New York City

New York City has a long, interesting history. In the near future, I’m going to write more about various cities
throughout the Earth (starting with cities in America). It is certainly time to describe NYC’s history and culture.
A lot of people love NYC. I love NYC too. New York City has people of tons of ethnicities, creeds, and other
backgrounds. It is truly an international city and one of the world’s largest cities in terms of population.New
York City has a large impact upon commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education,
and entertainment. A lot of information will be shown here. During the ice age, the New York City region was
in the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. That ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil. It
left the bedrock, which serves as the geologic foundation for much of the New York City today. The first human
inhabitants of New York City were the Native Americans of course. One major Native American tribe living in
New York City was the Lenape. They called their homeland Lenapehoking (which was found in Staten Island,
the western portion of Long Island, parts of Brooklyn, parts of Queens, Manhattan,the Bronx, and the Lower
Hudson Valley). The Lenape Native Americans grew corn, beans, and squash to supplement their hunting and
gathering. Their society was matrilineal. It was also peaceful and well organized. The first European who came
into New York City was the Italian explorer, Giovanni Da Verrazano. He worked for King Francis I of France. He
came into New York Bay at 1524. Verrazano also traveled to Newfoundland as well. Esteban Gomez sailed into
New York Bay in 1525. The English explorer Henry Hudson would anchor off Manhattan’s shore. He worked
for the Dutch. Henry Hudson was trying to search for the Northwest Passage, which was a route linking the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. There was no such route in actuality. The Lenapes would help the Dutch fur
merchant Adiaen Block when his ship (called the Tyger) burned. They even fed Block and his stranded crew.
On June 10, 1610, there were the first Dutch settlers who came
into Manhattan from New Jersey to colonize Manhattan. The
first non-Native American inhabitant of NewYork City in the
modern age was Dominican trader Juan Rodriguez. He was
born in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. He was of
Portuguese and African descent. He came into Manhattan
during the winter of 1613-1614. Juan trapped for pelts and
traded with the local population as a representative of the
Dutch. A permanent European presence in New Netherland
began in 1624. The Dutch West India Company was
established in 1621 to trade in the Americas and expand their
This picture shows New Amsterdam
imperialist power base. Soon,more Dutch people traveled into
New York City. The Dutch called NYC the New Netherlands.
(which would be New York City in the
The first Europeans came into Brooklyn by 1625. In 1626, the future. This image shows Lower
Dutch acquiredManhattan from the Native Americans. The Manhattan.
Lenapes wanted
to share the land for a season or so while the Europeans believed that the deal was final. In the same year
the southern tip of Manhattan is named New Amsterdam. 11 African men are brought into NYC as slaves in
1626.

The island of Staten Island was once controlled by the Dutch government. Jonas Bronck buys land from the
Native Americans in 1639, which is now the Bronx. Soon, Dutch settlement came to New York on 1629. For a
time, the Dutch people gradually controlled New York City from the Native Americans. The Dutch militia
massacred 120 Lenapes in 1643 and the Native Americans fought back in the Kleft’s war. 11 African men soon
petition for their freedom. The massive buying and selling of human beings (who were Africans and Native
Americans) started in New York City during 1646. One Dutch leader in New York City during the 17th century
was Peter Stuyvesant. Jewish people arrived to NYC from Brazil since they were fleeing the Inquisition during
1654. One aspect of us as people is that we want religious freedom promoted in the world. On August
12, 1658, there was the 1st U.S. police corps formed in then New Amsterdam.

By 1662, the principle of religious tolerance was born via the Quaker John Bowne’s case. The British colonists
soon controlled the area from the Dutch by 1674. On November 10, 1674, England and the Netherlands signed
the Peace of Westminster which officially caused New York City to be conquered by the British. Kings County
is named after King Charles II. Queens is named after his queen (or Catherine of Braganza). Richmond County
is named for the Duke of Richmond (or the King’s illegitimate son). The Lenape populationdeclined heavily by
1700 because of wars, displacement, and epidemics. Slavery is an abomination, and the slave market was found
in the old City Hall on the East River. By 1730, 42% of households held slaves. That was more than any other
city other than Charleston, South Carolina. Slavery was used in the economy. Thousands of Africans were
buried near a new federal courthouse near Foley Square. African slaves rebelled and were punished with brutal
violence in 1712. 21 black people were executed. Black people rebelled in New York City again in 1741. In
April 9, 1730, there was the 1st Jewish congregation in America formed in NYC. It was called “Sherith Israel,
NYC.”
The Colonial Period.
The colonists rebelled against the imperialist British Empire. During October 7, 1765, delegates from the nine
American colonies met in New York City to talk about the Stamp Act crisis and the colonial response to it.
This "Stamp Act Congress" went on to draft resolutions condemning the Stamp and Sugar Acts, trial without
jury and taxation without representation as contrary to their rights as Englishmen. 1768 was the year when
the 1st U.S. Chamber of Commerce was established in New York City. Alexander Hamilton was a college
student in 1774 when he spoke out against British aggression in New York City. The Sons of Liberty had a
huge power base in NYC. The Son of Liberty was a group that was created to protect the rights of the colonists.
They fought the taxation sent by the British government. Members of the Sons of Liberty harassed British
authority in the city. Members of the 13 colonies met in NYC to organize resistance to not only the Stamp
Act, but to British occupation. NYC was a strategic area of the activities of the RevolutionaryWar. George
Washington at first had many defeats during the early part of the Revolutionary War. George Washington’s
army arrived in New York during 1776. He builds fortifications to protect against British invasion. General
George Washington also lost the Battle of Brooklyn to a huge number of redcoats. He escaped by night across
the East River. He won the Battle of Harlem Heights, which was his first victory of the war. The British Army
controlled New York City and made it their base on the continent until late 1783. Loyalist refugees were found
there.
On 1783, General Washington marched in NYC as the victor and the patriot troops march from northern
Manhattan to the Battery. NYC became the state capital in 1784 (later Albany will be the capital of New York
City). The New York Manumission Society was created in 1785 to try to abolish slavery. America’s national
capital was once in New York City during the Article of Confederation era and briefly under the United States
Constitution. New York City was the place which hosted the inauguration of George Washington as President,
the drafting of the Bill of Rights, and the first Supreme Court of America. On1799, New York State’s Act
for the Gradual Emancipation of Negroes and Other Slaves is passed. The law freed all children born to slave
women after July 4, 1799, but it didn’t immediately end slavery. It only freedcertain slaves. The NYC AME
Church was dedicated on September 7, 1800. On July 4, 1827, the African- American community celebrated
final emancipation in the state with a long parade through New York City. Slavery ended in New York
gradually, but many New Yorkers were dedicated, heroic abolitionists. The New York Historical society was
created in 1804.

The Growth of Early New York City

New York City grew fast and the same issues that NYC dealt with were found across early America. The Free
School Society or the Public School Society was created in 1806 to educate poor children. Black people
could pass down property to their children in 1809. New York City became the nation’s largest city by 1820.
New York University is founded in 1831 and Union Square Park opens at the union of Bowery and Broadway
in the same year. Brooklyn receives its city charter on 1834. The Great fire of 1835 destroys 674 buildings.

During the antebellum period, New York City was a city where the Underground Railroad flourished. The
Underground Railroad was a network of locations in cities and towns of the North and Canada that helped
slaves escape from slave states in order for them to be free from tyranny and oppression. A community of
free African Americans back during the 19th century lived in the community of Weeksville (in Brooklyn,
NYC).

She was the black hero Sister Elizabeth Jennings Graham

A great black woman, who was a hero during the 19th century, was Sister Elizabeth Jennings Graham. She
refused to give up her seat and fought against oppression. His father was Thomas Jennings, and his mother
was Elizabeth Jennings Sr. This incident happened on the summer of July 16, 1854 on Sunday. African
Americans were segregated and suffered discrimination at will. If the presence of an African American on a
streetcar was objected to by a white person, he or she would have to leave. Yet, Graham refused to leave the
streetcar. He was in a horse drawn streetcar in Lower Manhattan. The conductor saw her and ordered her
off. She refused. She asserted her right to board the vehicle. The conductor tried to remove her bybrute
force. She tried to fight to stay in the car. Yet, a policeman came to help the conductor to take her off the
streetcar. An 1855 New York Tribune article later described the incident. Graham was injured. Many people
supported Elizabeth Graham too. Her father Rev. James W.C. Pennington was a prominent figure in his day
and abolitionist Frederick Douglass noted her assault in his eponymous newspaper. The incident sparked an
organized movement among black New Yorkers to end racial discrimination on streetcars, ledby notables
such as Jennings' father Thomas, Rev. James W.C. Pennington, and Rev. Henry Highland Garnet.Her story
received national attention. Graham took her plight to court. She sued the Third Avenue Rail Company
(whose headquarters was in Brooklyn), which own, the driver and the conductor. The accomplished,
ambitious, future U.S. president Chester A. Arthur, then a 24-year-old attorney, represented her in court. She
won the case. In 1855, a jury found the case in Graham’s favor. She was awarded $250 in damages and $22.50
for costs. Later, the Third Avenue Railroad Company desegregated its streetcars almost immediately after
the verdict. A decade later in 1865, New York City fully desegregated its public transportation. This story was
long before Rosa Parks’ historic resistance to segregation. Elizabeth Jennings Graham lived in her later years
at 247 West 41st Street. Elizabeth Jennings Graham started New York’s first kindergarten for Black children
too. She passed away in 1901. She is buried in New York’s historic Cypress Hills Cemetery. Elizabeth Jennings
Graham was a great person, and she was very courageous.

RIP Sister Elizabeth Jennings Graham.

Another 1845 fire destroys 300 buildings in New York City. The first issue of the New York Times was
established in 1851. As the 1800’s goes forward, more immigrants came into New York and Central Park
starts. Macy opens in 1858. By 1860, about 1/3 of New York City was Irish and half of the city is foreign- born.
When the Civil War started, we saw some New Yorkers joining the Union. Others resisted the draft. The Draft
Riots of 1863 involved white racists killing innocent black men, black women, and black children. The draft
riots in real life were even worse than what was shown in the film "The Gangs of New York,” which was
directed by Martin Scorsese. Yes, I have watched the film before. It showed the class, racial, and religious
divisions found in 19th century New York City. After the Civil War, the elevated train tracks wentup. St.
Patrick Cathedral is dedicated in 1879.

After long years of
construction and work,
the Brooklyn Bridge was
completed. It is a symbol
of the strength and
determination of New
York City and it’s a symbol
of the American spirit.
Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi was
the French sculptor who
designed the Statue ofLiberty.
He attended the Lycee Louis-le-
Grand in Paris, and received a
BA in 1852. He then went on to
study architecture at the École
nationale supérieuredes Beaux-
Arts as well aspainting under Ary
Scheffer in his studio in the Rue
Chaptal, now the Musée de la
Vie Romantique.
The Empire State Building was
finished being constructed in
April 11, 1931. It is the second
tallest building of New York City
and it’s an iconic building of
architecture in general. William
F. Lamb designed the building.
The observational deck of the
86th floor of the Empire State
building shows a beautiful,
panoramic view of NYC too.
One of the famous structures of New York City was the Brooklyn Bridge. It took 14 years of construction,
and it opens on 1883. It is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in New York City. It connects the
boroughs of Manhattan Brooklyn by spanning the East River. Back during the 10 th century, Brooklyn was its
own city then a vote by its citizens merged Brooklyn with the rest of New York City by 1898. The
construction of the bridge started in 1869. The bridge was initially designed by the German immigrant John
Augustus Roebling. His son Washington Roebling oversaw the project after John had an infection.
So, Washington and his wife Emily Warren Roebling (she knew of higher mathematics, the calculations of
catenary curves, the strengths of materials, bridge speciation, and the intricacies of cable construction)
worked on the supervision of the bridge’s construction. Recently since 2010, the Brooklyn Bridge was
renovated. The opera house called the Metropolitan opens at 39th Street and Broadway.

The Statue of Liberty is dedicated on Bedloe’s Island. Bartholdi was involved in its construction. The Statue
of Liberty was dedicated in 1886 as a gift from France to America (in celebrating liberty and freedom).

The people of New York voted for the subway system by 1894. The Bronx Zoo opens in 1899. The NYC
public library system grows and 65 public library branches are funded by Andrew Carnegie. Andrew
Carnegie was one of the famous American robber barons. The robber barons were industrialists and
business leaders who controlled many monopolies of industry. Their power had grown so large that the
federal government had to past anti-trust legislation in order to check their power base. Tenements are
apartment which housed mostly poor and middle income human beings in New York City. The tenement
system has so many problems that a new tenement house law begins to improve life for the 70 percent of
the city living in 83,000 tenements. In 1898, the modern City of New York City was formed with the
mrerger of Brooklyn (which was a separate city before that time), the County of New York (which
included parts of the Bronx), and the County of Richmond including the western part of the County of
Queens.

Today in almost 2020, The New York region continues to be by far the leading metropolitan gateway for
legal immigrants admitted into the United States. Immigration is part of our strength. New York City has
over 40% of the population of New York State.

From 1900 to 1945, New York City dealt with many radical changes from the Progressive Era, the various
reforms, the Harlem Renaissance, immigration (as in 1907, 1,200,000 immigrants would arrive in America.
They came mostly from Europe. Others came from Africa, the Caribbean, South America, and other
locations of the world. Ellis Island was one major location where the immigrants arrived at), education, and
the two World Wars. New York City’s population by 1900 was 3.4 million people. In 1903, a bronze plaque
with Emma Lazarus's stirring words is affixed to the base of the Statue of Liberty:

"Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free…”
These words totally refute intolerance, bigotry, and xenophobia. We are made up of immigrants and other
people who make America stronger. Even religious books talk about helping the sojourner or the immigrant
and we will fulfill our obligation to show compassion to immigrants. There were still fights for workers’
rights and economic justice. The mainstream party bosses and machines wanted the status quo back then.
The city expanded its bridges, traffic, school system, and other infrastructure during the early 20th century.
Public health programs existed and hundreds of new elementary and high schools were built. The political
machines wanted massive corporate profits even at the expense of the workers while the reformers wanted
changes in the system so workers would be treated equitably. Tammany Hall (whose head was Charles
Murphy from 1902-1924) grew since the 1800’s and was supported by middle class ethnicgroups. During the
depressions of the 1890s and the 1930’s, the reformers gained key offices in New York City even the mayor’s
office. The reformers were diverse. They were made up of mostly middle class men and women. The years
from 1895 to 1914 saw the peak of European immigration.

Many of them were Catholics, Jewish people,

Italians, and Poles. Conflict arose between
these immigrants and other residents in NYC.
Racism was common against the new
immigrants, black people, etc. Many Jewish
people suffered the evil scourge of anti-
Semitism. From the 19th century to the present,
gangs grew into a higher level. Weknow of the
Irish gangs during the 19th century. Italian,
Dutch, and Jewish gangs grew in New York City.
In culture, we know about the Italian gangs.
Many famous gang leaders are Meyer Lansky,
Joseph Bananno, Al Capone, Lucky Luciano, etc.
During the Prohibition era, various gangs
Ellis Island was one of the greatest parts of American history. fought each other for control of underground
Over 12 million immigrants came into the United States via Ellis
drugs, and alcohol resources. There is a very
Island. It was America’s busiest immigrant inspection state for
over 60 years from 1892 to 1954. Today, it’s a U.S. National
interesting story about Charles “Lucky” Luciano.
Monument. On October 3, 1965, President Lyndon Johnson The U.S. government made a deal with Luciano.
visited the Statue of Liberty to sign the Immigration and The government (which included the Navy, the
Nationality Act of 1965. I will always believe in immigrant rights. State of New York, and the U.S. Office of Naval
Intelligence) said that
they would commute his sentence in prison in exchange for him to give the government intelligence on Axis
forces. So, Luciano agreed and gave intelligence to the Navy about the Axis forces. Luciano ally Albert
Anastasia, who controlled the docks, allegedly promised no dockworker strikes during war. In preparation for
the 1943 allied invasion of Sicily, Luciano allegedly provided the U.S. military with Mafia contacts in Sicily. He
would die in Italy in 1962. With the permission of the U.S. government, Luciano's relatives took hisbody back
to New York for burial. He was buried in St. John's Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens. More
than 2,000 mourners attended his funeral. Luciano's longtime friend, Gambino crime family boss Carlo
Gambino, gave his eulogy. Violent criminal Mafia gangs (who are of many backgrounds) were/are involved in
prostitution, murder, drug smuggling, weapons trafficking, illegal gambling, bribery, robbery, tax evasion,
extortion, counterfeiting, assault, racketeering, etc. So, we should learn about their history, but we ought
to never glamorize these criminals at all.

The Progressive Era movement promoted free public schooling and other reforms. Catholic parochialschools
grew and public schools in general expanded. Controversial industrialists like Rockefeller and Carnegie
expanded their finances in New York. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York developed in the early 1900’s.
Edward J. Flynn was another political leader of the Bronx back then.

The Harlem Renaissance and Diverse Cultural Growth

By 1916, New York City was home to the largest urban African diaspora population in North America. Al
Smith and Robert F. Wagner supported reform. Jazz grew during the 1920’s. By the early 1920s, New York
City was the most populous urbanized area in the area overtaking London. The metropolitan area surpassed
the 10 million mark in the early 1930s, becoming the first megacity in human history. One of the most famous
mayors of NYC during this time period was Mayor Fiorello La Guardia. He was a liberal Republican
Congressman. He supported Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the New Deal. He worked across party lines. He
revitalized New York on many cases. He grew public playgrounds, parks, airports, etc. The Harlem
Renaissance is a very key part of black culture and New York City history. After 1890, black people
started to move into formerly Jewish neighborhood of Harlem on Manhattan’s upper West side. African
Americans also traveled into New York City in a high level via the Great Migration.

The Great Migration was a massive migration of African Americans from the South into the Northeast, the
Midwest, and the West Coast. Black people want jobs, equality, freedom, and justice. So, black people
worked and fought for freedom during this period. The rise of Marcus Garvey came about greatly in New
York City. He was a nationalist leader who wanted black people to unite in a pan-African fashion, so black
people can be liberated from oppression. Marcus Garvey was from Jamaica. He was very successful in gaining
a huge voice in the black communities. During this time (during the 1920’s), A. Philip Randolph was in Harlem
promoting labor rights and economic justice. Many in the federal government hated him including J. Edgar
Hoover. Garvey UNIA movement was strong in the beginning. Civil rights activism grew byNew Yorkers like
Baptist preachers like Adam Clayton Powell Jr. (who fought for civil rights and contributed a great deal to
fight back against racial discrimination in NYC).

Here are the stories of many Brothers and Sisters of the Harlem Renaissance

James Weldon Johnson Augusta Savage Langston Hughes Zora Neale Hurston

He was one of the Her gift was sculpting His work dealt with She was not only a great
greatest intellectuals of objects. She was a fiction, satire, and author. She published
American history. He was teacher and her studios political matters. more than 50 short stories,
an author, an educator, a were used to help future Hughes wanted to plays, and essays. One of
lawyer, a diplomat, a generations of artists. depict the working class her most famous novel was
songwriter, and a civil She worked for equal and poor African her 1937 work entitled,
rights activist. He was a rights for African Americans in American “Their Eyes WereWatching
leader in the NAACP. He Americans in the arts society. His works from God.” She also was a
was famous for creating too. She travelled the his poetry to his other scholar of anthropology.
the song “Lift Ev’ry Voice world in order for her to stories outline the joy, She was a genius in
and Sing.” That song was study sculpture in the pain, the happiness, creating literary works.
the unofficial national cathedrals and and the perseveranceof
anthem for black museums. the black
Americans. experience.
The Harlem Renaissance in essence was about black males and black females expressing their culture, their
lives, and their aspirations without shame. They wanted to show black people and all people their gifts of
music, art, dance, theater, literature, and other aspects of human culture. Many famous writers of the Harlem
Renaissance included Langston Hughes, James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, and Zora Neale Hurston.
Black people involved in the Harlem Renaissance wanted to show their gifts to the world. Harlem was the
epicenter of a cultural explosion. People of numerous backgrounds wanted to see the plays and themusic of
the Harlem Renaissance too. Music was another key part of the Harlem Renaissance. William Grant Still was
heavily involved in the movement. He composed choral works, and operas during his carer. Still’s “Afro-
American Symphony” was composed in 1930. His worked promoted black culture and sometimes overtly
criticized American society. His 1940 choral work “And They Lynched Him on a Tree” opposed lynching.
African American performers like Duke Ellington, Sidney Bechet, Bessie Smith, Louis Armstrong, and so many
other black people performed in Harlem and throughout America. Jazz is an American music form that came
from the Deep South (by African Americans).

In 1931, the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and the George Washington Bridge were completed.
These events outline the rapid growth of infrastructure which defines a lot of the history ofNew York
City.

The Great Depression hurt people in New York City. Hooverville shacks were in city parks. New York City
continued to build the subway, schools, etc. WWII definitely expanded the workforce. During WWII, the
Brooklyn Navy Yard increased its production of warships. New York City hosted the headquarters of the
United Nations after WWII. By 1952, New York City would officially be the permanent headquarters of the
United Nations.
The Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement
After WWII, the Cold War dominated New York City politics. The Cold War was an ideological struggle
between America and the Soviet Union. Anti-Communist paranoia, evil wars, and fights for social justice
characterize the Cold War era. There was a massive post-war economic boom in NYC too. Large housing tracts
existed in Queens, New York. Wall Street grew in power. The United Nations Headquarters was completed
in 1952 making New York City to have a massive amount of geopolitical influence. There was the rise of
abstract expressionism.

The McCarthyite era was filled with people being violated of their civil liberties. People have every right to
be a Communist or not in a truly free society. For example, Claudia Jones was one of the greatest black
freedom fighters in history. She was a Communist and I have great love and appreciation for her
contributions. I have a great deal of respect for Sister Claudia Jones. Also, brutal wars would exist throughout
the Cold War. White flight increased during this time period. Robert Moses guided more construction of
transportation system in New York City. During the 1960’s, a gradual economic decay began. The Dodgers
and the Giants moved to California. After the Immigration Act of 1965, more Asian Americans immigrated to
NYC. Although, Asian people came into New York City since the 1800’s. Segregation did exist in New York
City. There were "whites only" signs in Manhattan apartment buildings. There were racist restrictive
covenants in property across the city. The movement for social change also dealt with labor as well. In other
words, in the North, those who were fighting for racial justice were also fighting for labor rights as well. Not
to mention it should be mentioned that the black people in the South fighting for freedom were very
courageous as well. I’m from Virginia, so Virginia has a long history of Brothers and Sisters being involved
in the struggle for real. There were segregated seat assignments by American Airlines at La Guardia. Black
people during the time period were experiencing terrorism via lynchings, discrimination, police brutality,
assaults, racism, sexism, harassment, murder, and other injustices. Terrorism against the black community
didn’t end in the 1960’s. Recent events show that this terrorism continues today and we will fight for our
human rights.
Black people in New York fought for universal health care, criminal justice solutions, an end to bank redlining,
and full equality. New York City’s Teachers’ Union had been fighting for racial equality since 1935.There can
be no discussion about civil rights and New York City without mentioning Adam Clayton Powell. Adam Clayton
Powell led protests against injustice back during the 1930’s. He was a Baptist pastor and a politician. He was
born in New Haven, Connecticut, but he later lived in NYC. He was the first person from New York of African
American descent to be elected to Congress. He was in the House of Representatives from 1945 to 1971.
Adam Clayton Powell fought for jobs and affordable housing. He established rent strikes, mass meetings,
and public campaigns to force companies plus utilities to hire black workers (like Harlem Hospital). In 1941
he used a bus boycott in New York City to force the hiring of 200 more blacks by the transit authority. In 1941
he integrated the New York City Council when he was elected as its first black member. Adam Clayton Powell
was the pastor of Abyssinian Baptist Church in New York City. In 1945, Adam Clayton Powell Jr. said that,
“The Negro people will be satisfied with nothing short of complete equality – political economic,
educational, religious, and social.” Adam Clayton Powell would give anti- Communist speeches during the
1950’s and during the 1960’s. He also wanted nations in the Third World tobe free from colonialism. Malcolm
X and Adam Clayton Powell respected each other.

Adam Clayton Powell agreed with Dr. Martin Luther King on many issues (Powell and King would travel
together to Ghana to celebrate its independence in 1957), but they had disagreements also. Powell agreed
with Black Power and spoke up in favor of Kwame Ture. Adam Clayton Powell would renounce nonviolence
in 1968 while Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. believed in nonviolence. We know that Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was
a courageous Brother who stood up against the Vietnam War and promote economic justice via his Poor
Peoples Campaign. Adam Clayton Powell was right to fight for progressive legislation involving Medicaid,
minimum wage, equal pay for women, education, nursing education, etc. as chairman of the powerful House
Education and Labor Committee. Powell was instrumental in passing legislation that made lynching a
federal crime, as well as bills that desegregated public schools. He challenged the Southern practice of
charging Blacks a poll tax to vote. He was controversial too. He was readily accused of mismanaging his
committee budget, and other accusations of corruption. The House stripped him of his seat and then he
appealed to the Supreme Court. By November 1968, he was reelected. The Supreme Court in 1969 ruled
that the House unconstitutionally stripped him of his seat. In the fall of 1970, Adam Clayton Powell moved to
his retreat in Bimini, Bahamas. He resigned as minister at the Abyssinian Baptist Church. He died at April 4,
1972 at the age of 63 from acute prostatitis.
The Civil rights and Black Nationalist movement grew in NYC during the 1960’s. One well-known civil rights
leader was Jesse Gray. He was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana on May 14, 1923. Gray organized the protests
of tenants against conditions in Harlem slum areas in the 1950’s. He led widespread a rent strike inNovember
of 1963 (to fight for better housing conditions in NY tenants). Later, he would be a politician and was elected
to the New York State Assembly. He passed away on January 2, 1988, at Beth Abraham Home in the Bronx
(he was lying in a coma for a long time before he passed away). Jesse Gray’s memory should be remembered
too. In 1964, about 465,000 children in New York City stayed home from school to protest segregation. Ella
Baker (who was born in Norfolk, Virginia) worked with the NAACP in New York to force thecity to integrate
its public school system. In 1962, there was a direct-action campaign by Brooklyn CORE (back then CORE was
more progressive). This group forced the city to provide better sanitation services to Bedford-Stuyvesant,
which is Brooklyn’s largest black community. Carlos A. Cooks was a great Black nationalist who was a link
between Marcus Garvey and Malcolm X. Malcolm X was influenced by Carlos A. Cooks. Carlos administered
the Advance Division of the UNIA after Marcus Garvey was deported. Cooks promoted the “Buy Black”
program in Harlem, which influenced the conscious movement today.
Malcolm X lived in New York City for years and he was a strong spokesman for black people and all oppressed
people. Malcolm X loved Harlem and Harlem loved Malcolm X. Malcolm X believed in love for our black
heritage. Malcolm X was once a minister of the Nation of Islam. Malcolm X would courageously in public
speak about black people having the right to have not only self-determination, but justice as well. He left the
NOI in 1964 where he formed the OAAU or the Organization of Afro-American Unity in order to promote pan-
African unity and justice for all peoples of black African descent. So much of the black freedom movement
existed in New York City. In 1964, about 465,000 children (many of them were African Americans and Puerto
Ricans) stayed home from school to protest racial segregation. Paul Robeson, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., Ossie
Davis, Ben Davis, Ada B. Jackson, Ewart Guinier, Hubert Delany, Hope Stevens, Shirley Graham, Charles
Collins, Thelma Dale, Ferdinand Smith, Audley Moore, and WEB Du Bois all worked in New York City too.

Earl Grant was Malcolm X’s friend. Earl said in 1983 that Malcolm X was such a compassionate man that
Malcolm X refused to allow his friends to retaliate against some folks who were threatening Malcolm X’s
life (since Malcolm X said that he didn’t want black people killing black people. Malcolm X knew the streets
and he knew Bumpy Johnson too). Peter Bailey was a friend and ally of Malcolm X too. We know that the
international intelligence community like the FBI, the CIA, BOSSI, etc. illegally monitored Malcolm X
worldwide. Malcolm X became more progressive by 1965 by calling for opportunities for women and he
criticized capitalism. Malcolm X was assassinated on February 21, 1965, in New York City. RIP Brother
Malcolm X. The postwar period saw people (especially white people moving into the suburbs) living in a new,
transformative age. Black people and Puerto Ricans fought for their human rights in NYC.

Puerto Ricans have played a huge role in New York City history and culture. There were three major waves
of migration of the Puerto Ricans in NYC. The first one existed during the mid-19 th century when Puerto Rico
was then a Spanish Province, and its people were Spanish citizens. The next one came about after the
Spanish-America War in 1898. The 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act allowed Puerto Ricans to have U.S. citizenship
with some limitations (the law allowed Puerto Ricans to travel between Puerto Rico and America without
usage of a passport). 2 months later, the Selective Service Act was passed to allow conscription extended to
Puerto Ricans who lived in the island and on the mainland. The third great migration of Puerto Ricans (which
has been called The Gran Migración) into New York City came about during the 1940’s and the 1950’s. There
has been much collaboration among black Americans and Puerto Ricans on civil rights issues during the
1960’s. Antonia Pantojas and Manny Diaz formed their own Puerto Rican organizations for socialchange and
they allied with many African Americans leaders like Frank Horne, Bayard Rustin, and Kenneth
Clark. Many African Americans and Puerto Ricans worked together to fight for community control of
education. Sonia Song-Ha Lee wrote a 2014 book entitled, “Building a Latino Civil Rights Movement: Puerto
Ricans, African Americans, and the Pursuit of Racial Justice in New York City” that describes this history is
great detail. There the struggle for social and political equality continues and we want all people to be free.

Today in 2015, there are over 700,000 Puerto Ricans in NYC. Famous Puerto Ricans who were born in New
York City are Sonia Sotomayor, Marc Anthony, Nydia Velazquez (who is a U.S. House Representative), Jennifer
Lopez, rapper Fat Joe, Isabel González, La La Anthony, Jimmy Smits, Esai Morales, Rosie Perez, Lia Vidal, In-
Manuel Miranda, and other people. Most live in the Bronx. Puerto Ricans in NYC also call themselves
Nuyoricans too.

This image on the left shows Black Panthers Richard Moore, his wife Iris, and Afeni
Shakur. They are leaving Criminal Courts Building, 100 Center St. for lunch. The new
2023 documentary of Dear Mama showed Afeni Shakur’s courage in full display.

During the late 1960’s, the Black Panther Party grew in NYC, there was the Black Arts Movement, and other
social movements developed. The Black Panthers in New York City fought against imperialism, police
brutality, drug trafficking in communities, and other evils. The bravery and the strength of the BlackPanther
Party is respected by me. One of the great Black Panther Party members of New York City was of course Afeni
Shakur (who is the mother of the late Brother Tupac Shakur). Afeni Shakur worked as a poet and as an activist.
She was harassed by the FBI and the NYPD. She was one of the NY 21 political prisoners too. By the time
Tupac was born on June 16, 1971, Afeni had already defended herself in court and been acquitted on 156
counts. Living in the Bronx, she found steady work as a paralegal and tried to raise her sonto respect the
value of an education. To this very day, Afeni Shakur has been an inspiration to us all. There were campus
rebellions that dealt with opposing to the Vietnam War, the fight for the inclusion of Black Studies in
universities, and fights against harming poor communities.

John Lindsay was a liberal Republican was mayor from 1965 to 1973. Feminist, anti-Vietnam War, and LGBTQ
rights movements (regardless if people agree or disagree with that movement, its history existed. The 1969
Stonewall rebellion in NYC was about LGBTQ people opposing overtly illegal police harassment of restaurants
and bars which had LGBTQ people in them) grew in New York City during the 1960’s and during the 1970’s.
Industries started to shut down by the late 1960’s. Teacher and labor strikes continued during
the late 1960’s. There was the 1968 nine-day sanitation strike. The New York City riots in 1968 came after Dr.
Martin Luther King Jr was unjustly assassinated in Memphis, TN.

On November 5, 1968, Shirley Chisholm of Brooklyn, New York became the first black woman to be elected
as a member of the U.S House of Representatives. She would go on to promote racial justice, gender equality,
and other progressive causes courageously. Chisholm worked in many political groups and helped others
decades before the 1960’s. Chisholm was a great educator and author. She later played a critical role in the
creation of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) program.
Chisholm would credit Schneerson for the fact that so many "poor babies [now] have milk and poor children
have food." Chisholm was then also placed on the Veterans' Affairs Committee. Shirley Chisholm ran for
President in 1972 as well. She announced her candidacy on January 25, 1972. She opposed American
involvement in the Vietnam War and she desired a higher minimum wage and investments in communities
all across America. She believed in a national health care plan. Shirley Chisholm called for an end to the
apartheid regime in South Africa. A great documentary film that shows Chisholm's 1972 Presidential
campaign is called “Shirley Chisholm '72: Unbought and Unbossed,“ a documentary film. Itwas directed
and produced by independent, African-American filmmaker Shola Lynch. The film was featured at the
Sundance Film Festival in 2004. On April 9, 2006, the film was announced as a winner of a Peabody Award.
She worked for the working class constantly in her life. She inspired all women. She passed away in 2004, but
her memory lives on forever and ever. RIP Sister Shirley Chisholm.
The Growth of Neoliberalism

From the 1970’s to the present, neoliberalism dominated American politics and its economy. Before going
forward, neoliberalism must be defined. In macroeconomics, neoliberalism is the system that uses free markets
(without government intervention), privatization (which means that there is a breakup of public resources
which will used to try to empower select private corporations), reduction in government spending, austerity,
and free trade.

During the 1970’s in New York City, some politicians capitulated to the corporate establishment. Before, many
politicians worked with various social movements and the public sector unions (like the UFT and AFSCME),
who grown in size and political influence during the sixties. Now, the reactionary backlash came about in a
higher level. Stagflation and economic problems were horrible during the 1970’s. In the year of 1971, Joe
Frazier would defeat Muhammad Ali in the fight of the Century in Madison Square Garden or MSG.

NYC saw its university system remained tuition free until 1976. Rent control was the strongest in the country
in New York City until the 1970’s. These economic problems happened because since the late 1960’s, the city’s
tax base was eroded. Industrial jobs (in about 600,000 jobs) were lost between 1968 and 1977. New York’s
manufacturing base declined by the 1970’s. In 1947, New York City had 1,073,000 manufacturing jobs, which is
huge. As late as 1965, New York City still employed 865,000 manufacturing jobs. The radical decrease of
manufacturing jobs and the budgetary issues caused a loss of tax revenue. Loss of tax revenue without just
compensation or alternatives will increase the risk of financial crisis. Then, you have the 1971end of the U.S.
dollar off the gold reserve standard and the oil crisis of 1973. This caused economic problems worldwide. White
flight grew. More than a half of a million people left New York City from 1970 to 1975. The corporations grew
in their power, so they forced NYC to keep real estate assessments low and tax abatements high. You had low
tax extraction on NYC real estate when the market value of Manhattan commercial buildings south of 59th
street was worth in the billions in the 1970’s alone. NYC’s finances were run by various agencies (with influence
from the city and state political leadership including the NY’s business elite). CUNY was shut down and
reopened on condition that students pay tuition.
Severe cuts in public housing, hospitals, schools, and transit systems cause the decay of much of the
infrastructure in NYC during the late 1970’s and the early 1980’s. The economy of New York City shifted from
manufacturing jobs to more service industry jobs (that dealt with FIRE or financial, insurance, and real estate
industries). The super wealthy promoted an anti-tax push on the real estate interests while the local, poorer
communities suffered a huge economic burden.

There was bankruptcy of New York City in mid-April 1975 (during the time of Mayor Beame). The American
financial banker Felix Rohatyn and others dealt with handling the financial crisis in NYC. When the NYC
school bus drivers went on strike in early 1979 (and these workers were fighting for their economic rights
which they had a right to do), Koch denounced them as “goons” and “bastards.” The next year, when New
York’s powerful 35,000-strong subway and bus workforce defied the anti-strike Taylor Law in an eight-day
walkout, Koch led a crowd across the Brooklyn Bridge, hysterically whipping up sections of the middle class.
Koch, as Mayor, saw the drug crisis of the 1970's including the 1980’s with the advent of the crack epidemic.
We know how the War on Drugs crippled many people. That is why people today (from across the political
spectrum) are opposing the War on Drugs and desire solutions. During the 1970’s, the NYPD was so corrupt
that even ex-NYPD cop Frank Serpico had to tell the public about it. Some NYPD members back then used
systemic corruption payoffs. The Knapp Commission caused many corrupt cops to be indicted for their crimes.
The global recession of 1974 to 1975 caused the capitalists of New York to continue with their neoliberal
program. Severe austerity policies came about which were so harsh that municipal workers had zero wage and
benefit increases for years to come. During the 1970’s, the growth of the Puerto Rican independence
movement came about in New York City as well.

Iconic Stadiums of New York City

The Barclays Center is home to the Brooklyn Nets
NBA team being found in Brooklyn, New York
City. It also hosts the New York Liberty of the
WNA. The arena hosts concerts, conventions, and
other sporting and entertainment events. It
opened to the public on September 21, 2012.
Madison Square Garden (MSG) is one of the premier
multi-purpose stadiums in the world. It’s found in
Midtown Manhattan between Seventh and Eighth
Avenues from 31st to 33rd Street above Pennsylvania
Station. It opened to the public on February 11, 1968,
hosting the New York Knicks and other events.
 This is a gorgeous skyline of New York City from across the Hudson River. New York City had an estimated
population density of 28,053 people per square mile in 2015, with Manhattan alone at 72,033 people per
square mile.

This picture shows Decatur Street in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn.

This image showed the view from the Empire State Building looking southward (downtown) at the central Flatiron
District, the cradle of Silicon Alley, initially metonymous for the New York metropolitan region's high-tech sector.
In the midst of the 1970’s, a new musical art form came about in the Bronx, NYC. A lot of Brothers and
Sisters were suffering poverty, discrimination, and hurt, so they decided to form a new form of music that
would speak to the voices of the poor and the oppressed. This musical genre is of course hip hop. This music
would originate in urban New York City (with Kool Herc. Kool Herc created hip hop in South Bronx, NY. He
created a hip hop party in August 11, 1973. Also, there is an Afro-Caribbean aspect to hip hop. Kool Herc,
Grandmaster Flash, and other artists are of Afro-Caribbean descent. As an African America, we love Afro-
Caribbean people from Nia Long to Dawnn Lewis), but it will spread globally. Grandmaster Flash and the
Furious Five, Kurtis Blow, Lovebug Starski, Coke La Rock, Grandmaster Caz, etc. were innovatorsof hip hop
music as well. Black people created this music, and it has universal acceptance too. It is important to note that
Latino human beings made great contributions in hip hop back during the 1970’s too. Hip Hopis a very
creative musical art form (which deals with DJs, break dancing, performers, graffiti, turntables, dancing, other
musical instruments, and other innovative activities). Today, people of every color and ofevery background
are involved in hip hop music.

Sa’Rock (The Mother Rakim Rapsody Nas

MC)

“Anything you do, you have to do it to the best of your ability

and practice. Some people are natural, and some people have
to practice.”

-Sha’Rock
New York City has over 400 square miles in total (with about 305 square miles in land) and it has over about
8,550,405 people currently.

There was the Blackout of 1977 (it was created by a lightning strike and chaos existed all over New York City.
This was during the time of the son of Sam murders, decaying infrastructure, violent gangs were harming
people, high crime rates, and other problems) and the rise of Mayor Ed Koch. During this time period, there
was the growth of disco, hip hop, punk rock, and other music. Ed Koch was not a progressive man on economic
issues or on foreign policy issues. Koch was a stone-cold reactionary and he was proud of it. Real estate,
finance, and media interests supported his campaign. He served three terms from 1977 to 1989. In 1977 and
in 1978, the New York Yankees would win the World Series. There was the boom and a bust during the 1980’s,
and massive economic expansion during the 1990’s. There were massive racial tensions in the 1980’s. There
are more facts about Ed Koch that especially young people must know about. Ex-mayor Ed Koch sometimes
appealed to the racist elements in NYC as a means for him to gain political power. Koch promoted tax
exemptions for the wealthy and homelessness increased under his watch. Koch was no hero. Koch supported
the barbarous death penalty, which is a relic of barbarism. He opposed integrated busing. He refused to show
solidarity with those involved in the transit workers’ strike of April 1980. Koch closed the Sydenham Hospital
in Harlem breaking his 1977 promise to keep Sydenham open. Also, in an annual theatrical event of the “Inner
Circle,” Ed Koch donned an Afro wig and made an insensitive remark about the closing of Sydenham. I have
never heard of this information until recently. This shows whattype of evil character that Ed Koch had. Ed Koch
even banned the playing of radios on subways and buses.

The 1980’s in New York City was a period of economic and racial turmoil. Ex-Congressman Allard Lowenstein
was assassinated by a deranged person named Dennis Sweeney. There was the second New York City Transit
strike from April 1-11, 1980. The Beatle John Lennon was murdered in front of his home on December 8, 1980.
By January 1, 1982, Ed Koch was sworn into his second term as the city’s 105th mayor. Willie Turks in June 22,
1982 was an African American 34-year old MTA worker who was set upon and killed by a white mobin the
Gravesend section of Brooklyn. On September 15, 1983, Michael Stewart was beaten into a coma by
New York Transit Police officers. Stewart died 13 days later from his injuries at Bellevue Hospital. On November
24, 1985, after a six-month trial, six officers were acquitted on charges stemming from Stewart's death. On
October 29, 1984, 66 year old Eleanor Bumpurs is shot and killed by police as they tried to evict her from her
Bronx apartment. Bumpurs was mentally ill. This shooting renewed more debate about police brutality and
racism. In 1987 officer Stephen Sullivan was acquitted on charges of manslaughter and criminally negligent
homicide stemming from the shooting. These are some of the examples of police terrorism against our
community.

On December 22, 1984, Bernhard Goetz shoots and kills four unarmed black men on a 2 train on the subway
who tried to rob him, generating weeks of headlines and many discussions about crime and vigilantism in
the media. Ed Koch still is elected to a third and final term as mayor in a landmark margin on November 5,
1985. He defeated New York City Council President Carol Bellamy. On December 20, 1986, a white mob in
Howard Beach, Queens, attacked three African-American men whose car had broken down in the largely white
neighborhood. One of the African-American men, Michael Griffith was chased onto Shore Parkway where he
is hit and killed by a passing car. The killing prompted several marches through the neighborhood led by Al
Sharpton. Al Sharpton became a famous political leader starting during the 1980’s. In April 19,1989, Trisha
Meili was violently raped and beaten while jogging in Central Park. Many young people were falsely accused,
convicted, and jailed. In 2002, after the five had completed their sentences, Matias Reyes – a convicted rapist
and murderer serving a life sentence for other crimes – confessed to the crime, after which DNA evidence
proved the five teens innocent. In August 23, 1989, Yusuf Hawkins, an African-American 16- year-old student
is set upon and murdered by a white mob in the Bensonhurst neighborhood of Brooklyn in one of the city's
worst-ever racial attacks. Yusuf was just trying to inquire about a used car. RIP Yusuf Hawkins. Koch was
defeated by David Dinkins in 1989. The city of New York elected David Dinkins as New York City’s first African
American mayor in December 29, 1989. He was inaugurated by January 1, 1990. He was once the Manhattan
Borough President. The massive decline in the crime rate of New York City began under Dinkins. It continued
under the controversial mayors Rudy Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg.
During the 1990’s, changes came about in New York City. The crime rate in New York City started to further
decline during the end of Dinkins’ mayoral term and throughout Giuliani’s mayoral term. The size of NYPD
grew. Thousands of new police officers joined the NYPD. The era of Broken Windows grew. Broken Windows
is an aggressive policing policy that targeted low level crime as a means (in the eyes of its proponents like
Bratton) to decrease the existence of high-level crime. Broken Windows is a controversial program and has
been debated about its effectiveness to this very day. Broken Windows was very aggressive, and it was very
anti-civil liberties in its cosmology and in its composition. Police brutality persisted in New York City during
the 1990’s.

We should never forget the date of August 9, 1997. On that date, a thirty-year-old Haitian immigrant named
Abner Louima was arrested. He was taken to a Brooklyn police precinct. In That location, he was brutally beaten.
The beating was perverted and graphic. Cops forced Abner near the toilet. Later, cops rammed a wooden stick
from a plunger up his backside. This caused internal injuries in a severe fashion. Thank God, he survived. Haitian
American groups and other activists protested this blatantly immoral treatment. 5,000 protesters demanded
justice for Abner Louima at Manhattan City Hall. Of course, then the New York City’s Police Commissioner
Howard Safir said that race had no factor in this Louima incident. We know that to be a bold-faced lie. The
city has no choice but to settle the case via a legal settlement. Abner Louima today is still fighting for justice
for people.

The date of February 4, 1999 ought to be never forgotten. On that date, a young Guinea immigrant named
Amadou Diallo was confronted by four police officers in plainclothes. These officers were from the NYPD’s
Street Crimes Unit. When Amadou tried to show his identification to the others, the cops shot at him 41
times, which killed him. He was shot with 19 bullets when he was totally unarmed. Immediately, African
Americans, Hispanics, Asians, progressive whites, and other organized rallies, demonstrations, etc. against
police terrorism. Over 1,000 people in NYC were arrested for enacting civil disobedience at police
headquarters. There were many well-known people who were arrested like former NYC Mayor David Dinkins,
Al Sharpton, Kweisi Mfume, Charles Rangel, Jesse Jackson, and Carolyn Goodman (the mother of the
murdered Andrew Goodman. Andrew was part of the Freedom Summer campaign of 1964). Giuliani and
Safir testified to the U.S. Civil Rights Commission on May 26, 1999 on the epidemic of police brutality. The
Congressional Black Caucus held hearings on police brutality too. On February 24, 2000, the Albany jury
acquitted the officers who killed Diallo. Thousands of demonstrators protested from Fifth Avenue to
Manhattan’s City Hall (which was about four miles of marching). In 2003, Diallo's mother, Kadiatou Diallo,
published a memoir, My Heart Will Cross This Ocean: My Story, My Son, Amadou (ISBN 0-345-45600-9), with
the help of author Craig Wolff. Sister Kadiatou Diallo won a settlement with the city in the realm of $3
million. It is a shame that black people are oppressed by crooked cops, but we will keep on fighting as
Brothers and Sisters.

RIP to the Victims who passed away from 9/11. Your lives will forever be remembered.
New York City in the 21st Century
By the 21st century, New York City is now a globally powerful city. It has influence in tons of arenas. NYC has
one of the world’s largest natural harbors. In the year of 2015, nearly 60 million tourists visited NYC. In the
21st century, we face the age of terrorism and fights against economic inequality. More immigrants are
coming into New York City. The September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 marked a new era
in world history. I remember the attacks like they were yesterday. When 9/11 happened, I was a freshman
in college. I was 17 years old. 2 airplanes struck both Twin Towers in broad daylight. During the afternoon
of 9/11, Building Number Seven collapsed without any plane hitting it. Extremists destroyed the Twin Towers
forever. Also, the Pentagon was struck including Flight 93 crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania as well. Almost
3,000 innocent human beings died via the attacks on 9/11. During that time, heroic people saved lives, helped
victims, and did other courageous actions. The actions of those heroes should always be respected and
honored. The heroes are firefighters and other rescuers who sacrificed their lives in helping others. The
resiliency of the people of New York City, after those horrendous events, is inspiring and incredible. Almost
15 years since 9/11, we know more information about what occurred during that day. We know that Osama
bin Laden had links to the intelligence community for years (via the CIA’s Operation Cyclone). The CIA CTC
(or the Counterterrorism Center), FBI, etc. was aware of terror plots against America for years. During the
aftermath of 9/11, Rudy Giuliani has been called by many as “America’s Mayor.”
Yet, the truth is readily known about his legacy. We
know that Rudy was mayor for 8 years. He showed
“tough love” rhetoric about welfare and poverty.
During his administration, almost 250,000 people
(mostly women and children) were forced off
welfare. Most of them existed in even deeper
poverty. During his time as mayor, Giuliani executed
massive cuts in public assistance to the poor and Wall
Street grew economically. During the 1990’s, New
York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani cut taxes, eliminated
thousands of city jobs, and radically decreased
funding for the city’s university system, health
system, and housing support system. That was a
disgrace.

Innocent human lives were killed by terrorists on 9/11 and people became more unified (in solidarity and
unfortunately Islamophobia grew too). Today, there is a lower crime rate than many decades ago. Under
Michael Bloomberg as mayor, there has been an increase of public-private sector building projects. Public-
private partnerships were part of Bloomberg’s governing style. The Republican mayor Bloomberg wanted
to promote a more “kinder and gentler” image than Giuliani (as Bloomberg has views on climate change, gun
control, and religious tolerance that many mainstream Republicans don’t agree with him on), but his
administration was filled with controversies too. The Blizzard of 2010 caused Manhattan to be cleaned early
while other sections of NYC had trouble recovering of eliminating its snow. In 2010, Bloomberg gave about
$2.4 billion to his top aides as bonuses for his reelection campaign according to a New York Times report.
Bloomberg regularly executed job cuts of thousands of people during his mayor ship. He promoted cuts to
public education, which caused protests. The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial
District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and spawning the
Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide. In 2013, school bus
drivers were on strikes to protest jobs, wage, and pension cuts. During the 12-year tenure of his predecessor,
billionaire Michael Bloomberg, the city’s homeless population increased between 60 and 71 percent
(depending on the source of the statistics). The growth of gentrification in NYC existed all over the 21 st
century.

The Occupy Wall Street movement started in September 17, 2001 in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of
Lower Manhattan. This was when people protested for economic justice. It received global attention and
grew the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide. At the end of 2013, the
Coalition for the Homeless reported that 53,331 people were sleeping in city homeless shelters. After one
year of the de Blasio administration, the total was 58,469, an increase of nearly 10 percent. After Bloomberg,
the vast majority of New Yorkers wanted to vote for a more progressive candidate.

Bill DeBlasio became mayor, and he promised a more progressive New York City. Bill DeBlasio was
inaugurated on January 1, 2014, by Bill Clinton. Yet, the more things change, the more that they stay the
same. DeBlasio has been hit with housing issues and issues of police brutality. There is also a homeless
crisis in New York City too that must be adequately addressed. According to the city’s own statistics,
approximately 58,000 people live in homeless shelters (which was caused by decades of rising rents, stagnant
or declining wages, and attacks on social services have resulted in increasingly difficult living conditions for
the working class), an increase of roughly 8,000 in the two years since de Blasio’s election based on promises
to address income inequality. More than one third of the homeless are children. In addition, another 3,000
to 4,000 live on the streets, in the subways, in parks, etc. The US Department of Housing and Urban
Development estimate is even higher—75,000 homeless in New York City. These figuresrepresent the highest
rates of homelessness since the Great Depression. Over the last several months, city police have demolished
more than 30 homeless encampments in public spaces such as parks. The new program of the NYC Homeless
Outreach and Mobile Engagement Street Action Team, or HOME-STAT is supported by DeBlasio in finding out
how many homeless people are in NYC.

The homeless need respect, their human rights protected, and housing. The death of Eric Garner galvanized
people in NYC to fight police terror. Also, DeBlasio is dealing with income inequality and racial profiling.
DeBlasio has shown a moderate approach of genuflecting to the NYPD while talking about Eric Garner. He
has used the NYPD to suppress many of the protesters’ right of demonstration. One of the most evil,
disgraceful events during the DeBlasio administration was when Patrick Lynch (who was the longtime leader
of the New York City Patrolmen’s Benevolent Association or the PBA) said that Mayor DeBlasio had
blood on his hands after the murder of 2 NYPD officers. Patrick Lynch should be totally ashamed of himself
for disrespecting and slandering the mayor in that fashion. Patrick is the same guy who advanced near mutiny
in NYC. Akai Gurley was killed by a police officer too. Now in 2015, we have issues of housing, homelessness,
the issue of police brutality, and cuts to public libraries in New York City. DeBlasio’s legacy isuncertain. He
may be a strong progressive or just a centrist. The choice is his.

Regardless, we will continue to stand up for truth. To this very day, New York City is home to many
immigrants. The immigrants’ cultural strength and inspirational people make New York City stronger. The
Black Lives Matter movement and other social movements have grown in New York City. The murder of Eric
Garner (who was a father and just a strong man. He was a man who loved his family, and his memory will
never be forgotten) in NYC should inspire all of us to carry forward in this struggle for liberation. Eric Garner
was choked to death by a police officer. The NYPD has the largest police force in the United Statesof
America. Black Men and Black Women still suffer assault, harassment, murder by some cops and other folks.
We must fight oppression. Inner strength is very important for us to embrace and cultivate, so we can
establish solutions. We should be reminded of the tons of unsung heroes of New York City now who are
helping their families, helping their communities, and doing what is right. Their stories matter. We have great
growth in New York City. There has been some progress, but we have a long way to go. Yet, we should
not lose faith. We have faith and we must use social action. Their lives (of people making a difference) inspire
us since we all want the entire human race to have justice.

Mayor Eric Adams was sworn as the new Mayor of New York City on
January 1, 2022.
The Schomburg Center, the Apollo Theater, and Carnival are very strong parts of black culture. Yes,
Sanaa Lathan (who is a talented actress and director) was born in New York City too with her lovely
Northern accent.

BLACK IS BEAUTIFUL.

Appendix A: The Culture of New York City

There can be no explanation about New York City without describing its great, beautiful culture. Its culture is
very diverse, and NYC has many of the most diverse, richest cultures in human history. New York City has more
languages spoken than any other city in the world. The black experience in New York City should be honored
and respected. Over 2 million black people (or 2,086,566 black people) live in NYC. New York City has the
highest number of black people in any city of America. The black population in the city also includes black
immigrants and their descendants from the continent of Africa including the Caribbean (plus U.S.-born African
Americans). Many black people live in Brooklyn, Harlem, the Bronx, Queens, Manhattan, etc. The Brooklyn
neighborhood of Bedford-Stuyvesant (with about 157,000 people) is considered to have the highest
concertation of black residents in America. I am a black man, so I will continue to learn about the Black
African Diaspora. One location that shows a lot of black culture in New York City is called the Schomburg
Center for Research in Black Culture. It is a research library of the New York Public Library of the NYPL. It has
a huge archive repository on people of black African descent worldwide. It was established in 1905 (with 10,000
books originally) on 515 Malcolm X Boulevard (or Lenox Avenue) between 135th and 136th Streets in
Harlem. In 1921, the library hosted its first exhibition of African American art in Harlem. It became an annual
event. Black people were readily employed in the location. Also, the library is named after
the African American scholar Arturo Alfonso Schomburg. W.E.B. DuBois and Walter Francis White helped
Regina M. Anderson to fight back against her experiencing discrimination involving the New York Public
Library. The Library included cultural collection from African Americans from literature to artwork. Arturo
Alfonso Schomburg, James Weldon Johnson, Hubert Harrison, and others supported this effort. The Countee
Cullen branch was created as an extension of the library which had books for young adults.

This is Harlem, NYC of course.

The new Schomburg Center was founded in 1980. This center included exhibits about Malcolm X, literature,
and art from the black African diaspora. In 2005, the center held an exhibition of letters, photographs and
other material related to Malcolm X. The center has a signed first edition book of poems created by Phillis
Wheatley (she was a great black writer from the 18th century in early America). There is material of Lorraine
Hansberry (her views were massively ahead of her time. She was a writer, a civil rights activist, a humanitarian,
and a strong black woman), John Henrik Clarke (he was one of the greatest black scholars in human history.
He was a great friend of Malcolm X as well), Melville J. Herskovits, etc. There are papers and letters of Christian
Fleetwood, Paul Robeson, Booker T. Washington, etc. The Center's collection includes documents signed by
Toussaint Louverture and a rare recording of a speech by Marcus Garvey. Today, the director of the Schomburg
Center is Dr. Khalil Gibran Muhammad. The Deputy Director is Dr. Kara Tucina Olidge. Black Culture is found
all over in other places of New York City as well. There is the Apollo Theater. It is found at 253 West 125the
Street between Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard and Frederick Douglass in Harlem. It has been home to so
many African Americans (and people of other backgrounds as well) musicians (like the Temptations, the
Supremes, James Brown, Aretha Franklin, Michael Jackson, Gladys Knights and the Pips, Patti LaBelle, Marvin
Gaye, Ella Fitzgerald, and so many other people), comedians, and other performers. It was built in the early
1910’s. Also, Carnival celebrations are a huge part of black culturein New York City and throughout the world.

She is the first black woman NYPD Commissioner whose name is Keechant
Sewell. She has resigned, but she caused a lot of crime in New York City to go
down in 2023. We wish the best in her future endeavors.
Latino culture in New York City has a long history. Latino culture deals with music, art, dance, politics, STEM
fields, and other important parts of human expression. There is the Casita Maria Center for Arts & Education.
This is an 80-year-old South Bronx-based community arts and educational organization that outlines diverse,
contemporary visual and performing arts and educational programming for empowering the youth (and
their families). They are promoting a culture of learning. Casita Maria for decades has helped Hispanic families.
They have worked with homeless services, violence prevention, drug rehabilitation, and other services. Tito
Puente, Dave Valentin, Rita Moreno, and Tina Ramirez have been involved in Casita Maria and they are
successful people. There is also the Nuyorican Movement. This is the cultural and intellectual movement of
poets, writers, artists, and musicians (like Abraham Rodriguez Jr., who made music and wrote numerous novels)
who are Puerto Rican or of Puerto Rican descent who live in or near New York City. The cultural organizations
of the movement are found in the Nuyorican Poets Café including the CHARAS/El Bohio in the Lower East Side,
the Puerto Rican Traveling Theater, Agüeybaná Bookstore, Mixta Gallery, Clemente Soto Vélez Cultural Center,
El Museo del Barrio, El Maestro, etc. There are other Nuyorican cultural hubs in this new generation like
PRdream.com, Camaradas El Barrio in Spanish Harlem.

Music like salsa, reggaeton, Latin house, Latin rap, etc. are commonly expressed by Latin Americans in New
York City. There are many Afro-Latino cultural displays of literature, music, and art too. Yes, many Latinos are
of black African descent. Each year in New York City, there is the Afro Latino Festival. In 2015, they will have
musicians like Cultural Profetica, Les Nubians, Kafu Banton, Los Gaiteros de San Jacinto Danay Suarez, Que
Bajo?!, and other people. One group Afro-Latino was Arturo A. Schomburg, who called himself an Afro-
Borinqueño (black Puerto Rican). He worked throughout his life to record information of the rich history of the
black African Diaspora. Sister Ynanna Djehuty also is an Afro-Latino who is expressing herself too. When asked
how she feels about her journey, Djehuty said, “Discovering myself has connected me to my roots and a
history that I’m proud of. It connects me to history before the middle passage. The more I embrace it,
the more whole I feel. I encourage anyone ready to take the journey to follow that path. Know that
you’re not crazy, that there’s a whole system that wants to support you. Once you can contextualize
you’re experience, you can begin to heal. When you know your history and where you come from you
can begin to help the world and future generations.” Sister Ynanna continues to write great literature like
books and poetry. Therefore, the Latino experience is a diverse experience and it has inspired so many human
beings all over the world.
Jewish culture in New York City has a very long history. Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jewish human beings traveled
into New York City from Recife, Brazil back in early September 1654 to escape anti-Semitism and religious
persecution (from the Inquisition, etc.). For long centuries, we have seen the evils of oppression inflicted on
Jewish people, black people, and other people of color. This is why we must show dignity and respect to the
sojourner, to the refugee, and to all human life. One large part of Jewish culture deals with thesynagogue.
Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and other forms of Judaism flourish today. The synagogue isnot just a
place of religious worship. It is a place of cultural development, a meeting place for political activism, and a
location where Jewish people can express their own ideals about society co-exist. Famous Jewish authors
include Irving Howe, Alfred Kazin, Michael Gold, and others. Poet Louis Zukofsky displayedthe atmosphere
of New York City life. One of the greatest places in NYC to witness Jewish culture is the Jewish Museum. It has
tons of art and other exhibitions from Jewish people. Organizations like the Agudath Israel of America, the
Orthodox Union, Chabad, and the Rohr Jewish Learning Institute have their headquarters in New York. There
are Sephardic Jewish people including Syrian Jewish people, etc. who have lived in New York City since the
late 19th century. Some Jewish communities are found not just in Riverdale (which is a middle class
neighborhood today), but in Queens, south Brooklyn, and the Bronx.

In 2015, an Orthodox neighborhood in Brooklyn had New York City’s highest birth rate. Borough Park,
known for its large Orthodox Jewish population, had 27.9 births per 1,000 residents, making it “easily the city’s
baby capital.” There is the growth of the more conservative Russian and Orthodox Jewish people. The
progressive Conservative and Reform Jewish people have done many good things in advancing human rights
and other progressive polices in NYC including throughout America. One great Jewish activist for social
change was Allard Kenneth Lowenstein. He lived from 1929 to 1980. He worked in the Freedom Sumer
movement, which occurred in Mississippi. The Freedom Summer movement was about multiracial coalition of
human beings who were fighting for the human rights of black people in the Deep South during 1964. This
Freedom Summer also wanted black people to have the right to vote, to get educationalopportunities, and to
experience total freedom and liberation. He wanted an independent investigation of the 1968 assassination of
Senator Robert F. Kennedy. He opposed apartheid, which existed in South Africa. He promoted human rights.
Jewish people are diverse culturally and ideologically. The diversity of thecultural heritage of New York
City is inspiring.
Asian culture in New York City has a long history and it is very multifaceted as well. The New York City
Metropolitan area has the largest ethnic Chinese population in America outside of Asia. It has 735,019 people
as of 2012. In New York City, there are at least 9 Chinatowns (or communities with a majority of a Chinese
population). Some of them are found in Manhattan, Queens, Brooklyn, etc. The New York City Chinese cultural
Center (or the NYCCC) has been dedicated in giving scholarships to Chinese Americans, to
promote the arts, to offer classes to people, to promote
summer camps, and be a great repository of Chinese
culture. The NYCCC was created in 1974 by artists, students,
parents, and community activists. There are about 82,313
Filipinos in New York City. Their population has grown.
Immigration from the Philippines began mostlyafter 1965.
1965 was the year when the national Immigration Law was
passed, which gave more of an opportunity for immigrants
(especially for non-European immigrants) to come into
America. The law changed society for the better. A lot of
the Filipino immigrants are doctors, nurses, engineers,
accountants, and other medical professionals. New York City
annually hosts the Philippine Independence Day Parade,
which is traditionally held on the first Sunday of June at
Madison Avenue. The celebration occupies nearly twenty-
seven city blocks whichincludes a 3.5-hour parade and all-
The Manhattan Chinatown ( 紐約華埠), is at top,
and one of several Chinatowns in Brooklyn ( 布 day long street fair and cultural performances.
魯克林華埠) below. New York City is home to
the largest population of Chinese people A “Little Manila” can be found in Woodside, which is in the
outside of Asia, and Chinese human beings in borough of Queens. Filipinos are found all over Queenslike
New York constitute the city's in Jackson Heights, Elmhurst, and in Jamaica, Queens
fastest-growing nationality, with continuing including parts of Brooklyn. About 100,000 Koreans live in
large-scale Chinese immigration.
NYC with about two-thirds of them living in Queens. There
are Korean towns found in New York too. Southeast Asians
include those from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Inia, Sri Lanka,
etc. All of these human beings live in New York City. There are about 600,000 Indian Americans who live in the
New York City Metropolitan Area. In Queens, the South Asian population is almost 200,000 and growing. South
Asian people live in Jackson Heights, Flushing, City Line, Ozone Park, Jamaica Queens, etc. There are also
Japanese, Arabic, and other Asians living in New York City as well. One of the greatest Japanese
American human rights activists, who worked in New York City, was Yuri Kochiyama. She was a victim of the
Japanese internment camps, which was instituted wrongly by the U.S. government. He moved to Harlem in
1960 to be part of social movement.

She was a great friend of Brother Malcolm X. She worked with Malcolm X in fighting for racial justice and she
was a member of Malcolm X’s Organization of Afro-American Unity (which was created in 1964 after he left
the Nation of Islam). She was able to form a bond with Malcolm X because she knew African Americans were
being oppressed as well. She was present when he was assassinated on February 21, 1965 at the Audubon
Ballroom in Harlem. In 1977, Kochiyama joined the group of Puerto Ricans that took over the Statue of Liberty
to draw attention to the struggle for Puerto Rican independence. Kochiyama and other activists demanded
the release of five Puerto Rican nationalists who were jailed in the United States for more than 20 years.
According to Kochiyama, despite a strong movement enabling them to occupy the statue for nine hours, they
intended to "give up peacefully when the police came." The five Puerto Ricans were eventually released.
Kochiyama was involved in the Asian American human rights movement and was crucial in allowing the
government to send apologies for injustices done to Asian Americans. Japanese Americans received
reparations for their mistreatment at internment camps during WWII. President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil
Liberties Act in 1988 which, among other things, awarded $20,000 to each Japanese American internment
survivor. The process of issuing reparation checks is ongoing. She fought for the rights of political prisoners,
nuclear disarmament, etc. She passed away on June 1, 2014 at the age of 93 years old.
Irish culture in New York City has been around for centuries. New York City’s St. Patrick Day Parade dates back
to 1762. The Irish people made up a large proportion of the overall population of New York. By the year 2000,
there are about 520,810 New Yorkers with Irish ancestry. The Great Irish Famine lasted from 1845 to 1851. Irish
families were forced to emigrate into America form Ireland. By 1854, between 1.5 and 2 million people were
forced to leave Ireland. Many of the Irish worked in the cities of America when they arrived into New York City,
Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, etc. The ethnic Irish back then and today are influential in the Roman Catholic
Church in America. They have created a strong network of churches and parochial schools which support their
communities. Many Irish Americans in New York City play a huge role in the NYFD, and other services. A
massive amount of Irish communities in NYC are found in Hell’s Kitchen, Manhattan, Woodside, Queens,
Maspeth, Queens, Riverdale, Bronx, etc. The late mayor Robert F. Wagner was Irish. Mathew Broderick, George
Carlin, Jennifer Connelly, Edward Burns are famous Irish New Yorkers. Today, we see the growth of the Irish
community. There is the Irish Repertory Theater. It deals with showing classic andcontemporary theater, music,
and dance performances created by Irish-American and Irish artists. It has promoted many theater works. St.
Patrick’s Cathedral is one staple of Irish culture as well. It has existed for a long time. It has religious artwork
and it was the place where the funeral of Irish American Robert F. Kennedyhas taken place. The American Irish
Historical Society has thousands of pieces of information that relate to Irish and American history. One of the
greatest lessons that we can learn from these cultures in New York is that we ought to build up progressive
institutions as a way for us to grow ourselves individually and collectively.
Italian Americans in New York City have a long history. New York City in fact has the largest population of
Italian Americans in America. Many of them have their own ethnic communities in Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens,
and Staten Island. Large immigration of Italians into America came about between the late 19th century and
the early 20th century. About 5.3 million Italians came into America from 1820 to 1978. There were over two
million people Italians who came into America between 1900 and 1910. Only the Irish and the German
immigrated in larger numbers. The first New York City neighborhood to be settled by a largenumber
of Italian immigrants (from mostly Southern Italy and Sicily) was East Harlem. It was called “Little Italy.” Back
then during the early 20th century, thousands of Italians lived in the area. Even today, on every year on the
second weekend of August, the Feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel is celebrated and the "Dancing of the
Giglio" is performed for thousands of visitors. This celebration is supported by the Giglio Society of East
Harlem.

There is the Italian American museum found in Manhattan’s Little

Italy as well. The San Gennaro Festival is celebrated in New York
City by numerous Italian Americans. Food and Italian American
culture go hand in hand Lombardi's is a pizzeria located at 32
Spring Street on the corner of Mott Street in the Nolita
neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan, New York City. It was
opened in 1905 and it is the first pizzeria in the United States.Many
famous Italian restaurants exist all over the city. To his credit, the
Italian American Francesco Vincent “Frank” Serpico blew the
whistle on corruption in the NYPD. This corruption has been further
documented in the landmark Knapp Commission. Maria Bartiromo
is a famous financial journalist and she is an Italian American. She This is Manhattan’s Little Italy as found
graduated from New York University and she was raised in in the Lower East Side in ca. 1900.
Brooklyn. The late politician Mario Cuomo was a
liberal and he inspired a lot of people. He was unsuccessful in his campaign to be mayor of New York City, but
he made a lot of contributions in the realm of American politics. He also gave speeches from the economy to
other important political issues. Italian Americans in New York City are involved in politics, art, literature,
theology, medicine, and other facets of human life.
By Timothy

The five boroughs of New York City:

1. Manhattan
2. Brooklyn
3. Queens
4. Bronx
5. Staten Island
Always Learn, Grow, and Fight for Justice.

Our Eyes are on the Prize.