Developments in Gas Hydrates

Richard Birchwood
Jianchun Dai
Dianna Shelander
Houston, Texas, USA

Gas hydratesice-like compounds containing methanemay become a significant

Ray Boswell
US Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Morgantown, West Virginia, USA

hydrate deposits and to map their distribution.

Scott Dallimore
Geological Survey of Canada
Sidney, British Columbia, Canada
Kasumi Fujii
Yutaka Imasato
Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan

Doug Murray
Beijing, China
Tatsuo Saeki
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals
National Corporation
Chiba City, Chiba, Japan
Oilfield Review Spring 2010: 22, no. 1.
Copyright 2010 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Barbara
Anderson, Brookfield, Connecticut, USA; George Bunge,
Houston; Emrys Jones, Chevron, Houston; Tebis Llobet,
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin, Russia; Yuri Makogon, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas; and Osamu Osawa,
Sagamihara, Japan.
CHFR, DMR, EcoScope, geoVISION, MDT, PeriScope, RAB,
sonicVISION and TeleScope are marks of Schlumberger.

18

Methane
gas + ice

10

Methane
gas + water

50

Methane
hydrate
+ gas + ice

100

ry
nda
bou
ase
s ph

Koji Kusaka
Tokyo, Japan

-ga
rate
Hyd

Masafumi Fukuhara
Moscow, Russia

Gas hydrate deposits hold copious amounts of

hydrocarbon. Estimates range over several orders
of magnitude, but the volume of gas contained in
gas hydrate accumulations is thought to be more
than that in all the worlds known gas reserves.
These accumulations often occur in parts of
the world that lack conventional reserves, potentially bringing a new level of self-sufficiency to
countries that rely on imported oil and gas. The
promise of this untapped energy source is prompting several government and industry groups to
initiate detailed investigations into developing
gas hydrates.
In addition to their potential role as an energy
source, gas hydrates can present drilling hazards,
threaten flow assurance, affect seafloor stability
and store or release greenhouse gases. Although
these are all important issues, this discussion
focuses on the benefits of gas hydrates as a supply
of natural gas for future energy needs.
This article reviews results of some early
hydrate studies and presents the findings of new
international efforts that are using advanced
technologies to characterize properties and distributions of gas hydrates. Case studies from the
Gulf of Mexico, Japan and India demonstrate how
oilfield technologies are helping to identify and
evaluate gas hydrate accumulations. Examples
from Canada and the USA show how natural gas
can be produced from these reservoirs.

Ice-water phase boundary

Ann Cook
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Earth Institute of Columbia University
Palisades, New York, USA

and evaluate conventional oil and gas reserves are being used to characterize gas

Pressure, atm

Timothy Collett
US Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado, USA

energy resource if ways can be found to exploit them. Techniques designed to find

Methane hydrate
+ water + gas
500
1,000

10

10

20

30

40

Temperature, C

> Phase diagram of methane hydrate stability.

The methane-water combination is a solid at low
temperatures and high pressures (hatched
shading). At higher temperatures and lower
pressures, solid hydrate dissociates into its gas
and water components.

Oilfield Review

H
C

> Gas hydrate crystal structure. Methane [CH4] (green and white)
is the guest molecule in a cage formed by water [H2O] molecules
(red and white). This structure is one of five types of water cages
that contain guest gas molecules. Gas hydrates have been
produced from some sites in the Arctic, such as this one in
Alaska, USA. (Photograph courtesy of the Mount Elbert gas
hydrate stratigraphic test well project.)

Basics of Gas Hydrates

Gas hydrates are crystalline solids that resemble ice. Structurally they are clathrates, or compounds in which the basic structure consists of
a cage-like crystal of water molecules containing a gas molecule, called a guest (above). Of
greatest interest to the energy industry are
methane hydrates, which are also the most
abundant in nature.
Gas hydrates form when sufficient amounts of
water and gas are present at the right combination of temperature and pressure (previous
page). Outside this stability zone hydrates dissociate into their water and gas components. The

Spring 2010

compact nature of the hydrate structure results

in highly efficient packing of methane. A volume
of hydrate contains gas that will expand to somewhere between 150 and 180 volumes at standard
pressure and
temperature.
Oilfield
Review
Spring
Chemists
have10
known about gas hydrates for
Opener
more than Hydrates
200 years.Fig.
As with
many aspects of sciORSPRG10-Hydrate
Opener
entific discovery,
the history of Fig.
hydrates
is open
to debate. However, the earliest formation of
hydrate in the laboratory seems to be in 1778 by
Joseph Priestley, who inadvertently obtained a
hydrate of sulfur dioxide.1 The first documented
identification of hydrocarbon hydrates was in
1888 by Paul Villard, who synthesized hydrates of
methane and other gaseous hydrocarbons.

Throughout the 19th century hydrates were

concocted in laboratories and remained mere
experimental curiosities without practical applications. It was only after the 1920swhen pipelines began to transport methane from gas
fieldsthat a better understanding of hydrates
was required for practical applications. In cold
weather, solid plugs would sometimes disrupt gas
flow through pipelines. These blockages were at
first interpreted to be frozen water. However, in
the 1930s the cause of the problems was correctly
1. Makogon YF: Hydrates of Hydrocarbons. Tulsa: PennWell
Publishing Co., 1997.

19

Recovered gas hydrates

Inferred gas hydrates

> Marine and onshore hydrate locations. About 98% of the gas hydrate resources are concentrated in
marine sediments, with the other 2% beneath permafrost. Most of the mapped occurrences of
recovered gas hydrates (blue) have been discovered by scientific drilling programs, and the inferred
gas hydrate accumulations (orange) have been identified by seismic imaging. [Data from Lorenson TD
and Kvenvolden KA: A Global Inventory of Natural Gas Hydrate Occurrence, USGS, http://walrus.wr.
usgs.gov/globalhydrate/index.html (accessed March 24, 2010).]

identified as methane hydrates.2 This revelation

ushered in a new era of hydrate studies, and
investigators developed principles for predicting
the formation of hydrates and methods for inhibiting and controlling them.3

In 1946 Russian scientists proposed that the

conditions and resources for hydrate generation
and stability exist in nature, in areas covered
by permafrost.4 This prediction was followed by
the discovery of naturally occurring hydrates. In

2. Ziegenhain WT: Every Precaution Taken to Eliminate

9. Frye M: Preliminary Evaluation of In-Place Gas Hydrate
Clogging of New Chicago Gas Line, Oil & Gas Journal 30,
Resources: Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf,
no. 19 (1931): 34.
OCS Report MMS 2008004: US Department of the Interior,
Minerals Management Service, February 1, 2008.
Hammerschmidt EG: Formation of Gas Hydrates
in Natural Gas Transmission Lines, Industrial &
10. Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrates Joint Industry Project
Engineering Chemistry 26, no. 8 (1934): 851855.
(JIP) Characterizing Natural Gas Hydrates in the
Deep Water Gulf of MexicoApplications for Safe
3. Carroll J: Natural Gas Hydrates: A Guide for Engineers.
Exploration, National Methane Hydrates R&D Program,
Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Elsevier, 2003, http://www.
US Department of Energy, http://www.netl.doe.gov/
knovel.com/web/portal/browse/display?_EXT_KNOVEL_
technologies/oil-gas/futuresupply/methanehydrates/
DISPLAY_bookid=1275 (accessed February 27, 2010).
projects/DOEProjects/CharHydGOM-41330.html
4. Makogon, reference 1.
(accessed February 17, 2010).
5. Miller SL: Clathrate Hydrates of Air in Antarctic Ice,
11. The results of the 2005 expedition, for which
Science 165, no. 3892 (August 1969): 489490.
donated the seismic data and acquisition,
Oilfield
Review WesternGeco
6. Riedel M, Hyndman RD, Spence GD, Chapman
NR,
were published as a thematic set: Ruppel C, Boswell R
Novosel I and Edwards N: Hydrate on the Cascadia
Spring 10
and Jones E (eds): Marine and Petroleum Geology 25,
Accretionary Margin of North America, presented
Hydrates Fig. 2 no. 9 (November 2008): 819988.
at the AAPG Hedberg Research Conference,
12. DOE-Sponsored
Expedition Confirms Resource-Quality
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig. 2
September 1216, 2004, Vancouver, British Columbia,
Gas Hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico, National Methane
Canada, http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/
Hydrates R&D Program, US Department of Energy, http://
abstracts/2004hedberg_vancouver/extended/reidel/
www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/FutureSupply/
reidel.htm (accessed February 17, 2010).
MethaneHydrates/2009GOMJIP/index.html (accessed
7. Brooks JM, Cox HB, Bryant WR, Kennicutt MC II,
February 10, 2010).
Mann RG and McDonald TJ: Association of Gas
Shedd B, Godfriaux P, Frye M, Boswell R and
Hydrates and Oil Seepage in the Gulf of Mexico,
Hutchinson D: Occurrence and Variety in Seismic
Organic Geochemistry 10, no. 13 (1986): 221234.
Expression of the Base of Gas Hydrate Stability in the
Reidel M, Collett TS, Malone MJ and Expedition 311
Gulf of Mexico, USA, Fire in the Ice (Winter 2009):
Scientists: Cascadia Margin Gas Hydrates: Expedition
1114, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/
311 of the Riserless Drilling Platform: Balboa, Panama,
publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewswinter09.
to Victoria, British Columbia (Canada), Proceedings of
pdf#page=11 (accessed March 23, 2010).
the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, vol 311, http://
13. Boswell R, Collett T, Frye M, McConnell D, Shedd W,
publications.iodp.org/proceedings/311/311title.htm
Dufrene R, Godfriaux P, Mrozewski S, Guerin G and Cook A:
(accessed March 24, 2010).
Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrate Joint Industry Project
8. Collett TS, Johnson AH, Knapp CC and Boswell R:
Leg II: Technical Summary, http://www.netl.doe.gov/
Natural Gas Hydrates: A Review, in Collett TS,
technologies/oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/2009Reports/
Johnson AH, Knapp CC and Boswell R (eds): Natural Gas
TechSum.pdf (accessed March 9, 2010).
HydratesEnergy Resource Potential and Associated
Geologic Hazards. Tulsa: The American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Memoir 89 (2010): 146219.

20

1968 ice cores containing air hydrates were

extracted during scientific drilling at Byrd Station
in western Antarctica.5
In the 1970s scientists on deepsea drilling
expeditions discovered that gas hydrates occur
naturally and abundantly in deepwater sediments
on outer continental margins. Recently, hydrate
masses have been observed on the ocean floor
and, in one case, were brought to the surface by
fishing net.6 These near-surface concentrations of
hydrates in sediments are often associated with
gas seeps, also called cold vents, such as those in
the Gulf of Mexico and off the Pacific coast of
Canada and the USA.7
Scientists now know gas hydrates occur naturally in many parts of the world (left). The typical
depth range for hydrate stability lies 100 to 500 m
[330 to 1,600 ft] beneath the seafloor. About 98%
of these resources are believed to be concentrated in marine sediments, with the other 2% in
polar landmasses. Significant accumulations
have been identified on the North Slope of Alaska,
USA; in the Northwest Territories of Canada; in
the Gulf of Mexico; and offshore Japan, India,
South Korea and China.
Only a small proportion of the evidence for
hydrate accumulations comes from direct sampling; most is inferred from other sources, such
as seismic reflections, well logs, drilling data and
pore-water salinity measurements from cores.
Borehole and core data indicate the distribution
of hydrates in sediments varies according to the
conditions under which they form. Some cores
exhibit sparse amounts of hydrates distributed in
clay-rich sediments, while others contain intervals of highly concentrated gas hydrate in sandy
sediments, and nearly pure, solid gas hydrate has
been found as fracture-filling material in clayrich zones.
Extrapolating these different scenarios of
distribution to all areas where gas hydrates are
presumed to occur has led to a tremendous range
of potential resource estimatesanywhere from
2.8 1015 to 8 1018 m3 [9.9 1016 to 2.8 1020 ft3]
of methane globally.8 Narrowing this spread
requires advances in several areas: clearer insight
into how hydrates are generated and deposited,
better understanding of the effects of hydrates on
borehole and geophysical measurements, and
fuller exploration of areas where conditions for gas
hydrate stability exist.
The most widespread evidence for accumulations of hydrates offshore comes from seismic
data. The potentially strong acoustic impedance
contrast between gas hydratebearing sediments
and adjacent sediments that contain free gas or

Oilfield Review

Alaminos Canyon
3,300

Seafloor

3,400
3,500

Gas hydrate
stability zone

3,600

Two-way time, ms

3,700

BSR

3,800
3,900

JIP Leg I drillsite (2005)

JIP Leg II drillsite (2009)
Hydrate indicator

4,000
4,100

Amplitude

4,200
4,300

Spring 2010

km

150
mi

4,400

Green Canyon

150

AT-14

2010 WesternGeco Used by Permission

Atwater Valley

4,500

AC-21
Alaminos Canyon

KC-195
Keathley Canyon

GC-955
WR-313
Walker Ridge

fM

o
ulf

exi

co

> Seismic section with a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) from the Gulf of Mexico. A BSR is caused
by the acoustic impedance contrast between hydrate-bearing and non-hydrate-bearing sediments.
This BSR cuts across layering and a fault and represents the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The
reflecting interface separates stiffer material above from less stiff material below, giving rise to a
seismic reflection with polarity opposite to that at the seafloor. The high-amplitude signals on the right
side of the section probably indicate free gas trapped below the hydrate. The 2005 Gulf of Mexico JIP
expedition investigated sites in the Atwater Valley and Keathley Canyon areas. In 2009 JIP scientists
drilled and logged boreholes in Alaminos Canyon, Walker Ridge and Green Canyon. Geophysical
indicators of the base of the hydrate-stability zone are shown in red on the inset map. (Map adapted
from Shedd et al, reference 12; seismic section courtesy of WesternGeco.)

Walker Ridge Block 313

NW

SE

A
nB

on

3,400

Ho

Ho

rizo

3,350

3,450
3,500

Two-way time, ms

Gulf of Mexico Hydrate Assessment

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the
US Department of the Interior has used seismic
data, along with wellbore, geologic, geochemical
and paleontological information, to assess large
areas of the Gulf of Mexicoabout 174,000 mi2
[450,000 km2]where pressure and temperature conditions are suitable for hydrate-stability
conditions.9 The MMS study estimates the total
in-place volume of biogenically generated gas
hydrates ranges from 11,112 to 34,423 Tcf [315 to
975 trillion m3].
In 2000 Chevron and the US Department of
Energy initiated a JIP to develop technology and
acquire data to help characterize naturally
occurring gas hydrates in the deepwater Gulf of
Mexico.10 In addition to assessing the impact of
hydrates on drilling safety and seafloor stability,
the project strives to understand the long-term
potential of hydrates as a supply of natural gas.
In the early phases of the project, JIP team
members acquired and analyzed seismic data,
selected drilling locations and conducted a
35-day drilling, coring and logging expedition
covering several sites.11 In 2009 the JIP conducted a second expedition, which included sites
in the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon areas.12
Borehole locations were selected based on an
integrated geologic and geophysical analysis of
indicators for the presence of gas hydrates at
high saturations within sand reservoirs (above
right). The JIP program in the Gulf of Mexico has
provided substantial information on gas hydrate
exploration and drilling hazard assessment.
Gas hydrate explorationAn example of a
hydrate indicator in the Walker Ridge area is the
discontinuous high-amplitude reflection that corresponds to the updip terminations of free gas in
sandstones (right). The high amplitudes track
the base of the hydrate-stability zone.13

New Orleans

riz

water can cause a high-amplitude reflection. The

reflection depth depends on the temperature and
pressure conditions conducive to hydrate stability; typically, it parallels the seafloor. Such interfaces are known as bottom-simulating reflectors
(BSRs), and the seismic reflections they cause
often cut across structural and stratigraphic
reflections. However, lack of a BSR does not preclude the presence of hydrates.
The discovery of BSRs in many parts of the
world has led government agencies, energy companies and other institutions to form collaborative
ventures to assess particular hydrate accumulations. One such joint industry project (JIP) is
investigating hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico.

3,550
3,600
3,650

Base of gas
hydrate stability

Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 3/4
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 3/4

3,700
3,750
3,800
3,850

Amplitude
2010 WesternGeco Used by Permission

3,900

> Seismic data from Walker Ridge Block 313, Gulf of Mexico. The seismic section shows a series of
isolated high-amplitude spots (blue and red) that delineate the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The
high-amplitude reflections are discontinuous in this view because the layers have varying lithology
and are steeply dipping. Free gas and gas hydrates are concentrated in the sand-rich layers. Because
shale-rich layers contain little or no hydrate, they do not exhibit significant amplitudes. Horizons A and
B are discussed in a later figure. (Courtesy of WesternGeco.)

21

Cement at Contacts
M1

Grain Coating

5.5

M2

5.0

Supporting Matrix or Grains

M3

P-wave velocity, km/s

4.5

Pore-Fill
M4

4.0

M1

M3

3.5

M2

3.0

M4

2.5
2.0

Matrix and Inclusions

M5

Fracture-Fill

1.5

M6

M5
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Gas hydrate saturation, %

70

80

90

100

3.0

M1

2.5

S-wave velocity, km/s

M3

> Microstructural models of hydrate-bearing sediments. In the first five

of the six models, gas hydrates (blue) are evenly distributed throughout
the sedimentary grains (tan) to a first approximation. Hydrate may occur
as cement at grain contacts (top left), as coating on grains (top right), as
a component of the grain matrix (middle left) or as pore-filling material
(middle right). The fifth model considers sedimentary grains as inclusions
in a hydrate matrix (bottom left). The sixth model (bottom right) depicts
hydrates as nodules or fracture-fill in fine-grained, low-permeability
sediments. These models are used to simulate the response of hydratebearing sediments to logging and seismic measurements. (Adapted from
Dai et al, reference 14.)

2.0

M2

1.5

M4

1.0

M5

0.5
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Gas hydrate saturation, %

Predicting gas hydrate saturation from seismic data in the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon
areas requires a rock physics model that establishes the relationship between those elastic
properties that control the speed of acoustic
energy through sediments and gas hydrate saturations; in other settings around the world high
hydrate concentrations have been associated
with increases in acoustic velocities.14 Several
models have been proposed to explain this effect,
and all of them indicate that these properties are
Oilfield
Review
highly dependent on the
location
of hydrate in
Spring
10
the sediment (above left).
Theoretically,
hydrate
Hydrates Fig. 6
may occur in sedimentary rocks as cement at
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 6
grain contacts or as coating on grains. It may also
act as a component of the grain matrix or may fill
pores. These microstructural models all consider
the hydrate to be evenly distributed in sediments,
and equations have been derived to link gas
hydrate concentration to elastic properties.
Because gas hydrates have also been encountered in cores as nodules and fracture-fill, these
less homogeneous forms of distribution must also
be considered, although no quantitative treatment of such distributions has been developed.

22

> Comparison of measured and modeled seismic velocities in hydratebearing sediments. Compressional-wave (P-wave) velocities (top)
measured in hydrate-rich layers in a Canadian well (blue triangles) are
plotted with velocities calculated using the models described in the
previous figure. The measured velocities best fit the velocities from the
model treating hydrate as a component of the grain matrix (M3).
Shear-wave (S-wave) velocities (bottom) show a similar match.
(Adapted from Dai et al, reference 14.)

A comparison of seismic velocities computed

from these models with those measured in
hydrate-bearing rocks indicates that the model in
which hydrate acts as a component of the grain
matrix fits the data best (above right). In this
model hydrate neither coats nor cements sediment grains. Inputs include rock porosity and
hydrate saturation, enabling estimates of hydrate
saturation if porosity and seismic velocity are
known. Furthermore, porosity can be related to
seismic velocity, so hydrate saturation can be calculated from velocity alone.
Velocities are usually obtained by inversion of
seismic data for acoustic impedance, which is the
product of density and velocity. However, in gas
hydrates density does not vary much with saturation and therefore can be neglected for a first
approximation. This makes it possible to estimate saturation solely from acoustic impedance.

14. Shelander D, Dai J and Bunge G: Predicting Saturation

of Gas Hydrates Using Pre-Stack Seismic Data, Gulf
of Mexico, Marine Geophysical Researches, 2010
(in press).
Dai J, Xu H, Snyder F and Dutta N: Detection and
Estimation of Gas Hydrates Using Rock Physics
and Seismic Inversion: Examples from the Northern
Deepwater Gulf of Mexico, The Leading Edge 23, no. 1
(January 2004): 6066.
Kleinberg RL, Flaum C, Griffin DD, Brewer PG, Malby GE,
Peltzer ET and Yesinowski JP: Deep Sea NMR:
Methane Hydrate Growth Habit in Porous Media and
Its Relationship to Hydraulic Permeability, Deposit
Accumulation, and Submarine Slope Stability, Journal
of Geophysical Research 108, no. B10 (2003): 25082525.
15. For a description of the type of inversion used: Mallick S,
Oilfield
HuangReview
X, Lauve J and Ahmad R: Hybrid Seismic
Spring
10 A Reconnaissance Tool for Deepwater
Inversion:
Exploration,
Hydrates
Fig. The
7 Leading Edge 19, no. 11 (November
2000): 12301237.
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig. 7
For more on seismic inversion in general: Barclay F,
Bruun A, Rasmussen KB, Camara Alfaro J, Cooke A,
Cooke D, Salter D, Godfrey R, Lowden D, McHugo S,
Ozdemir H, Pickering S, Gonzalez Pineda F, Herwanger J,
Volterrani S, Murineddu A, Rasmussen A and Roberts R:
Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines,
Oilfield Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 4263.
16. Boswell et al, reference 13.

Oilfield Review

In support of the JIP effort, geophysicists at

WesternGeco performed high-resolution, fullwaveform prestack inversion and combined the
results with conventional linear prestack inversion to produce estimates of P-wave and S-wave
impedances in the 3D volumes created by the
seismic surveys.15 These impedances, in turn,
were converted into saturation cubes (right).
Predrill gas hydrate saturation estimates in
Walker Ridge and Green Canyon clearly highlighted those areas expected to hold the thickest
and most highly saturated reservoirs.
In April 2009 the JIP drilled and logged five
wells at the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon
sites. Four of the wells encountered sand reservoirs with gas hydrate at saturations exceeding
50% and potentially as high as 85%.16 At the Green
Canyon site one well penetrated nearly 100 ft
[30 m] of gas hydratebearing sand (below).

8
Depth,
ft below
rig floor

Horizon B

Well H

BGHS

Density

Ultrasonic Caliper

Gamma Ray

in.

gAPI

12 0

1.4

ohm.m

40

g/cm3

Hydrate Saturation
n = 1.5
2.2

Density Used

Ring
100 1

Hydrate saturation, %

> Gas hydrate saturations in Walker Ridge estimated from seismic inversion. Saturations range from
0% to 40% (green to red). Horizon A (left) lies stratigraphically above Horizon B (right). Well H penetrates
both horizons within the gas hydratestability zone, but Well G penetrates only Horizon A in the gas
hydratestability zone, intersecting Horizon B at a deeper point. The white dot is an oil and gas industry
well not related to the gas hydrate study. The base of the gas hydratestability zone is marked by BGHS.
(Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)

Poor Density
Resistivity

Well H

BGHS

Caliper
12

Well G

Well G

Best Caliper
in.

Horizon A

100 1.4

g/cm

100

n = 2.5
2.2

100

1,340

1,360

1,380

1,400

1,420

Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 9
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 9

1,440

1,460

1,480

> Well logs (left) from a Green Canyon gas hydrate well. High resistivities (Track 3) are the clearest indications of gas hydrates (pink shading) in this 100-ft
sand. Deeper, thinner sands also contain hydrates. The caliper log (Track 1) shows washouts in the hydrate-free zones (blue shading). Washouts can lead to
poor density results (Track 4). Estimated gas hydrate saturations (Track 5) range from 50% to more than 85% and depend on the saturation exponent, n, used
in Archies law, which relates resistivity to porosity and saturation. Personnel prepare LWD tools on the Q4000 floating drilling unit (right). (Photograph
courtesy of the JIP Leg II Science Team.)

Spring 2010

23

Well H
3,360

Hor

NE

izo

nA

SW

8,600

3,380
3,400

Two-way time, ms

3,440

Ho

rizo

3,460

nB

9,000

3,480

Depth, ft

8,800

3,420

Gamma ray
Resistivity
Sonic slowness

3,500
3,520

Base

3,540

hydr

ate-s

3,560

9,200

tabil

Hydrate saturation, % 40

ity zo

ne

3,580
3,600

9,400
9,380

9,370

9,360

9,350

9,340

9,330

9,320

9,310

9,300

Inline number

> Estimated saturations and acquired well logs through a gas hydrate zone. Seismic inversion
predicted high saturations of gas hydrate (reds) in Horizon B at the location of Well H. High
concentrations of gas hydrate can be inferred from the high resistivity values (yellow log) and sonic
slownesses (green log). The decrease in gamma ray readings (blue log) indicates the layer is a sand.
(Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)

Pump Rate, galUS/min

Bit Total Flow Area, in.2

0.52
3.65

0.56
3.13

0.60
2.72

0.65
2.36

0.69
2.06

0.74
1.80

0.79

420
410

3.40

2.92

2.53

2.19

1.92

1.68

1.48

400

3.16

2.71

2.35

2.04

1.78

1.56

1.38

390

2.93

2.51

2.18

1.89

1.65

1.44

1.28

380

2.71

2.32

2.01

1.74

1.53

1.34

1.18

370

2.50

2.14

1.86

1.61

1.41

1.23

1.09

360

2.30

1.97

1.71

1.48

1.30

1.14

1.00

350

2.12

1.81

1.57

1.36

1.19

1.04

0.92

340

1.94

1.66

1.44

1.25

1.09

0.96

0.84

330

1.77

1.52

1.32

1.14

1.00

0.88

0.77

320

1.62

0.80

0.70

310

1.47

0.73

0.64

300

1.33

0.66

0.58

290

1.20

0.91
1.04
1.20
1.39
Oilfield
Review
Spring
0.83
0.95
1.26 101.09
Hydrates
Fig. 11 0.86
0.75
0.99
1.14
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig. 110.68
0.78
0.89
1.03

0.59

0.52

280

1.08

0.93

0.81

0.70

0.61

0.53

0.47

270

0.97

0.83

0.72

0.63

0.55

0.48

0.42

1.59

> Optimizing circulation rates and bit design for the Green Canyon area.
This table shows bit hydraulic horsepower per square inch (HSI) as a
function of the bit total flow area and the circulation, or pump, rate. The
light-yellow shading denotes the range of circulation rates and bit sizes that
maintains the bit HSI between 1 and 1.5 to minimize hole erosion and
optimize the mechanical action of the bit. An additional design criterion
governing the circulation rate was to ensure that gas hydrate did not
dissociate during drilling.

24

Scientists confirmed that at the Walker Ridge

site, gas hydrate occurred in multiple reservoir
sands and fully saturated them over their geologic extent.
The Gulf of Mexico JIP Legs I and II are the
first drilling projects to have prepared predrill
estimates of gas hydrate saturation and then
tested them by subsequent drilling. The excellent
results provide increased confidence in the geologic and geophysical concepts and technologies
applied by the JIP team (left).17
Assessing gas hydrate drilling hazards
Drilling wells into gas hydrate accumulations
requires consideration of several wellborestability issues. The drilling process must avoid
stress-induced mechanical failure, washouts and
fluid influx resulting from hydrate dissociation
and shallow-water or free-gas flows.
In support of the JIP 2009 expedition,
Schlumberger geomechanics experts evaluated
the proposed drilling locations and flagged sites
where excess pore pressure presented potential
drilling hazards. They also developed methods to
predict the mechanical and phase stability of
boreholes drilled in sediments containing gas
hydrates. These methods involved calibration
correlations relating the mechanical properties
of hydrate-bearing sediments to log- and seismicderived data.18 Using numerical simulators, the
JIP team modeled the while-drilling borehole
temperatures and estimated the energy of impact
of drilling fluid streams impinging on the formation from bit nozzles.
These analyses enabled the JIP team to evaluate the potential for mechanical failure of the
borehole, gas hydrate dissociation and hydraulic
erosion of the sediment. Design criteria were
developed to optimize bit selection and circulation practice (left).
17. Jones E: Characterizing Natural Gas Hydrates in
the Deep Water Gulf of Mexico: Applications for
Safe Exploration and Production Activities, SemiAnnual Progress Report #41330417, prepared for
the US Department of Energy, October 2009, http://
www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/
Hydrates/2009Reports/NT41330_SemiAnnSep2009.PDF
(accessed February 10, 2010).
18. Birchwood R, Singh R and Mese A: Estimating the In
Situ Mechanical Properties of Sediments Containing
Gas Hydrates, Proceedings of the 6th International
Conference on Gas Hydrates, Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada, July 610, 2008.
19. Schlumberger provided several LWD services, including
sonicVISION sonic logging, EcoScope multifunction
logging, TeleScope high-speed telemetry, geoVISION
imaging and PeriScope bed boundary mapping.

Oilfield Review

During the 2009 campaign, several LWD tools

were run in the JIP boreholes, including an experimental multipole sonic tool to evaluate shear
velocities in the unconsolidated hydrate-rich sediments.19 Transmission of LWD data in real time
enabled shipboard and onshore specialists to

modeling and correlation methods (below). The

success of the drilling campaign confirmed that
with proper planning and careful engineering
design, gas hydrate formations can be drilled safely.

update predrill models and to diagnose drilling

situations. This made it possible to optimize drilling practices over the course of the expedition.
The predictions made by wellbore-stability
and downhole temperature models were consistent with observed data, raising confidence in the

Shear Failure
Mud Weight
8

lbm/galUS

18

Modeled Pore Pressure

8

lbm/galUS

18

Modeled
Horizontal Stress
8

. Elastoplastic wellbore-stability model in Green

Canyon Block 955, Well H. High resistivities
(Track 1, orange) indicate the presence of gas
hydrates. Track 2 shows the friction (green) and
dilation (purple) angles. A binary lithology model
predicts much higher friction angles in sands
than in clays, particularly in shallower sections
where the confining stress at the borehole wall is
low. The dilation angle is estimated in sands
using a correlation; it is assumed to be zero in
clays. Track 3 displays the static Youngs modulus
(red) and the unconfined compressive strength
(blue). Both show a tendency to increase
whenever gas hydrate is present in the main
target sands, between 8,077 and 8,186 ft, but are
relatively unaffected by the presence of gas
hydrates in clays. Track 4 contains the output of
the wellbore-stability model: pore pressure
(blue), shear failure envelope (green), horizontal
stress (magenta) and overburden stress (red).
The mud weight used to drill the well is shown in
brown. The model predicts a stable borehole
everywhere except in the olive-shaded intervals,
where the shear failure envelope exceeds the
mud weight. Such intervals are prone to hole
enlargement due to shear failure. Track 5 shows
the difference (blue shading) between the bit size
(black) and the density caliper (purple). The
borehole is generally close to gauge; however,
some hole enlargement can be seen in sandy
zones between 8,000 and 8,328 ft, where there is
little or no gas hydrate. The wellbore-stability
model predicts that such zones are too weak to
support a borehole. The model also correctly
accounts for the strengthening effect of gas
hydrates in sand intervals where the borehole is
in gauge.

Gamma Ray

Depth,
ft

Dilation Angle
150 10

gAPI

ohm.m

deg

50 0

Friction Angle

Resistivity
20 10

deg

Unconfined Compressive
Strength
MPa

10 8

Static Youngs Modulus

50 0

MPa

500 8

lbm/galUS

18

Out of Gauge

Modeled
Shear Failure Envelope
lbm/galUS

Bit Size

18 8

in.

12

Modeled Overburden

Density Caliper

lbm/galUS

in.

18 8

12

7,000

7,500

Gas
hydrates
in clayrich
layers

Predicted
hole
enlargement
8,000

Target
gas
hydrate
bearing
sands

Observed
hole
enlargement

8,500

Spring 2010

Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 13
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 13

25

Gamagori

km

a
S e

50
mi

50

n
pa
J a

o f

Na

FI

gh

CI

ou

PA

Tr
ai
nk

East

China

Sea

OC

EA

J A P A N

0
0

km

200
mi

200

> The region of the Nankai Trough, offshore Japan. Drilling locations in the
eastern Nankai Trough area are shown as red dots (inset). Seismic BSRs
(purple) indicate the presence of hydrates over vast areas.

Hydrates in the Eastern Nankai Trough

Another area of gas hydrate exploration is offshore Japan, in the region of the eastern Nankai
Trough. Seismic data indicate widespread existence of BSRs (left). In 1999 a Japanese governmentfunded project drilling in the eastern
Nankai Trough successfully penetrated a BSR
and recovered a number of gas hydrate samples.20 A few years later, in 2001, the Japanese
government initiated an 18-year exploration
project to evaluate the distribution of gas
hydrates, estimate reserves and develop a methane hydrate field.21
As part of this program, 2D and 3D seismic
surveys were acquired and 32 wells were drilled
through the BSR in water depths of 722 to 2,033m
[2,370 to 6,670 ft]. The base of the hydratestability zone ranges from 177 to 345 m [581 to
1,132 ft] below the seafloor. Of the wells drilled,
16 were logged with LWD tools, 12 were cored, 2
were logged with wireline tools, and 1 was
equipped with long-term temperature sensors.22
Cores were retrieved from a variety of hydraterich sediments (below).
One of the many studies focused on analysis
of well logs for determination of gas hydrate saturation.23 As solids in the pore space, gas hydrates
are invisible to NMR tools. Although there are
hydrogen atoms in both the water and the methane, they are locked in the hydrate lattice structure and their spins cannot be manipulated by
the NMR tool. Their absence from the NMR measurement results in a porosity value that is typically lower than that measured by other tools.

Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 14
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 14
> Gas hydrates from the eastern Nankai Trough. At one site the gas hydrate (white) occupies a layer within a mud-silt zone (left). At a different site, the gas
hydrate is disseminated in the pore space of a sand layer (right). The scale is in centimeters.

26

Oilfield Review

Hunting Hydrates in India

Gas hydrate is also a potential source of energy
for India, which currently does not produce
enough oil and gas to fuel its growing economy.
The presence of gas hydrates on Indias continental margins has been inferred from BSRs seen in
seismic data. The total estimated resource from
natural gas hydrates in the country is placed at
1,894 trillion m3 [66,880 Tcf].28
In 1997 the government of India formed the
National Gas Hydrates Program (NGHP) to explore
and develop the countrys gas hydrate resources.

20. Matsumoto R, Takedomi Y and Wasada H: Exploration

of Marine Gas Hydrates in Nankai Trough, Offshore
Central Japan, presented at the AAPG Annual
Convention, Denver, June 36, 2001.
21. Fukuhara M, Sugiyama H, Igarashi J, Fujii K, Shunetsu O,
Tertychnyi V, Shandrygin A, Pimenov V, Shako V,
Matsubayashi O and Ochiai K: Model-Based
Temperature Measurement System Development
for Marine Methane Hydrate-Bearing Sediments,
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Gas
Hydrates, Trondheim, Norway, June 1316, 2005.
22. Takahashi H and Tsuji Y: Multi-Well Exploration
Program in 2004 for Natural Hydrate in the NankaiTrough Offshore Japan, paper OTC 17162, presented
at the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
May 25, 2005.

Spring 2010

Porosity Difference
Density Porosity

Washout

80

10

in.

Caliper
10

in.

Gamma Ray
0

gAPI

NMR Porosity

Bit Size
Depth, m

This difference can be used to estimate hydrate

volume. The method is analogous to the DMR
densitymagnetic resonance technique developed
to determine gas saturation in gas reservoirs.24
Such a technique helped log analysts estimate saturation from wireline logs in an eastern
Nankai Trough well.25 Gamma ray, caliper,
resistivity, neutron, density, magnetic resonance
and sonic measurements showed alternation
of hydrate- and non-hydrate-bearing layers
(right). The difference between porosities seen
by the magnetic resonance tool and those computed from the density tool data corresponds to
the approximate volume of hydrate contained in
the sediments. Saturations calculated from the
resistivity and magnetic resonance responses are
comparable except where washouts have affected
the density and magnetic resonance readings.
Washouts occur mainly in the non-hydratebearing layers.
Using all available core, log and seismic data,
experts estimate the total amount of methane gas
in the surveyed area of the eastern Nankai Trough
to be 40 Tcf [1.1 trillion m3].26
The Japanese program has recently announced
that it will proceed with preparations to conduct
field tests of gas hydrate productivity at sites
within the Nankai Trough.27

20

80

Deep Resistivity
20 0.2

ohm.m
ohm.m

200 80

DMR Porosity
%

DMR Water
Saturation

Neutron Porosity

200 80

Shallow Resistivity
100 0.2

100
0

Resistivity Water
Saturation

0 100

X10

X20

X30

X40

> Formation evaluation in a hydrate zone. Track 1 plots gamma ray (green)
and caliper (solid black). Blue fill indicates washed-out intervals. Track 2
contains shallow and deep resistivity data. High resistivities correspond to
hydrate-rich zones. Low resistivities signify laminations without hydrate
layers that tend to wash out during drilling. Track 3 contains neutron
porosity (dotted blue), density porosity (red), NMR porosity (black) and the
DMR porosity obtained by combining density and NMR measurements
(green). Gold shading represents the volume of gas hydrate. Track 4 shows
the water saturations calculated using the resistivity (red) and densityNMR-difference technique (blue). Several spikes in Tracks 3 and 4 correlate
with borehole washouts.

23. Murray D, Kleinberg R, Sinha B, Fukuhara M, Osawa O,

26. Fujii T, Saeki T, Kobayashi T, Inamori T, Hayashi M,
Oilfield
Endo T and Namikawa T: Formation Evaluation
of GasReview Takano O, Takayama T, Kawasaki T, Nagakubo S,
Spring
Hydrate Reservoirs, Transactions of the SPWLA
46th10
Nakamizu M and Yokoi K: Resource Assessment of
Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans, June
2629, Fig. 16 Methane Hydrate in the Eastern Nankai Trough, Japan,
Hydrates
2005, paper SSS.
paperFig.
OTC16
19310, presented at the Offshore Technology
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Conference, Houston, May 58, 2008.
24. Freedman R, Cao Minh C, Gubelin G, Freeman JJ,
McGinness T, Terry B and Rawlence D: Combining NMR
27. Masuda Y, Yamamoto K, Tadaaki S, Ebinuma T and
and Density Logs for Petrophysical Analysis in GasNagakubo S: Japans Methane Hydrate R&D Program
Bearing Formations, Transactions of the SPWLA 39th
Progresses to Phase 2, Fire in the Ice (Fall 2009): 16,
Annual Logging Symposium, Keystone, Colorado, USA,
http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/
May 2629, 1998, paper II.
publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewsFall09.
pdf#Page=1 (accessed March 9, 2010).
25. Murray DR, Kleinberg RL, Sinha BK, Fukuhara M,
Osawa O, Endo T and Namikawa T: Saturation, Acoustic
28. Government of India, Directorate General of
Properties, Growth Habit, and State of Stress of a Gas
Hydrocarbons: Gas Hydrate: R&D Advances in India,
Hydrate Reservoir from Well Logs, Petrophysics 47,
http://www.dghindia.org/NonConventionalEnergy.
no. 2 (April 2006): 129137.
aspx?tab=2#3 (accessed February 17, 2010).

27

BANGLADESH

BURMA

Mahanadi

Mumbai

Krishna-Godavari
Kerala
Konkan

Chennai
Andaman
Islands

0
0

500

km
mi

16A

500

7A-D

15A
5A-E14A
11A
6A
4A
2A-B
3A-C
10A-D 12A
13A
20A

KrishnaGodavari

> Exploration sites (red circles) of the 2006 expedition of the Indian National
Gas Hydrates Program (NGHP). A scientific team aboard the JOIDES
Resolution drilling vessel assessed data from 39 boreholes in four different
regions. Samples from the Krishna-Godavari region (inset) contained
significant hydrate accumulations. (Adapted from Collett et al, reference 29.)

The first NGHP expedition, in 2006, explored four lenses and wispy subvertical veins oriented in
areas of the Indian Ocean (above). The primary a primary direction, with some crossing in a
goal of NGHP Expedition 01 was to conduct scien- secondary direction.
In the intervals where hydrates reside in pore
tific ocean drilling, coring, logging and analytical
space,
the Archie relationship can be used to
activities to assess the geologic Oilfield
occurrence,
Review
determine
saturation. However, in other zones,
regional context and characteristics ofSpring
gas hydrate
10
for example, where hydrate occupies fractures in
deposits along the continental marginsHydrates
of India.29Fig. 17
Fig. 17
sediments, the method is not
The expedition team consisted ofORSPRG10-Hydrate
more than low-permeability
100 scientists and professionals representing more applicable, but resistivity logs and images can
than 30 universities, national institutes and com- still be used to identify hydrate-filled fractures.
Images from an RAB resistivity-at-the-bit LWD
panies. During the 113-day operation, the scientific ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution tool clearly show resistive hydrate-filled fractures
drilled 39 boreholes in water depths ranging as well as conductive fractures in several holes in
from 907 to 2,674 m [2,975 to 8,774 ft]. Scientists the Krishna-Godavari region.30 Fractures in most of
recovered 2,850 m [9,350 ft] of core, logged the holes analyzed have steep dips70 to 80
12holes with LWD tools and an additional 13holes (next page). Stress orientations calculated from
with wireline tools, and performed six borehole dip data indicate a maximum horizontal stress
seismic surveys.
direction perpendicular to the edge of Indias
The cores indicate that hydrates occur in a Continental Slopea finding that is inconsistent
variety of settings. In the Indian Ocean, as in with those from other passive continental margins
other parts of the world, hydrates are present documented for boreholes deeper than the holes
in coarse-grained sediments. More surprising in the NGHP study. This contradiction suggests
was the amount of hydrates discovered in fine- that the fractures may be related to local slumps
grained sediments, where they occur as layers, and slides, signifying shallow stresses at work
rather than deep tectonic stresses.31

28

The shale-dominated interval of hydratefilled fractures encountered at Site NGHP-01-10

is one of the richest marine gas hydrate accumulations ever discovered.32 Among the highlights of
the expedition was the discovery of one of the
deepest gas hydrate accumulations known: At
Site NGHP-01-17, offshore the Andaman Islands,
gas hydratebearing volcanic ash layers were
encountered as far as 600 m [1,970 ft] below the
seafloor. Future plans call for a pilot project to
produce methane from some of these locations.
Other Exploration Efforts
The successes of marine hydrate exploration campaigns in Japan and India have encouraged groups
in other countries to pursue similar programs. For
example, investigative projects in China have
begun in areas conducive to hydrate stability.
Chinas first gas hydrate drilling expedition,
GMGS-1, was conducted in 2007 by the Guangzhou
Marine Geological Survey (GMGS), China
Geological Survey (CGS) and the Ministry of
Land and Resources of the Peoples Republic of
China. The Bavenit geotechnical and scientific
drilling vessel visited eight sites in the Shenhu
area of the South China Sea. On this expedition,
the project team described both a new gas
hydrate province and a potentially new mode of
hydrate distribution within sediments.33
At each site a pilot hole was drilled and then
logged with a suite of high-resolution slimhole
wireline tools. From these logs decisions were
made either to immediately drill an adjacent
coring hole or to move on to another site.
At three of the five sites cored, gas hydrates
were detected in clay- and silt-rich sediments
directly above the base of the hydrate-stability
zone. Thickness of the hydrate-rich layers ranged
from 10 to 25 m [33 to 82 ft]. Hydrate was distributed evenly in 20% to 40% of the pore volume
throughout these fine-grained sediments. While
it is common to find hydrate dispersed in coarsegrained sediment and hydrate-filled fractures in
clay-dominated sediments, seldom have hydrates
been seen disseminated in extremely finegrained layers at such elevated saturations.
Further analysis of samples and data collected during the expedition will continue at the
GMGS and at laboratories throughout China.
Potential future expeditions to the Shenhu area
and other regions of the South China Sea margin
are under discussion.

Oilfield Review

Deep Resistivity

Caliper

Medium Resistivity

8 in. 20

Depth, m

Producing Methane from Hydrates

Although many countries and organizations are
finding gas hydrates plentiful and widespread,
the problem remains as to how to produce methane from them safely, efficiently and economically. In addressing this problem, a top priority is
to understand the dissociation mechanisms of
hydrates in different habitats.
Safety is also an important issue. Hydrates in
pore space strengthen the grain matrix, but when
the solid hydrate turns into gas and water, the
volume of the pore-filling material can increase
significantly; the sediment becomes fluidized,
compromising the strength and stiffness of the
sediment column. This can lead to compaction of
the sediment in the producing zone and over
burden, destabilization of faults, sand production
and other processes that may potentially damage
infrastructure. Techniques for hydrate exploitation will have to succeed without causing sediment instability.
To recover methane from hydrates, experts
concur that exploiting hydrates in sandy sediments has the highest probability of success and
requires the lowest investment in new technology.
Two principal techniques have been field tested
for recovering methane from hydrates: heating and
depressurization. For ease of access, tests have
been conducted on hydrate accumulations on land,
in permafrost regions. Comprehensive tests have
taken place at the Mallik gas hydrate field in the
Canadian Northwest Territories and at the Mount
Elbert prospect in Alaska.

Gamma
Ray

Density

Deep Resistivity Image

Statically Enhanced

Shallow Resistivity Resistive

gAPI
g/cm3
60
120 1.3
2.0 0.2

ohm.m

200

Deep Resistivity Image

Dynamically Enhanced

Conductive Resistive
S

Conductive
S

Dip and
Dip Direction
Gas Hydrate
Filled Fracture
Dip, deg
50 60 70 80

65

70

75

> Borehole image and core from the Krishna-Godavari region. Among the logs acquired in Well
NGHP-01-10A, a borehole image log (Tracks 4 and 5) exhibits high-resistivity gas hydrate (light colors) in
steeply dipping fractures (Track 6). Dips are consistently 70 to 80. (Log courtesy of Ann Cook,
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.) The core (inset) shows gas hydrate (white) filling a fracture in
black fine-grained sediments. (Photograph courtesy of the NGHP Expedition 01.)

29. US Geological Survey, Results of the Indian National

Gas Hydrate Program (NGHP) Expedition 01,
http://energy.usgs.gov/other/gashydrates/india.html
(accessed February 17, 2010).
Collett TS, Riedel M, Cochran J, Boswell R, Kumar P,
Sathe A and NGHP Expedition 01 Scientific Party:
Geologic Controls on the Occurrence of Gas
Hydrates in the Indian Continental Margin: Results
of the Indian National Gas Hydrate Program (NGHP)

Spring 2010

Expedition 01, adapted from an oral presentation at

31. Cook and Goldberg, reference 30.
the AAPG Annual Convention, San Antonio, Texas,
Oilfield Review32. Collett et al, reference 29.
April 2023, 2008, http://www.searchanddiscovery.
33. Zhang H, Yang S, Wu N, Su X, Holland M, Schultheiss P,
Spring 10
net/documents/2008/08135collett/ndx_collett01.pdf
K, Butler H, Humphrey G and GMGS-1 Science
(accessed February 17, 2010).
Hydrates Fig. 18 Rose
Team: Successful and Surprising Results for Chinas
30. Cook A and Goldberg D: Stress and Gas Hydrate-Filled
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
18 Drilling Expedition, Fire in the Ice
First Fig.
Gas Hydrate
Fracture Distribution, Krishna-Godavari Basin, India,
(Fall 2007): 69, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Gas
oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/
Hydrates, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, July
HMNewsFall07.pdf (accessed February 17, 2010).
610, 2008.

29

o r t
B e a u f
a
S e

Mallik
e
zi

n
ke
ac Bay
M

Ice

Yukon Territory
Northwest Territories

d
roa
Inuvik
0
0

km 50
mi

50

> The Mallik field, Northwest Territories, Canada. The Mallik field has been the site of hydrate
discoveries and research since 1972. The site is accessible only in winter by way of an ice road.
(Photograph courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)

Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 19
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 19

> A Mallik gas hydrate core sample collected in 2002. Gas hydrate (white)
resides within the pore space of a pebbly conglomerate. (Photograph
courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)

30

Mallik Gas Hydrate Production

The Mallik field, located on the Mackenzie Delta
in the Beaufort Sea, has a long history of gas
hydrate investigation (left).34 Hydrates were discovered in 1972 during exploration drilling by
Imperial Oil Ltd. In the early 1990s the Geological
Survey of Canada (GSC) undertook a regional
appraisal of gas hydrates in the Mackenzie Delta
area. Later, in 1998, the Japan National Oil
Corporation (JNOC) and the GSC, working with
several other institutions, completed the Mallik
2L-38 Gas Hydrate Research Well Program.
Results from these studies establish the
Mallik field as one of the most concentrated gas
hydrate accumulations in the world.35 Interbedded
sequences of hydrate-rich sands occur at depths
from 890 to 1,106 m [2,920 to 3,629 ft], with some
layers surpassing 30 m [100 ft] in thickness.36 In
certain zones hydrate saturations exceed 80%
(below left). The abundance of subsurface data
available, the advantage of access by land and the
similarities with many offshore hydrate deposits
make the Mallik site attractive for research.
In 2002 a new program was initiated to conduct
production testing of hydrates from the Mallik
field.37 The production research program included
the GSC and JNOC, as well as formal collaboration
with the International Continental Scientific
Drilling Program and institutions from the USA,
Germany and India. A 1,166-m [3,825-ft] production
well was drilled, cored, logged and cased, and two
1,188-m [3,898-ft] observation wells were drilled
and cased. The response of the formation to thermal
stimulation and depressurization was monitored
using fiber-optic distributed temperature sensors
(DTS) installed in each well, repeat cased hole logging in the production well and cross-well seismic
surveys conducted in the monitoring wells.
The 13-m [43-ft] interval selected for the thermal test was a relatively clean sandstone bounded
by shales and located below the permafrost, with
hydrate saturation ranging from 70% to 85%.38
Heated brine was circulated past open perforations. The fluid and produced gas returned to surface in the annulus between the circulation string
and the casing. During the 5-day test cumulative
gas production was 516 m3 [18.2 Mcf].39
The differences noted in pretest openhole
resistivity logs and post-test cased hole resistivity
logs were used to determine the radius of hydrate
dissociation over the test interval (next page).40
The analysis indicated that the dissociation radius
was not uniform and was greatest near the outlet
of the circulation string, where fiber-optic DTS
sensors had recorded the highest temperatures.
In addition to variations in temperature across

Oilfield Review

34. Dallimore SR, Collett TS, Uchida T, Weber M, Chandra A,

Mroz TH, Caddel EM, Inoue T, Takahashi H, Taylor AE
and Mallik Gas Hydrate Research Team: The Mallik
Gas Hydrate Field: Lessons Learned from 30 Years of
Gas Hydrate Investigation, AAPG Bulletin 88, no. 13
(supplement), 2004.
35. Dallimore et al, reference 34.
36. Dallimore SR, Uchida T and Collett TS (eds): Scientific
Results from JAPEX/JNOC/GSC Mallik 2L-38 Gas
Hydrate Research Well, Mackenzie Delta, Northwest
Territories, Canada: Geological Survey of Canada
Bulletin 544, 1999.
37. Dallimore SR and Collett TS (eds): Scientific Results
from the Mallik 2002 Gas Hydrate Production Research
Well Program, Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories,
Canada: Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 585, 2005,
available at http://geoscan.ess.nrcan.gc.ca/cgi-bin/
starfinder/0?path=geoscan.fl&id=fastlink&pass=
&search=R%3D220702&format=FLFULL (accessed
April 1, 2010).

Spring 2010

Resistivity, ohm.m
900

10

100

Radius, m
1,000

910

Collar
Depth, m

the zone, variations in porosity and permeability

and in water invasion may have affected heat
exchange with the formation.
Deeper in the test well, small-scale pressuredrawdown tests were also carried out over six
hydrate-rich zones using a modified MDT modular formation dynamics tester.41 The tool collected samples of gas and water and measured
changes in pressure and flow rates. After analysis
of these and other data, along with intensive
numerical modeling efforts, the research team
concluded that depressurization would be a more
effective method than thermal stimulation for
inducing hydrate dissociation.
The next phase of production testing research
at Mallik was undertaken in the winters of 2007
and 2008. For this project Japan was represented
by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National
Corporation (JOGMEC), and Canada was represented by Natural Resources Canada. Aurora
Research Institute in Inuvik, Northwest
Territories, acted as the operator. This program
was designed to advance long-term production
testing using a depressurization technique.
Considerable emphasis was also placed on design
and testing of various geophysical monitoring
techniques and evaluation of downhole completion technologies for gas hydrate production.
Operations during the first winterthe site
is accessible only when the 200-km [124-mi] ice
road from Inuvik is frozeninvolved installing
well infrastructure and conducting a short production test in the Mallik 2L-38 well drilled as
part of the 1998 research program. The test zone
was a 12-m [39-ft] interval near the bottom of a
hydrate-rich zone. An ESP was set below the perforations to depressurize the formation by lowering the water level in the well. Because of permit
restrictions during the first year, the operation
plans called for disposal of produced water in the
same wellbore. To accomplish this, gas-water

920

Collar
930

CHFR log
CHFR model

Openhole resistivity log

Resistivity model

Hole radius
Dissociation radius

> Determining hydrate dissociation volume. Logs were acquired before and
after a 2002 thermal stimulation production test in the Mallik field (left).
Openhole resistivity logs acquired before the test (orange) were compared
with CHFR cased hole formation resistivity logs run afterward (purple) to
determine the radius of hydrate dissociation over the test interval. The
differences correspond to a modeled radius of dissociation (right) that
varies with depth. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 38.)

separation was performed in the wellbore; the in the 5 days of thermal stimulation in the 2002
gas was produced to surface and the produced test.44 Sand production was much greater than
water was reinjected into water zones below the anticipated, a problem that would have to be
gas hydrate test interval.42
overcome in future operations. The team planned
The April 2007 production test was performed to return the next year, when freezing conditions
without sand control measures to monitor and would allow operations to continue.
After reviewing the experience from the first
measure the direct formation response to pressure drawdown.43 As expected, a significant winters operation, the team returned to Mallik in
amount of sand was producedso much that the the winter of 2008 with a simplified research proOilfield Review
gram. This time produced water was flowed to
test was curtailed after 60 hours. However,
Springduring
10
the surface and reinjected into a water-disposal
the most successful 12.5 hours ofHydrates
pumping,
Fig. 21
a custom-designed sand screen
830m3 [29.3 Mcf] of gas was produced,
more than well. In
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig.addition,
21

The Mallik 2002 Consortium: Drilling and Testing

a Gas Hydrate Well, National Methane Hydrates
R&D Program, US Department of Energy, http://www.
netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/FutureSupply/
MethaneHydrates/projects/DOEProjects/Mallik-41007.
html (accessed February 11, 2010).
38. Anderson BI, Collett TS, Lewis RE and Dubourg I: Using
Open Hole and Cased-Hole Resistivity Logs to Monitor
Gas Hydrate Dissociation During a Thermal Test in the
Mallik 5L-38 Research Well, Mackenzie Delta, Canada,
Petrophysics 49, no. 3 (June 2008): 285294.
39. Dallimore and Collett, reference 37.
40. Anderson et al, reference 38.
41. Hancock SH, Dallimore SR, Collett TS, Carle D,
Weatherill B, Satoh T and Inoue T: Overview of
Pressure-Drawdown Production-Test Results for the
JAPEX/JNOC/GSC et al. Mallik 5L-38 Gas Hydrate
Production Research Well, in Dallimore SR and
Collett TS (eds): Scientific Results from the Mallik

2002 Gas Hydrate Production Research Well Program,

Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories, Canada:
Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 585, 2005,
available at http://geoscan.ess.nrcan.gc.ca/cgi-bin/
starfinder/0?path=geoscan.fl&id=fastlink&pass=
&search=R%3D220702&format=FLFULL (accessed
April 1, 2010).
42. Yamamoto K and Dallimore S: Aurora-JOGMECNRCan Mallik 2006-2008 Gas Hydrate Research Project
Progress, Fire in the Ice (Summer 2008): 15, http://
www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/
Hydrates/Newsletter/HMNewsSummer08.pdf#Page=1
(accessed February 17, 2010).
43. Energy from Gas Hydrates: Assessing the Opportunities
& Challenges for Canada, Report in Focus (July 2008),
http://www.scienceadvice.ca/documents/(2008_07_07)_
GH_Report_in_Focus.pdf (accessed January 27, 2010).
44. Hancock et al, reference 41.

31

assembly was installed before testing to limit

sand influx into the wellbore (left). The 6-day
test was highly successful, with sustained gas
flows ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 m3/d [70 to
140 Mcf/d].45 Operations continued smoothly at
three target drawdown pressures. The Mallik
tests successfully demonstrated a field-scale
proof-of-concept for gas production from hydrates
by depressurization using conventional oilfield
technologies adapted for arctic conditions.

Water

Gas

Permafrost zone

650

Depth, m

ESP
Gas separator
Heater

890

Pressure and
temperature sensors

1,070

Sand screen
1,100

Bridge plug
Aquifers

> Well completion for the Mallik 2008 depressurization production test. An
electric submersible pump (ESP) installed above the perforations
depressurized the formation by lowering the water level in the well. Sand
screens prevented sand influx from the unconsolidated formation into the
borehole. Hydrate dissociation produced gas and water. After gas-water
separation, gas flowed to the surface, and produced water was sampled
then reinjected in a separate water-disposal well. (Adapted from Yamamoto
and Dallimore, reference 42.)

Flowing bottomhole pressure

Flowing bottomhole temperature (FBHT)
Hydrate-stability pressure at initial FBHT

4
3

10

End flow
period 2

End flow
period 3

4
2
0

End flow
period 1
0

Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 22
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 22

10

11

Flowing bottomhole temperature, C

Flowing bottomhole pressure, MPa

12

Test time, h

> Gas hydrate production test. An MDT tool was used to reduce well pressure
by drawing water from a layer containing high saturations of gas hydrate.
Between fluid-withdrawal, or flow, periods, the pump was shut off, pressure
build-up was monitored and gas and water samples were collected. During
the first flow period the bottomhole pressure (blue) was kept above the
hydrate-stability pressure (green), so no methane was produced. During the
second and third flow periods the bottomhole pressure was decreased to
below the stability pressure, allowing the gas hydrate to dissociate and gas to
be produced. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 51.)

32

Gas Hydrate Production in Alaska

The USGS has studied gas hydrate accumulations
in the Alaska North Slope and currently estimates
they contain between 25.2 and 157.8 Tcf [714 and
4,468 billion m3] of undiscovered technically
recoverable natural gas.46 Much of this resource
occurs within gas hydrate deposits near existing
oil and gas production facilities (next page).47
Early work on hydrates in this area dates to
1972, when ARCO and Exxon drilled, cored and
tested methane hydrates in the Northwest Eileen
State-2 well.48 However, that testing indicated
subcommercial production rates; as a result,
Alaskas gas hydrate zones were not considered
45. Report in Focus, reference 43.
46. Assessment of Gas Hydrate Resources on the North
Slope, Alaska, 2008, U.S. Geological Survey, Fact
Sheet 2008-3073 (October 2008), http://pubs.usgs.
gov/fs/2008/3073/pdf/FS08-3073_508.pdf (accessed
January 18, 2010).
47. Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Reservoir
Characterization, National Methane Hydrates R&D
Program, US Department of Energy, http://www.
netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/futuresupply/
methanehydrates/projects/DOEProjects/Alaska-41332.
html (accessed January 18, 2010).
48. Collett TS: Natural Gas Hydrates of the Prudhoe Bay
and Kuparuk River Area, North Slope, Alaska, AAPG
Bulletin 77, no. 5 (May 1993): 793812.
49. BP Drills Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Test Well to
Assess Potential Energy Resource, BP press release
(February 2007), http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.
do?categoryId=2012968&contentId=7028944 (accessed
January 18, 2010).
50. Boswell R, Hunter R, Collett T, Digert S, Hancock S,
Weeks M and Mount Elbert Science Team:
Investigation of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Sandstone
Reservoirs at the Mount Elbert Stratigraphic Test
Well, Milne Point, Alaska, Proceedings of the 6th
International Conference on Gas Hydrates, Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada, July 610, 2008.
51. Anderson BJ, Wilder JW, Kurihara M, White MD,
Moridis GJ, Wilson SJ, Pooladi-Darvish M, Masuda Y,
Collett TS, Hunter RB, Narita H, Rose K and Boswell R:
Analysis of Modular Dynamic Formation Test Results
from the Mount Elbert-01 Stratigraphic Test Well,
Milne Point Unit, North Slope of Alaska, Proceedings
of the 6th International Conference on Gas Hydrates,
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, July 610, 2008.
52. Collett T and Boswell R: The Identification of Sites for
Extended-Term Gas Hydrate Reservoir Testing on the
Alaska North Slope, Fire in the Ice (Summer 2009):
1216, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/
publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewsSummer09.
pdf (accessed January 27, 2010).
53. US DOE, reference 47.
54. Report in Focus, reference 43.

Oilfield Review

as potential gas reservoirs but were treated as

drilling hazards to be dealt with as deeper targets
were developed.
The recent assessment of Alaska gas hydrates
as a resource began in 2001 with a cooperative
research program between BP Exploration
Alaska Inc., the US Department of Energy and
the USGS. BP provided a 3D seismic survey over
its Milne Point production unit. Through analysis
of the 3D seismic data, public well logs and reservoir modeling studies, USGS scientists identified
several potential accumulations. The highest
ranked prospect was selected for acquisition of
well log and core data.
In 2007 the project team drilled and collected
data from the Mount Elbert gas hydrate research
well.49 Hydrate-bearing formations were encountered 1,800 to 2,500 ft [550 to 760 m] below the
surface. As a precaution against hydrate dissociation and hole destabilization, oil-base drilling
fluid was chilled to below 32F [0C]. The resulting borehole remained in gauge, enabling highquality data collection.
Data include LWD and extensive wireline
openhole logs, more than 500 ft [152 m] of continuous core, and MDT pressure tests. Log analysis
confirmed the presence of 100 ft of hydratesaturated sand in which porosities reach 40%,
intrinsic permeabilities are in the multiple-Darcy
range and hydrate saturations vary between 45%
and 75%.50
Nuclear magnetic resonance logs indicate
the presence of mobile water even in the most
hydrate-saturated intervals. Mobile water, which
is removed from the formation to initiate depressurization, appears to be a prerequisite for
producing methane from gas hydrate reservoirs
that are not otherwise in contact with free gas
or water.
The MDT tests exhibited a variety of results
depending on drawdown pressures.51 During the
first flow period the test interval was intentionally held at pressures above the hydrate equilibrium pressure; hydrate dissociation did not occur
and no gas was produced (previous page, bottom). In the second and third flow periods the
well pressures were below the gas hydratestability pressure and gas was produced. The pressure responses were successfully modeled using
reservoir simulators.
A key observation of the simulation studies is
that short-term tests do not necessarily indicate
the fully developed flow behavior of a gas hydrate
reservoir. The pore space available for fluid flow
changes as hydrate dissociates. For example, in

Spring 2010

Alaska USA CANADA

Point Barrow
Prudhoe Bay

ARCTIC

OC E AN

Northern Alaska gas hydrate

total petroleum system
National Petroleum
ReserveAlaska
Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge
0
0

km

100
mi

Mount Elbert well

100

Kuparuk
River
oil field

Milne Point 3D
seismic survey

Prudhoe Bay
oil field

> Gas hydrates in Alaska. The northern Alaska gas hydrate total petroleum system is shaded in
blue-gray. The limit of the gas hydratestability zone is outlined in red. The area covered by the 3D
seismic survey is shown as a red-dashed rectangle. (Modified from USGS Fact Sheet 2008-3073,
reference 46).

the Mount Elbert case, when the well pressure Early Days for Hydrates
was greater than the hydrate-stability pressure, The current state of understanding of the producin situ effective permeability was 0.12 to 0.17 mD. ibility of gas from hydrates is analogous to that of
Decreasing the wellbore pressure to below the coalbed methane and heavy-oil sands about
level required for hydrate stability caused disso- 30years ago.54 Although recovery from both coalciation of hydrate within the pore space, and the bed methane formations and oil sands took seveffective permeability increased.
eral decades to become commercially viable, it is
To conduct extended production tests in the too early to determine the development horizon
Alaska North Slope, scientists will need year- of gas hydrate resources.
round access to a wellsite with existing
infraOilfield
Review As far as resource supply and access are con10 cerned, several countries are optimistic about the
structure. Seven potential surface Spring
locations
23
within the Prudhoe Bay, Kuparuk RiverHydrates
and MilneFig. potential
of gas hydrates to meet future energy
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 23
Point fields have been evaluated.52 A site in the needs. Japan, India, China and South Korea, all
Prudhoe Bay field has been identified as optimal countries that import oil and gas, have launched
because of its combination of low geologic risk, programs to explore the possibilities of unlocking
low operational risk, maximal operational flexi- methane from the hydrate cage. As with other
bility and promise of meaningful reservoir unconventional resources, development of hydrate
response. BP and the other companies with work- reserves will undoubtedly benefit from technoloing interest in the site are discussing plans for gies originally designed for conventional oil and
gas exploration and production.
LS
long-term production testing there.53

33