
run level can
be changed
here.
CONSOLES

• Text-mode login at virtual console


• Multiple non-GUI logins are possible
• Default consoles are in text mode
• Available through CTRL-ALT-F[1-6]

• Graphical login
• Graphical console comes through CTRL-ALT-F7
X Window System

• It is the foundation for the graphical user Interface of

Red Hat Linux.

• X applications communicate with a display via. The X

protocol.

• X is OS Independent.

• It is available on many platforms.


X Protocol

• It hides the individual details of the OS and the underlying hardware.

• X protocol is a asynchronous network protocol for the communication


between X client and X Server.

• It defines how the graphical primitives are communicated between X client


and server.
Multiple Desktop Environments

• The X Window System of Red Hat provides two Desktop

Environments.

• GNOME (GNU Network Object Modules Environment).

• KDE (K desktop Environment).


GNOME
• It is the default desktop environment for Red Hat

Linux.

• It is Power full and easy-to-use desktop environment

consisting primarily of a panel and a set of GUI tools.

• GNOME is free and hence its source code can be

downloaded form the GNOME Web Site:

www.gnome.org.
GNOME Interface
• The GNOME Interface consists of a Panel and a Desktop.

• Panel appears as a long bar across the bottom of screen.

• Panel holds Menus, Programs and Applets.

• The Remainder Screen is the Desktop. Here you can place


directories, files or programs.
GNOME Desktop
GNOME Menus
GNOME Menus
KDE
• KDE provides an alternative desktop environment with full
set of integrated network and internet applications.

• Along with GNOME features, It also includes

• Konsole : Highly configurable graphical terminal.

• Konqueror : A file manager and web browser.

• Kmail : A graphical email client.

• Kdevelop : Integrated development.


KDE Desktop
KDE Desktop
KDE Desktop
KDE Desktop
Starting X Window

The X window start automatically, If so then a

Graphical login screen is prompted by the Display

manager.

Alternatively use startx to get in to X window from

non-windowing console.
Start X

To get in to X
window from run
level-3
Start X
Desktop Selection
Select failsafe
in case of any To get in to the
graphical previously used
failure desktop

To get the
To get in to default
GNOME desktop.
To get in to
desktop. KDE desktop.
KDE MODE
If you click yes the
KDE desktop is set
as default desktop
for future sessions
(or) login

If you click No, only


the current session
is set to KDE.
Switchdesk

To change the
desktop environment.
Switchdesk

To switch from kde


to gnome desktop
Switchdesk

Thus we switched
into GNOME
desktop
Linux File System Directories
Directory Function

/ Begins the file system structure – called the root.


/boot Hold the kernel image files and associated boot
information and files.
/home Contains user’s home directories.

/sbin Holds administration-level commands and any


commands used by the root user.
/dev Holds file interface for devices such as the terminal
and the printer.
/etc Holds system configuration files and any other
system files.
/etc/opt Holds system configuration files for application in
/opt
Linux File System Directories
Directory Function

/etc/X11 Holds system configuration files for the X Window


System and its applications.
/bin Holds the essential user commands and utility
programs.
/lib Holds essential shared libraries and kernel modules.

/lib/modules Holds the kernel modules.

/mnt Used to hold directories for mounting file systems


like CD-ROMs or floppy disks that are mounted only
temporarily.
/opt Holds added software applications (for example,
KDE on some distributions).
Linux File System Directories
Directory Function

/proc Process directory, a memory-resident directory


containing files used to provide information about
the system.
/tmp Holds temporary files.

/usr Holds those files and commands used by the


system; this directory breaks down into several
subdirectories.
/var Holds files that vary, such as mailbox and FTP files.
Linux Commands
• Commands have the following syntax:

• Command [options] [arguments]

• Each item is separated by space

• Options modify the command’s behavior

• Arguments are filenames or other information

needed by the command

• Separate commands with semicolon (;)


DOS Vs Linux
DOS LINUX Command Action
Command

DIR ls -l List directory contents

TREE ls –R List directory recursivly

CD cd Change directory

MKDIR mkdir Make a new directory

RMDIR rmdir Remove a directory

CHDIR pwd Display directory


location
DEL rm Remove a file
DOS Vs Linux
DOS Command LINUX Action
Command
RMDIR /S (NT) Remove all directories and files below
rm -r
DELTREE (Win given directory
95...)

COPY cp Copy a file

XCOPY cp -r Copy all file of directory recursively

RENAME or
mv Rename/move a file
MOVE

TYPE cat Dump contents of a file to users screen

MORE more Pipe output a single page at a time

HELP or man Online manuals


COMMAND/?
DOS Vs Linux
DOS LINUX
Action
Command Command

CLS clear Clear screen

EXIT exit Exit a shell

FIND grep Look for a word in files given in command line

FC diff Compare two files and show differences. Also see


mgdiff and tkdiff.

SET set and env Show environment variables

ECHO text echo text Echo text to screen


DOS Vs Linux
DOS LINIUX Command Action
Command
SET Set environment variables
export variable name
variable
PATH echo $PATH Display search path for
executables
DATE or date Show date. (also set date -
TIME DOS only)
SORT sort Sort data
alphabetically/numerically
EDIT Edit a file. The Linux editor
filename.txt vim which looks most like DOS
edit is probably Pico.
\ / Directory path delimiter

.\ ./ Current directory

..\ ../ Parent directory


DOS Vs Linux
DOS Command LINUX Command Action

tar -cvf /dev/fd0 Save backup files to floppy


BACKUP files A:\
files

tar -xvf /dev/fd0 Read files from floppy.


RESTORE A:\ files
files See Using DOS floppies

Change file to a hidden file - rename


ATTRIB +h or -h mv file .file
file with prefix "."

PRINT lpr Print a file

free
MEM Show free memory on system
top

Show system info (Command


MSD lsdev
borrowed from AIX)
DOS Vs Linux
DOS Command LINUX Command Action

SCANDISK
fsck Check and repair hard drive file system
DEFRAG C:

FDISK fdisk Tool to partition a hard drive.

mke2fs Format drive file system.


FORMAT
See: fdformat for For floppy drive use see YoLinux Tutorial
floppy Using DOS Floppies with Linux

VER uname -a Operating system version


Compress and uncompress
files/directories. Use tar to create
tar, gzip and
pkzip compilation of a directory before
bzip2
compressing. Linux also has compress,
gzip
HOSTNAME hostname Print host name of computer
DOS Vs Linux
LINUX
DOS Command Action
Command

PING ping Send packets to a network host

Show routes and router hops to


TRACERT traceroute
given network destination.

IPCONFIG (NT)
ifconfig Display/configure network interface
WINIPCFG (Win 95...)

NBTSTAT (Netbios info:


-n, -c) nslookup host-
Print DNS info for host.
NBTSTAT -a host-name name
NBTSTAT -A IP-address

ROUTE PRINT route -n Print routing table.


Network Commands
LINUX
DOS Command Action
Command

PING ping Send packets to a network host

Show routes and router hops to


TRACERT traceroute
given network destination.

IPCONFIG (NT)
ifconfig Display/configure network interface
WINIPCFG (Win 95...)

NBTSTAT (Netbios info:


-n, -c) nslookup host-
Print DNS info for host.
NBTSTAT -a host-name name
NBTSTAT -A IP-address

ROUTE PRINT route -n Print routing table.


Login screen

Enter the
user name
PWD

• PWD

• Present working Directory

• Display the absolute path of the current directory.


PWD

The absolute
path of the
root directory
is displayed.
ls
ls :

List the Files and Directories within the current directory.

Syntax:

ls [options]

Options:

-l List file with permission.

-a List hidden file.

-i List files and inode number.

-R List directories , sub directories and their contents.


ls

Lists the files and


directories in the
present directory.
ls -l

l option lists the


long listing of
Files and
directory.
l l command

It defines the
No ofname
Owner
The links to the
name,
of thethe
group
permissions
directory
user who created
which has the
assigned to the
Time stamp the directory.
permissions over
Size of theFile
filesor owners, groups andthe
directory
or directories files or directories
other users
names.
ls -a

[a] option lists all files


and directories including
hidden files
ls -al

al option lists all files


and directories including
hidden files in long listin
format.
ls -R

[R] option lists working


directory as well as
contents in the directory.
mkdir

mkdir :
Make directory (or) To create a directory

Syntax :
mkdir <dirname>
mkdir

This will create a


directory advpro.
cd
cd
- Change directories
Syntax :
cd <directory name>
cd ..
- To a directory one level up (parent directory)

cd -
- To your previous working directory

cd /
- To the / (slash) directory
cd

This command
will take you to
the directory .
cd ~

Previous slide
we have seen cd
along with any
directory name.
This command
cd ~ <enter>
will take to your
home directory
cd ..

cd .. Take you to the


parent directory of
the current directory.
cd ..

Now we can see that


we are in advpro
directory, the parent
directory of the test
cd /
cd / will take
you to /
(Slash
directory)

through pwd command


cd /

Confirmed
through the pwd
command
cd –
Here the current
directory is newdir
when we enter cd -, it
takes to
Again cdthe
- ispreviously
given as
worked
shown. Nowdirectory.
it will take
to the previously
worked directory i.e.,
cd - (newdir)
command will take
you to the previous
working directory
cat
cat
– it is the command to create and view files

Syntax:
• cat [options] [filename]

cat > [filename]  To create a file


cat [filename]  To view a file
cat >> [filename]  To append text to a
file
cat

As mentioned in
the previous
slide. cat is used
to create a file

The file is saved


through ctrl -d
after typing the
text
cat

Enter
cat <filename>
to view the
content of file.
cat

To append the
text in a file,
Cat >> (symbol)
and file name.
cat

The screen
shows the
appended file
cat

The -s option
trims multiple
adjacent blank
lines into single
blank line
cat

The –b option
numbers the
each text line
of the output
cat

The –A option shows


all characters including
control and non
printing characters
Here the $ represents
the end of the line
touch
touch command is used to update the time stamps of a file.

touch is also used to create empty file.

– Syntax : touch [filename]

touch can create multiple empty file too.

– Syntax : touch [filename1] [filename2]


touch

Here the
empty file is
created
touch

Multiple files
are created
using touch
command
Copy Command

cp : cp command is known for copying files and


directories.
– Syntax : cp [options] source destination
– Options :
-r recursively copy an entire directory tree
-p preserve permissions, ownership, and time
stamps
– Example :
cp File1 File2
Copy Command

There is a file
named ‘a’ in
the directory
test .
Copy Command

Here we notice that


test1 is a empty
directory. Let us
copy the file ‘a’ into
this directory.
Copy Command

Cp copies the file ‘a’


from the directory
test to the directory
test1.
Copy Command

Thus the file ‘a’


is copied to the
test1 directory.
Copy Command

Directories new
and old are
listed with their
contents.
Copy Command

-r option copy
the entire
directory tree
‘old’
Copy Command

Thus the
contents of
old directory
is copied to
new
directory.
Copy Command

Command l l
shows the
permission of
the file
Copy Command

Using chmod,
permission of
the file is
changed
Copy Command

Now, we
copy the file
one to the
directory old
Copy Command

See the
comparison
of the file one
shown above
in the new
and old
directory
Copy Command

Now using command


cp along with –p option
the permission is
preserved.
Move Command

mv : This command is used to move and renaming files


and directories

Syntax:

mv <source> <destination>

Example

mv file1 file2 (now the file1 is changed to file2)


Move Command

A file is
available in
the name of
one in the
directory old
Move Command

Here we see
that using mv
command the
file is moved
from old to new
directory.
Move Command
Now check into the
old directory where
the file one is
moved. Hence the
directory is empty
Move Command

The file one is


shown above in the
new directory
Move Command

Here a file is
created test
in the old
directory
Move Command

This example
shows how to
rename a file
test to tested
Move Command

Using the l l
command, the
above screen
shows the
renamed file
rm and rmdir command
rm : This command is used to remove files
Syntax:
rm <filename>
Example :
rm file1

rmdir : This command is used to remove directories.


Syntax:
rmdir <directory name>
Example :
rmdir linux
rm command

This screen
shows the
contents of the
new directory
The above rm
command is
used to remove
the file k
rm command

Here the file named


k is removed from
the directory
rmdir command

Here a directory is
created named donic
which is removed through
the command rmdir
rmdir command

The above
screen shows
that directory
donic is
removed
rmdir command

In the above
screen we see
that directory
tomy is unable
to remove
rm command

Using rm with
option – r, the
directory along
with contents can
be removed
rm -r command

Now the
above screen
shows that
the directory
is removed
rm command

The above
screen shows
the contents of
directory jerry
rm -ri command

The rm with –ri


command is
used to remove
the contents
interactively.
rm -ri command

We can see that the


file for which we have
given ‘y’ is removed
and ‘n’ is preserved
File command
The file command is used to check the file content.

Syntax :
file <filename>
Example:
file f1 (f1 is a file. File will show the format)
file /dev/fd0 (The output shows that the fd0 is a
block special file)
File format
The file along with
file name (ss) shows
the file format
File format

This shows
the format
of the file
cat as
executable
file
more

l l command
shows the
contents at
once.
more

l l lists the
content
quickly, which
makes the
viewer to see
only last page
more

More is used
to lists the
contents one
screen at a
time
more

More is been
prompted
after listing
one by one
more

Here it is
the same
process
listing more
contents,
shown as
above
more

Here it is
the same
process
listing more
contents,
shown as
above
more

Now the
more
command is
over and
we are in
the end of
the page
vi & vim editor
Vi is known as the visual editor.

It is a standard editor under Linux and Unix system.

Vim is the improved version of vi editor

Vi have three modes of operation

•Command mode

•Insert mode

•Esc mode
vi Modes
Command mode:
Operations such as cut, copy, paste, delete,
undo, redo etc., are done in this mode.

Insert mode:
Type in new text

Ex-mode :
Extended commands for saving, exiting, search-
and-replace can executed here
Working with vi editor

exam is a
file created
or opened
with the vi
editor.
Command Mode

Press ‘i’ to
get into
the insert
mode
Insert Mode

This is the
insert mode
Insert Mode

After typing
the data’s hit
escape to get
into command
mode
Ex- Mode

Press
:wq to
write and
quit
Ex- Mode

Press q!
to quit
without
saving
the data
Yank

Hit escape and


type 3yy to yank
Like this example,
three lines from
you can copy any
the cursor position
number of lines by
typing numbers of
lines and yy
Text yanked

In the previous
slide, we saw how
to yank the text.
After yanking we
see the message
as below
Text put

Now the yanked


text is pasted from
the cursor position
by hitting the ‘p‘
delete

To delete text, place


the cursor in the
beginning of the line
and give the total
number and dd
delete

Now 3 lines are


deleted and
message get
displayed as 3
fewer lines as
shown below
cut and put

To cut a line
after curser
position hit 1cc.
cut and put

Get into insert mode


and place the cursor
where the data should
be pasted. Press esc
to get in to command
mode
cut and put

Now hit p to
paste the data.
Search

Get into ex mode


type / followed by
data to be
searched and
press enter
Search

When we press enter


it shows the first
found match from
bottom to top.
Search

Then if we press ‘n’ it will


shows the second match
for that data.If we continue
pressing n it will show
successive matches.
Find command
Find:
To search files and directories in a specified path.

Syntax:
find <directory> [conditions] [action]

Condition:
-name <file name> - to search a particular file
-user <user name> - lists the files owned by
user.
-perm <mode> - search a file depending
on permission.
Find command

This command
searches the
password file from
/ directory.
Find command

The above
screen shows
the execution of
command
Locate command

Locate:

To search or locate files and directories from the


database.
It locate the files faster than the find command

Syntax:
locate [pattern]
Locate command

To search file
named test1
from database.
Locate command

All the files and


directories named
test1 is located
and displayed.
Man command

man :
Display helpful information about
commands.
Syntax:
man [option] command
Option:
–k - search by command description rather than
command name.
Man command

It displays manual
pages for ls
command.
Man command
The manual page
of ls command is
displayed here.

Enter q to exit
from manual page.
useradd command
useradd :
To create a new user account and login
directory for that new account.
Useradd will create new entries in system files.
Syntax
useradd [options] [user]
Options
-c Comment field.
-d Home directory
-e Account expiration date.
useradd command
User named
abdulkalam is
created.

To set password
for abdulkalam.
useradd command
Enter the
password.
User home directory

When new user


account is
created ,a login
directory for the
user is created in
/home dir.
User configuration files
When a new user account is created, its entries
updates the following system files.

- /etc/passwd
- /etc/group
- /etc/shadow
Passwd file
To view
password
configuration file.
Passwd file

First
Group
User xid.
represents
field
id.
encrypted User
User login
home
represent
password is shell.
directory.
username.
available in
shadow file.
Shadow file

To view
shadow file.
Shadow file

Encrypted
password for
the user
abdulkalam.
Groups file

To view
group file
Groups file

Group id for
the user
abdulkalam.
User login
Abdulkalam
logging in .
User login
User
home dir
or login dir
userdel command
User account can
be deleted through
userdel command
Creating groups
New group is created by hand-editing the file /etc/group or by using
groupadd command.
Syntax:
groupadd groupname

groupdel command is used to remove the group.


Syntax
groupdel groupname

Groupmod is used to rename the existing groupname.


Syntax:
groupmod –n newname oldname
Groupadd command
A group is added in
the name of india by
using the command
groupadd.
Usermod command

Using usermod
command the user
abdulkalam is
added to group
India
Groups file

To view
group file
Groups file

The id number
assigned to the group
india is 501

The last field shows


the user abdulkalam
added in India group
Groupdel command

Groupdel
command deletes
window group.
Group Administration

Create a directory
named product
and group named
sales.
Group Administration

User’s are added in


the sales group
using usermod
command.
Group Administration

Open the
group file.
Group Administration

This shows that the


three users are
added in the sales
group.
Group Administration

Change the group name


sales to product directory
using chgrp command.
Group Administration

The screen shows


that the changes
been made in the
group field.
Group Administration

Three files created


under product directory.
Group Administration

The permission
for the product
directory is
changed.
Group Administration

The user tom is not a


member of the group.
So the permission is
restricted.
Group Administration

suresh logs in terminal. As


he is the member of the
group, he have the
privilege to access the file.
Group Administration

rajesh logs in terminal. As


he is the member of the
group, he have the
privilege to access the file.
Group Administration

tom logs in terminal. he is


not the member of the
group so does not have the
privilege to access the file.
Group Administration

The above screen


shows the permission
been restricted to the
user tom.
Changing owner

After
Thegiving
chownthe
chown command
command
the owner
change is or
the file
changedowner.
directory from
root to suresh.
Changing owner

The owner and


group name can
be change using
chown command.
chage command
The chage command let you specify an expiration limit for a
user's account and password .

– Syntax:
chage [option] username

Option
-l lists the current password expiration.
-m set the min. days to change the password.
-M set the max. days to change the password.
-E specific expiration date for user account.
-I set inactive period (in days)
-W warning period, number of days before
expiration.
User administration

Inactive period is Chage –l : lists


This field sets
used to give the
the account
password andfor
grace time to password
the maximum
change the information
valid days given.of
password. user tom.
User administration

The password
The –M
expires field
command withis
updated
100 sets by
as +100
the
days fromdays.
maximum user
creation date.
User administration

Allowable
account inactivity
period after
which password
will expire.
User administration

The -W option
shows the
warning
message before
expiration.
User administration

The -m option for


minimum
number of days a
user can exists
with password.
User administration

The -E option is
for specific
expiration date
for an account.
Set userID
It allows an executable file to run under the user or group
security context with the permission of its owner.

SUID can be set as follows:


• chmod u+s [filename]

(or)

• chmod 4xxx [filename]


Set userID

The above screen


The passwd is the
shows file shadow and
command which updates
password along with
the password in the
the set user id
shadow file, instead of
permission.
not having the execute
permission.
Set userID

Tom changes the


password using
passwd command.
Set userID

The set userid


permission is
removed from the
/usr/bin/passwd
file.
Set userID

Now we can view


that tom user
cannot change
the password.
Set GroupID

The user suresh


The user suresh
logs get into the
who create a file,
product directory
the group name is
and create a file.
assigned as suresh.
Set GroupID

Note: the group sales The groupid is


is added to the set to the
product directory. product
directory.
Set GroupID

After setting the group


id, user suresh creates
a file win98. Using the
command ls –l shows
that the file is created
under the group sales.
Sticky bit

The files remove is The user rajesh logs


possible because and he removes the
the sticky bit is not file bios created by
set to the product suresh.
directory.
Sticky bit

Using +t option the


sticky is set to the
product directory.
Sticky bit

After assigning the sticky


bit, user rajesh try to
delete the file created by
other user but he is
unable to do it.
Switch user

su command is used to switch to another account from


the command line.

This command is most often used by system


administrator to temporarily become the root user
without logging out of their non-privileged account.

Syntax

su - [user] -c command
Switch user

Here the root user


switching to another
account.(user joe)
Switch user

It executes root
privileged command
from the ordinary user
account.
Multi user login
Like unix operating system where multi user login can
be done, in same sense the Linux operating system
supports multi user login.

Each user can login in each terminal and can do multi


processing which avoids logging off from the system.
Multi user

tom, is the user


who log in the
first terminal
Multi user

Joe, is the
user who log
in the second
terminal
Multi user

harry, is the
user who log
in the third
terminal
Multi user

wilson, is the
user who log
in the fourth
terminal
Multi user

bill, is the user


who log in the
fifth terminal
Multi user
thano, is the
user who logs
in the sixth
terminal

W is the command
to list the users
logged in
Advanced Uses of VI and VIM
File Repositioning
Press G, Cursor go to last line of a file.

Press 1G, Cursor go to first line of a file.

Press Ctrl+f, Cursor forward one full screen.

Press Ctrl+b, Cursor go back one full screen.

Press Ctrl+d, Cursor go down half a screen.

Press Ctrl+u, Cursor go up half a screen.


Screen Repositioning

Press H, Cursor go to first line on screen.

Press M, Cursor go to middle line on screen.

Press L, Cursor go to last line on screen.

Press Z+Enter, Make current line is first line on screen.

Press - (hyphen) Make current line last line on

screen.
Advanced Reading and Saving
It is also possible to read a other file content in your
current files.
The following command help you :
– Go to exmode in a vi editor
– Syntax : r <filename>
– Example :r /root/file1

While working in a editor we can copy the file content to


another file
– Syntax : starting line, endingline w <file name>
– Example : 1,20w file2
– Example : 21,40w >> file2
Filtering
A powerful feature of vi is the ability to include into your document
the output of Linux commands.
For example if you want to display any command output in your file
see following syntax .
!!command
The syntax will be working in exmod in editor.
For example to display date ,type following command in exmod.
!!date
Filtering

Open the file


in vi mode.
Filtering

This will replace


the current line
with output of the
date command.
Filtering

The output of the


date command is
written here.
Sed Command
Sed command just like find and replace .

To display a file , the Sed command change the


particular word in standard input only , but not
change original content of file.

Example of Sed command .

sed ‘s/ram/raju/g’ /root/file1


Sed Command

The output of the


named.local is
displayed.
Sed Command

Here sed command displays the


output by replacing the localhost
as www.example.com, but it
wont write output in the file.
ex mode : search and replace

vi can perform search and replace operations much


like sed command.

Syntax:

ex mode:1,$s/searchname/replacename/g

1,$ - address starting from line one.

s - String of character

g - replace multiple matches in a


line
ex mode : search and replace

Open the file


in vi mode.
ex mode : search and replace

It searches and
replaces the localhost
as www.example.com.
ex mode : search and replace

Thus the localhost


was replaced as
www.example.com
..
Advanced Reading and Saving
It is also possible to read a other file content in your current files.
The following command help you :
– Go to ex mode in a vi editor
– Syntax : r <filename>
– Example :r /root/file1
While working in a editor we can copy the file content to another
file
– Syntax : starting line, ending line w <file name>
– Example : 1,20w file2
– Example : 21,40w >> file2
Advanced Reading and Saving

Here you can view


output of test file.
Open a file in vi
mode.
Advanced Reading and Saving

To display the
output of another
file named test in
the current file.
Advanced Reading and Saving

The output of test


file is displayed..
Advanced Reading and Saving

The contents of the


existing file.
Advanced Reading and Saving

To write the contents of


the existing file in
another file named test1.
Advanced Reading and Saving

The contents are


appended to the
test1 file.
Advanced Reading and Saving

You can see the


appended contents
in the test1 file.
Configuring VI and VIM
Number of configuration are available in vi editor, see some of
example .

:set number - shows a line number on the left margin in a vi


editor

:set showmatch - when a right curly braces or a right paranthesis


is typed, a cursor will jump to the matching left curly braces or
left paranthesis.

:set all - it shows all configurations.


Set number

File contents.
Set number

To assign numbers
to all line in vi
editor.
Set all

To view all the


possibilities of
configurations
available in vi
editor.
Set all

All the available


option are
displayed here.
Redirecting Input and Output
Ouput of a command is redirected to a file
– Command > filename
Example ls -l > /root/file1
Example ls -i >> /root/file1

Output of file redirected to a command


– Command < filename
Example - cat < file1

• Error message of a command redirected to a file


- Command 2> file1
- Command 2>> file1
- Example – ll –L > file1
Redirecting Input and Output

The output of ls
command is
redirected to the
Herenamed
file the file
ex.is
overwritten by the
output of ls
command.
Redirecting Input and Output

The output of ls
command is
redirected to the
file named ex1.
Redirecting Input and Output

Here the output of


ls command is
appended to the
ex1 file.
Redirecting Input
A command which accepts the input from a file is
known as Redirecting Input.
Syntax - command < file1

Example : tr ‘A-Z’ ‘a-z’ < file1

A file is created in the name file1 and text is entered


in capital letters, which is redirected through < symbol
and the command translates the data to small letters.
Redirecting Input and Output

tr translates the upper case


letters to lower case.Here
output of file v is
redirected as input to the
tr command.
Redirecting Input and Output

2> redirects the


error messages to
the ex file.

Here we can see


redirected error
messages in the ex
file.
Piping

Pipes is used to execute more than one command at a time. See


following command.

Syntax : command1 | command2

Example: ls -l | more

It is also used to execute command result

Example: cat file1 | grep station


Piping

Here the cat and


grep command
are executed in
pipeline
.
Redirecting Both Standard Output And Error

If find command is executed, its output can be stored in file2. if

error occurs during execution, the error message is stored in

file1.

For example:

find / -name passwd 2> file1 >file2


Redirecting Both Standard Output And Error

If there is any
If there is no
error messages
error the output
while execution
will be redirected
the error message
to the ex2 file.
will be redirected
to the file ex1.
tee Command
tee is useful to save the output at various stages from
a long sequence of pipes.

Example: ls | tee a1 | ls –l | tee b2

The above example shows the types of ls commands


and options are used to store output to the files g1,
g2 and g3.
tee Command

It saves the output


of ls in file a1 and
output of ls –l in
file b2.
grep command
grep
- means general regular expression processor.
-it analyze the content of a file a line at a time,
returning a line that matches a pattern.
grep command

Grep prints the


pattern matched
with ganesh in the
file /etc/passwd.
awk command

An awk program searches for lines in a file


and performs some action on those lines.

Example:
awk ‘/bash/ { print }’ /etc/passwd
awk command

awk display first


field of the
/etc/fstab file.
File Compressions
Several compression utilities are available for use on
Linux and Unix system.

But most software for Linux system use three


compression utilities.

1 - compress
2 - GNU gzip
3 - bzip2.
Compression command
compress:

It compresses a file and give the extension as .z for that file.


Syntax:
compress <filename>

uncompress:

It uncompress the compressed file.


Syntax:
uncompress <filename>
Compression command

The actual
size of file is
This
107 bytes.
compresses
the file a.
The compressed
file is indicated by
the .z extension.
This Thus the file
uncompress size is
the file a. compressed to
39 bytes.
Compression with gzip
gzip utility compresses file .
gunzip decompresses them.
To compress a file, enter the command gzip and the
filename.this replace the file with compressed
version of it,with the extension .gz.
To decompresses a gzip file use command gunzip.
Syntax:
gzip filename (compression)
gunzip filename.gz (decompression)
Compression with gzip

The actual
size of file is
gzip command
107 bytes.
compresses the
file a.
The compressed
file is indicated by
the .gz extension.
Thus the file
This size is
uncompress compressed to
the file a. 38 bytes.
Compression with bzip2
It compresses files using the burrows-wheeler block-
sorting text compression algorithm and huffman
coding.
You compresses files using the bzip2 command and
decompresses with bunzip2.
The bzip2 command create a file with the extension
.bz2
Syntax:
bzip2 filename (compression)
bunzip2 filename.bz2 (decompression)
Compression with bzip2

The actual
size of file is
bzip2
107 command
bytes.
compresses the
file a.
The compressed
file is indicated by
the .bz2 extension.
This Thus the file
uncompress size is
the file a . compressed to
51 bytes.
Creating Archives
Tar:

tar command is used to create archives on device or files.


Originally, tar was used to create archives on tape devices, hence
its name stands for tape archive.
When creating a file for a tar archive, the filename is usually given
the extension .tar.
While tar is seldom used to back up entire file system.
Syntax for tar command
Syntax for tar command:

tar [option] archivename.tar filenames- and-directories

Options:

c - create new archive.

v - produce verbose message.

f - archivename,a name of new file.

x - archive will be extracted in the current directory.

t - displays a list of file in the archive


tar command

It create
backup for the
files a,b,c,d,e
and f in
backup.tar.

The backup
files are
indicated by
.tar extension.
tar command

tf options
display all the
file in backup .

tvf options
displays along
with the user
and group
names.
tar command

If incase we
miss the file
then we can
extract those
file back using
xvf options .
Printer-configuration
Printer-configuration
Command to
configure the
Printer

Click New
option to
add printer
Printer-configuration

Now the system is


loading printer
information.
Printer-configuration

Click Forward
option to add
printer queue
Printer-configuration

Choose
locally-connected
option for local
printer
Printer-configuration

Choose
forward option to
proceed to next step.
Printer-configuration

Choose any one the


manufacture name
in he list.
Printer-configuration

Choose the serial


number of the
printer
Printer-configuration

Choose apply
option for
What you have
selected
Printer-configuration

Now the printer


configuration
are been
applying the
changes to the
system
Printer-configuration

Choose yes you will be


getting an test page form
the printer
Printer-configuration

lpq is a command to
view the queue in printer
Printer-configuration

lpr is a command given


to print particular file.
Printer-configuration

lpq is a command to
view the queue in printer
Printer-configuration

lpq is a command to
view the number of
queue in printer
Introduction to process

Linux treats each task performed on your system as a


process, which is assigned a number and name.

You can examine this process and even stop them.

Red Hat provides several tools for examining processes


as well as your system performances.

The process is easy monitoring is provided by several


GUI tools,like Red Hat Procman System Monitor.
ps Command
• ps command is used to list the process.
• To display a information about process specific to
the active terminal.
• Syntax: ps [option]
• Options available:
-a : To display all process, not including
process not controlled by a terminal
-x : To include all process not controlled by
a terminal, such as daemon process.
-l : To long list including more information such
as process owner's user id.
-u : To display user name of the process
owner.
-e : To view the all process id
pstree command

It shows the
process ancestry
for all process
running on the
system.
ps –a command

Display all
processes
excluding
processes not
controlled by
this terminal..
ps –l command

It list the
processes along
with the owners
id.
ps –x command

Display all
processes
including
processes
controlled by
this terminal.
ps –u command

It list the
processes along
with the user
name.
kill process
• Kill command is used to send a particular process to

get clear.

• Syntax : Kill -9 <process id>

• ps - aux is the command to view all process name

and id

• Example: kill -9 3743 (This example shows the kill

command, option and the process id to kill.)


kill process

It kills the tty2


terminal bash
processes .
Altering process schedule
• renice is the command to set the priority of a process.

• The priority value can range from -20 (highest priority)


to 19 (Lowest priority)

• Syntax : renice - +(minus symbol or plus symbol)


<priority number> -p <process id>

• Example : renice -15 -p 1970


Foreground and Background process
• Fg command is used to run the background process in
the foreground (Front End)

• jobs command helps you to view the background


processes.

• Step 1: jobs <enter> to view the process


running and job numbers

• Step 2: fg %2 (job number)

• bg command is used to resume the suspended


command in the back grounded.
Foreground and Background process

‘&’ makes the


command to run
Jobs displays the in background.
processes running
in the background.
Foreground and Background process

Fg bring back the


back grounded
processes to the
foreground.
Foreground and Background process
Here the
command is
suspended
while
execution by
Bg resumes the pressing ctrl+z.
stopped jobs to
the
background.
Bash Shell Scripting
Scripting basics
– A shell script is a text file containing set of commands.
– Scripts are useful for automating process that you perform
repeatedly at the command line.
– Instead of typing commands, the commands are executed
through scripts.
– For example : Every morning when you login you can
perform following operations.
• Checking system date and time
• Checking email
• How many users have logged in the server.
Creation of shell scripts
Shell script are written in vi editor

The very first line, mention what type of script is used

– For example:

• #!/bin/bash  used for bash shell script

• #!/bin/sh  used for borne shell script

• #!/bin/csh  used for C shell script

• #!/usr/bin/perl  used for Perl shell script

• #!/usr/bin/python  used for Python shell script


Basic bash shell script
How to print a data in a console
– echo “Red hat” <enter>

How to execute a command in echo statement


– echo “hostname `hostname` “ <enter>
How to execute a variable in echo statement
– A = 10
– echo “A value: $A” <enter>
Execute bash shell script file
Two methods available to execute a script file are
– First method is
• Syntax :
» bash filename

– Second method is
• Syntax :
»Give the execute permission the script file
through chmod command
»Run the file by ./<file name>
Bash Shell Scripting

Get in to
the vi editor
to create
script file
Bash Shell Scripting
It denotes we
are using
bash shell
scripts

This script
executes the
system hostname
and date
Executing script - First Method

Bash
example
(file name)
to execute
the script

Output is
shown in the
terminal
Executing script - Second Method
No execute
permission
for a file in
default

Permission
is set to the
file, as
executable
Second Method

./ example
(file name)
to execute
the file
Arithmetic Calculation

Example
script file for
calculation
Arithmetic Calculation

Using read
statement we
read the value
Using expr
for A and B
we can
add values
The values are
entered for input
The output is
displayed
Partitions

The Linux supports four primary partitions and many

logical partitions in the extended partition.

The Linux kernel supports maximum number of 63

partitions on each IDE disk.

And maximum of 15 partitions on each SCSI device.


Partition Types
Linux-specific partitions would normally be one of the
following types with a unique ID.

0X 5 - Extended

0 X 82 - Linux swap

0 X 83 - Linux

0 X fd - Linux RAID

0 X 8e - Linux LVM
Partitioning
In Linux, partitions can be created by either of the
following three utilities

– fdisk

– sfdisk

– disk druid (only available during installation)

– GNU parted
fdisk
fdisk
- Fixed Disk
- Menu driven programs to create and
delete partitions

Before starting fdisk, identify the hard disk type that is


whether primary master or slave and secondary
master or slave by using command fdisk -l.
Partitioning with fdisk

l option list the


Total hard disk
available
space with total
partitions
heads, sectors and
cylinders
Starting
Available partitions, and ending
indicatesfor the
Size
Star cylinder of
each
hdb represents thatthe
the
partitions
boot in blocks
hard disk is connected partition one
partition.
as primary slave cylinder = 8.3MB
Partitioning with fdisk

To create partition
in the device hdb
Partitioning with fdisk

Type h or help to
shows list of
available commands
in fdisk
Partitioning with fdisk

Type p to display
the available
partitions
Partitioning with fdisk

Enter the starting


cylinder
Type or justa
n to create
press
new enter to take
partition
the default cylinder
Partitioning with fdisk

Enter the ending


cylinder or type the
size in MB.

Type w to save and


exit from fdisk.
Partitioning with fdisk

Instead of restarting to
update the partition
table just enter the
command partprobe.
Partitioning with fdisk

Thus a new
partition named
hdb6 is created
Red Hat Linux Filesystems

Red Hat supports following filesystems.


- ext2
- ext3
- minux
- reiserFS (under research)
ext filesystems
ext : Extended filesystem.

ext2 : Older standard Linux file system supporting for filenames and
large file sizes.

ext3 : Standard Red Hat Linux file system, used for all hard disk
volumes under Red Hat Linux by default.

It is the extension of ext2 with the feature of journaling (aware of


unexpected power outages and disk errors)
minux & reiserFS
Minux : This file system is small , simple and mostly
used for floppy disk .It support filenames up to 30
characters.

ReiserFS : It is advanced journaling filesystem still


under development for Linux.

Its main difference between ext3 and reiserFS .Its use


disk resource efficiently and is particularly effective
with file system containing many small files and large
directories
Creating file system
Once you create a partition, you have to create a file
system on it.

To do this, use the mkfs command. To build the Linux


file system and pass the name of the harddisk
partition as a parameter.

Syntax:

mkfs -t <filesystem type> <partitioname>


Creation of file system

Current partitions
are displayed here
Creation of file system

Hdb6,7and 8 are
newly created
partitions.
Creation of file system

It creates ext2
file system for
the device hdb6.
To view the file system type
Dumpe2fs : this command is used to view which file
system we are using.

Syntax :

dumpe2fs <partitions>

Example:

dumpe2fs /dev/hda1
To view the file system type

It displays the
file system
information's.

Sparse_super
represents the
ext2 file system.
Mke2fs command
Mke2fs : This command is used to create file system.
Syntax :
mke2fs [options] device
Example:
mke2fs /dev/hda1 (it will create ext2 filesystem for
hda1 partition)
mke2fs –j /dev/hda1 (it will create ext3 filesystem
for hda1 partition)
Creation of file system

It creates ext2
file systems for
device hdb7.
View the file system type

Sparse_super
represents the
ext2 file system.
Converting ext2 to ext3 file system

It converts the file


system of hdb7 from
ext2 to ext3
View the file system type

has_journal
represents the ext3
file system thus the
ext2 is converted to
ext3
Mount command

Mount theIn Linux, like any


partitions
other
hda6 in device the
data1
partitions
directory and hda7should
in be
mounted.
data2 directory.
Tune2fs command

tune2fs : It is a command used to converting from


ext2 to ext3 file system without un mounting..

Syntax :

tune2fs –j <partitions>

Example:

tune2fs -j /dev/hda1
View the file system type.

Ext2 is the current


file system for the
device hdb6.
Tune2fs command

Here it converts the


file system for hdb6
from ext2 to ext3.
View the file system type.

Now the file


system is converted
to ext3 file system.
Repair Filesystem
e2fsck : This command checks the consistency of the
file system and repair it if it is damaged, you can use
file system checking tools.
Example : e2fsck /dev/hda1
fsck : This command checks and repair a Linux file
system.
Example : fsck /dev/hda1
The main difference is e2fsck it will work in ext2 and
ext3 filesystem and fsck will work only in ext3 file
system.
Repair Filesystem

fsck and e2fsck are


the command used
to check and repair
the file system.
Disk usage
df and du are used to check the disk usage.

df : It reports the amount of space used and


available on a mount file system as reported.

du : It displays directories entries and the number of


data block assigned to them.
df command
df command
displays the space
used and available
in the mounted file
systems
df -h, displays size
in human readable
format in the power
of 1024
df -H displays the
size in the power
1000 instead of
1024.
du command
du command displays
the estimate file space
usage available

df -h & H, displays size


in human readable format
in the power of 1024 and
1000 respectively.
Performance tools
free command lists the free ram memory and as well as
what is used for buffers and swap memory.

top command lists the most CPU intensive processes.

Vmstat shows the performance of system components.


free command

free command
display
information
about free and
used memory
on the system.
vmstat
Report virtual
memory statistics
top
Displays top
CPU processes
top

It displays the
listing of most
CPU-intensive
tasks on the
Daemon Process

Some process start at boot time and continue running


until the system is shutdown. Such process are
known as daemon processes.

Two types of daemon process:

standalone daemon

Transient daemon
Daemon Process

Standalone daemon are a program that run all the time


and are started up either directly by init or by a startup
script under /etc/rc.d.

Transient daemon are only started up when they are


needed, and are controlled by a standalone daemon
called xinetd.
checkconfig command
The chkconfig command can also be used to activate and
deactivate services.

The chkconfig --list command displays a list of system


services and whether they are started (on) or stopped (off)
in runlevels 0-6.

At the end of the list is a section for the services managed


by xinetd.
checkconfig command

chkconfig can also be used to configure a service to

be started (or not) in a specific run level. For

example, to turn httpd off in runlevels 3, 4, and 5,

use the following command:

chkconfig --level 345 httpd off


checkconfig command

--list options
used to list the
service.
checkconfig command

--list option
lists xinetd
services also.
checkconfig command

--list option list


--listcommand
This options
httpd service
used toservice
list httpd
httpdstatus on is
service
stop status .
on runlevel
runlevel 0-6.
3-5.
checkconfig command

--list
--deloptions
--add Now
options
option shows
--list
used
deletes
sendmail
to add service
alloptions
linksa service,
used
for isto
the
not
listthere.
creating
service thelinks
inhttpd
allin
defaults
runlevel service.
runlevels.
directories.
Standard Boot loader
• There are two standard boot loader are used in
Linux

• GRUB
• Grand unified boot loader

• LILO

• Linux loader
GRUB
• GRUB Grand Unified Boot Loader

• is a multi boot loader that operates similar to LILO and


default boot loader for Redhat Linux.

• Using GRUB user can select operating systems to run from


a menu interface displayed when a system boot up

• Supports MD5 password protection, a boot menu editing


mode and a shell like command line interface available at
boot time.
LILO

• LILO means Linux loader

• LILO is a program written to boot sector of a disk that loads

the OS and starts execution.

• It is an older version of boot loader of Red Hat Linux.

• LILO loads the Kernel based on its actual sector location on

the disk , rather than its file name


LILO
• /etc/lilo.conf - Configuration file

• lilo -v - To install or update the lilo


boot loader.

• lilo -t - Test the configuration before


installation.

• lilo -u - To restore the MBR backup.

• Grubby - bootloader-probe : to show


the a current boot loader.
Lilo installation
Check the
presence of
the lilo
package.

Copy the
lilo –v lilo.conf.anaconda
installs lilo to lilo.conf (lilo
boot loader. configuration file).
Lilo installation

Thus the lilo


boot loader
is installed.

This command displays


the current boot loader,
thus we can see the lilo
got installed.
Lilo installation

Open the lilo


configuration file.
Lilo installation
Before
Specifybooting
which
the
OS OS
Denotes it will
will the
be
Prompt presents to
wait
firstfor
loaded five
stage
by
boot prompt
seconds.
boot loader.
default.
without
Locatesany user
thea
To display
intervention.
Bootsstage the
second
text message
It specifies
kernel the file
image.
boot loader.
at boot
that containtime.
Incase of dual
OSimages
it boots to the
be
loaded it to initial
other.
RAM disk.
Lilo installation

Prompts the user for


a password before
booting this image.
This will prompt for
password only when
we go to single user
mode.
Lilo installation

This will update the


lilo configuration
file.
GRUB installation

• /boot/grub/grub.conf

• This is configuration file for grub boot loader.

• grub-install /dev/hda

• To install the grub boot loader in hda device.

• grubby –bootloader-probe

• To show the current boot loader .


GRUB Configuration

Open the grub


configurations
file.
GRUB Configuration

Remove
The optionsthis options
rhgb quiet
towill
boot through
start text
xserver
whilemode.
booting.
Grub Configuration

Save the file


and exit.
GRUB Configuration

Now reboot the


system.
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in text mode .
GRUB Configuration

Open the grub


configurations
file.
GRUB Configuration

The options rhgb quiet


will start xserver
while booting.
GRUB Configuration

Now reboot the


system.
GRUB Configuration

Now system is
booting in
graphical mode.
In EL-4 redhat-config-
* tools are renamed as
system-config-*.
GRUB installation
Now the
boot loader
is lilo.

To install grub loader


use the command
grub-install /dev/hda .
GRUB installation
Open the
grub
configuration
file.
GRUB installation
This represents
ItBoots
loads
FlashIfLabel
the
the for
thatkernel
default theto
is
initial
screen
following be first
files
RAM set stanza.
aretoinzero
disk. 5th
image.
displayed at
partition of the hard
then
boot disk
it boot
time.
on hd0.
through first
stanza.
Loads the
dual OS.
Label for
second
stanza.
GRUB installation
To set password
to the grub boot
loader.

It gives us the encrypted format of the


password. This password is supposed to
be entered in the grub.conf file. This
can be done by the following method.
GRUB installation

Following the above


command type the password
two times, this will append
the encrypted password to the
grub.conf file.
GRUB installation

Open the
configuration
file.
GRUB installation

Here we can
see the
appended
password.
GRUB installation

Just cut and


copy the
password
here.

Save the file and


restart the
system.
GRUB installation

Type p to enter
Here yougrub
canpassword
see the if
you prompting
grub loader want to go to
for thesingle
OS touser
boot.mode.
GRUB installation

Enter the
password
here.
GRUB installation

Change the command


prompt to get in to
single user mode to do
that press ‘e.’
GRUB installation

Enter 1 to get in
to run level 1.
GRUB installation

Press b to
boot.
Red Hat Packet Manager
(rpm)
Using rpm command
• rpm command is used to manage and install software
packages.

• This command performs installation, removal and


verification of software package.

• Each package is actually an rpm packages.

• rpm consists of an archive of software file and


information to install.

• Each archive is resides as a single file with a name that


ends with .rpm
Using rpm command
rpm command is used either for installing or uninstalling
package.
Syntax:
rpm [parameter] package name [options]
parameter:
(hyphen) -i - Installs package.
-U - Updates package.
-e - Remove a package.
-qi - Displays information for an installed
package.
-ql - Displays file list for installed package.
-qpi - Displays information from an rpm package file.
(used for uninstalled packages)
-qpl - Displays file list from an rpm package file. (used
for uninstalled packages)
Using rpm command
Options:

--force - Forces installation despite conflicts.


--nodeps - Install or remove without doing any
dependency checks.
--aid - Automatic dependency to install a package.
(While available of package rpmdb-redhat
aid option will work)
Querying the packing

rpm –q a
command for
querying a
particular package
Using rpm command
rpm –q checks
whether the above
package is installed.

rpm –e command
will remove the
http package.
Using rpm command

For installing the


package we must the
mount the operating
system cd-rom of
RHEL and then only
we can install the
packages.
Using rpm command

Go to
Redhat
directory.
Using rpm command

Go to
RPMS
directory.
Using rpm command

List the files in


RPMS directory
and we can see
that the packages
end with an
extension .rpm.
Using rpm command

rpm –qpi shows


the information
about the package
before installation.
Using rpm command

rpm –qpl
shows the
list of files in
a package
before
installation.
Using rpm command

rpm –ivh is
to install a
package.
Using rpm command

rpm -Uvh, to
upgrade a package.
Using rpm command

rpm –qi
shows the
information
about the
package after
installation.
Using rpm command

rpm –ql shows


the list of files in
a package after
installation.
To view an IP-address
Two methods available in linux to view the ip address

ifconfig :
-shows the ip address of the active interfaces with hardware
address.
-it can show ip address of a particular interface by taking the interface
name as argument
example:
ifconfig eth0

ip a :
- simply shows the ip address of all interface.
Ifconfig command

Displays
information on
all currently
active interfaces.
Ifconfig command

Here it displays
the information
of eth0 interface.
ip a command

Here it displays the


information about
all the interfaces.
ifup / ifdown command
Ifup:
-ifup command is used to activate the interfaces.

Syntax:
ifup <interfacename>

Ifdown:
-ifdown command is used to deactivate the interface

Syntax:
ifdown <interfacename>
ifup / ifdown command

It deactivate the
the interface
eth0.
ifup / ifdown command

Now you can


notice the interface
eth0 is deactivated.
ifup / ifdown command

It activates the
interface eth0.
ifup / ifdown command

Now you can


notice the interface
eth0 is activated.
Assigning ip address
In linux ip address can be assigned by the following methods.
netconfig:
- to assign permanent ip address to the interface

Ifconfig:
- to assign temporary ip address to the interface.
Syntax:
ifconfig <interfacename> <ipaddress> subnetmask
<subnetmaskaddress> broadcast <broadcastaddress>

Ip a a :
- to assign additional ip address temporarily
Syntax:
ip a a <ip/subnetmaskaddress> dev <interfacename>
Assigning ip address

To assign permanent
ip address using
netconfig command.
Assigning ip address

Press yes to assign


ip address.
Assigning ip address

To assign ip
address
automatically
from dhcp server.
Assigning ip address

To assign ip
address manually.
Assigning ip address

Using ifconfig
command ip
address can be
assigned.
ip a command
shows the
assigned ip
address.
Assigning ip address

When network
service is restarted,
the ipaddress
As said earlier, assigned through
ifconfig is used to ifconfig to the
assign ip address device is removed.
temporarily.
Assigning ip address

To update ip
address the
network service
is restarted.

ip a command
shows the
assigned ip
address.
Assigning ip address

ip address can
be assigned
temporary using
ip a a command.
Assigning ip address

Ip address can be
removed using
ip a d
command, once
network service
is restarted it get
removed.
Router configuration

The ip_forward file is


assigned 1 for enabling
the router or 0 for
disabling.( This
process for
temporary.)
To enable the router
in permanent way get
into the sysct1.conf.
The 1 is assigned to
enable the router and
this file is for setting
router in permanent
manner.
Gateway can be added
using the command
route add.
ping command
It is used to detect whether a system is up and
running.
Syntax:
ping [options] <domainname>
or
ping [options] <ipaddress>
Options:
a - audible ping
b - to ping the broadcast address
c - stop sending packets after count.
ping command

It checks whether
www.example.com
is up and connected
to the network.
ping command

It checks whether
192.168.0.253 machine
is up and connected to
the network.
ping command

-b option used
to ping a
broadcast
address.
ping command

-c options stops
sending packets
after the
specified count.
LVM Structure

• LVM structure

• In this structure the LVM physical partitions are


also known as extents, are organized into logical
groups, which are in turn used by logical volumes.
Physical volume

• Physical volume:

• It is nothing but hard disk partition that you create


with partition creation tools such as parted or fdisk.

• The partitions type can be any standard Linux


partitions type, such as ext2 or ext3.
Volume groups

• Physical volumes are organized into logical groups,


known as Volume groups

• Volume groups that operate much like logical hard


disk.

• You assign collection of physical volume to different


logical groups.
Logical Volumes
• A logical volume is a virtual partition.

• One or more physical volumes to be combined in to


volume group to construct logical volumes.

• Logical volume can be created in logical groups.

• It functions much like hard disk partitions on a


standard setup.
lvm
LVM Configuration

Type p to check
Create partition
how many
using fdisk
partitions available
command
in hard disk
LVM Configuration
Here 4 partition
is created with
equal sizes of
100mb through
n option.
LVM Configuration

Newly created
partition is
listed below as
hdb6,7,8 & 9.

To know the
partition id, use
the option l.
LVM Configuration

Here 8e represent
lvm partition id.
LVM Configuration

Here below after


giving ‘t’ option
the
Topartition
change id theis
changed idtoaslvm
We have
partition tolvm
id,mention the
use T option.
hex code of
the partition
LVM Configuration

Now
partition id is
changed to
8e(LVM)
LVM Configuration

We save the lvm


partition through
w option.

Previous versions of
redhat needed to
restart system after
creating partition. In
current version to
avoid restart we use
partprobe.
LVM Configuration

Physical volume is
Pvdisplay command
created
thefor lvm of
show details
partition(hda6.7.8&9)
physical volume
LVM Configuration

pvdisplay command
displays the physical
volume size.
LVM Configuration

Vgcreate
vgdisplay commandcreates
groupthe
displays as test0 for
lvm partition
information about hdb6
volume group test0.
LVM Configuration

lvcreate creates a
logical volume and we
assign name as data in
the test0 group
lvdisplay,
displays the
information
about logical
volume.
LVM Configuration

Make2fs, creates
an ext3 file
system for data.
(logical volume)
LVM Configuration

The logical volume


data is mounted
to /data directory.

Open fstab file for


permanently mounted
the logical volume data.
LVM Configuration

See the
content of
fstab file.
LVM Configuration

Logical volume name is


data is mounted on
/data directory
permanently .
LVM Configuration

Here we can see free


space of logical volume
data.
LVM Configuration

Create a big file of size


Here40mb in see
we can /data directory.
there is
no free space available
in /data directory .
LVM Configuration

Extend the logical volume


Now create filesystem for
size upto 45mb using
the extended volume using
lvextend command.
ext2online.
After extending volume now
If the space
we see the free space
assigned to data is
available in /data directory.
not sufficient, we
can resize the
logical volume .
LVM Configuration

Here we can see only


12mb free space ia
available in the volume
group.
LVM Configuration

Now the screen


shows that test
volume group is
vgextend, extends
Note
the space that the total
increased
from to 200mb.
allocated size for
hdb7.
the test0 group is
100 mb.
LVM Configuration

The above
command shows
the increased
space of logical
volume data.
LVM Configuration

Extend the logical volume


size upto 50mb using
Nowlvextend command. for
create filesystem
the extended volume using
ext2online.
After extending volume now
we see the free space
available in /data directory.
LVM Configuration

We can remove logical


volume first we must
unmount the logical volume
(/data directory).
LVM Configuration

Remove the
mounted entry of
logiacl volume
(data) in fstab file
LVM Configuration

After removing
logical volume
save and exit the
file.
LVM Configuration

After
We candeactivated
remove the
volume
Remove the logical
group will
group be is
first removed
we must
volume name data
usinglvremove
decativate vgremove
the volume
using
groupcommand.
using vgchange
command.
command.
RAID
• RAID means Redundant Arrays of Independent
Disk.
• RAID is a method of storing data across several
disks to provide greater performance and
redundancy.
• In effect, you can have several hard disks treated
as just as one hard disk by your operating system.
Types of RAID
• RAID can be implemented on a

• Hardware level

or

• Software level
Hardware RAID

• On a hardware level, you can have hard disk

connected to a RAID controller, usually a special

PC card.

• Your operating system can accesses storage

though the RAID hardware controller.


Software RAID

• You can implement RAID as software controller,

letting a software RAID controller program.

• The controller program manage access to hard

disks treated as RAID device.

• The software version lets you use IDE hard disks as

RAID disk.
Software RAID Levels
RAID levels Capabilities Description

Linear Appending Simply treat RAID hard drives as one virtual


drive with no striping, mirroring.

0 Striping Implements disk stripping across drives with


no redundancy.

1 Mirroring Implements a high level of redundancy. Each


drive is treated as mirror for all data.

5 Distributed Parity Implements data reconstruction capability


using parity information. Parity information is
distributed across all drives.
RAID

rpm -q command
checks, whether the
mdadm installed
RAID

The partition is
created using
fdisk command.

Now the screen lists


the partitions.
Raid Configuration

The
Nowpartition
the screenis lists
created using
the partitions.
fdisk command.
Raid Configuration

4 Partitions is
created using n
option with equal
size of 100 mb
Raid Configuration

Now use ‘p’ to


check created
partitions.

The l option, lists the


file system. The fd
denotes linux raid
Raid Configuration

The l option, lists the


file system. The fd
denotes linux raid
Raid Configuration

To set the
partition type use
t options.
Raid Configuration

Option p lists the


partition id and
show the changes.
Raid Configuration

We save the raid


partition through
w option.

Previous versions of
redhat needed to
restart system after
creating partition. In
current version to
avoid restart we use
partprobe.
Raid Configuration

Using mdadm tool


creating raid level 5 it use
four partition
/dev/hda6,7,8&9 and
creating raid device is
/dev/md0.
Raid Configuration

Watch command
shows the online
status of raid
devices.
Raid Configuration

Here we see
status of each raid
disk.
Raid Configuration

Creating ext3 file


system for raid
device /dev/md0 using
mke2fs command.
Raid Configuration

Here we see the


ext3 file system is
created.
Raid Configuration

mdadm –detail
command show the
detail information
about the raid
devices.
Raid Configuration

Here we see each


Its show the raid
raid disk major &
disk status (weather
minor no. .
raid disk active or
not active ).
Raid Configuration

Now raid device


(/dev/md0) is
mounted on /data
directory.
Raid Configuration

Now raid device


(/dev/md0) is mounted
on /data directory in
/etc/fstab file for
permanently.
Raid Configuration

Now go to /data
directory and
create the file
name is file1 using
df command showdd command.
free & used space
for the raid devices
& partitions.
Raid Configuration

Mdadm –query
command show the
information about
particular raid device
& partitions.
Raid Configuration
Raid Configuration

Mdadm – manage
command set fault or
fail particular
Cat /proc/mdstat
partitions (/dev/hda9).
command show disk
the disk is failed.
Raid Configuration

Here see mdadm –


detail command
show disk
/dev/hda9 is faulty.
Raid Configuration

Now remove the


/dev/hda9 partition
from the raid
device /dev/md0
using Mdadm –
manage command .
Raid Configuration

Here you can see


mdadm –detail
command show
disk /dev/hda9 is
removed.
Raid Configuration

Now add the


/dev/hda9 partition
from the raid
device /dev/md0
using Mdadm –
manage command .
Raid Configuration

Watch command
shows the online
status of raid
devices.
Raid Configuration

Here we can see the


status of online
synchronization of raid
disks.
Raid Configuration

Now the faulty


disk is replaced
and we can
see the data.
Raid Configuration

Here you can see


mdadm –detail
command show
disk /dev/hda9 is
active.
Disk quota
Disk quota is used to control how much disk space a particular
user can access.
Quota tools:

quotacheck

quotaon

quotaoff
edquota

repquota
Quota tools
Quotacheck:
It scans the file system for the current disk usage and update the
aquota.user file.
Quotaon:
It turns on the quota.
Quotaoff
It turns off the quota.
Edquota:
It is used to set disk quotas for a user.
Repquota:
It displays summary of disk quotas and and the quota usage .
Implementing quota

To implement disk quota for an user, set the user quota for the home

directory by replacing its “defaults” entry with “usrquota” in fstab file.

The following slides will guide you how to implement disk quota for

particular user.
Implementing quota

Open the
fstab file.
Implementing quota

Replace this
defaults as
usrquota.
Implementing quota

Now usrquota
is assigned to
the /home
directory.
Implementing quota
Here Remount
you can see
thethat
the/home
user quota is not
directory
updatedtofor the /home
update.
directory.

Now you can see


the user quota got
assigned to /home
directory
Implementing quota

Create quota
database file named
It aquota.user
checks the to hold
thequota
validity of quota
information
database of the for all
users.
/home directory.
Implementing quota

Turn on the
quota.
Implementing quota

Let us set
disk quota for
the user jack.
Implementing quota

To assign the
quota for the
user jack.
Implementing quota

The
This soft maximum
limit will memory
Blocks To set soft
To set Inode
hard represents space for a user.
just issue alimit
warning if This will
represents diskthefor
deny
the
user to access, if
limit fornumber heand
inode. of files exceeds soft limit.
inode .
space inheKB.
exceeds the quota limit.
directories can be
accessed by the user.
Implementing quota

Here we set soft


Here we set hardhard
Here we set limitHere we set
limit asas4050KB
as 20limit
inodes .soKB that
soft limit as 15
memory space .
usermemory
can accessspace
only. inodes .
max of 20 inodes.
Implementing quota

It displays
summary of
disk usage.

User jack has a hard User jack has a hard limit


limit(block limits) of 50KB
(file limits) of 20 inodes and
and soft limit of 40 KB, he
soft limit of 15 inodes , he
already used 10KB. already used 10 inodes.
Implementing quota

User jack created five files without


any warnings. But when he create
sixth file a warning message is
displayed. This indicates the user
had exceeded the soft limit.
Implementing quota

Now, when the jack attempt


to create more than ten files
i.e., the eleventh file then
write failed message occurs.
Implementing quota

Here jack use dd


command to create a
file named ‘1’ of 30KB.

Since the user exceeds


the soft limits a warning
messages is occurred.
Implementing quota

Here jack attempt to


create a file named ‘2’ of
10KB . But since, he has
exceeded hard limit write
failed error occurred.
Implementing quota

Here we can notice that


the jack had used all this
quota. So he is restricted
to create files.
mount command
Mount
Used to mount a file system
It takes two argument : the storage
device and the mounting point.
The device is a special device file that
connects the system to the hardware device.
Mounting point is directory on which the
storage device is to be mounted.
mount command
Syntax:
mount [options] <device> <mountpoint>

Options:

-w mount the file system with read/write permission.


-r mount the file system with read permission.
-t to specify the type of file system to be mounted.
-a mounts all the file systems listed in /etc/fstab.
umount command

It un mounts the mounted file system.


The removable media like floppy disk, and cd are un
mounted after use, by using umount command.

Syntax:
umount <mountpoint>
mounting CD-ROM

To mount the
CDROM on the
mounting
point
/mnt/cdrom
mounting CD-ROM

Now we can access


the CDROM
contents from the
mounting point.
Unmounting cd-rom

Unmount the
CDROM
after access
Unmounting cd-ROM

To eject the
CD from the
CD Drive.
Mount /unmount floppy

To mount the
floppy on the
mounting
point
Unmount the /mnt/floppy.
floppy after
access.
Mounting Hard drive partitions

To mount a hard drive partition

The hard disk partition also can be mounted like


any other file systems.

Example :
mount –t ext3 /dev/hda4 /mnt/data
Mounting Hard drive partitions

MountTocommand
mount the hard disk
partition
lists the mounted (hda3 of ext3
file system) in /data
device.
directory.
Mounting NFS
Mounting NFS (network file sharing) :

– Before mounting we must know the filesystem are exported by a remote


system. The following command is used to know the directory shared.

showmount –e remote_server

– When the host and share name are known, the following command is used
to connected the network file system to the local file system tree

mount remoteserver:/shareddir /mnt/newdir1


Mounting NFS

Showmount command
displays the shared
directory on
192.168.0.253
machines. .
Mounting NFS

We mount the el
directory from remote
machine into our /mnt
directory .
Mounting NFS

Mount command
shows information's
about mounted
devices.
Mounting NFS

umount command used


to unmount remote
machine directory.
Mounting smbfs

This command helps


to view windows
shared files.
Mounting smbfs

The above screens


displays window
shared directory.
Mounting smbfs

umount command used


to unmount remote
machine directory.
Auto mount
/etc/fstab:

We can also mount the file system by placing mount


information in this file.
Using entries in this file the file system can be automatically
mounted whenever the system boots.
It consists of six field per line for each file system as follows

<device> <mountpoint> <fs_type> <options> <dump_freq>


<fsck_order>
Auto mount

Open the
fstab file.
Auto mount

It represents
ItItItrepresents
represents
represents
thefiledevices.
It represents
systems.
thethemount
different dump
options
points.the fsck.
forfrequency.
mounting the
file system.
Autofs
Autofs service mounts the file system automatically
when the user access the mounting point.

The autofs to supports the removable media without


recurring the user to do any thing more than insert
the media

Autofs configurations file are

/etc/auto.master

/etc/auto.misc
Autofs configurations files
/etc/auto.master:

This file specifies that a mount root of /misc will be


used for a file systems and that mounts will time out
after 60 seconds of inactive.

/etc/auto.misc:

The device to be mounted and the corresponding


file system is configured in this file.
Autofs configurations files

Open the
auto.master
file.
Autofs configurations files

Mounting
information's
should be
entered here.
Autofs configurations files

This
Map Itspecifies
represents
file having
when
to the mounting
information's
unmounted about
the
theauto point. tofile
file mounted
systems be
mounted.
system.
Autofs configurations files

Open the
auto.misc
file.
Autofs configurations files

Mounting device
information's are
entered here.
Autofs configurations files

Key, Itthe name file


represents
It represents of
thesystem
subdirectory
the device
type.to
where the data
be mounted.
can be accessed .
Autofs configurations files

Now autofs service


is restarted.
Autofs configurations files

The contents of the


cdrom is now
available in the
mounting point
/mnt/cdrom/cd .
Autofs configurations files

As soon as we come out


from /mnt/cdrom/cd the
file system will get
automatically unmounted
after 10 secounds.
Scheduling Task: cron

Cron Schedules one-time maintenance tasks.

Cron is ideal for setting up jobs that execute regularly at


specified times or intervals.

It contains a file which contains commands for cron, setting


up and configuring jobs.
Creating cron

cron tab files are stored in /var/spool/cron.

This file is accessed only by the root user, whereas the


other users cannot access.

User can access this file by using crontab command.


Creating cron
syntax for crontab:
crontab [option]

Option :
-e : edit the crontab file.
-l : lists the content of the crontab.
-r : remove the content in crontab.
Scheduling Task: cron

Root user has


the privilege to
open this file.
Scheduling Task: cron

Now open
the file.
Scheduling Task: cron
If any
values is
not
represented,
we can
mention *
First
This field
Secondfield
files
Command
represents
field
indicates
indicates,
can be
minutes(0
indicates
the
day day
month of
of the The above command
given in
-59).
hours(0-
monththefield
(1-12) (1- gets executed at 13
this
23)
week(0-6)
31) hours, 34 minutes as
daily basis at same time.
Scheduling Task: cron

The service is
Chkconfig command
restarted using
enables the crond
service crond
services in runlevel
restart.
345 in next boot time.
Scheduling Task: cron

Automatically
“hello” message
gets displayed in
terminal.
Scheduling Task: cron
The permission is
denied to the normal
user joe when the
user attempts to the
file.

As said before the root user


only has the privilege to
access the file.
Scheduling Task: cron
The user
can access
the file,
using
crontab –e
command.
Scheduling Task: cron

Now open
the file.
Scheduling Task: cron

The above command


gets executed at 13
hours, 40 minutes as
daily basis at same time.
Scheduling Task: cron

Crontab –l command
used to display content
of crontab file.
Scheduling Task: cron

Automatically
“hello joe “message
gets displayed in
terminal2.
DNS
• DNS - Domain naming system.

• DNS service locates and translates domain names


into corresponding associated IP addresses.

• DNS configuration.

• It requires the following software packages to be


installed.
• bind
• Caching-name server
• bind-utils
Service profile

Packages - bind, bind-utils,

caching-nameserver

Configuration files - /etc/named/named.conf

/var/named/named.local

Daemons - named

Port number - 53
DNS Configuration

Install bind-utils
Install
which bind, this
provides
package
many includes
utilities like
web page
host, digmanuals
and
and documentation
nslookup
Install caching-
name server which
provides a working
named.conf
configuration file
DNS Configuration

Open this file for


mentioning the home
directory for DNS.
DNS Configuration

Here DNS home


directory is
/var/named/chroot.
DNS Configuration

View the home


directory files.
DNS Configuration

Open the
configuration
file named.conf.
DNS Configuration

Now you are


seeing the
contents of
named.conf
file.
DNS Configuration
This file
contains
Forward themapping
zone ip
address
between fullyand
qualified
the locations
domain to particular ip
of all the dot
address.
servers.
DNS Configuration
DNS Configuration

Enter the and paste the


Copy
forward file and reverse
forward
Enter the
name.
zones and edit them as
domain
follows.
name here.

Enter the
Enter the IP
reverse
fileaddress
name. in
reverse
order.
DNS Configuration

Save and exit


the file
DNS Configuration

Copying the syntax


file named.local to
example.for and
example.rev.
DNS Configuration

Open the
forward file.
DNS Configuration

Enter the fully


qualified name of
It is interpreted as the name server.
the name of the
originating
domain. Enter the
Enter
authorised
the fully
namequalified
server for
name
this of
zone.
host.
Enter the last number
segment of the host
address in the reverse
zone file.
DNS Configuration

Replace local host


to fully qualified
name using as given
below.
DNS Configuration

Now the localhost is


replaced as
server1.example.com.
DNS Configuration

Canonical name, is used


Enter the ip address for
to define an alias for a
specified domain name.
hostname. Set www as
the cname for
server1.example.com.
DNS Configuration

Open the
example.rev
file.
DNS Configuration
DNS Configuration

Replace localhost to
server1.example.com
using as below.
DNS Configuration

Now the localhost is


replaced by
server1.example.com.
DNS Configuration

In a PTR record, you can


specify just that last
number segment of the
address.
DNS Configuration

Open the
resolve.conf
file.
DNS Configuration

Mention the nameserver


ipaddress and domain
name here.
DNS Configuration

Now named
service is
restarted.
DNS Configuration

Thus the DNS makes it possible


to ping an host by its domain
name by resolving the domain
name into IP address.
DNS Configuration

Thus the DNS makes it possible


to ping an host by its domain
name by resolving the domain
name into IP address.
DNS Configuration

dig command shows ip


address of the specified
fully-qualified domain
name .
DNS Configuration

Nslookup is a dns
diagnostic tool used to
Using
query nslookup
a dns server. you can
identifies nameserver for
Using nslookup you can
particular doamin.
identifies address for
Using nslookup
particular you can
FQDN.
identifies FQDN for
particular IP address.
DNS Configuration

Thus the DNS makes it possible


to ping an host by its domain
name by resolving the domain
name into IP address.
DNS Configuration

Thus the DNS makes it possible


to ping an host by its domain
name by resolving the domain
name into IP address.
DNS Configuration

In client side open


the /etc/resolv.conf
file.
DNS Configuration

Mention the
nameserver ipaddress
and domain name here.
DNS Configuration

Thus the DNS makes it possible


to ping an host by its domain
name by resolving the domain
name into IP address.
DNS Configuration

It shows the simple


Using
lookup of nslookup
host,thus you
its can
showidentifies MX record for
the corresponding
particular
ip address domain.
to the
specified fully quailed
domain name.
Using nslookup you can
identifies nameserver for
particular domain.
DNS Configuration

Open the
forward file.
DNS Configuration

In this file we can add


In this file weadditional
can add entry MX(mail
additional entry station105
exchange record ) and its
machine and its
corresponding ip address
corresponding ip address
192.168.0.100.
192.168.0.100
DNS Configuration

Open the
reverse file.
DNS Configuration

Similarly we can add


another pointer record
105 for
station105.example.com
.
DNS Configuration

Now named
service is
restarted.
DNS Configuration

Using nslookup you can


identifies MX record for
Using nslookup
particular you can
domain.
identifies address for
particular FQDN.
Using nslookup you can
identifies PTR record for
particular FQDN.
DNS Configuration

Open the
configuration
file named.conf.
DNS Configuration

Forward zone lists the


name servers outside the
network that should be
searched when the
networks name server
fails.
Apache Web Server
• Apache web server:

• The Apache Web server is a free HTTP (Web)


server developed by the Apache Server Project.

• It is a reliable, efficient , and easily extensible Web


Server

• Free open source code


Apache Web Server
Important directories and configuration files
Service profile

Packages - httpd

Configurations file - /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf

Daemons - httpd

Portnumber - 80
Web server configuration

Query a httpd package


whether installed or not
but the screen shows
httpd packages is not
installed.
Web server configuration

Now package
httpd query theis
package
installeditusing
show
rpmpackage
command.is
installed.
Web server configuration

Open the httpd


configuration
file.
Web server configuration
You can see the first
page file content, we
need to edit the end part
of the, so press shift+G
in command mode the
cursor will bottom of
page.
Web server configuration
This screen show
end of httpd.conf
file.
Copy the last
seven lines .
Web server configuration

Paste the copied


lines here .
Web server configuration

InHere
virtual host the
field we
specify e-mail
Here
enter specify
ipaddress the
or base
fully
Here
address
Now specify
saveof the
and the
quit
directory
qualified from
domain which
thehostname
administrator
the for your
httpd.conf thefile.
html files
address. will be
server.
websaved..
server.
Web server configuration

After editing the


configuration file The
service httpd is
restarted.
Web server configuration

Creating index.html page


and place this file in the
/var/www/html/ directory.
Web server configuration

After typing
Let ussave
create
and quit html
the file.
file .
Web server configuration

Open the mozilla web


browser and type the
fully qualified domain
name in address bar and
press enter, it will open
corresponding web page.
Web server configuration

To allow
Directives thatonly
canabe
particular
overriddenuserbytothe
access
Setting up
entries in ansite
our web we can
.htaccess
/var/www/html/
add directory access
file. session
control directive
inside .
virtualhost
session.
Web server configuration

Create .htaccess file


in /var/www/html/
directory and open
the file
.
Web server configuration
The authorization
Type
Selects of the realm
user
isauthenticated
given to the users
authentication clientforso
that
the
can user
accessknows
directory. aonly which
Basic
directory.
username
and Digest
This and
file password
are currently
contain list of
users to
andsend.
implemented.
passwords for
user authentication.
Web server configuration

Set the httpd


password for the user
joe .
Web server configuration

httpd password is
stored in htpasswd
file.
Web server configuration

Set full permission for


the htpasswd file to
make sure that the user
has the execute
permission .
Web server configuration

To add another user in


the htpasswd file.
Web server configuration

Restart the httpd


service.
Web server configuration

Enter the fully qualified


domain name in address
bar.
Web server configuration

When we access the


web page the mozilla
will prompts for the
username and password.
Web server configuration

Enter the username and


the password.
Web server configuration

Now you can see the


web page.
Access Control
The web access can be controlled by using access
control directives such as allow and deny.
Directive Description

deny from host Determines hosts that can access a given


host …. directory: all, or partial or full domain name
or ip address.

allow from host Determines which hosts can access a


host …. given directory: all, or partial or full domain
name or ip address.
Web server configuration

This indicates that we


can access the web page
from any network.
Web server configuration

To access the web page


only from the above
specified network.
Virtual host

Virtual hosts allow you to host multiple domains from a


single machine.

Apache supports two different type of virtual hosts.

Name-based virtual hosts

Ip-based virtual hosts


Ip and Named-based Virtual Hosts

IP-based virtual hosts


-Ip-based virtual hosts are used when a single
machine has several different IP address.

-To run a virtual host on each IP address.

Named-based virtual hosts

-It allow you to host many virtual hosts from a


single IP address.
Name-based virtual hosts

Here
Twowe place two
domains are
domains
used ininthe
a single ip
name of
address
exampleandandwe can
test.com
inplace number of
a single ip address
domains using single
192.168.0.20.
IP address.
Name-based virtual hosts

An ip address is
mentioned in the
virtualhost field.
Name-based virtual hosts

The server
fully qualified
domain name is
described here.
Name-based virtual hosts

A Directory is created
in the specified path as
above here copy
test.com webpage..
Name-based virtual hosts

Httpd service is
restarted.
Name-based virtual hosts

This is the webpage for


the test.com .
Name-based virtual hosts

This is the webpage for


example.com.
Proxy Server: Squid

Squid

It is the proxy caching server used in Linux.

Handles the request from the local clients for


web access.

It supports all popular internet protocols


including FTP, Gopher ad HTTP.
Service profile

Packages - Squid

Configuration files - /etc/squid/squid.conf

Daemons - Squid

Port number - 3128


Squid Configuration

Install the
squid package.
Open the squid
configuration file.
Squid Configuration

This is the default squid


configuration file if we
want to change the
defaults then we can
edit the file.
Squid Configuration

3128 is the
http port.
Squid Configuration

Search for the acl


access control list
Squid Configuration

Create another acl named


thano1 to restrict the web
access by time. Thus here the
web server can be accessed
during 18:30-19:30 only.
Search for
http_access in
The specified range of
command mode.
IP address are allowed
to access the web server
by assigning them in acl
named thano.
Squid Configuration

This deny other IP


addresses except the IP
addresses mentioned in
access lists

To allow the access lists


thano and thano1
Squid Configuration

Now restart the


squid
service.
Squid Configuration

To set the proxy


get into the mozila
wizard.
Squid Configuration

Select
preferences to set
the proxy server.
Squid Configuration

And select the


option proxies.
Squid Configuration

Enter the IP address


of the proxy server
and the port number.
Squid Configuration

Now the time is in


between the access time
given in the acl so we
can access web server.
Squid Configuration

Here you can see that


the access is denied
since the we are not
allowed to access the
web server in this time.
Apache Encrypted Web Server
Apache can provide encrypted communications using the mod_ssl apache module.

To make use of encrypted communications, a client must request the https protocol.

Encryption is based on either the RSA or DSA algorithm.


Apache Encrypted Web Server
Package - mod_ssl

Port number - 443

Certificate - conf/ssl.crt/server.crt

Private key - conf/ssl.key/server.key

Self-signed cert - make testcert

Certificate signature req - make certreq


Apache Encrypted Web Server

Query is made to
check whether the
mod_ssl package is
installed. if not,
install the packages
Apache Encrypted Web Server
To generate the
certificate signature
request.
Apache Encrypted Web Server
The self signed certificate
can be installed using the
command
make testcert.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

When we restart the


httpd service it will
prompts for the
password.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

Open the mozilla


browser and type fully
qualified name in the
address bar using https
protocol.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

Click here to
view the
certificate.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

Here you can view the


certificate informations.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

After examining accept the


certificate temporarily or
permanent and then click
ok.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

You can see a warning


message indicating that
this page can not be
read by a third party.
Apache Encrypted Web Server

Now you can access


the web page
securely.
Sendmail Configuration
Sendmail:

Red Hat Linux uses Sendmail as its MTA to deliver messages.

It listens for any mail messages received from other hosts and
address to user on the network host it serves.

It handles the remote messages, determining the host to be sent.


Sendmail Service Profile

package - sendmail, sendmail-cf

configuration file - /etc/mail/sendmail.mc

m4 macro config. file - /etc/mail/sendmail.cf

demon service - sendmail

port number - 25(smtp),110(pop)


Sendmail Configuration

Query is made to
check whether the
sendmail package is
installed. if not, install
the packages.
Sendmail Configuration

Installing packages
using rpm command.
Sendmail Configuration

Open the sendmail


configuration file .
Sendmail Configuration

Sendmail
configuration file.
Sendmail Configuration

Now we search for the


text 127.0.0.1 .
Sendmail Configuration

The cursor finds the


127.0.0.0 (this line is
default for mail
transferring only for
local host.
Sendmail Configuration

commenting
The word dnl isthis linein
added
voids
the to send mail
beginning to line
of this the
other systems
to comment.
Sendmail Configuration

M4 is a macro language
that can help to configure
the sendmail.cf file, using
sendmail.mc
Sendmail Configuration

Open the
Virtusertable file, for
mapping user virtual
domain addresses.
Sendmail Configuration

The virutusertable
configuration helps to
define the domain name
along with fully
qualified domain name.
Sendmail Configuration

Open a local-
host-file.

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