THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 1

The Agenda Setting Theory: An Analysis of the 2012 Presidential Election

Alessandra Elliott
COMS 101-19
California Polytechnic State University

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 2

Quickname the most contested topic in American society. If your response was
any of these four topicsphysicians assisted suicide, gay marriage, abortions, or gun
rights(the issues with the widest coverage in American media in 2010 [Saad, 2010])
then you are in direct correlation with the agenda setting theory. The agenda setting
theory is the ability [of the news media] to influence the salience of topics on the public
agenda," (McCombs, 2012). In other words, the theory states that the media, by putting
emphasis on certain subjects, influences societys perception on the severity and
disagreeable nature of the affairs themselves.
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw developed the agenda setting theory in
1972 as a result of their study on North Carolina voters during the 1968 presidential
campaign (McCombs, 2002). This study found a correlation between issues that voters
believed were important and issues the media gave prominence to. McCombs and Shaw
argued that the media use a number of cues to signify the importance of an issue
(Calleno, 2012). In a newspaper, for example, the importance of a story is indicated by
the size of its heading. Likewise, a story that appears on the front-page is considered of
greater importance than a story that appears on page five. By using these cues, the media
has the power to focus public discussion on certain issues; however, it cannot tell the
public what to thinkonly what to think about.
There are three types of agenda setting: public, media, and policy (Rogers, 1988).
The first, the public agenda, reflects the topics that society is most concerned about
(Rogers, 1988). Secondly, the media agenda, addresses the topics that news networks,
newspapers, magazines, etc., promote; often times being subjects that go along with their
values and subsequent biases (Rogers, 1988). For example, FOX news, a notoriously

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 3

conservative media outlet, may feature more stories degrading Obamas economic
policies in comparison to CNN, a liberal media outlet. Thirdly, the policy agenda, reflects
the issues promoted by elite political leaders and policy makers (Rogers, 1988).
Additionally, agenda setting is based on two levels that encompass the three types of
settings aforementioned (sclr, 2011). The first, the extra-media level, focuses on external
media sources such as politicians, presidents, public officials, or anyone who influences
media contentor in other words, how the policy agenda affects the media (sclr, 2011).
The second level of agenda setting is the inter-media level (sclr, 2011). This level focuses
on the interactions and influences of various mass media (sclr, 2011). This level also
reinforces social norms and defines grounds for shaping of the media agenda (sclr, 2011).
The agenda setting theory was applied heavily during the 2012 presidential race
against democratic nominee, Barack Obama, and republican nominee, Mitt Romney
(Petrich, 2013). Given the 24-hour news cycle that is present on television today,
commercial ad attacks are increasingly exorbitant. In the study, Assessing TV Ad Watches
in the 2012 Presidential Election, Stephanie Petrich, a graduate student from Elon
University, analyzes the implications of commercial ad attacks on viewers, tied in with
the overall scope of the agenda setting theory (Petrich, 2013). Petrich assessed over 50
advertisements from three major networks, CNN, FOX, and ABC for three types of
imagerypatriotism, war, and familyand found that each network featured differing
degrees of each (Petrich, 2013). According to her findings:
ABC ad watches had campaign advertisements that featured all three types
of imagery with patriotic imagery being the most prevalent in ads. Very few
campaign advertisements selected in the ad watches featured war imagery,
and CNN ads never featured war imagery. The majority of CNN ad watches
featured campaign advertisements with patriotic or family imagery, both of

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 4

which were about evenly used. FOX News overwhelmingly used ads that
featured family imagery, (Petrich, 2013).
These results are important in understanding the media portion of the agenda
setting theory and how it plays a role in shaping public perception of political candidates.
Candidates, PACs, and other sponsors of commercial advertisements are more likely to
use campaign advertisements with certain characteristics depending on what values they
perceive the viewer base to find important (Petrich, 2013). This leads the viewers of these
ad watches to receive specifically constructed messages and thus exacerbate their already
skewed view of a candidate or election. Overall, the results show that the broadcast
networks have a broader reach than simply their news content when it comes to
influencing audiences in one political direction. Through their power of filtering through
what advertisements are on put on air, networks are giving an almost 24/7 propaganda
channel for specific candidates.
In 1998, McCombs increased the scope of the agenda setting theory to include a
phenomenon called framing, identified by Robert Entman in 1993 (Calleno, 2012).
Entman argued that, in addition to telling us what to think about, the media can also tell
us how to think about a story (Entman, 2003). News reports might focus on one aspect of
an issue, or report on an issue in one particular way producing a one sided view.
Additionally, Entman identified four types of frames: define problems, diagnose causes,
make moral judgments, and suggest remedies (Entman, 2003). In order to understand the
four frames, here is an example of how each were used in the 2012 presidential election:
This photo is from a FOX news broadcast in which the anchors celebrate a republican
victory over Ohio by putting on cowboy hats and calling themselves the Campaign
Cowboys (Amato, 2014). Using the frame of defining the problem, or in other words

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 5

determining what a
causal agent is doing
with what costs and
benefits, one could
point out the
unprofessional cowboy
hats and bandanas as a
problem, with the network as a causal agent. The network considers the cost of
performing such childish antics on air in comparison to the benefits of keeping the viewer
based tuned in. For the second frame, diagnosing causes, one could identify the forces
driving the problem (Entman, 2003). In the FOX news sketch, this could be asking the
question of, Why does the network feel the need to keep its viewer based tuned in using
these methods? Thirdly, one could make moral judgments about the situation (Entman,
2003). For example, is it good or is it bad that news networks take on a less prestigious
role on television? Lastly, one could suggest remedies in which they offer and justify
treatment for the problems and predict their likely effects (Entman, 2003). One could
argue that the persistence of entertainment-based news that FOX promotes is detrimental
to society, and propose a reform to the producers of the show that would remain
economically profitable.
Furthermore, the aspect of framing was heavily contrasted between both
presidential candidates major points on economic reform (Wehling, 2012). Elisabeth
Wehling, political blogger for the Huffington Post, in her article, Obama vs. Romney: The
Framing Matchup Round One, followed the framing mechanisms used by the media

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 6

when portraying both candidates during the campaign. When it comes to discussing
United States economic affairs, Romney's framing is moral, simple and straightforward,
Obama's is policy-oriented, filled with numbers, details, and so many proposals that they
challenge ordinary understanding, (Wehling, 2012). Romney tended to be cited
alongside phrases about economic freedoma contrast to Obamas citations of liberalism
and economic fairness (Wehling, 2012). The manner in which the media portrayed each
candidates discussion about the same issue framed the public interpretation of them; with
Romney being perceived as an old-school family man, and Obama as an intellect.
Therefore, the media not only gave information about the candidates, but also did so in a
way that framed the point of view of the viewers and readers to whichever light in which
they wanted to paint them in.
In 2003 Entman published another article titled, Cascading Activation:
Contesting the White Houses Frame After 9/11. In this article he has a different
conception of what framing means. According to his 2003 publication:
Framing entails selecting and highlighting some facets of events or issues, and
making connections among them so as to promote a particular interpretation,
evaluation, and/or solution. They use words and images highly salient in culture,
which is to say noticeable, understandable, memorable, and emotionally charged,
(Entman, 2003).
In comparison to his 1993 publication, Entman changes a few of the components of
framing. Firstly, he emphasizes the process over the agents (Entman, 2003) (Entman,
1993). This means that in the 2003 version, Entman is more concerned with how people
go about framing than he is on the people who necessarily do the framing. Secondly, the
2003 conception reduces the emphasis on subjective elements (Entman, 2003) (Entman,
1993). Instead, Entman seems more concerned with concrete, objective, or quantifiable

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 7

elements in a perceived reality. Thirdly, Entman moves away from defining problems and
towards selecting an issue because problems are generally more specific and concrete,
whereas issues are broader (Entman, 2003) (Entman, 1993). Lastly, moral evaluation
becomes evaluation (Entman, 2003) (Entman, 1993). This implies he is no longer
interested in whether a person perceives an issue to be good or bad, but also perhaps
whether they are useful and what ends they produce. This means it is no longer whether it
is just right or wrong, but whether it might be useful or possible.
The agenda setting theory and the information I outlined in this essay is important
for the class to understand, given the importance of recognizing underlying agendas and
media framing in terms of being a well-informed voter and citizen. In order for my peers
to fully grasp the concepts, I will carry out a series of exercises that involve YouTube
videos and active participation. First, I will show three different videos and ask what
agenda the students believe is being promoted, and why. Secondly, I will show two
videos, addressing the same topic and presenting the same facts, but that have differing
framing. Then I will ask the class what messages they took away from both videos, and
use that to prove how our connotation on stories relies heavily on how the information is
presented. Lastly, given that only 4 in 10 Americans searches deeper into a story other
than just one article or newscast (How Americans), I will emphasize the importance of
our generation to be the ones to make a positive change in that aspect, and to use critical
thinking skills in order to have a holistic understanding of news topics. I will do so by
passing out a flier with various news organizations and their political tendencies, in order
for the class to understand where their news is coming from.

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 8

Overall, given the nature of the US media economy in its current state, it is not
plausible for news outlets to complete a paradigm shift of their content. However, we can
still make a change on the consumer end of the issue. Given the prevalence of media in
todays culture it is prudent that our age group is informed on the dissemination and
intentions of each news outlet. It is essential to jump the generational hurdle of constant
information in order to prevent society from being sheep, and following the views of the
media. We must control the medianot the other way around.

Works Cited

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 9

How Americans get their news. (2014, March 17). Retrieved April 8, 2015, from
http://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-research/howamericans-get-news/
Amato, J. (2014, November 6). Fox News' Bizarre Election Night Coverage: 'Campaign
Cowboys' Retrieved April 13, 2015.
Calleno16. (2012, Jan 09). Agenda Setting Theory. [Video File]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGHXJmsqRVE
Entman, Robert. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal
of Communication 43(51-58). Retrieved from http://sotomove.geo.uzh.ch/sotomo/pps/lit/entman_93.pdf
Entman, Robert. (2003). Cascading Activation: Contesting the White Houses Frame
After 9/11. Political Communication 20(4) 415-432. doi:
10.1080/10584600390244176
McCombs, M; Reynolds, A (2002). "News influence on our pictures of the world".
Media effects: Advances in theory and research. 10(2) 1-18 Retreived from
http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2002-00742-001
Petrich, Stephanie. (2013). Assessing Network TV Ad Watches in the 2012 Presidential
Election. The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 4(1)
26-38 Retrieved from http://www.elon.edu/docs/eweb/academics/communications/research/vol4no1/07PetrichEJSpring13.pdf
Rogers, E; Dearing, J (1988). "Agenda-setting research: Where has it been, where is it
going?". Communication Yearbook 2(11) 555594 doi: 10.1111/j. 14602466.1988.tb01263.x
Saad, Lydia. (2010). Four Moral Issues Sharply Divide Americans. Retrieved from
http://www.gallup.com/poll/137357/four-moral-issues-sharply-divideamericans.aspx
sclcr (2011, Oct 05.) Framing- Robert Entman [Video File]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFgJ827xxQY
Walgrave, S; Van Aelst, P (2006). "The contingency of the mass media's political agenda
setting power: Toward a preliminary theory". Journal of Communication 14(56):
88109. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00005.x

THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY 1

0
Wehling, E. (2012, June 18). Obama vs. Romney: The Framing Matchup, Round One.
Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/georgelakoff/obama-romney-slogan_b_1605212.html