Design Realization

lecture 20
John Canny
10/30/03

Last time
Real-time programming

This time
Mechanics Physics and Motors

Review of physics
Newtons law for translation:
F=ma
F in Newtons, m in kg, a in m/s2.
Acceleration a = dv / dt
Kinetic energy E = m v2
E in Joules, m in kg, v in m/s.

Physics of translation
Momentum p = m v and so F = dp / dt
In the absence of force, momentum is
conserved.
Momentum conservation implies energy
conservation.

Physics of rotation
Rotation is more complex; Eulers equation:
T=I + xI
T (torque) in N-m, in radians/sec, in
radians/sec2, I in kg-m2, = d / dt
I is a 3x3 matrix, not necessarily diagonal.
If T = 0, then I = - x I which is usually
non-zero. So is non-zero, changes with
time, and the object wobbles.

Physics of rotation
Angular momentum is q = I
The rotation equation simplifies to T = dq / dt
because
dq/dt = I d /dt + dI/dt = I + x I
So even though an object wobbles when there is
no external force, the angular momentum is
conserved: q = I

Physics of rotation
Kinetic energy of rotation is T I
In the absence of external torque, kinetic energy
of rotation is conserved.
But angular momentum conservation does not
imply energy conservation.

Work
Work done by a force = F x (Joules) where x is
the distance (m) through which the force acts.

Work done by a torque = T (Joules)

Power
Power is rate of doing work.
Power of a force = F v (Watts).
Power of a torque = T (Watts).
Power often expressed in horsepower = 746
Watts

Motors
Motors come in several flavors:

DC motors
Stepper motors
(AC) induction motors
(AC) Single-phase motors
(AC) Synchronous motors

The first two are highly controllable, and usually

what you would use in an application. But we
quickly review the others.

3-phase AC
Three or four wires that carry the same voltage at 3
equally-spaced phases:

Single phase AC requires two wires (only 1/3 the

current or power of 3-phase).

AC induction Motors
Induction motors simple, cheap, high-power,
high torque, simplest are 3-phase.
Speed up to 7200 rpm: speed ~ 7200 / # poles
of the motor.
Induction motors are brushless (no contacts
between moving and fixed parts). Hi reliability.
Efficiency high: 50-95 %

Single-phase AC Motors
Single-phase (induction) motors operate from
normal AC current (one phase). Household
appliances.
Single-phase motors use a variety of tricks to
start, then transition to induction motor behavior.
Efficiency lower: 25-60%
Often very low starting torque.

Synchronous AC Motors
Designed to turn in synchronization with the AC
frequency. E.g. turntable motors.
Low to very high power.
Efficiency ??

DC Motors
DC motor types:
DC Brush motor
DC Brushless motor
Stepper motor

DC Brush Motors
A commutator brings current to the moving
element (the rotor).
As the rotor moves, the polarity changes, which
keeps the magnets pulling the right way. DEMO
Highly controllable, most common DC motor.

DC Brush Motors
At fixed load, speed of rotation is proportional to
applied voltage.
Changing polarity reverses rotation.

To first order, torque is proportional to current.

Load curve:
Motors which
approximate this
ideal well are
called DC servo
motors.

DC Brushless Motors
Really an AC motor with electronic commutation.
Permanent magnet rotor, stator coils are
controlled by electronic switching. DEMO
Speed can be controlled accurately by the
electronics.
Torque is often constant over the speed range.

Stepper Motors
Sequence of (3 or more) poles is activated in
turn, moving the stator in small steps.
Very low speed / high angular precision is
possible without reduction gearing by using
many rotor teeth.
Can also microstep by activating
both coils at once.

Driving Stepper Motors

Note: signals to the stepper motor are binary,
on-off values (not PWM).
In principle easy: activate poles as A B C D A
or A D C B ASteps are fixed size, so no need
to sense the angle! (open loop control).

Driving Stepper Motors

But in practice, acceleration and possibly jerk
must be bounded, otherwise motor will not keep
up and will start missing steps (causing position
errors).
i.e. driver electronics must simulate inertia of the
motor.

Stepper Motor example

From Sherline CNC milling machine:

Step angle: 1.8
Voltage: 3.2 V
Holding torque: 0.97 N-m
Rotor inertia: 250 g-cm2
Weight: 1.32 lb (0.6 Kg.)
Length: 2.13" (54 mm)
Power output = 3W

Precision stepper motor: 0.02 /step, 1 rpm, 3W

DC Motor example

V = 12 volts
Max Current = 4 A
Max Power Out = 25 W
Max efficiency = 74%
Max speed = 3500 rpm
Max torque = 1.4 N-m
Weight = 1.4 lbs
Forward or reverse (brushed)
Many DC motors of all sizes available new and
surplus for < $10

DC Motors micro sizes

From Micromo:
Conventional (brush)
DC motor: 6mm x 15mm
13,000 rpm
0.11 m Nm
Power 0.15 W
V from 1.5 to 4.5 V

Brushless DC Motors
From Micromo:
Brushless DC motor:
16mm x 28mm
65,000 rpm
50 m Nm
Power 11 W
V = 12 V

DC Motors gearing
Gearing allows you to trade off speed vs. torque.
An n:1 reduction gearing decreases speed by n,
but increases torque by n.
Ratios from 10:1 to many 1000s :1 are available
in compact gearheads that attach to motors.

DC Motors gearing
But gears cost efficiency (20% - 50%)
Gears decrease precision (due to backlash).
Reduction gear train is normally not
backdriveable (cant use for force control).

DC torque motors
Some high-end motors are available for direct
drive servo or force applications (no gears).
They have low speed (a few rpm), high precision
(with servo-ing), and moderate torque.
Typically have large diameter vs. length, and use
rare-earth magnetic material.
Cost $100s (but maybe
less as surplus).

Sensors
Shaft encoders can be fitted to almost any DC
motor. They provide position sensing.
Many motor families offer integrated encoders.
Strain gauges can be used to sense force
directly. Or DC brush motor current can be used
to estimate force.

Linear movement
There are several ways to produce linear
movement from rotation:
Rotary to linear gearing:

Linear movement
Ball screws: low linear speed, good precision
Motor drives shaft, stages move (must be
attached to linear bearing to stop from rotating).

Linear movement
Belt drive: attach moving stage to a toothed belt:
Used in inkjet printers and some large XY
robots.

True Linear movement

There are some true linear magnetic drives.

BEI-Kimco voice coils:
Up to 1 travel
100 lbf
> 10 g acceleration
6 lbs weight
500 Hz corner
frequency.

Used for precision vibration control.

Summary
AC motors are good for inexpensive high-power
applications where fine control isnt needed.
DC motors provide a range of performance:
DC brush: versatile, servo motor, high speed, torque
DC brushless: speed/toque depend on electronics
Stepper: simple control signals, variable
speed/accuracy without gearing, lower power
Direct-drive (torque) motors, expensive, lower torque

Linear actuation via drives, or voice coils.