G INTRODUCTION The objective piping stress analysis is to assure safety against failure of the piping system, prevent overloading of associated structural elements and terminal equipment from both internal and extemal factors that would apply strain or forces to the system. This to be undertaken with the best economic considerations. The prime factors are internal pressure and thermal strain. In order to deal with strain some understanding of piping HEXiDItity and the resolution of the forces ‘moments and stresses must be known. Before delving into the complexities of piping flexibility for thermal stain it is worth considering other factors that could prejudice the integrity of a piping system. But the first consideration that must be undertaken will be the calculation for the wall thickness of the pipework. ‘There are three significant documents at the start of a project, the P & I D, the Line list and the Pipe Spec. ‘The engineer responsible for the Pipe Spec must calculate and seiect suitable wall thicknesses for the pipes listed on the other two documents. These thicknesses will determine the weight of the pipe, its stiffness and are a key factor in the determination of the stresses as will be shown later. Pressure stress The three principle factors are (a) Temperature of the fluid conveyed in the pipework. ( see line list) From this an allowable stress for the pipe material can be determined (see piping code of practice) (b) The pressure of the fluid conveyed in the pipework. (see line list) (c) The size of the pipework (see line list and P & [ D) Alll piping wall thickness calculations are based on the thin wall cylinder formulae which are an approximation of the thick wall formulae.Derivation of Hoop Stress from first principles Load=pxd ‘Area = 2xt Stress = Load/ Area =pd/2t 4 4 Derivation of longitudinal Stress from first principles Load x {ax (d?)/ 4} mx \ Area = nxdxt [ I Stress = Load / Area i w = pd/at As can be seen above the hoop stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress for the same pressure and diameter. This has significant influence on design as can be seen later, ‘Therefore the hoop stress is the maximum stress. Therefore wail thickness calculations will always be based on the Hoop stress. formulae for all the codes of practice that we are going to consider. TEAC el At this point it can be seen that at the max. pressure the stresses from pressure are only half the allowable stress. This permits Stresses from factors like deadweight bending to be up to half the allowable stress. Example ; Pipe nom dia = 350 (14"), actual outside dia. 356mm. temp. = 200°C (392°F), pressure 10 bar approx. 1 n/mm* Material API SL Grade B From Table A-1 we can see that the allowable stress is 20.0 kpsi as this is an Ameriacan code we must divide by 0.145 to bring it to n/mm? = 138 n/mm* Max stress = p.d /2t_from which =p.d 2 x (Max stress)= 1356/2 x 138 = 13mm Let us consider a weld joint factor (see table 302.3.4) For API SL see a factor of 0.95 From which the min wall thickness will be 1.3 / 0.95 = 1.37 mm If we add in an allowance for corrosion, say 1.6 mm we get a min. thickness of 137+1.6= 2.97 mm Should the manufacturing allowance be -12.5% then the min thickness will be 2.97 / 0.873 3.39 mm It is probable that the piping engineer will select a wall thickness of 9.5 mm for ready availability and general mechanical strength. We are aware that Temperature and Pressure are the significant factors governing the stresses created in piping systems. ‘There are others however which should be considered also and which will be 2 problem from time to time. These other influences for stress are Vacuum Nozzle movement Self weight Wind load Settlement Contents weight Wave Load Insulation weight RV forces Earthquake ‘The factors listed above can be divided into two distinct forms as follows Self Limiting Stress. - Generated by Deflection (Generally thermal)RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE 2 S ANALYSIS Lecture Nol puseNos Sustained Suess - Generated by Load (Deadweight or Pressure) The allowable swesses for these two influences are based on different concepts, first however we should consider the assumptions used to determine the basic allowable stresses in our materials . Allowable stresses. Allowable stresses as specified in the various codes are Generally given in terms of certain characteristic material properties and are typically classified as being either time independent or time dependant. Time independent allowables are related either to the initial yield stress or the tensile strength as measured in a simple tensile test, see fig. 1. The yield stress is the elastic limit, that is stresses below this value are proportional to strain and when the stresses are removed there is no permanent distortion of the tensile specimen. 0.2% fig. 1 Tensile test in a ductile material The elastic limit is often difficult to determine, especially for ductile materials as shown in fig. 1, and instead the so-called 0.2% proof stress may be used. The tensile strength is the highest stress which the specimen can accommodate without failure. Care is often needed in defining a suitable stress value since at strain levels close toLecmuce No.l Page Nos failure the specimen is either necking or suffering some other damage so that the simple definition of stress as a load over area needs to be modified, From the codes we can see that ANS] B31.1 permits the smaller of 1/4 of the tensile strength or 5/8 of the yield strength. However B31.3 uses the lower of 1/3 of the tensile strength or 2/3 of the yield strength. BS806 uses a factor of 0.9 or 0.8 on the 0.2% proof stress. However both BS806 and ANSI 31.3 use time dependant allowables at the higher temperatures. ‘The time dependant allowable is usually related to the "creep rupture strength” at high ‘temperature. At temperatures above 1/3 of the melting point most metals will exhibit creep in a standard tensile test, if the load is kept constant the specimen will continue to deform with time as shown below. €R Under constant load the rate of creep strain will decrease initially to a steady state and later will increase rapidly until the specimen ultimately fails due to creep rupture. ‘These three phases of creep are usually termed primary, secondary and tertiary. ‘The important point here is that if creep is present the specimen will fail at most stress levels, but as the stress level decreases the time to rupture increase. Results from many creep tests at the same temperature but at different initial stress levels can be cross plotted as a creep rupture curves giving time to rupture for a given initial stress( see fig below).RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS. ‘Lecture Now Page Nog However such cross plots invariably give rise to high degree of scatter and it is more appropriate to define scatter bands for a specified time and to use the minimum and average stresses from this band. 4g Go I stress logt, Time to rupture Lengtine a newt ‘Stcasraptare kate fer Nine 201, totleg pat, ‘The code we shall be using (B31.3) thus uses an allowable which is the smaller of time independent and the time dependant allowable stress. The time dependant allowable stress is then the smallest of 67% of the average sess to cause creep rupture in 100,000 hours, 80% of the minimum stress to cause rupture in 100,000 hours or 100% of the stress to give 0.01% creep rate per hour,The self limiting stresses in piping systems are essentially cyclic and the initial hot stresses, if they are of sufficient magnitude, will decrease with time because of the plastic strains and will reappear as a stress of reversed direction wien the pipe cools. This phenomenon forms the basic difference self limiting stresses and the sustained stresses from weight and pressure. Plastic strains can decrease the magnitude of thermal stresses by a change in the shape of the pipe centre line. This change in shape has no effect on sustained weight and pressure stresses. For this reason sustained stresses are limited to the design stress at the highest operating temperature. This phenomenon is called self springing of the pipe and is similar to the effect of cold springing the pipe. The degree of self springing will depend on the magnitude of the initial hot stresses aad the temperature, so that while the hot stresses will gradually decrease with time, the sum of the hot and cold stresses will stay the same. This sum we call the EXPANSION STRESS RANGE Because it is the sum of hot and cold stresses no reduction can be taken for any cold spring applied during erection. The concept of a constant expansion stress range leads us of to the selection of an allowable expansion stress range. Since self springing occurs at the higher temperature then the maximum stresses must occur 1" the cold condition. From this we must calculate our stresses to the cold modula. of elasticity Resultant stress range. For materials below the creep range the allowable stresses are 62.5% of the yield stress, so that a conservative estimate of where the of the bending stress at which plastic flow starts at an elevated temperature is |.6Sh and by the same reasoning 1.63¢ will be the stress at which flow would take place at the minimum temperature . ence the sum of these stresses represents the maximum stress range 10 which a system: could be subjected to without flow occurring in either the hot or cold condition. .6(Sc+Sh) therefore Smax But ANSI B31.3, tne code to which most of us work, limits the stress range to 78% of the yield stress which gives a total stress range of Sa= 1.25(Sc+Sh)( RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE —PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS ‘Lecture No. Page No.8 From this total stress range 0.5Sh is deducted for the pressure stress and 0.5Sh is deducted for the deadweight stresses, giving us an allowable stress range of Sa= 1.25Se+0.25Sh ‘There are reductions for excessive cyclic conditions and credits allowed for unused sustained allowables, all of this we will come to later. Primarily it is thermal strain to which the stress engineer will For this his function will be to :- (@) To evaluate the conditions which will ultimately govern the amount of flexibility (b) To determine just how much flexibility is reqd. Under (a) there are two main considerations, (1) The maximum stress range for the material considering temperature and cyclic conditions. (2) Permitted reactions on connected equipment. It is invariable that where machinery is concerned the allowable reactions will almost always override the max stress range allowable. Under (b) The stress analyst can adopt one of the following (1) Accept the layout based on past experience (2) Undertake 2 simple approximate method of stress evaluation (3) Perform a comprehensive analysis using accepted software. All the above must be undertaken within the limits laid down by the code of practice specified at the start of the contract.Codes of Practice ANSI B31.3 - Petroleum Refinery Piping This is the most widely used Code in use today and has almost certainly been the basis for many other codes now in operation and will be the code that will form the basis of these lectures. Ithas several associated codes which are as follows ANSI B31.1 Power Piping Code (Power Stations etc) ANSIB31.4 Oil Transportation (Oil Pipelines) ANSIB31.8 Gas Transportation (Gas Pipelines) Duppeex Corecess [Tesonc GSreess- leao ‘azn (2nrb) PDeseny Greece Bessy Sheer ae Searns Moouus 2 Zs: wrt (cm?)& RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE APPENDIX PIPING STRESS ANALYSISASME 8313-1993 Ealtion ‘Table 3023.4 TABLE a6 Loncrrupinal WELD JOINT QUALITY FACTOR 6) Teel = = = = =. fe ae ree ioe ae pee — eee neon 7 eS apes erent Ss a | ™ iced eceaten | ate 7 ea are aioe ae ferent im Ea naa peck Cia oe cB pda st oe ‘soma er etree va ler mead samoray wos | 0 etn) evra eases ren Tamweat | wy = ee ale om | eons fees eo a Fo aad te red a eee ee reat mona Secease en Srasneae eee a amr ee es Some foestan ea RE Tae | SE ss car eas soe seen ies cae ae oo ea {actor by addtional exarmoation for joint 1, 2, 2¢ 43. (2 Tes nt permite 10 increase the int qua 7Table Dt ASME/ANST B313-1987 APPENDIX D FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTORS ta) TABLE D-1° FLEXIBILITY FACTOR & AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTOR / ‘Stress Intensification Flexbitty Factor tNotes@.O—preipty Factor! Out-plane—Implane Characteristic Description + is * a Sketch ri, Welding ebew or pps bend 2.65, 975 9 2 (Notes (2), (4721 * pe 2 Km van (©) closey spaces miter bend os cue fi 7 pencs und) 5 ro ty exes (2, 18), 20 r (©) Single miter vend or wicey 2.52 as os : + ‘paced miter bend =e a 3 es =aFi., Pond = tne Motes 2, c,d a Ba, 2 Weidng tee per ANS! a 99 He gat 169 wan Fe * 2 al 73st fe Utes 2, 4), (1, 2) ‘Notes tots Table folow on 2. 223.& ASME/ANSI 313-1987 Edition Table D-t TABLE D-12 (CONT’D) FLEXIBILITY FACTOR & AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTOR / 100 | Flexibility facor for tions = 1.6510 «| Flexibility foto to, 40) mites #15206 30] ‘Stresinteniication fete 1= 0.97089 ‘Stress intensification ftecrori= 0.75/82 O10 015 0203 ©. Caracteratie cmart A 1.00 0.75} oso} : oa7s| t 1 2 Ends Hanged cy =n 02s Notes to this Table ‘low on next pase: 27ASME/ANST B313-1987 Ealtioa Table Dt TABLE D-I* (CONT'D) FLEXIBILITY FACTOR & AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTOR / Suess intesfeaton prennnty Fast Nets D.C paeay Factor Out-plane—Inplane —_Churactense Desenption i i " siete enforces fabricated toe 2 en wih pad or sacche = SS lots (2, (4, 3 y 7 a Unreinforce fabricated ee 1 oo wee — a? Cotes (2), (40 - 5 J a 7 r ey 2 feo t =I 7p = 0050, - fir, Reis eye Ghote (2, ca te Weldedin contour inser 2 os Meh sa oy a aes F Rez ust q i Cotes (2, c, a te 2ranen weised-on tng 1 oo os integral veinorces) = Es ots (2, a, Suess Frexity —Imesieavon Description Facwrk —Fecori eer ee Butt welds jon, reducer, wel eck Range 2 1 Double-weisessle-on flange 1 2 Filet weld jon, or socket wel Range 2 2 La jin Mange (with ANSI 816.9 ap jot stb) 3 1 Threaded sce jm, or tended Ange : a 5 2s Comugated straight pine, or corrugated or ceased bend (Note (200) x6 Aotes to this Tate follow on p. 228.@) 51984-3196 For branch (Leg 3): VOMY UMD = z 20) where Sy = resultant bending stress Z, = effective section modulus for branch, = are Ts ean mean branch cross-sectional radius effective branch wall thickness, leser of T, and TR) thickness of pipe matching run of tee or header exclusive of reinforcing elements hickness of pipe matching branch outplane stress intensification factor (Appen- dix D) 4, = inplane stress intensification factor (Appen- dix Dy (d) Allowable stress range S, and permissible addi- tive stresses shall be computed in accordance with para. 3023.54). 319.45 Required Weld Quality Assurance. Any weld at which Sp exceeds 0.85, (as defined in para. 302.3.5) for any portion of a piping system, and the equivalent number of cycles N exceeds 7000, shall be fully examined in accordance with para. 341.4.3. 319.5 Reactions, Metallic Piping Reaction forces and moments to be used in design of restraints and supports for a piping system, and in evaluating the eects of piping displacements on con~ nected equipment, shall be based on the reaction range R for the extreme displacement conditions, considering he temperature range defined in para. 319.3.1(), and using E,. The designer shall consider instantaneous maximum values of forces and moments in the original and extreme displacement conditions (see para. 319.2.3), as well as the reaction range, in making these evalua- tions. 3195.1 Maximum Reactions for Simple Systems. For a two-anchor piping system without intermediate restraints, the maximum instantaneous values of reac- tion forces and moments may be estimated from Eqs. (22) and 23). (a) For Extreme Displacement Conditions, Rj, The temperature for this computation is the maximum or minimum metal temperature defined in para. 319.3.10), whichever produces the larger reaction: renal) @ [ASME/ANST 5313-1987 Edition where C = cold-spring factor varying from zero for n0 cold spring to 1.0 for 100% cold spring. The factor two-thirds is based on experience which shows that specified cold spring cannot be fully assured, even with elaborate precau- tions.) E, = modulus of elasticity at installation tempers- ture Eq, = modulus of elasticity at maximum or mini mum metal temperature R= range of reaction forces or moments (derived from flexibility analysis) corresponding to the full displacement stress range and based on Ey A, = estimated instantaneous maximum reaction force or moment at maximum or minimum ‘metal temperanure (©) For Original Condition, R, . The temperature for this computation is the expected temperature at which the piping is to be assembled. Ry = CR of CR, whichever is greaer where nomenclature is as in (a) sbove and 23) = estimated self-spring or relaxation factor, use zero if value of C, is negative. AR, = estimated instantaneous reaction force or mo- ment at installation temperature Se = computed displacement stress range (see para. 319.44) Sy = see definition im para. 302.3.5(¢) 3195.2 Maximum Reactions for Complex Systems. For multianchor piping systems and for two-anchor systems with intermediate restraints, Eqs. (22) and (23) are not applicable. Each case must be studied to esti= ‘mate location, nature, and extent of local overstrain, and its effect on stress distribution and reactions. 319.6 Calculation of Movements, Metallic Piping Calculations of displacements and rotations at spe- cige locations may be required where clearance prob- lems are involved. In cases where small-size branch lines attached to stiffer main lines are to be calculated separately, the linear and angular movements of the (a)© ‘ Table Di ASME/ANSI 8313-1987 Edicion TABLE D-1 (CONT'D) Notes: 15) Par Code references ta this Append, see para. 329.3.6. The data in Table 0-1 are for use inthe absence of more crectiy applicable dats. (G) The Mesty factor £ in the Table doplies to bending in any plane. The Rexbility factors k and stres intensification factors / sal aot e's than unity factors for tersion equal unity. Both factors apply over the effective arc length (shown By heavy center Hines in 2 ‘ketches) for curved ad miter Bends, and to the intersection poit fr tees. (a) A slog intenstieation factor equal to.0.9/2 7 may be used for Doth J and lif desires. Ga) She vanes of and ean be reas evecty from Chart A by entering with the characteristic computed from the formulas given above. menciature 25 flows. TF for elbows an miter bends, the nominal wal thickness of te Ating TZ for tees the nominal wall thiekness of the matching pipe Ti, = the eaten thiceness of tees T, = pat or sade thickness 15m one-half ange between adjacent miter axes fy = mean rads of matching pipe & bend rads of welding ebew or pipe Bend see deintion in para. 304344@) titer spacing at centerline 1, = outside diameter of Branca (5) Where Ranges are attached to one or both ends, the values of kad inthe Table shall be corrected by the factors Gy, which canbe eas tirecty from Chart 8, entering With the computed (6) The designe seautioned tat cast buttweldes tings may have considerably heavier walls than that of the pipe wth which they are wed, Large erors may be oroduced unless the effect ofthese greater thcknesss is consered. (a) Iniarge diameter tharwall bows and bends, pressure ean signfcarty affect the mageitoges of k and .Te correct values from the Table, aay be ()("@)") b=)" 8)" (9) The designer most be sitised that this fabrication nas @ pressure rating evant to serait pipe. (20) Factors shown apply to bending. Flenlity factor fr torsion equals 09. ‘Vmon the rads ana ‘Scaness mits are not met fr this component, and inthe absence of mere directly applicable data (see para. 325 the srensimtenifeation factor ved sal Be that for an unrenfored fabreates tee. vide i by 28(e) ASME B313-1990 Edition quake forces need not be considered as acting concur- rently. (b) Test. Stresses due to test conditions are not sub- ject to the limitations in para. 302.3. Itis not necessary to consider other occasional loads, such as wind and earthquake, as occurring concurrently with test loads. 302.4 Allowances In determining the minimum required thickness of a piping component, allowances shall be included for corrosion, erosion, and thread depth or groove depth. See definition for ¢ in para. 304.1.1(b). 302.4.1 Mechanical Strength. When necessary, the wall thickness shall be increased to prevent over stress, damage, collapse, or buckling due to superim- ‘posed loads from supports, ice formation, backfill, or other causes. Where increasing the thickness would ‘excessively increase local stresses or the risk of brittle fracture, of is otherwise impracticable, the required strength may be obtained through additional supports, braces, or other means without an increased wall thick- ness. Particular consideration should be given to the ‘mechanical strength of small pipe connections to piping ‘or equipment. PART 2 PRESSURE DESIGN OF PIPING ‘COMPONENTS 303 GENERAL ‘Components manufactured in accordance with stan~ ‘dards listed in Table 326.1 shall be considered suitable for use at pressure-temperature ratings in accordance ‘with para. 302.2.1. The rules in para. 304 are intended for pressure design of components not covered in Table 326.1, but may be used for a special or more rigorous design of such components. Designs shall be checked for adequacy of mechanical strength under applicable loadings enumerated in para. 301. 304 PRESSURE DESIGN OF COMPONENTS: 304.1 Straight Pipe 304.1.1 General (a) The required thickness of straight sections of pipe shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 2): « @ 19 3023.6-304.11 TABLE 306.11 VALUES OF COEFFICIENT Y FORE < D/6 Temperature, F OTe 1059 L160 Ti Materals (482) a E lower (66) 599) Femue oe 05 07 oF ‘ees pumente = «040K OA 04 0S OT ‘nels Otner ductile 04 04 04 04 04 04 metals catien 00 ‘The minimum thickness for the pipe selected, consider- ing manufacturer's minus tolerance, shall be not less than fy. (@) The following nomenclature is used in the equa tions for pressure design of straight pipe. tq = minimum required thickness, including me- chanical, corrosion, and erosion allowances 1 = pressure design thickness, as calculated in ac- cordance with para. 304.1.2 for internal pres- sure or as determined in accordance with pars. 304.1.3 for external pressure ¢ = the sum of the mechanical allowances (thread cor groove depth) plus corrosion and erosion allowances. For threaded components, the ‘nominal thread depth (dimension it of ASME B1.20.1, or equivalent) shall apply. For ma- chined surfaces or grooves where the tolerance is not specified, the tolerance shall be assumed to be 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) in addition to the spe~ cified depth of the cut. d = inside diameter of pipe. For pressure desien caloulation, the inside diameter of the pipe is the maximum value allowable under the pur- chase specification. internal design gage pressure outside diameter of pipe quality factor from Table A-IA or A-IB stress value for material from Table A-1 = pipe wall thickness (measured or minimum per purchase specification) Coefficient from Table 304.1.1, valid for ¢ < D/6 and for materials shown. The value of ¥ may be interpolated for intermediate tem- peratures. x Nomby& 30235 ASME 831.3-1993 Edition TABLE 302.330? ‘TABLE 30235, ACCEPTANCE LEVELS FOR CASTINGS ‘STRESS-RANGE REDUCTION FACTORS f Merial ‘Acepance—Accepale ytes Factor # Examined Appleae Level Disconti: Toceness) Standard (or Cass) es 7,000 anes, 1 over 7000 t2 14,000 ay Steet ASIMEWe 1 -TweABe (ver 14,000 to 22,00 a8 ‘to Lie) Over 22,000 t 45,000 ar 25 mm ‘ver 45,000 to 100,000 os ‘ver 109,000 to 200,000 es tet ASTME Me 2 TresABLC ‘ver 200,000 to 700,000 on (ove Lin ‘ver 709,000 ta 2,000,000 3 zm as wa am Steet ASTM E186 2 Catepries A. 8, € . (ove 2 in. to f= stress range reduction factor‘, from Table 4M in) 302.3.5 or calculated by Eq. (Ie)*: (stem to 24 mm) f= 6OIN]~™ < 10 (ie) Steet ASTME 280-2 Catepores A,B,C (over 4 in where ee IV = equivalent numberof full displacement cycles ear during the expected service life of the piping system. ° Amina & ASTM E285 When the computed stress range varies, whether mares from thermal expansion or other conditions, Sz is de- ae sacs, sa, eo ‘Sed a5 the greatest computed displacement stress ea cee ere z Codes A Sa, 6 range. The value of W in such cases can be calculated rear AsTWEs0 2 Codes Aand 8 by Eq, (1d): OTE: (2 Tits of standards referenced in this Table are as fotos ASTM 155 Reference Radiographs for Inspection of Aluminum and Magnesiom Castons Reference Radiogapas for HeawrWalleé [2 to 4-¥>in. (Si to 124-wn) Stee Castings Reference Radiograps fer High-Strength Copper-Base ‘and Nike Copper Castings Aelerence adiogrants for Heay-Waled (4-¥2 to 12-in. (Lie to 305-cend) Steel Castings Reference Raciographs for Tin Bronze Castings Reference Radiographs for Stee Castings Up t 2 in. (52 rr) in Thies | © 186 em € 20 e310 In Eqs (1a) and (1b): 5, = basic allowable stress? at minimum metal tem- perature expected ‘during the displacement cycle under analysis S, = basic allowable stress? at maximum metal ‘temperature expected during the displacement cycle under analysis =~ eo ee where ‘Nz = mumber of cycles of maximum computed dis- placement stress range, Se = SS S, = any ‘computed displacement siress. range smaller than Sz 1N, = number of eycles associated with displacement stress range S,. 5For casings, the base allowable strc shall be multiplied by the applicable cong quality sesr ,. For longitudinal welds the bese “Ebwable res nnd ot be elt by the weld quality factor, “applic to csenially voncorrdd piping. Corrosion can sharply octave cyclic Ife therefore, corroson reastantraterias should ‘Se conaerad where » lage bumber Of major stress cycles am ‘ipated. Equation (1c) dee not apply beyond approsimately 2X 10* ees Selection of factors beyond ? > 10 cycles isthe deniers respon sili. The designers ruined that the fatigue lie of materials operate st cevated temperature may be reduoad.Table AT ASME 8313-1993 Edition ‘TABLE A-1 (CONT'D) BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN TENSION FOR METALS? Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Notes for Appendix A Tables; Specifications Are ASTM Unless Otherwise Indicated Soectes Min, fo ‘Sueogth, ist flees ee twa Fal Teme vas wm even “2 sn = . os fre ws ~0 : =e . wos =| we “3 5 ~ eR mo ma sno xe 0 eae ve 2 8 8 Bo Ro ie veo ewe mm gues 68% ene gD SS 8 me oORB ome Gwaun sea ms Asisenes Aen ces sn sr fhseces ken 2 cas hiseces Rez i ws Ls enum re ee eae aheeces hoe 2 ts apo e = “2 ze no : wi 3k GUD & ze Bo Ghinne br SD S&B =a Asse 70 am ee nun memos ibis en 90 hi 1 eee Abie 70 Ate oe b emun ms fies 70 Awe i oe : Mie ote o ee ee eT) kived re (cae en asian awe we Lan 2 soe asrar Aen cust, . wns spate Tw Gneoo “er a auepop a @ (cmon asst 0 2 Met 14ASME B313.1993 Edition Table Aa TABLE A-1 (CONT'D) BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN TENSION FOR METALS ‘Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Notes for Appendix A Tables; Specifications Are ASTM Uniess Otherwise Indicated Bae Abate Sires 5 (Dt Meal Temperature. F 7 Seee ee a aon Stet Cant) oes and Tubes 2) (Cone) ie na zoo sss tela as very an i : : his : Re zal] . - Seats ees een ea een fag ee eee eee aul : Be cas a as = " 155SCOPE OF CODE RULES ‘The Piping Specification for any contract should nominate the Code which is to be used so that no useful purpose is served by continuing a mere list. Let us instead consider the various aspects of the design of a piping system which must be dealt with by any Code worthy of such a description and which are of importance to the Stress Engineer in the exercise of his duties. Every such Piping Code will contain recommendations, or mandatory requirements, on the following design topics: a) Thickness of the pipe to withstand intemal pressure. b) Thickness of the pipe to withstand external pressure vacuums. c) Reinforcement requirements for branch connections. 4) Minimum flexibility requirements for thermal expansion. e) Allowable stresses for various piping materials. ) Support criteria. Itis in the matter of the Stress Analyst demonstrating compliance with the requirements coming under headings (c), (d) and (e) on the one hand and the Piping Designer achieving a practical and economic layout on the other that disagreement usually arises. We will not consider each of the above topics in tum to see how they affect the Stress Engineer. a) Thickness of pipe for internal pressure (sustained stress) [As discussed in the first lecture the elementary theory gives us the following relationship between the internal pressure, the diameter, the thickness and the circumferential or ‘hoop’ stress in a cylinder: pD=2f.1. the internal pressure the mean diameter of the cylindrical shell ‘the "hoop” stress the thickness of the wall of the cylinder Obviously, the units must be consistent throughout. All major Codes use a more refined expression of the form: B.Do 2(SE+PY) In this expression the various terms have the following meanings: the minimum required thickness of the pipe wall the ‘design’ internal pressure the outside diameter of the pipeRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 2 Page:2 = the allowable stress in the material at ‘design’ temperature the joint efficiency factor for longitudinal seams. a factor which takes account of the material properties and the ‘design’ temperature. The values of this for various materials can be found at the end of these lecture notes ‘The use of this expression is best illustrated by means of an example: t= PDo +c where'c' is the corrosion allowance specified 2(SE*+PY)RICHMOND UPONTHAMES COLLEGE = =— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lesture No: 2 Page:3 If we re look at the example on page 2 of lecture no 2 with the modifications shown above then we find the min thickness to be 1x 356/2.(138x0.95+[1x04]) =135 mm ‘As you can see this is only 4% greater than basic thin wall cylinder method. Until quite recently, it has been the custom is the Petrochemical Industry, for the wall thicknesses to be calculated by the department responsible for the Piping Specification. However, the trend in process design conditions has meant that, in some cases, internal pressure is not governing for wall thickness and the tendency in certain organisations is for the piping Stress Section to advise their requirements on wall thickness to the Engineering Dept. concemed with specifications. It should be noted that the pipe wall thickness may be governed not by the internal pressure, but by the mechanical strength. The methods used to determine the mechanical strength are varied and complex. b) Rei ents fc is ed) ‘When a pipe which is subject to an internal pressure has a hole cut in it for a branch connection, a disc of material which would normally be carrying tensile stresses in the ‘hoop’ direction is removed, and some alternative path must be provided for the loads which were originally carried via the disc. Most Codes adopt the simplified 'Area replacement’ or ' Compensation’ approach, whereby. within a specified distance from the edge of the hole, an additional area of material is provided, equal to the area of material removed. ‘The replaced material may take the form of a reinforcing pad or of one of the proprietary forged fittings (e.g. a'Weldolet’) depending on service requirements. ‘The notion is illustrated in the sketches of fig. 1 for the case of a simple ‘pad’ type reinforcement. @) (b) (o) @ Fig. 1 Fig. 1(a) _ represents a section of pipe and shows the hoop stresses in theRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE =— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture Nox 2 Page:d vicinity of a proposed hole for a branch connection. Fig. I(b) _ shows the disc of material removed, and the hoop stresses it would normally carry. Fig. 1(c) shows an annulus having a cross sectional area of material on the section 'AA' equal to the cross section area of the disc on the diameter'AA‘. Fig. 1(@) shows the appearance of the completed branch connection. Occasionally, reinforcement has to be provided at branch intersections to cater for the stresses which arise from thermal expansion effects(seif limiting). In these cases, such reinforcement has to be called up by the Stress Engineer if itis not required by the piping Specification for pressure purposes. It should be noted that, this type of reinforcement reduces the intensified stresses that arise at branch connections. The SIF is geometric parameter used to determine fatigue stresses arising from thermal expansion. In the various Codes, the sketches of fig. | appear as a single drawing of the section ‘AA’, showing the cross section of the material to be replaced and the boundary within which the replacement material must be located. Where the wall of the pipe is thicker than the minimum required for intemal pressure, credit may be taken for the excess material when calculating the available replacement material, but always within the boundary set for reinforcement material Fig. 2 below reproduces the essential features of Fig. 304.3.3A of the ANSI B31.3 Code. Detain nceee ese 6 3043.3 BRANCH CONNECTION NOMENCLATUREw& In Fig. above, tp is the minimum thickness of material required, as given by the equation at the bottom of page 2; d, is the diameter of the branch pipe in the corroded conditions and with the wall thickness at the minimum value permitted by the specification. The required area is therefore: ty x dy ‘The boundaries of the ‘Reinforcement Zone’ are defined by the radius d2 and a height Ly extending from the outer surface of the header. These boundaries are in fact artificial and represent a zone beyond which any further reinforcement would be to far away to have any influence on the problem. q is equal to dy in the great majority of cases * Lg is the smaller of 2.5 (Th -¢) or 2.5 (Th - ©) * where: Th is the nominal thickness of the header or ‘un’ pipe Tp is the nominal thickness of the branch pipe tr is the thickness of the reinforcing ring or saddle plate. Within the ‘reinforcement zone’ any material not required for pressure purposes may be included in the ‘replacement area’ although in the case of weld metal itis usually necessary to reduce the affective area in order to compensate for 2 lower tensile strength. Example on page 3 shows the complete working It should be noted at this stage that if the header thickness after deducting manufactorers tolerances and corrossion allowances is twice as thick or more for the design pressure then no further analysis is necessary .There will be enough surplas material in the header to replace the removed material without the need to add 2 pad. *The student is referred to ANSI B31.3 section 304.3.3 for alternative values of dy which are appropriate in cases of fairly thick, small diameter pipes. [DYWEEK 2. DOCTLACSSe SeesExample (2) A250 nom. diam. pipe has design conditions of 345°C and 2.75 n/mm*. Itis made from seamless material to specification ASTM A53 Gr.B Sch.20. The corrosion allowance is 0.75 mm It hasa 100 diam. branch, Sch. 40, of the same material. What are suitable dimensions for the reinforcement if itis to be made from plate of equal quality to that of the pipe material. We start off by calculating the minimum thicknesses required for both the 250 header and the 100 branch from the basic equation: t= PD, 2. (SE + PY) Allowable stress for ASTM AS3 Gr.B at 345°C = 103.45 n/m? Forkesdes; trin = ——_2.76 5273 = 3.6mm 2. (103.45 x 1.0+ {2.76 x 0.4}) 1.51 mm, Forbranch; tin = 276x143 2. (103.45 x 1.0 + (2.76 x 0.4}) Then, Minimum thickness 250 nb Sch.20 mm, excess Minimum thickness 100 nb Sch. 40 = 5.268 mm, excess ‘The minimum thicknesses above are the nominal schedule dimensions less the 124% ‘mill tolerance’ allowed by the Standards. This then gives us the dimensions dy = 114.3 - 2. (5.26-0.75-1.51) = 108.3 dimension d= 4} Lg is the minimum of 2.5 (Tp -¢) or 2.5 (Tp -¢) ~ te i.e. is the minimum of 2.5x 5.6 or 2.5x5.3+6(say) Clearly, the first condition governs, so that Ly = 14mmRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE = =——s PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS. Lecture No: 2 Page:7 Required area = tmyin x dy = 3.6 108.3 =390 mm? Compensation area available from header = (2d - dy) x (excess thickness) = 1083x121 = 130 mm Compensation area available from branch Total compensation available without reinforcing pad = =214 mm Cross section area of pad required, = (390-2142 = 88 mm* This infers a ring of section 6 mm thk by 15 mm wide, our neglect of the area of the weld fillets making no difference in practice. It must be pointed out, however, that for a service of this severity a 'Weldolet’ would be preferred. PIPING AUXILIARIES: ‘Those elements other than straight pipe which go to make up a complete piping system may be described as "Piping Auxiliaries". They are of importance to the Stress Engineer for a variety of reasons, which are explained in this lecture, to the extent that 2 knowledge of their individual effects on the flexibility of a piping system, and the stresses in it, is essential before a calculation for anything more complicated than a straight length of pipe, can be undertaken. Included in this category are such items as bends, elbows, tee pieces, reducers, flanges, valves and so on. These will now be dealt with in their order of importance to the Stress Department, and the applicable Code requirements relating to them summarised. ELBOWS ‘These can be divided into two main categories, geometrically speaking; the short radius variety where the centreline to face dimension is made equal to the nominal diameter of the pipe, and the long radius variety which has a centreline to face dimension equal to 1 x the nominal diameter of the pipe. The use of the short radius variety tends to be restricted because it gives rise to high pressure drops, so that, where elbows must be used, the "1D" long radius elbow is almost universal in application. ‘Sometimes pipes are bent to a radius of 3 pipe diameters or even 5 diameters where the flow conditions demand a very low pressure drop; in these cases the construction is known as a “swept” or "pulled” bend. Bending of the elbows Ifa bending moment "m" is applied to the ends of a straight piece of pipe it behaves as a uniform beam and exhibits a change of slope, from end to end, given by the expression: {OWeEx-2D0CRITIANCSSe Semen— @=ML/EL And the maximum bending stress is given by fh = yM = M 4 Early attempts to analyse the stresses in piping systems containing elbows disclosed that the established structural engineering theory and the results of experiment did not agree at all well; practical piping systems were found to be far more flexible that the theory predicted and the discrepancy was shown to lie in the flexibility of the elbows. ‘The first theoretical analysis of the behaviour of pipe bends when subject to a bending moment was made by Theodore von Karman, who showed that, when a curved pipe is subjected to a bending moment in its own plane, the circular cross section becomes flattened and this results in increased flexibility. The ratio of the flexibility of bend to that of a straight pipe having the same length and cross section is known as its "Flexibility Factor’, usually denoted by the letter "k". * Other work has been carried out by Yigness, Rodabaugh, ‘and Markl since von Karman's analysis in 1911. Von Karmans original analysis gave the following: kos 202+ 10 12 A741 where 4 = Flexibility Characteristics A= RE * The theory predicts that the same flexibility factor is applicable for out of plane bending. ‘The concept is illustrated simply in the fig. below. —_| @=ML/EI O=K.ML/EI Suppose that we now consider how the flattening of the cross section occurs. Under the action of the bending moments 'M'RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE = =— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS fae. ‘Tension ek 2 DoCreTiacSsex seri /1204 ”s Compression Lecture No: 2 Page:? ordinary engineers' bending theory gives tensile stresses on the outside of the centreline 'AB' and compressor stresses on the inside surface. Now consider the forces on a thin slice taken between two radial planes "XX and 'YY’.& RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE =— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS The resultant effect on the tensile loads 'T’ in the outer fibres is an inward radial load on the element. — ‘Similarly the resultant of the compressive loads 'C’ in the inner fibres is an inward radial load onthe = = —- element. If we view the ‘slide’ as a cross section of the pipe, and draw a loading diagram for the ring which, in effect, it is we arrive at the situation shown in the next fig. Under the applied loading, the ring flattens into an ellipse with its major axis horizontal. Had the sign of the bending moment been reversed the tensile and compressive forces would have been reversed and the cross section elongated instead of flattened. If we now consider the element in more detail, we see that the flattening produces bending moments in the ring which are a maximum at the ends of the horizontal diameter where the curvature is a maximum. These moments produce a stress which varies from tension to compression through the thickness of the pipewall and which is circumferential in direction. If we consider one half of this ring, we can illustrate the stress system in a simplified form in the following way. Circumferential + stress in EF. - pipewall ‘The circumferential stress due to the moment 'M' can be many Umes the value y.M/I obtained ‘DarEEK .DOCHETACS ee Seens286RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 2 Page: by ordinary bending theory for structural members. The factor by which the circumferential stresses exceed the longitudinal stresses in the bend is called the “Stress Intensification Factor" often written SIF. One practical manifestation of the existence of these circumferential stresses is that when an elbow is subjected to repeated ‘in plane’ bending it ultimately develops a fatigue crack along its sides. When we take account of the elbows in a piping system, we are therefore able to ciaim additional flexibility due to this flattening of the elbows, but by the same token, we must also take account of the induced circumferential stresses multiplying the stresses at the bends due to the overall bending moment in the piping system by the appropriate ‘Stress Intensification Factor’. ‘The expressions to be used for calculating both the Flexibility Factor and the Stress Intensification Factor are given in the ANSI B31.3 Code. LR (nF Where: ‘T= wall thickness in inches Ry = mean radius of bend in inches 1) = mean radius of pipewall in inchesww Lecture No: 2 Page:I2 Using this parameter the B31.3 Code gives the following expressions: Flexibility Factor 1.65/h Inplane S111 .9/ he) .75 ha Outplane S.LF. To avoid confusion the directions of inplane and outplane as defined by the code are as shown on the fig below. The question might now be asked as to how two different expressions are given for the Stress Intensification Factor. The explanation is that the descriptive analysis on the previous pages has, of necessity, been very much simplified; when a rigorous mathematical examination of the problem is made, the following facts emerge: a) The Flexibility Factor applies to bending in any plane. b) The Stress Intensification Factor is greater for ‘inplane’ bending moments than for out of plane ones. The Code permits the use of the in plane S.LF. for bending moments in any plane. ‘The quantify (length of arc centreline) x (Flexibility Factor) is sometimes referred to as the “Virtual length’ of the bend, and for large diam. thin walled pipes it is considerable. MITRE BENDS Ina somewhat similar manner to smooth elbows, mitre bends exhibit enhanced flexibility and intensified stresses when subjected to bending moments. Mitre bends can be constructed with any number of segments: A 5-cut mitre has Stress Intensification Factors and Flexibility Factors which differ little from those of a smooth elbow of the same bend radius, but because mitres are chosen as an economic way of making a change in direction, the most commonly used geometry is that with 2 or 3 welds only. ‘The B31.3 Code differentiates between "Closely spaced” mitres , where the centreline length of a segment is given by the expression.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 2 Pagel3 S < 1p. (1+tan@) and the "single" or "widely spaced” mitre bend where $21. (1 + tané) ‘The Code expressions for the flexibility factors and stresk intensification factors for these mitre bends can be found at the back of these notes. ELANGES ‘The various types of flanges in use are subject to the following Stress Intensification Factors in their own right: ‘Weld neck flange 10 Double welded slip-on flange 12 Socket welded flange 13 Lap joint flange 16 In all these cases, the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. However, the above figures are of less significance than the effect which a flange has on the S.L.F. and Flexibility Factor of any bend to which it might be attached. Earlier the manner in which a bend develops its flexibility was described. Because a flange, by virtue of its heavy construction exerts a severe restraint to the flattening of the cross section of the pipe, it follows that the attachment of a flange to an elbow or mitre reduces the flexibility and by the same token reduces the Stress Intensification Factor. flange at both ends of a bend reduces these factors further still. The B31.3 Code provides a chart for obtaining the appropriate correction factor to be applied, and this can be as low as 0.25 in the case of large diameter thin walled pipes. A copy of this, chart is included in the supplement of these lecture notes. This correction factor, denoted as Cy in the Code, has the values: =h __ foroneend only flanged. =h _forboth ends flanged ‘Note that it is a REDUCTION factor. BRANCH CONNECTIONS In the first part of this lecture the question of the reinforcement at branch intersections was examined. For that discussion the loading was that due to an intemal pressure, but it was noted that in some instances the Stress Engineer might call for the reinforcement of a branch. connection were this would not be required if pressure was the only concern. ‘We must now deal with the effects of “flexibility” loading on branch intersections, and under this heading we include forged tees, branch connections made with 'Weldolets’ or similar proprietary items, pad reinforced openings and plain unreinforced 'Stub-ins’. Alll of the itemsRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE =— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 2 Paget listed are subject to 2 common flexibility considerations: a) Inevery case, the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. b) _Imevery case, there is a Stress Intensification Factor. From the point of view of Stress Intensification Factor, the type of branch intersection is very important; as the design of the connection is progressively reduced. Plain unreinforced “"Stub-ins" have the highest intensification of all, whilst forged Tee pieces or welded in “Contour inserts” have the lowest. Since the Flexibility Factor in all cases is 1.0, the substitution of one form of connection for another will not affect the forces and moments ina flexibility calculation, so it happens that, if such a calculation indicates overstress at an unreinforced intersection, it may still be possible to accept the proposed layout provided that the offending detail is reinforced or changed to a forged fittings. Itis for this reason that a Stress Engineer may call for a branch connection to be reinforced although no reinforcing ‘would be required for the service pressure and temperature. ‘There is an important difference to note between reinforcement for internal pressure and reinforcement for expansion stresses when calculating the size of the latter. In the calculation of pressure reinforcement there is the clearly defined requirement that the reinforcement area should equal the required area and at the same time lie entirely within the stipulated reinforcement zone. We shall see when we come to the calculation of the Stress Intensification Factors for pad reinforced branches that the only variable is the thickness of the pad; there is no stipulation regarding the width of the pad. It is common practice, therefore, when sizing pads for this form of reinforcement, to work on the basis of 100% of the maximum possible "Required Area” for pressure, taken in conjunction with whatever pad thickness is required to satisfy the Stress Intensification Factor expressions. In other words let the O.D. of the pad be twice the diameter of the branch. ‘The "Flexibility and Stress Intensifications Factors" can be found in Appendix D of the code. ‘A copy of this is attached to the back of these notes. “The above expressions are derived from experimental work. It will be noted that the only expression which caries with the form of construction is ‘the Flexibility Characteristic. These expressions assume that the branch diameter is equal to the header diameter; there is no reduction for smaller diameter branches. This is a very conservative approach which can grossly overestimate the stresses in the case of a smail diameter branch in a large diameter header. Where the branch is less than % of the header diameter, the Stress Engineer can usefully apply the methods used in the analysis of the stresses around the nozzles of vessels. Such methods were developed by BIILAARD in 1954. OBLIQUE BRANCH INTERSECTIONS Although in the matter of the reinforcement of branch intersections for internal pressure the B31.3 Code requirements are valid for angles of up to 45°, there is no corresponding stipulation relating to the Stress Intensification Factors used in Flexibility calculations. ‘A certain amount of experimental work on the subject has been carried out in the United States under the auspices of the Welding Research Council but the extent is very limited.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 2 - Page:lS From the point of view of the Piping Designer two ‘Rules of Thumb emerge for the case of the 45° intersection which is the commonest in occurrence: 1) The Stress Intensification Factor for an unreinforced 45° intersection may be taken as 2.5 x the S.LF. for the corresponding 90° branch connection. 2) The detail design of the intersection should be such that a generous radius can be achieved at the acute angle 'A’ in Fig. below. Experimentally, cracks have been known to start in this region even during the hydrostatic test condition. When reviewing stress intensifications associated with tees there is sometimes confusion regarding the definition of inplane and outplane. The fig from B31.3 below should help. Mi in plane bending, Mo outplane bending and Mt for torsion. ms Me Mo u OD | B / Let Pine Ruse Pp ‘These may be of concentric of eccentric form, but in either case the Flexibility Factor and the Stress Intensification Factor are both 1.0. In any case the overall length of a reduce is so small that the effect on the flexibility of the normal piping layout can be neglected. When preparing input data for the computer program for a piping layout containing a reducer, itis (DOrEEK 2 DOCRETICSSe earRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS * Lecture No: 2 Page:lé customary to assume an abrupt change of diameter at the mid-length of this item. Where the reducer is of the eccentric variety, care must be taken to see that the geometry entered in the program is consistent; the offset in an accentric reducer is sufficient to cause some programs to fail to run. Probably the safety way of avoiding this inconvenience is to treat all reducers as being of the concentric variety and to adjust the length of an adjacent piping leg which is at right angles to the leg containing the reducer. It should be noted that codes such as B31.1 do not consider the S.LF. equal to 1.0. Valves From the Stress Engineers’ point of view, the body of 2 valve represents a short length of very thick pipe. Some computer programs have a facility for entering such lengths as ‘RIGID’ but. the overall length is so small that no great error is involved if the presence of the valve is neglected in the majority of layouts. A valve has greater significance as the position where a temperature change can occur ina layout containing branches at different temperatures, as in the case of the piping associated with the '2 pumps with common spare’ layout. It must not be forgotten that, in the larger diameters and higher pressure ratings, valves can attain a weight of several tons so that the associated deadweight stresses in the pipe become significant. So far, we have considered the ‘norma!’ vaive with a comparatively thick cast body; the proceeding comments will not always apply, particularly in the cases of some ‘proprietary’ designs with fabricated bodies. In some instances it may be necessary to come to an agreement with the manufacture on the forces and bending moments which can be applied to the valve as well as to the manner in which it is to be supported. Of particular interest to the Stress Engineer are high pressure "let-down" valves found on steam systems. Control valves with large actuators also present a significant problem because of the need to support the valve and actuator.Ana THB T ENR ‘The elastic theory gives us the following expression 6 = PL? PB I2EI where 6 = movement in mm P= Force to bend BC inn L= Length of BC in mm E= Youngs Modulas in n/mm? I= Moment of inertia in mm! When a pipe bends in the mode shown by the dotted line itis referred to as a Guided Cantilever. Note if is input in SI units it would be ems! ‘Therefore the formula would have to be divided'by 10" therefore P= 12EL, Do 2 maxM =6E 1, L =PL f=3DES LC Decne DiC SOLAS)RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 3 : Page:2 Limiting f to 100 n/mm? and E to 192,400 n/mm* we get rs This particular type of problem can be conveniently represented on a simple nomograph which makes the check for adequacy of flexibility the work of a few moments. This nomograph, usually referred to as the 'L' shape nomograph, is included in the supplement to these course notes, and as an example of the method of its use, let us work the problem of example below. Step No.1 iso*e Draw a straight line through the 95°C_ point in the column numbered (2) to.pass through Ly = 45 metres. in the column numbered (1). Step No.2 Extend this line to intersect the expansion column (3) on the right hand side of the page, and read 6 = 70mm. ‘Step No.3 From the point 8 = 70mm, draw a straight line through the nominal pipe diameter = 10 inches in the column marked (4). ‘Step No.4 Continue this line until it intersects the column marked (5) and read the required minimum leg length Lz = 9 metres. It should be noted that the values obtained from this chart are based on E = 204138 n/mm? and an allowable stress f of 138 n/mm*. Note that, had the deflection been known, the steps numbered (1) and (2) above could have been omitted. ‘Dairies 9102Suppose that we check the required minimum leg length to cater for the expansion of a 3 m. length of 14 in. diameter pipe with a design temperature of 350°C. ‘The nomograph shows that 4.8 m is required to absorb the expansion. But the nomograph also shows that the expansion of this 4.8m leg requires a minimum length of 5.5 mto absorb its own expansion. Similarly, the expansion of this 5.5 m length requires a 5.8 m. leg. Continuing this process leads ultimately to the conclusion that with a 14" dia, at 350°C, the minimum practical dimensions for an'L' shape pipe would be slightly less than 6 m. x 6 m. However, in a later lecture we shall see how these overall dimensions can be reduced when the flexibility of the elbows is taken into account. Guided Cantilever Method applied to a general shape ‘Suppose that two ‘Guided Cantilevers’ were joined together in series with a rigid member between them and then a load 'P' was applied to the complete system. The arrangement is illustrated in the fig. below. ‘We can write the arrangement in the following form: o=BL ) and if I = Ip as it would be in the case of a “12EL, ) continuous length of pipe, this reduces to ) ) §=2 (L412) 5=BL. ) 1281 * EL, ) So that we may write: §=_L xa b=__Ia_xa (L?+L] , (2+L7) Dateconn Dae IC See 8019599At this stage it can be noted that since the rigid leg ‘BC’ remains vertical the orientation of ‘CD’ is immaterial; the above relationship holds both for the case of a ‘single plane’ layout and for the case where 'CD' is perpendicular to‘AB'. We have thus obtained the first simple, albeit crude, method for dealing with a 3 - dimensional layout. Tf we now extend the method to incorporate 3 operative lets of lengths Ly, Lz & L3 their respective deflections under an applied load 'P' are: S=PL. ) 12E1 ) and similarly, ) ) A= 5 +84 4 S-BL, ) ~ 7 1251 ) A=P/12EI (L+L+L) ; TENE 5=PL, ) which is more conveniently written * 1251 A=P/2EI IL? and as before we can go on to apportion the total deflection between the various legs in proportion to the cubes of their respective lengths, amd we could go on to incorporate as many operative legs as we chose. ‘We have already seen how a simple 'L Shape’ nomograph can be used to obtained the nrinimum leg length required to absorb a given deflection at a maximum stress of 138 n/mm* A rather more elaborate nomograph which is also to be found in the supplement to these lecture notes will give an indication of the stress in any leg associated with given values of its length, its diameter and the amount of movement it is required to absorb. This chart is used in the following manner: {Di ateone Dye SeeLecture No: 3 Page: 5 Step No.l Enter the left hand side of the nomograph at the calculated deflection for the leg in question. Step. No.2 Move horizontally to the intersection with the vertical line through the appropriate pipe diameter. ‘Step No.3. From this intersection move upwards and to the right along a diagonal line paralle! to the diagonals drawn. Step No.4 Continue along this diagonal line to where it intersects the heavy vertical line which passes through the position Diameter = 0. Step No.5, From this second intersection point move horizontally to the right until an intersection is made with a diagonal line representing the actual length of the leg. This set of diagonals is marked with the leg lengths, Step No.6 From this third, and final, intersection point move vertically downwards and read the stress at the bottom of the sheet. ffect ent Up to this point flexibility has been assumed to be due entirely to the members at right angles to the direction of the major expansion bending in the mode of 'Guided Cantilevers'. Consider once more the simple'L' shape ABC in fig. below but this time separate the two members AB & BC at'B' and apply the intemal effects required for the equilibrium of each of the members, ic. the force P’ and the moment 'M'. i: = (ay () Clearly, the bending moment 'M' at B must cause a rotation of the ‘free’ end of ‘AB, denoted by @ in fig. 37, and this rotation must relieve the moment calculated on the basis of a fixed’ end. It should therefore, be apparent that some correction factor or other must be applied to [item De e803RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE = —_—PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 3 Page: 6 the results derived by the use of the generalised Guided Cantilever Nomograph, and it appears reasonable to relate the required correction to the ratio of the lengths AB and BC. x - Suppose that the overall layout was a Zed shape with unequal legs as illustrated in fig. 38, above. AB > CD 8] > 2 so that to remain on the ‘conservative’ side of the line when assessing the relief to the bending of the leg BC, the correction factor must be based on the length of the shorter adjacent leg In the development of the Guided Cantilever method, it was noted that since the orientation of the operative leg was immaterial, the procedure lent itself to the solution of 3 - dimensional layouts. Fig. 39 shows a typical piping configuration which might be analysed in such a manner. The expansion of ‘AB' is absorbed by the legs "BC’ and 'CD' which are both perpendicular to the major expansion. Note that, in this system both ‘BC’ and ‘CD’ are subject to torsion moments as well as bending moments. we should therefore expect a greater degree of rotation of the ends of the operative legs than would be the case if the adjacent legs were subject to bending moments ¥, alone. The amount of correction Jaw? which has to be applied to the ~ results given by the nomograph therefore depends on the orientation of the ‘adjacent’ legs as well as on their lengths. The appropriate correction factors are plotted as curves to a base equal to the ratio of the length of the leg under consideration to the length of its shorter adjacent leg, usually denoted L/L, and these curves appear in the Supplement to the course notes. £48.39, ‘Three cases are considered: CASEI ‘This curve applies when the cantilever leg has an anchor at one end. Itis also referred to as an ‘external’ leg.CASEI This curve applies to a leg which, together with its shorter adjacent leg, lies in a plan parallel to the direction of the major expansion (or deflection in the case of a movement arising from an external influence). CASE IIT This applies to a leg which, together with its shorter adjacent leg, lies in a plant perpendicular to the direction of the major expansion or movement. If we refer to the fig. above, BC & CD are ‘operative’ legs if we assume that the major expansion is in the direction of AB giving rise to the terminal forces 'P’ When evaluating the stresses in the leg 'CD' we would use the factor given by the curve marked CASE I because, being anchored at'D’, itis an extemal leg. The assumption already made that the major expansion is in the direction 'AB' implies that CD is shorter than AB so that when considering the stresses in BC we would first calculate the ration L/L equal to BC/CD. However, in this case, the plane containing BC and CD lies at right angles to the direction of AB so we would take the correction factor from the curve marked ‘CASE III’. ‘The sketches at the top of the sheet giving the Correction Factor curves illustrate all three cases very concisely. (See Supplement,) IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT THE INDICATED STRESSES ARE DIVIDED BY THE APPROPRIATE CORRECTION FACTOR. ‘We now have the basis for making an assessment of the stresses in a pipe of any shape which is located between two rigid points (anchors). However, the ANSI B31.3 Piping Code states in Clause 319.4.2(b): “Approximate or simplified methods may be applied only if they are used in the range of configurations for which their adequacy has been demonstrated" Let us now investigate the method to see what limitations might be applicable. Guided Cantilever Chart iDEA L ‘The basis of this Chart is the expressionLd This expression has a purely academic derivation , so that the only limit on this part of the analysis is that imposed by the range of the Chart. Outside of the range of the chart, the above expression can be used. Correction Factor Chart We have already seen how the correction factor is related to the stiffness of the shorter adjacent leg. Since the longer adjacent leg must rotate more than the shorter one for a given terminal moment, it follows that this assumption will lead to results which error on the conservative side. There remains the question of the validity of the actual correction factor curves; these curves are circulating widely within the Petrochemical Industry so let us now examine their derivation Correction Curve Case T fig. 40 ‘The Guided Cantilever’BC’ and its adjacent member 'AB' are separated at 'B’ and the first 'P’ and moment 'M' applied to each side of the break in order to maintain equilibrium. Consider the equilibrium equations given by elementary engineering theory: For AB @ = ML EI ForBC 4 = PL? - ML? 3EL 2ET 9 = PL? - ML 261 EL La = Lk Now let L/La Since the rotation ‘0’ is the same for AB and BC at B, equate these expressions; MLg = PL? ML MEL = PL? ML so that ET ORI ET kEI 2EI ELPL/2 = M.(1_ 1/) - MePL Ak o substitute this value of M in the expression for A Then A= PLE - _PLRL? 3EI 2EL2 (k+ 1) PLe 4k+)- 12ET (k+1) a= Pe kaa @ 12EI k+l butat'C = = Mg =PL- M = —PL- PLKI2(k+1) Mo = PL(1-W2(k+1)) Mo = PL (k+2U) eee 1!) (2k +2) again, from Eqn. (11) PL = 2ELA tk+1) LG +4) Mo = — 12EIA (k+l) K+2)= ELA +2) LEok+4 2k +2) Li okt giving maximum stress f y.Mofl = D.Mo/2L S 3DEA (k+2) Lok+4 A but as we have already seen, f = 3.D-E.A/ L* is the basic cantilever stress, so that to make allowance for the adjacent leg we must divide by the factor (k + 4) /(k +2). These are tabulated below for a range of values of L/La =k. Ti, [ot 02 [04 Joe Jos io [20 [40 60 [80 [90 [100 CF piss [ist [ies [i77 [ire pier [iss _ iss [12s 120s a7 If we now plot out these values on the Correction Factor chart, we can see that there is a reasonable agreement with the Case I curve. Note that for this curve the expression for the factor implies a value of 2.0 when the ratio'k’ is very small and a value of 1.0 when it is very large. {Dtairniom DICE Ses 889Comection Factor Curve, Case III Here we will assume that the ends of the Guided Cantilever member are connected at each end to alleg of length Lg and that both of these legs are in pure torsion, as in fig. 41 below. In fig. 41 (b) above, BC is the Guided Cantilever element under consideration and is subject to terminal moments 'M’ associated with the deflection 8. Each of the adjacent legs AB and CD is therefore subject to a torsional moment'M’; from the work on earlier we see that each leg of length La will rotate through an angle @ = 13 MLA/EI We can now superimpose the deflections associated with this twist @ upon the basic value & From fig. 41 (a) above we see that this additional deflection A'=Lx0=Lx 1.3 MLg/El. Now let L/Lg =k as before: Total deflection associated with a moment'M' atBorC = A+ — 13.ML2 2EI EI Therefore, Ly 2 26 (If based om the Case Ill curve) below this ratio, the Case II factor for AB has the lower value, had the end A been fixed, Le. if AB had been an ‘exterior’ leg, then we would have had a corresponding ratio L/L2> Probably the safest advice which can be given to a beginner is to check the correction required at both ends of a member where one adjacent leg is in torsion and the other in bending (One end Case III and one end Case 11), tress Intensification Fac ‘We have already seen how a bend or elbow is subject to a Stress intensification Factor when the effects of an applied bending moment are being evaluated. Since the ends of « Guided Cantilever are the positions where the stresses given by the nomograph occur, and since the changes of direction will normally be made with an elbow or mitre bend, it seems reasonable to expect that the appropriate S.LF. be applied to the nomograph stresses. This isin fact required by the B31.3 Code. However, if the Code S.LF. is applied directly to the nomograph stresses, the result is usually a significant over-estimate of the stresses; Kelloggs’ in their ‘Design of Piping Systems’ (Rev. 2nd.Ed. August 1965) report on page 112, that an empirical value equal to the square root of the Code S.LF. will usually be found adequate. Let us now demonstrate the use of the Guided Cantilever Method by means of a typical example and afterwards compare the results with those given by a full computer analysis of the same problem.Expansion rate @ 200°C = 2,2 mm/metre ©. Major expansion= 20.4x 2.2= 45mm 100 The calculation is best performed in tabular fashion: Leg [om [oe |v |omm| m | it, | TvPE feorr. | S.LF. | STRESS irae sc | 3 x | os | 09 zn6| us| _m [ss | so2{ 227 | _usse co [2 a_| ois | v264| i793] 13 | m | 62 | 289] 227 | 656 pe_| 132] 35] 0067 | ors] i724] 076 |_m {roo | raj 227 | 39 Eee ee : : on ee : ro | 244 | 145] 0273 | 048 | 2345] 1143/1 | us | 1563] 227 | 355 z - | | wo [iw] - -[-]-]-]- : ‘The first point to note regarding the input is that the legs AB and EF are not considered effective because they, in fact, are responsible for the deflection which has to be accommodated by the bending of the remaining legs which are at right angles to the direction of the expansion. ‘The second point is to note that we have not considered any guides on the leg AB. Had a guide been installed on AB nearer to 'B' than 2m, then this leg would have been the “shorter adjacent leg" for BC and the stress given by the Chart would have been subject to a Case II Correction Factor. A third pint arises in connection with the Case II / Case III anomaly discussed earlier and thisRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No: 3 Page: 15 example has been constructed to illustrate the matter. Referring back to the calculation and to the calculation of the stresses in the leg 'DE", in accordance with convention we have taken CD of length 2m as the shorter adjacent leg and applied the appropriate Case III Correction. Factor of 9.3. We must take note of the leg EF which although it has a length of 2.13m is however subject to a Case Il Correction Factor. If we complete the calculation for the end''E’ of DE we obtain: LiLg = 1.52/2.13 = 0.712 Correction Factor for Case I = 3.8 Corrected Stress = 172.40 /3.8 = 45.37 n/mm* ‘Stress Intensification Factor = 2.27 Final calculated stress = 45.37 x 2.27 = 103 n/mm? This has to be compared with the stress of 39 n/mm:.. calculated in the Table for the end thus demonstrating the point. Having now obtained an estimate of the stresses in the pipe, and it must be emphasised that this method can do not more than give a rough estimate of the stresses, we must now assess their importance. ‘At 200°C and with say an A106 Gr.B pipe the B31.3 Code would indicate an allowable stress range as follows: Using the values from the supplement, Allowable stress, cold, Se = 137.93 /mm? Allowable stress at 200°C. Sh = 119 n/mm* Allowable stress range = (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sp) and taking F = 1.0, Allowable stress range = 1.0(1.25 x 137.93 + 0.25 x 119) = 202Wmm ‘Now an inspection of the last column of the calculation shows that this allowable stress range is only exceeded in the case of the leg 'FG' . Faced with an indicated stress range of this order, the Stress Engineer has the option of suggesting a re-routing of the line in order to achieve a lower stress or perhaps running a computer calculation. His choice of action will depend on the relative importance of the line; in this particular instance an experienced Engineer might well accept the indicated stresses on the following grounds. It was noted on earlier that to apply the full Code Stress Intensification Factor to a "Square Comer” analysis, such as the Guided Cantilever analysis, usually results in a significant over-estimate of the stresses and that in such cases Kelloggs’ had suggested that an empirical factor equal to the square root of the Code S.L.F. might be appropriate. Let us apply this empirical S.LE. to the present problem. B31.3 Code Stress Intensification Factor = 227 SLE. 51 Maximum corrected stress, for leg FG 56.32 n/mm* Maximum intensified stress = 156.32 x 1.51 = 236 o/mm? This is still somewhat greater than the allowable stress range permitted by the Code rules so that it might be possible to make out a case for a full Computer analysis. In order to demonstrate the validity of this approach we will next compare the results obtained by the Guided Cantilever analysis with those from a Computer run of the same problem.Ww RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE =—S PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS LOCATION OF SUPPORTS AND RESTRAINTS Page: 1 (weve Paces + 4.5 nave Bees Deere) This far in the course we have only considered pipes extending from one fixed point to another; we must now look into the question of intermediate restraints because, in serving their purpose of controlling the movements that the pipe would experience in their absence, they modify the stress system to a marked degree. For this reason alone the practising Stress Analyst soon leams that the location of supports and restraints cannot be divorced from the flexibility calculations. The scope of the Pipe Support function is stated in the relevant Clause of the B31.3 Code, repeated here verbatim: tive ‘The layout and design of the piping, including supporting elements, shall be made with due regard to preventing the following: 1) piping stresses in excess of those permitted by the Code 2) leakage at joints 3) excessive forces or moments on connected equipment (such as pumps and turbines) 4) excessive stresses in the pipe supporting (or restraining) elements resonance with imposed vibrations 6) __ excessive interference with thermal expansion and contraction of piping which is otherwise adequately flexible unintentional disengagement of piping fom its supports, ( thermal lift off) 8) excessive sag in piping requiring drainage slop’ Let us now consider these topics at greater length: 1) Permitted Piping Stresses ‘The ASNI B31.3 Code stipulate that the sum of the longitudinal stresses with the pipe in the corroded condition and due to all sustained loads (i.e. internal pressure, weight, wind, etc), shall not exceed the tabulated allowable stress at the design temperature. Now, the pipe if designed up to the limit allowed by the Code could have a hoop stress in the corroded condition equal to the allowable stress Sp; the associated axial stress then being Sp/2 due to internal pressure.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS AN/ LYSIS LectureNog Page: 2 ‘Therefore, the maximum value of the longitudinal stress in the corroded conditi: n due to all the sustained loadings other than internal pressure cannot exceed Sp. After internal pressure, the deadweight is usually the most significant effect prod: sing a sustained longitudinal stress, but it is conventional to limit the stress from this e: ect to one half of this value i.e. Sp/4. The pipe support designer will normally work to ‘Standards’ Tables of allowable spe 1s when deciding on his support spacing and such spans will depend on such variables pipe diameter, schedule, design temperature, insulation thickness, whether the or gaseous and so on. In order to keep any such tabular method within reasonable bounds, some simplifying assumptions must, of necessity, be introduced and these must give answers on the "right side of the line". Some of the most usual simplifications made are as follows: a) Tables are usually confined to Std. Sch. carbon steel pipe as this is by far the ‘most common material b) Tables are usually constructed from the lowest grade of steel, i.e. the information will then be on the safe side in all cases. ¢) The number of temperature cases is kept to a minimum, e.g. common values used for Tabies of allowable piping spans are: 1) Ambient temperature lines 2) Lines up to 100°C 3) Lines upto 300°C Although the difference in the allowable stresses in these temperature ranges would not materially affect the allowable spans, the increased weight of the insulation has to. be taken into account particularly in the case of large bore steam and gas lines. 4) Piping spans are normally only tabulated for empty and water filled lines; the water filled condition will clearly cover the case of hot lines containing petroleum products, whilst the empty line spans can be used for steam or vapour lines. ©) Piping spans are calculated on the basis of "pin ended” conditions; 4 2 pomeoeanneensoeeemcann ses 2 (ft) _ wu wt z 2 {DWesx 4. D0CPTASe StSRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS LectureNog Page: 3 The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of the span and is given by: Mmax = w-L'/8 kgs. metres. Note | kg. is 9.81 n for approximate purposes say 10 then Mmax=wL?x 1048 n.mm If f n/mm*is the stress allowed for weight purposes, and Z is em? then F=w.L? 16/8.Z and using the practical units of L metres., w kgs./metre & Z cms* this last equation reduces to ‘Suppose that we now apply this expression to the calculation of the allowable spans for a range of ambient pipes for which we can assume no insulation. We will work on the basis of the lower grades of carbon steel pipe, i.e. API SL Gr.A, ASTM AS3 Gr. or ASTM A106 Gr.A for all of which the allowable stress at amb. is 110 n/mm? Therefore, £=110/4=27.6 nimm? For the water filled condition this leads to: L= 76.28/10 ‘Therefore, Lmmax 47 /Z ‘Now putting in the values of the Section Modulus Z (cm?) and weight per metre run ‘w (kgs/m) in the water filled condition, both being taken from Tables of published data, we obtain: Dims) 3 4 6 8 WO 2 4 1 18 2 2% Zoom) —-BD_ 526 1393-2753 4901881521468 8192555 w(Kglm) 159 243 469749 E7687 21-256 3084S Lemetres) 628 7 © 8.17 91-997 1048 10.78 D137 Tg2) 3) We could construct similar tables for lines at a higher temperature, taking into account the insulation thickness ‘normal’ for such a temperature. ‘Budget’ values for such insulation are of the following order: Dimfins) 3 4 6 8 © 2 1 6 w 2 2 Temp. in weights in kgs.m run °c Uptotoo «192s 87 DDS a Upto300 457) OL OB1SZ_BY D195 283251 so that to construct a table of allowable spans for temperatures of 300°C we would proceed as follows: Allowable Sp at 300°F = 85 mm? for API SL Gr. A or ASTM AS3 Gr.A Allowable stress for weight = Sp/4 = 21.29 n/mm? Therefore, Lmax = a g fl a3 [ Z ‘This expression gives the following values for the maximum allowable span of carbon steel lines at 300°C. Diam(ins) 3 4 6 8 0 2 Ww 6 we 2% 2 Lmax(m) 160 177 216 244 271 285 24 304 313 320 338 ao ‘The Stress Engineer will have checked that the thermal expansion forces do not give excessive bending moments at flanges, particularly where they occur at a vessel nozzle From the Pipe Support Designers’ point of view, flanges should be located, as far as possible, from position where there is # high bending moment in the pipe. Ifin doubt, consult the Stress Engineer. ent ected The Stress Engineer has to keep a watch on the allowable forces and moments on : connected equipment, particularly in the case of rotating machines such as turbines, compressors and pumps.In practice the magnitude of these forces and moments is controlled by the use of various piping restraints which can be divided broadly into three main categories: a) Anchors b) "Line Stops” ©) Guides Let us now consider the functions of each of these types of restraints. a) Anchors ‘At an anchor a pipe is assumed to be completely restrained against any displacement or rotation, RELATIVE TO THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANCHOR. This means that itis possible to have an anchor which has a displacement or rotation imposed upon it by influences external to the piping system and which it then transmits on to the piping system. For example, suppose that one end of a pipe ended ata flanged nozzle near the ‘sliding’ end of a shell and tube heat exchanger, The Stress Engineer would regard that flange as an "anchor" for the purposes of calculation, but it will move by an amount determined by the thermal expansion of the exchanger shell and it will impose this movement on the piping anchored to it; this movement will then either add or subtract from the restrained thermal expansion of the piping as the case may be. Anchors may be fitted at points other than the terminations of 2 pipe in which case they are known as “intermediate anchors" and in this sense the great majority of anchors used in piping installations are ofthis intermediate category. These anchors serve the purpose of defining fixed points in the system. As an example of this use of an anchor, consider the case where we have, say a 6 in, diam. branch to the inlet of a Turbine taken from a 12 in. diam. header. @ A © @ 2 Tots ! ats ar | 1 | Aa acter 78 mM 7 a D D eee c aL 6 c @) (»)RICHMOND UPONTHAMES COLLEGE =——— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS LectureNog Page: 6 Suppose that a large movement 6 of the 12 in. header at ‘A' produced unacceptable forces and moments at the Turbine flange 'D', and that it was not possible to increase the flexibility of the intervening pipe ABCD. We could then try anchoring the header on the piperack beam (2) as shown in fig. (b) and making a check on the forces and moments developed by the shap ABCD with this section oniy of the header included in the calculation. Intermediate anchors can also be used to isolate a section of a line having a smaller diameter than the remainder of the layout and which, by virtue of its greater flexibility would accept most of the expansion in the layout thus becoming overstressed. As an example of this, consider the layout in fig. 56 and, in particular, the loop section ABCD. As drawn, this section of the pipe would be far more flexible than the loop section GHJK so that, although this section GHJK might be well able to accommodate the expansion arising between say 'F' and'K’, most of this expansion would, in fact, be adsorbed by e section ABCD. The remedy for an indicated overstress condition in the section ABCD is therefore to limit the amount of expansion it has to accommodate by the addition of an anchor at some position conveniently near the point 'F'; the loop ABCD would then accommodate the expansion from 'A’ to'F’ and the loop GHJK would similarly take care of the section from 'F’ to ‘K’. This is illustrated in fig. 56. E J (On very long piperack runs, where more than one expansion loop is required to absorb the expansion between given terminal points, intermediate anchors MUST be fitted between each pair of expansion loops even though the line is of uniform size and the loops are nominally identical, i.e owes i = Nove PASG F DELSTED‘The reason for this requirement is that the pipe is subject to manufacturing tolerances in wall thickness so that even though the loops have the same overall dimensions they will have somewhat different flexibility's and in the absence of intermediate anchors which define the amount of expansion taken by each loop, one or other of them would take more than its calculated share of the total movement. b) Line Stops A line stop is a restraint which prevents any axial movement of the pipe to which itis fitted but at the same time allows unrestricted travel in any direction at right angles to the axis of the pipe. It also permits rotation, freely. in any plane. In many instances where the requirement is for an axial restraint only, 2'Line stop’ can be substituted for a full! anchor; situations do arise where the ability of the ‘stop’ to permit lateral movement makes its use imperative. ‘Suppose we have the "header and branch” situation illustrated in fig. below ee x @ z In the fig. (a) above we have a 6” nom. diam. branch ABCD from an 8" nom. diam, header, and analysis shows that the forces and moments at ‘D' due to the deflection A, are excessive. In fig. (b) above, we have added an anchor at 'E’ which reduces the axial movement at ‘A' to Ag but a check analysis shows that the branch ABCD is still overstressed as a result of the restrained expansion A3 due to the length of AB. ‘The remedy is shown in the fig. (c) above , where the anchor at 'E' has been replaced with a line ‘stop’. This allows the point ‘A’ to move over to the position ‘Al’ thereby relieving the forces and moments due to the restraining of ds, In the situation shown in fig. (c) above , there must be an axial compression force along the leg ‘AB’ sufficient to move the 8 in header sideways against the friction forces exerted at its supports. This force could be some instances exceed that which can be taken on the nozzle at 'D'. The problem can be resolved by the addition of a further ‘Stop’ on the leg 'AB' as shown at'F in (+5 heya°) LectureNo.d Page: 10 Ideally, 'F" should be located so that the deflection 6 at'C’, due to the nozzle movement + the thermal expansion of the leg 'DC’ is balanced by a corresporiding 6 due to the thermal expansion of the length 'FB'. In practice, this ideal is difficult to realise but a suitable compromise position can usually be found; this compromise solution could well entail additional structural steelwork. Guides A guide is a restraint which precludes lateral movement of the pipe in one or both of the planes at right angles to the pipe centreline. It leaves the pipe completely free to move axially and it offers no resistance to rotation of the pipe in any direction. Guides are fitting whenever it is necessary to maintain the position of the centreline of the pipe and we must now consider some of the more common applications. 1) Alignment guides in 2 piperack ‘The centre to centre spacing of the pipes in a rack is such that they must be positively located at intervals along their length. ‘Suppose that we have a length of pipe in a rack as shown in fig. 58. ‘There will be an axial force "X’ at F due to the thermal expansion of the length ‘AF’ and this is balanced by the reaction at the line stop at 'A'. ‘The force "X’ deflects the length 'FG' to the position 'F’ G’, and its magnitude can be conservatively estimated by the Guided Cantilever method described in earlier Lectures. Furthermore, at each of the supports B,C,D & E there will be a friction force pR; as the pipe expands this will add to the basic flexibility force 'X’. At any position along the pipe we, therefore, have a compression force 'P' given by P=X+IuRJ RICHMOND UPONTHAMES COLLEGE = ———~PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS 2) LscctureNo$ Page: U ‘Now, if this force 'P’ becomes high enough the line will buckle sideways as shown, the theoretical value of'P' at which this will occur is given by the Euler strut expression It should be noted that this only occurs in practice on small bore pipework ie 2" nb. Por = TEREUL*O where: Por is the buckling load in kgs E is Modulus of Elasticity, n/mm? Lis Moment of Inertia of pipe cross section in em Lis the guide spacing along the rack in metres In practice, it would be prudent to limit the practical guide spacing to something of the order of 70% of the value given by the above expression. Also, practically, the length 'L’ will be fixed by the overall design of the rack, and since the rack frame spacing will have been settled from other considerations long before any pipe support work is commenced, the location of the position of guides becomes a matter of deciding whether they shall be fitted at every one, two or three frame spacings. Note that because the friction component of the compression forces in the pipe reduces as one gets further from the anchor, it may not be necessary to maintain a uniform guide spacing throughout the full length. ‘As we say in Lecture No. 2, a number of lines extend from near Grade elevation to various positions on a fractionating column. Particularly, at higher elevations, the wind loading on a pipe can be quite considerable and the line must be guided at intervals; a good 'Budget’ value for the wind loading in this country is between 1200 and 1450 wmam?, and the load on each guide is given by Load = wind pressure x projected area of pipe between guides An average value for the spacing of wind guides on a column is between 8m. and 12m. depending on diameter. They are commonly designed to restrain both radial and circumferential movement and as. such are often referred to as 'boxed’ guides.4) 5) c) Guides at pump suction nozzles Ona typical pump suction layout was illustrated below. One way of relieving high forces and moments at the suction nozzle of a front, suction pump is to fit a guide which is made to very close tolerances and which has an appreciable length. This guide is then capable, so the argument goes, of absorbing any terminal moments in addition to the side shear forces; the pump may, therefore, be considered protected from the effects of the piping loads whilst the guide construction permits free movement of the nozzle arising from the expansion of the pump casing. In general, Stress Engineers would prefer to see additional piping flexibility as a means to reducing pump nozzle loads in preference to the arrangement just described and which is illustrated in fig. below. Check upward growth of pump nozzle before using this support. It should be understood, however, that it is customary to provide a plain guide and a support at the suction nozzle of a front entry pump. _ . This is essentially a matter of the mechanical design of the support or restraint in question. Suffice it to say here that the design of the support must be adequate for the loads which the Flexibility Analysis or Weight Analysis show to exist, having regard to the probable temperatures in the element at the design conditions. The ‘natural’ frequency of vibration of a length of pipe between two supports is inversely proportional to the square of the span.LectureNo,4 Page: 13 It sometimes happens that this frequency is the same, or very nearly the same, as the frequency is the same, or very nearly the same, as the frequency of turbances caused by the vibration of nearby or connected equipment; the pipe then-develops a vibration at this ‘natural’ frequency. Reciprocating pumps and reciprocating compressors are the principle offenders in this connection. Since such vibrations can usually be eliminated by additional supports, which, by reducing the span materially alter the natural frequency of the pipe so that it is no longer in resonance with the exciting forces, it is usual to wait for these effects to manifest themselves during the initial operations of the plant before making any remedial alterations. However, on particularly important lines, where any subsequent alteration is seen to be impracticable, or where previous experience suggests that there might well be a vibration problem, a vibration analysis is performed during the design study stage. As a result of such an investigation, the Stress Engineer may ask for a re-routing of the pipe or for certain supports and/or restraints to be located at specific positions. Excessive int witht is Use of the Guided Cantilever analysis in deciding the location of guides in a piperack. see fig below bb 9:15-3:15 L315 L915 bh 3 —his.6 oc -18, Clearly, if the guide, which was positioned on frame 'K’ had instead been located on Column Row ‘J, the sideways force on it would have been given by PSELA/ 144.2 where 'L' now had the value of 1.8m. Suppose that the pipe had been Sch. 30, we would then have ha¢:Rage: 14 E = 192000 n/ mm I = 5744em4 4 29mm ee therefore, P = = ~— 12. 1.92. 10°. 29. $7.4. 107/ 1.829. 10° P__=__626832n = 630 kn The practical implication of this is that the guide would have broken long before this sideways load had developed, possibly causing a permanent set in the pipe during the process; this situation is now known in practice, hence the reason for the warning in the Code. There is much to be said for the old maxim that the fewer restraints on a line, the better.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE =—— PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS 7) 8) Unintentional disengagement from supports Insulated lines, in all but the smallest sizes, have a'shoe’ at each support position to prevent damage to the insulation as the pipe expands or contracts across the support beam. If this shoe is of insufficient length, or is wrongly located on the pipe, then as the line expands the shoe will overrun the beam, and deprived of the reaction at the support, the pipe will sage. When the line is next taken out of service, the shoe on the contracting pipe is usually unable to ride up onto the beam again and this results in a broken shoe, at best, or a broken beam in more serious cases. In track pipework where the pipe is esting on concrete it has been known for the shoe to rupture the pipe. This is a very common cause of trouble during initial start-up operations and much of the trouble stems ftom the practice of off-setting the shoe in anticipation of the pipe expansion. For one reason or another, be it incorrect instructions on the pipe support drawings or misinterpretation of the drawings on the part of the fabricator, the shoe is installed with the offset in the wrong direction. Pipe shoes are cheap enough, and the surest way of avoiding this sort of trouble is to install the shoes centrally over the support in the "erected" position of the pipe and then to ensure that there is 2 length of shoe on either side of this centreline at least equal to the calculated travel of the shoe plus 75 mm, i.e.a minimum length of shoe equal to twice the travel plus 150mm is required. Toa lesser extent, this problem occurs at the lower wind guides on fractionating columns. These guides normally comprise 2 or 4 shoes bearing ina structural steel frame clipped to the column, and since the differential movement in the operating case is usually comparatively small, there is a tendency to skimp on the length of these shoes. As we saw in lecture No. 2, the operating case does not necessarily govern, and itis not unknown for these ‘guides to disengage during Steam-out or Start-up sequences. a At the beginning of this Lecture, we derived the allowable spans for a range of standard schedule pipes on the basis of a maximum stress equal to Sp/4. The expression used gave no indication of the deflection (i.e. 'sag’) at the centre of the span. In many instances it does not matter whether this central deflection is 6mm or 30mm, but such a sag leaves 2 pocket of liquid in the line when it is emptied; to avoid leaving these pockets some lines are constructed with a slope to say 1%, Whilst we could calculate the allowable spans on the basis of the maximum allowable slope at the ends of a simply supported span a more usual approach is to limit the central deflection to a definite valueFora simply supported beam, elementary bending theory tells us that: L uniform W Nlmony 3 d= Swit 7 eer 384.E 1 SN fp L where w = total weight per unit length n/mm L= spanmm E = Youngs’ Modulus n/mm* 1 = Moment of Inertia mm’ ‘Transposing the above expression gives: L= I84ELa mm this reduces to L= 2.96034 ELA/w mm 0.002964 EL.A/w metres or As an example, we can now re-evaluate the Table of allowable spans previously worked out earlier. We first have to settle the maximum allowable value of A which is to be permitted; 6,35 mm. and 2.5mm. are values which have been variously chosen by manufacturers of pipe supporting equipment when they compiled their catalogues. These catalogues will usually be found to contain Tables of allowable piping spans. Let us choose A= 6.35mm. but for convenience we will convert the units of ‘wi to kgs/m. and I as em’ This reduces toL = 0.1486 [EL aw It will be convenient to repeat the calculation for the ambient, liquid - filled line of the Table on page 73, so that we have a basis for comparison. For this line then E = 192414 n/mmn* which leads to the following expression when simplified for calculation purposes. L= an 4/1Page: 17 giving: Diam.(ins) 304 6 8s 10 2 oy 16 18 20 24 tem 125.7 300.9 1170 3018 = 6701-11613. 15525 23392 33590 46202 30749 wkgm 159-43 4597461672256 3054S Lm. 524 588 7-79 87 966 1018 ws 117 By comparison with the previous table,, it can be seen that the maximum deflection condition governs throughout the range although for the limiting value of 6 mm. there is not too much difference. ‘There remains a number of points, which, whilst relevant to the Code requirements, could not be conveniently included at the appropriate point in the discussion. These relate primarily to the Section 1) Permitted stresses .. A) — Continuous spans ‘The Tables derived earlier and above, have as their basis a single simply supported span; in a piperack or pipetrack we have any spans, each identical to the ones on either side. In these cases the governing bending moment occurs at the supports and is given by: BD M =-wL? (consistent units must be used) 12 ‘as opposed to: M =+w.L? for the simply supported span. Also for 8 this case the bending moment at the centre is reduced to: M=+wl? 24 This will clearly permit some increase in the allowable span. {DAVEE ADOCTETUICSe eveneHO95a b) — Qverhung comers So far as the Piping Designer is concerned, in the absence of any specific guidance from the Stress Engineer, he would be best advised to keep to the following "Rule of thumb": L, a-ae ‘The combined length Ly +L should not exceed 60% of the allowable spans 2 given in the various Tables. PLAW view | fig.61. B.S. c) Stress Intensification Factors Cases will arise where a branch will join a header at some intermediate point along a span. Itis a simple matter to calculate the bending ‘moment at this branch intersection, taking into account the additional load that the branch imposes on the header, do not forget that this bending moment gives stresses which should be multiplied by the S.LF. appropriate to the form of the branch intersection.‘Lecture No 5 LIMITING VALUES FOR TERMINAL FORCES Mention was made earlier that the Stress Engineer might consider that the forces which a pipe imposes on the equipment to which it is connected as being excessive and therefore a reason for rejecting the layout. It must be realised that this rejection is unlikely to be the personal whim of the Engineer - he will merely be applying the appropriate rules. The maximum permitted forces will vary with the type of equipment concerned; some of the common items of which are listed below together with the reasons for the limitations and some of the values commonly applied. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS The pump casing is usually much stronger than the pipe connecting to it, but quite moderate piping reactions can cause it to distort or cause misalignment between the pump and its driver resulting in an early failure of the bearings. ‘The flexibility problem with pump piping is nearly always aggravated by the fact that, in order to reduce the pressure drop in the suction pipe, it is made one or two sizes larger in diameter than the nozzle on the pump, with a 'local' reducer at the pump. This could mean, for example, that the forces and moments associated with the flexibility of, say, an 8” diameter pipe have to be applied to a 6" diameter pump nozzle. A particularly bad case occurs in the use of chemical pumps with casings of a synthetic material such as 'Ferrobestos.. Here the pump casing is very fragile but the associated piping is often carbon steel with a chemically suitable lining. The Stress Engineer should be consulted in all such cases before commencing any layout work. Coming to the numerical values which apply, these usually come from one of three main sources: (1) The Pump Manufacturer The limiting values may be stated on the outline drawings or they may be indicated in the quotation documents. Manufacturers would ideally like no forces or moments applied to the flanges of their pumps and their requirements often appear to be severe. However, they are usually in a position to make concessions and it is a common practice to submit the actual values achieved by the Stress Analyst to them for approval. Bending moments equivalent to a stress of between 30 n/mmm* and 40 n/mm? are usually accepted. {WTeey to eCSeane dase Seal 95 x(2) The Purchaser ast experience with the apparent intransigence on the part of the manufacturer who refuses to acknowledge the magnitude of the terminal effects of an adequately flexible piping layout has led some of the Petrochemical Industries major operators to incorporate values for the maximum loading they are prepared to sanction in their own engineering standards. The Stress Engineer then has to ensure that the clients, requirements are satisfied. Esso has been one such company ‘The present tendency, however, is to refer to the third source: (3) National or Institutional Stat ‘We may take the American Petroleum Institute Standard API 610 covering ‘Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Service’ as being representative. If no other guidance is available, compliance with these standards is usually an acceptable answer to queries regarding pump nozzle loadings. This standard has recently been revised and is considerably more difficult to use. The calculated forces and moments are compared with a table of values based on nozzle size. However if these are exceeded there are some complicated procedures ‘which can be seen in the appendix. ‘A factor of 2 x listed loads may be applied if the baseplate is sufficiently stiff. The logic behind the allowable nozzle loads remains obscure. The attempts to comply with this standard may involve a large expenditure of manhours. STEAM TURBINES “These items present considerable difficulty to the Stress Engineer depending on the size of the machine and connecting piping. For example, I 16 MW centrifugal compressor may require a 20 MW turbine driver using steam at 10 r/mm* (100 bar and 500°C at the inlet). ‘The steam may then exhaust at 52°C and full vacuum due to the high temperature and pressure, with a flow rate of 100/tons/hour, large diameter thick wall pipe will be required. It is usual to apply the limitations of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) to this type of machine. Steam turbines may be required to operate at an inlet pressure of 20 bar g and 250°C, exhausting to 10 bar g and 200°C, Such "back-pressure” turbines usually develop kilowatts of power and are connected to relatively small diameter piping. Both types-of machine may be required to comply with NEMA in the absence of vendor allowables. ‘The allowable loads specified by NEMA are based on the diameter of individual nozzles and an equivalent diameter based on the combined cross-sectional area of all nozzles. The ‘Dieayar ence Se Sesproblems associated may be minimised by early consultations between designer and Stress. Engineer. The equations specified by NEMA can be found in the appendix at the back of this lecture being American they are inevitably in Imperial units, a lot of thought has gone into whether itis better to convert the paperwork: to S.1 units or convert the reactions to Imperial. Attached to this appendix is a standard form which the engineer can use to summate his answers. EN’ Al S The allowable nozzle loads for this type of equipment are based on the NEMA values. The design of this type of machine is usually governed by A.P.1.617 (which refers to NEMA for allowable nozzle loads). This type of machine is not as sensitive to piping loads by comparison with steam turbines. This is due to the fairly robust construction (associated with high pressure) and the moderate temperatures encountered. FIRED HEATERS ‘The limiting values for applied forces and moments in the case of fired heaters will be invariably laid down by the manufacturer. Not only are the permissible stresses low, by virtue of the high metal temperatures, but restrictions are usually applied to permissible piping movements at the nozzles. particularly rotations. These restrictions arise from consideration of the clearances between the tubes and the refractory lining of the heater as well as the detail design of the gas seals. Typical restrictions are: Forces 800 to 1200 nvin. nom. diam. on header Moments Equivalent to Sh /4 Nozzlerotations From 4° to 1° " . AT q Here again, the limiting values for applied forces and moments are laid down by the manufacturers. The exchanger will be designed, in all probability, to the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) Standards so that its shell will have to comply with the ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. This in tune means that there are strictly limited values for the stresses in the exchanger shell local to the nozzles which are attributable to the piping loads on the nozzies. The manufacturer will determine the numerical values of forces and moments which can be taken by his own detail design. i the averas yer that “effective” str intensification at a nozzle of the order of 5; that is to say that, if there is a bending sess inthe pipe at the exchangernozzle of 35 n/mm?, then the bending stress in the exchanger shell plate adjacent to the nozzle will be in the order of 175 n/mm? This is an approximation and if a detailed analysis is required there are methods available to establish the effects of piping loads on shells. ELANGE LEAKAGE Flanges are designed to remain leak free under hydrostatic test pressure when cold and operating pressure when hot. The normal design practice for flanges takes no account of bending moments in the pipe. Although there are margins in the design method which mean that, in practice, a flange can transmit some bending moment before it ‘opens up’, itis as well to realise that this moment is often very small. Although this depends on the type of flange being considered. Some operators require that certain flanges in hazardous areas shall be checked for possible leakage, and the Stress Engineer may well ask for additional flexibility in the piping or even a re-routing where a flanged joint is located near a point of high bending moment. ‘The code refers the user to ASME VIII but a more comprehensive analysis is available in ASME Iil especially with regard to high yield bolts. A definition of which can be found in ANSI B16.5. See appendix for ASME Il rules. PRESSURE VESSELS The usual methods of piping flexibility assume the nozzle to shell intersection to be rigid. This can give very conservative results and lead to a gross overestimate of the terminal forces and moments. A detailed analysis including the effects of shell flexibility may show acceptable terminal loads. Clearly, the initial layout should not be based on this detailed approach. At the beginning of this lecture, mention was made of the 3 choices available to the Stress Engineer when deciding whether the flexibility of a particular layout is adequate. PACKAGED UNITS: Ithas become common in recent times for construction companies to sub-let self contained units to sub-contractors especially in the offshore business. Here the contractor has to connect, his pipework to a variety of connections. One method of standardising reactions is to specify to the sub-contractor that he must supply anchors adjacent to the terminal points designed such that they not only contain the sub-contractors reactions but also the reactions from contractors pipework. The value of the reactions are laid down in the enquiry documents. A set of typical values can be found in the appendix to this lecture. (@) Accepting on the basis of Past Experience {Demy PO eae ec e615(b) © ‘This statement is itself presupposes lengthy experience in these matters, but this procedure may also be adopted as a means of reducing the volume of work on a particular project. For instance, suppose we have a pumphouse containing some 20 pumps; it may be possible to pick out the worst sets on the basis of temperature or line diameter and then clear the remaining sets on the strength of the calculations for the governing layouts. A a ys There is a wide choice of methods available to the Stress Engineer to enable him to make an estimate of the stresses in a layout. For example, he can idealise the shape as something simpler than that drawn for which there is a standard mathematical solution. Some problems occur with such frequency, that over the years nomographs have been developed which give quite accurate results. Several of these methods have aiready been dealt with earlier in the course By whatever approximate method he chooses to employ, the Stress Engineer must be aware of the accuracy and limitations of that method. Most approximate methods will give answers which err on the right side of the line, but this is not always the case. The use of approximate methods is sanctioned by the various Codes. ives . ‘The dividing line between what constitutes an approximate solution as opposed to 2 ‘comprehensive’ analysis is none too finely drawn. ‘The ANSI B31.3 Code states: “Acceptable comprehensive methods of analysis include analytical and chart methods which provide an evaluation of the forces, moments and stresses caused by displacement strains" However, in practice, approximate or chart solutions which provide this amount of information are limited to '2 Anchor’ problems; whilst it is possible to divide a multi - anchor layout into a number of '2-Anchor' segments by means of Imaginary anchors. such accuracy as there may have been in the data when applied to the type of layout for which it was derived is usually lost with this subdivision process. ‘An accurate solution of a branched system invariably demands a ‘computer’ solution ati) the present time, by reason of the vast amount of arithmetic involved, - it is no longer economic to perform ‘hand’ calculation. Modern computer programs which will deal with piping layouts comprising a hundred or more branches are widely available. Apart from deciding on the degree of flexibility which must be provided, the Stress Engineer must also decide when a layout warrants a formal computer analysis. If the results of an approximate trial calculation put the stresses at the upper end of the ‘allowable’ range, he may well obtain confirmation by resort to a computer solution, and a layout which would be rejected by approximate methods can sometimes be accepted following ‘formal’ analysis.Page no.7 APPENDIX Centrifugal Pumps_ Table 2—Nozzle Loadings Note: Each value shown below indicates 2 range ftom minus that value to pls that value: for example 160 indieates a range from ~160 10 +160 ‘Nominal Sue of Nozale Flange Gnches) FoceMomen? 7 OSSSC~SC=“‘“!l™S*~é#SC*#~«ws;S*~‘ (FXD,) YD) ~(FYS) (2S) ~(FYD,) (eD)}" F.1.3 Piping configurations that produce loads greater than those allowed in F.1.1 or F.1.2 shall be mutually approved by the purchaser and the vendor. (MZCay)". MZC, F.2 Vertical In-Line Pumps Vertical in-line pumps that are supported only by the attached piping may be subjected to component piping loads that are more than double the values shown in Table 2, provided these loads do not cause a principal stress greater than 6000 pounds per square inch in either nozzle. For calculation purposes, the section properties of the pump nozzles shall be based on Schedule 40 pipe whose nominal sie is equal to that of the appropriate Pump nozzle. Equations F-6, F-7, and F-8 can be used fo evaluate principal sess, longitudinal stress, and shear stress, respectively, ia the nozzles. S=(o2)+(o4+77)*< 6000 (F-6) .2FZI(Do? ~ Di] + [122Do (MX? + MY") (Dot — D,*) (F-7) += [61D0(MZ)/(Do'~ Dj‘)] + (L27(FX?+ FY?)"*)/(Do?- De) (F-8) Note: FX, FY, FZ, MX, MY, aod HZ represeat the applied loads acting on the scion or dcharge sores The sutiie 5 and Dy bave Bera ominedta simply the equations. Thesgnol FZ 3 pone ‘tthe load pus the nore ia teasion the sign is negate i he lone Pts the acelin compresio. One ust rterto igure I and tne Spplied aozle loads to determine whether the ooste win wasou or ‘Brnpression. The absolute vale of HZ shouldbe wedi Eauaion FaAPPENDIX Centrifugal Pumps (Contd.) F.3. Nomenclature C=ceater of the pump, as defined by the intersection of the pump shaft center- line and the support pedestal centerline (Gee Figures 3-5) D = discharge nozzle. Dy= inside diameter of Schedule 40 pipe whose nominal size is equal to that of the pump nozzle in question, in inches. Do= outside diameter of Schedule 40 pipe whose nominal size is equal to that of the pump nozzle in question, in inches. F = force, in pounds. FR= resultant force. (FRS, and FRD, are calculated by the square-root-of-the- sum-of-the-squares method using the applied component forces acting on the nozzle flange. FRS;, and FRDp are ex- tracted from Table 2 using the appropri- ate nozzle size.) ‘M = moment, in foot-pounds. resultant moment. (MRS, and MRD, are calculated by the square-root-of- 3 thesumofthe-squares method using the applied component moments acting on the nozzle flange. MRS; and MRDp are extracted from Table 2 us- ing the appropriate nozzle size.) 2, y, 7 = location coordinates of the nozzle flanges with respect to the center of the pump. X, ¥, Z = direction of the loads (see Figures 3-5). = longitudinal stress, in pounds per square inch. += shear stress, in pounds per square inch. Subscript A = applied loads. Subscript T2 = loads extracted from Table 2.APPENDIX Steam Turbines, 9.4.6 Allowable Forces and Moments on Steam Turbines The forces and moments acting on steam turbines due to the steam inlet, extraction, and exhaust connections should be limited by the following: 9.4.6.1 The total resultant force and total resultant mo- ‘ment imposed on the turbine at any connection should not exceed the values per Equation | Fa + Myf = 167 D, (Equation 1) ’s where: 'x = Resultant force (pounds) including pressure forces where unrestrained expansion joints are used at the ‘connection except on vertical exhausts. Full vacuum load is allowed on vertical down exhaust flanges. It is not included as part of the piping load irom Figure 9-12: Feo V Pt Ep +P Ma = Resultant moment in foot-pounds, from Figure 9-12. Me = VM + MM? ‘Nominal pipe size of the connection in inches up to 8 inches in diameter. For sizes greater than this, use a value of (16 +Dyon) Inches 3 9.4.6.2 The combined resultants of the forces and ‘moments of the inlet, extraction, and exhaust connections, resolved at the centerlines of the exhaust connection should not exceed the values per Equation 2 a. These resultations shall not exceed: 250 De ~ M. F 3 (Equation 2) where: F, = Combined resultant of inlet, extraction, and ex- haust forces, in pounds. M, = Combined resultant of inlet, extraction, and ex- haust moments, and moments resulting from forces, in pound-feet. Diameter (in inches) of a circular opening equal to the total areas of the inlet, extraction, and ex- haust openings up to a value of 9 inches in diameter. For values beyond this, use a value of D. equal to: (18 + Equivalent diameter) 3 = inches b. The components (Figure 9-12) of these resultants should not exceed: F.= 50D. 250 D. F, = 125, 125 D. F, = 10D. M, = 125 D. ‘The components are as follows: F, = Horizontal components of F, parallel to the turbine shaft. F, = Vertical component of F.. F, = Horizontal component of F, at right angles to the turbine shaft. In = Component of M. around parallel to the turbine shaft. M, = Component of M. around the vertical axis. M, = Component of M, around the horizontal axis at right angles to the turbine shaft ‘Aulhorized Engineering Information 11-14-1985, the horizontal axisAPPENDIX Steam Turbines (Contd) 9.4.6.3 For installation of turbines with a vertical ex- hhaust and an unrestrained expansion joint at the exhaust, ‘an additional amount of force caused by pressure loading is allowed. (This additional torce is perpendicular to the face of the exhaust flange and central.) For this type of application, calculate the vertical force component on the exhaust connection excluding pressure loading. Compare this with one sixth of the pressure loading on the exhaust. Use the larger of these two numbers for vertical force component on the exhaust connection in making calcula- tions outlined in 9.4.6.1 and 9.4.6.2. ‘The force caused by the pressure loading on the exhaust, is allowed in addition to the values established by the foregoing up to a maximum value of vertical force in pounds on the exhaust connection (including pressure loading) of 15% times the exhaust area in square inches. 9.4.6.4 These values of allowable force and moment pertain to the turbine structure only. They do not pertain to the forces and moments in the connecting piping, flange, and flange bolting, which should not exceed the allowable stress as defined by applicable codes and regulatory bodies. ‘Authorized Engineering Information 11-14-1985, ws VERTICAL 1 RIGHT ANGLE To TURBINE SHAFT [in emanate 70. TURBINE SHAFT Figure 9-12 COMPONENTS OF FORCES AND MOMENTS ‘ON TURBINE CONSTRUCTIONAPPENDIX Steam Turbines (Contd.) ee ATTACHED Summaqion See]SAnaHOn $1280s Q3AT0SIa 40 WolLwaunis| idabal AM) = iF SINIHOH 9 $8290 2A+| 3 Ee, Piitacere [9 [reel 2 WS Ws AWS; N33 48S PO XLNVISNOD SNOILVLIWIT LNINOdNOD —_s_ (aannirey 357 Sh, nag vid 46 oLai ener Saizzon 40 viay “WLOL * SNINSIO 2812 40 .WO*70|_ = Grier 5) 0 380 42 C5vi0 Bas 491 dW Bats +O a [4 SinauoH osaroe as [> SINGHOW anioy [SiowOS TNLDY | -zz0nAPPENDIX Flanges_ NC-3658 Analysis of Flanged Joints Flanged joints shall be analyzed for compliance with cone of the following subparagraphs. NC-3658.1 Any Flanged Joint. Flanged joints may bbe analyzed and the stresses evaluated by using the methods given in Appendix XI as modified by (a) through (d) below, or by () below. Alternatively, they may be analyzed in accordance with Appendix XIII (@) The Design Pressure used for the calculation of ‘Hin Appendix XI shall be replaced by a flange design pressure Pra P+ Pn where ‘P= Design or Service Condition Pressure as de- fined in NCA-2140, psi Pay= equivalent pressure to account for the mo- ments applied to the flange joint during the Condition, psi ‘The equivalent pressure P,, shall be determined by the equation 16My/nG? where My < 3125(5,/39C4, Pay = My 2G? My $ 25%5,/39)C4, and G= diameter at location of gasket load reaction ‘85 defined in XI-3130, in. (©) Equations (3) and (4) in XI-3223 shall be used to establish minimum bolt area required using allow- able stress values given in Table I-73. (@) Equation (6) in. XI-3240 for longitudinal hub stress shall be revised to include the primary axial ‘membrane stress as follows: PM, , PB gh” Ag, Su where P is the Design or Service Presstire as defined, in NCA-2140. Other terms are defined in XI-3130. (d) The allowable stress limits sball be: Sy not greater than 1.55 Sp not greater than 1.55 Synot greater than 1.55 (@) If the fanged joint conforms to one of the stan- dards listed in Table NC-3132-1, and if each Prp as calculated by (a) is les than the rated pressure at the Design or Service Temperature utilized, the require- ments of NC-3658 are satisfied. NC-3658.2 Standard Flanged Joints at Moderate Pressures and Temperatures. Flanged joints conform- ing to ANSI B16.5, MSS SP-44, API 605, or AWWA, C207 Class E (275 psi), and used where neither the Design nor Service Pressure exceeds 100 psi and nei- ther the Design nor Service Temperature exceeds 200, meet the requirements of NC-3658, provided the following equation is satisfied: . My $ AsCS/4 My SACS where the definitions of My and My are as in NC- 3658.1 above, and y= total cross-sectional area of, bolts at root of thread or section of least diameter under stress, $q in. (C= bolt circle diameter, in Se allowable bolt stress, psiRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE APPENDIX 5 Flanges (Contd) NC-3658.3 ANSI B16,5 Flanged Joints With High Strength Bolting. Flanged joints using flanges, bolting, and gaskets as specified in ANSI B16.5 and using bolt. ing material baving an S value at 100F not less than 20,000 psi may be analyzed in accordance with the following rules. (0) Design Limits and Levels A and B Service Limits (2) The limitations given by Eqs. (12) and (13) shall be met My ¢ NINS,/3OCA, (2) where ‘Mj,= bending or torsional moment (considered sep- rately) applied to the joint due to weight, thermal expansion of the piping, sustained an- chor movements, relief valve steady-state thrust, and other sustained mechanical loads, inlb. If cold springing is used, the moment may be reduced to the extent permitted by NC-3673.5. 'S,= yield strength, ksi, of flange material at Design Temperature (Table I-2.2). The value of S,/ 36 shall not be taken as greater than unity. diameter of bolt circle, in. Ay= total cross-sectional area of bolts at root of thread or section of least diameter under stress, sq in. My $ 2305, /36)CA, aay where ‘Mra= bending or torsional moment (considered sep- arately) as defined for Mi, but including dy- amie loadings, inl (2) Flanges of ANSI BI6.5 fanged joints meeting the requirements of NC-3612.1 are not required to be analyzed under NC-3650. However, the pipe-to-Dange ‘welds shall meet the requirements of NC-3652, using” appropriate stress intensification factors froma Fig. NC- 3673.200)1. (0) Level C Service Limits (G)_The pressure shall not exceed 1.5 times the Design Pressure, (2) The limitation given by Eq. (17) shall be met: Mu s (250A, — (#/16)D2 PA)CUS,/36) (7 where D/= outside diameter of raised face, in Py¢= pressure concurrent with My, psi Myo C. Sq the limitation on S,/36, and 4,are defined in (3) above, (3) Pipe-to-lange welds shall be evaluated by Eg, (9) of NC-3652.2, using a stress limit of 1.85, (c) Level D Service Limits (1) The pressure shall not exceed 2.0 times the Design Pressui (2) The limitation given by Eq, (17) shall be met, where Py and My are pressures, psi, and moments, inclb, occurring concurrently. (@) Pipe-to-flange welds shall be evaluated by Eg. (9) of NC-3652.2, using a stress limit of 24 5, (2) Test Loadings Analysis for test loadings is not required.es? APPENDIX Packaged Units Maximm allowable nozzle loads for pressure vessels, columns and shell/tibe type exchangers, and for temninal nozzles on skid units. - Nowenclature « . Axis A is the nozzle centre line dads B ard C are mitually perpendicular to axis A Fy, Fg and Fo are couponent alloweble forces (N) My, Mgand Mc are component allowable maents (ttn) Fp ard My are resultant Force (N) and resultant manent (ttm) Flange rating in accordance with ANSI B.16.5, except where 2500f in emwess of 12 in. n.b. In this case an equivalent wall thiciness has been used to derive allowable loads. Nozzle Flange F F; Size (in) Rating * 7 es ee 1.5" 150 725 1,450 200 140 280 300 970 1,935 245 170 45 00 370 is35 245-70 4s 300 970 iisas 245-70 34s 3500 1,280 21545 290 200 405 2500 1,280 2,545 290 200 405, a 150 1,000 2,000 350 (250 495 300 1,000 2,000 +350 250 495 600 2)485 2,975 470335 665 900 1,485 2,975 470 335 665 1500 1,800 3,600 530 375 750 2500 1,800 3,600 530 375 750 Fo 150 1,510 3,020 825 585—1,170 300 3/510 3,020 825 585 1,170 600 (2,045 4,085 1,070 ‘755 1,510 900 (2,855, 5,710 1,380 975 1,955 1500 3,705 7,405 «1,645 1,160 2,325 2500 3,705 (7,405 1,645 1,160 2,325, \DreyFONnCSmme sane seme ewiaeAPPENDIX Packaged Units (Contd.) Nozzle Size (in) an 6 8" 20" a" a6" Flange Rating 150 300 600 300 1500 2500 150 300 600 900 1500 2500 150 300 600 900 1500 2500 150 300 600 900 1500 2500 Boseey Bose Fa 2,150 2,150 2,985 3,785 5,450 5,450 3,780 4,600 5,695 7,250 10,595 10,748 5,690 6,060 7,100 12,100 16,005 17,865 8,070 10,910 12,840 17,795 22,920 27,150 9,880 10,665 27,665 25,010 32,930 37,630 10,875 12,640 21,150 30,050 41,830 61,185 12,470 16,495 27,225 38,345 52,085 74,145 Fe 2,635 2,635 3,655 4,640 6,720 6,720 4,630 5,630 6,975 8,880 22,975 13,150 6,970 7,425 8,700 14,820 29,600 22,880 9,880 23,360 15,730 21,795 28,075 33,250 12,100 13,065 22,635 30,630 40,330 46,085 13,320 15,485 25,905 36,805, 51,235 74,940 15,275 20,200 33,345 46,965 63,795 90,815 Lecture No $ Page no.l7 FR Mo Mar Me 4,300” 2,540 2,090 4,300 1;540 Lose 5,940 2,050 1,450 7,575 2,485 1,760 10,975 “3,260 2,305 10,975 3,260 2,305 7,560‘ 4,075 2,880 9,200 4,860 3,440 12,390 5,865 4,145 14,505 7;285 5,080 21,185 9,605 6,795 21,475 9,700 6,860 22,380 7,615 5,385 1225 8,075 5,710 14,205 9,325 6,595 24,200 14,785 10,455 32,005 18,415 13,020 35,725 19,950 14,210 16,135 12,755 9,020 21,820 16,820 11,895 25,680 19,460 _ 13,760 35,595 25,755 18,210 45,845 31,555 22,315 54,300 35,800 25,315 19,755 17,520 12,390 21,335 18,830 13,315 35,330 29,840 21,100 50,020 40,250 28,460 65,860 50,360 35,470 75,255 55,385 38,170 21,795 19,870 14,050 25,285 22,895 16,200 42,300 36,635 25,905 60,095 49,580 35,060 83,665 64,465 45,585 122,370 83,345 58,935 24,940 24,340 17,215 32,985 31,700 22,415 54,445 50,225 35,445 76,680 67,405 47,660 104,170 86,180 60,940 148,280 110,400 78,065APPENDIX Packaged Units (Contd.) Nozzle Size (in) 1s" 20" 2am renyor aria de S695 Flange Rating 300 600 900 1500 2500 300 900 2500 300 600 900 1500 2500 300 2500 mR 14,065 20,855 34,060 48,650 65,855 93,195 13,925 22,810 37,005 52,505 67,175 99,125 13,420 22,20 38,865 54,795 74,895 107,155 12,570 22,755 39,400 57,040 76,260 108,905 Far Fe 17,230 25,545 41,715 59,585 80, 660 114,140 17,055 26,715 45,320 64,305 82,275 121,405 16,435 27,080 47,600 67,120 91,840 131,245 15,395 27,870 48,255 69,865 92,405 133,390 Lecture No 5 Page nol§ FR My 28,130 "28,665 41,715 41,630 68,120 65,210 97,295 88,770 331,710 113,180 1e6,385 144,465 27,850 * 32,640 43,620 50,020 74,005 81,250 105,010 110,055 334/345 134,465 198,250 178,055 26,840 36,090 44,215 58,120 71,730 97,650 109,585 131,605 149,970 169,585 214,310 218,390 25,140 38,825 45,510 ATS 78,800 113,445 114,085 156,400 152,520 197,660 227,810 254,550 Mer Mo 20,270 29,435 46,120 62,770 80,030 202,155 23,080 35,370 57,455 77,820 95,085 125,905 25,520 41,100 69,050 93,060 19,915 154,425 27,450 48,420 80,220 120,590 139,770 179,995 MR, 30,535 58,870 92,220 125,540 160,065 204,310 46,165 70,745 124,910 155,645 290,165 251,810 51,040 82,200 138,100 186,120 239,830 308,855 54,905 96,840 160,440 221,180 279,535 359,990RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page: In this lecture we will look at the use of computers in Piping Siress Analysis First however we have to decide where our priorities lie Before starting any contract the Stress Engineer should establish the following environmental values, Ambient Temperatures Any differential settlements Wind Loading sthquake considerations Stress Engineer should establish the contractual requirements as, Code of practice and revision applicable Design Life of the plant Any areas where pipework is expected to exceed 7000 thermal cycles. The Stress Analyst will normally be asked to review a piperack or an area/ module If we consider the area/module we find that it contains piping of many sizes and temperatures some associated with the equipment in the area, some literally passing through on their way to another module/area, ‘The first thing to do is to identify the equipment and then to establish the conditions of the pipework, One method would be to obtain a copy of the associated studies or General Arrangement drgs. Note it pays to mark or stamp these documents with something that identifies them as belonging to the stress section, they have been known to disappear. Italso pays to add the date the document was received. In these days of quality control auditors are always looking for this type of information.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:2 On these mark up each pipe above. say +", with the following information design temperatures pressures fluid - liquid or gas insulation Some typical examples would look something like this. Asteam line 250/10/V/40 meaning 250° C at 10 bar with 40mm thick insulation A cooling water line 100/5/L/0 meaning 100° C at 5 bar with no insulation A process line -195-50/SO/L/100 meaning -195° to 50° C at $0 bar with 100mm thick insulation Having identified all the equipment and the conditions of the pipework we must consider the suppor's. Are there any? are they in the best locations for our pipework and are there enough, Any recommendations are best marked on in red in locations approximately to scale making sure access is not denied and equipment fouled The next problem is where do we start. Well there are one or two obvious places - they are first turbines and then centrifugal compressors. As has been discussed before they are probably the most strain sensitive equipment we are likely to encounter. We must therefore analyse this pipework for potential rerouteing, the addition of any expansion devices and add any necessary spring supports, stops, guides, and anchors to limit strains at the machinery. Pumps are the next likely cause for concern, they too are vulnerable with their close tolerance moving parts,RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Pipework associated with distillation columns can be a problem on two counts. 1. Large vertical movements are to be anticipated in the order of 150mm 2. Supports from the column will have to be designed “up front" as the pipe support design can have an impact on the column design. There will be some pipework where by virtue of its size and or temperature one can assess it by visual and or approximate methods Having established the order in which the remaining pipework is to be undertaken, the next task is to collate all the data necessary to complete @ full analysis. This is best undertaken with a STRESS SKETCH. Normally drawn in isometric form on a standard sheet this document will show relevant information such as temperatures and pipe support locations but without the non essential information such as vents, drains and instrument connections. See example attached This document would preferably show the X,¥,Z sign convention instead of 2 North Arrow. It is however preferable to establish a common orientation for this documentation at the beginning of contract with say North being -X and showing this onthe STRESS SKETCH. There is one major exceptions to this rule, where the pipework connects to pumps, compressors or turbines where allowable loadings are quoted in accordance with API 610 or NEMA 23, then always oriental the pipework such that the horizontal centreline of the shaft lies on the X axis. The STRESS SKETCH can be produced from studies, General Arrangement Drawings or Isometrics, Whatever is used it should be the latest information available. In fact if it from Isometrics the it is preferable to attach copies of these documents to the STRESS SKETCH as some indication of the source of the materialRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSI: The following data and where the change should be included on the STRES: SKETCH or associated documents and will be included in computer inputs Line size, Wall thickness, corrosion allowance, manufacturers tolerance. Material and material specification changes identified ‘Temperature and pressure from Line List or Process Data Sheets (state source and whether they are design or operating) Flange rating Allowable Stress(es) Nozzle movements with some sort Of sketch to show how they were obtained (remember a picture tells @ thousand words) Valve weights Tees specified correctly (stub ins, reinforced or forged) Density of fluid. Insulation thickness and density Design Cases and other cases to be properly identified Supports - locations, type and other special considerations Earthquake considerations ‘Hydrostatic test if epplicable Differential settlement Relief and Bursting Disc reactions ‘And anything else relevantRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:5 The Data Input for the software CAESAR 2. There are several steps required to perform a static analysis as listed in fig 3.1 below START CAESAR IT SPECIFY JOBNAME GENERATE INPUT PERFORM ERROR CHECKING EXECUTE STATIC ANALYSIS | REVIEW OUTPUT Figure 3.1. Steps Necessary to Perform Static Analysis Once started CAESAR takes the user to the main menu as shown in fig 3.2 below CRESAR IT Pipe Stress Analysis Directory: E:\CAESAR ‘JOB: JACKET Structural Input Buried Pipe Input URC 237, SIFS, Flanges ure 167 Equiprent Checke 2-0 Plotting AISC Unity Checks Exit to Dos Configure-Setup Change Unite ASCII Editor ‘Systen Check we vou OPTION ¢7-Help> ——’ COADE INTERNAL ESL DEALER/DEN COPY 100081 9:80am May 11,1993 ‘Figure 3.2. Main MenuRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 There are several other option to chose from Listed as A thro to J covering such topics as Structural input and Buried Pipe input. Overview of the Main Menu The CAESAR II MAIN MENU shown in Figure 3.2, appears whenever the program is started. Below the heading (showing the version name, job name, working directory, and current date) there are nineteen menu options from which to choose from. The following discussion provides a brief summary ofeach option, and provides references toother related chapters. Additionally, a discussion of the three most commonly used keys ({Enter], [Escl, and [?]) in CAESAR II concludes this section. 1- Input 2- Staties 3- Dynamics 4- Output 5 - FilesJobname 6-Jobname 7- Utilities 8 - Exit to DOS 9- Configure/Setup Choosing this option will invoke the piping pre-processor. This option creates and edits piping models. (Refer to Chapter 4 for detailed information.) ‘This option performs the static analysis of the piping system. Chapter 5 discusses the load case definitions and the analysis, and Chapter 6 discusses the output results, ‘The Dynamics option allows the entry of loads which cause a dynamic imbalance in a system, such as fluid hammerorearthquakeloading. Chapters7 and 8discuss the dynamic processor. CAESAR II produces several types of output, such as static, static animation, dynamic eigensolution, mode shapes, etc. This option allows the user to select the particular output he/she wishes to review. ‘The file handler allows the user to select, copy, or delete jobs. A complete discussion of the file handler is included in Chapter 12. Allows the user to select an existing job or name anew job. Accesses the UTILITIES MENU which includes such options as accounting, unit conversion, large job printing, external interfaces, etc. Chapter 12 discusses each of the utilities options. ‘Terminates the CAESAR II program. This option allows the configuration tobe tailored. Chap- ter 2 discusses the initial configuration, and Chapter 2 of the Technical Reference Manual discusses the detailed configuration.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE Key Strokes [Enter] This key accepts the default and continues on to the next ‘ic PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:7 splay (Esc] This key backs out of the current operation one step at 2 tine [)] This Key activates the help facility ‘The Start Looking at fig 3.2 will show that line one. Limited to six digits From here goto "1 - INPUT 6 Jobname * you wont be able to start vithout " and from which the following menu is shown, FRON MODE 5 RESTRAINTS Gyno ¥ To MODE 38, DISFLACEHETS (v7) 8] oR FORCES TorENTS(y-~> x] Rata Dx JUNIFOR! LOADS (¥-> | bart. uinp Lops (ye nl tay pores Be OFFSETS aap Hl coed ford DIARETER 1z.7sea [aliou. STRESS (v7 | uresch ‘seee |Sirs& TEES (v7 | foe pee) ANSUL THK zlagee CORROSION Tora 652. ce0e Tere eee BENDA Y TEne_3 er Tr RIGID YH) EXP ITOH RATERIALS (2) HIGH PRESSURE_3 PRESSURE 2 459.08 Pee Pearresn Pama researc carson STEEL [mastic POIS. RATIO PIPE ust TNSUL ugt FLUID ust nop .29se0E-8| izasee ~Zaa8s Toersz ALE-C Cont Fnd Ins Del Break Titl Plot Let Her Ualve explt Kaux Thelp Updat Quit Figure 3.3. Typical Input Spreadsheet ‘The spread sheet starts with “From Node" to "To Node” a new branch occurs whenever the following takes place. Changes to Pipe size / wall thickness /contents /insulation Changes to Direction At tees At SupportsRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:8 Changes to temperatures and pressures Changes to stresses The node numbers can be any from | to 32768, but it best to select the numbers in graduations of 5, ie 5 10 15 etc,. This will allow the user to add intermediate nodes such as 6 78 11 12 13 etc Valid entries in the first 2 cols. are numbers and [Y] (yes) and [N] (no) A complete rundown of the input can be found in section 4 of the CAESAR manual, the main features of which are listed at the end of this lecture. Once the first spreadsheet has been completed press [ Enter] key to get to a spreadsheet for the next "element" It will be seen that some of the datais duplicated foreword, to be edited only if required. ie Temperature Having completed the "model" go to the next function by pressing (Esc] key This will take the user to QUIT MENU shown in fig 3.5 below It should be noted that only functions 0, 1, 2, and 4, will save the data PIPING QUIT MENU Jobnaree= TUTOR @ - New JOBNAME for letest changes | SE <== TO SELECT Z~ Batch Run 3B - RETURN to EDIT 4~ EXIT Editor ( Save changes > 5 ~ EXIT Editor ( Forget changes > 6 ~ Forget changes, READ in another input file 7 ~ File Archive / Unerchive ENTER OPTION > Figure 3.5. Piping Preprocessor QUIT MENU.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:9 By selecting " 1- Start Run " an Error Checker starts which will ist any fatal errors and any warnings. A typical message screen appears in fig 4.20 below. WARNING 38 On element 1 to 5 a NONZERO INSULATION THICKNESS has been specified and the Insulation density 1s ZERO or UNDEFINED. Using default of .006655 1b./cu. tn. for Calctum Stitcate. + SEND ABOVE ERROR MESSAGE TO THE PRINTER SEND ALL ERROR MESSAGES TO THE PRINTER - RESTART ERROR PROCESSING FRO THE BEGINNING ‘SHOW ONLY FATAL ERRORS (HO WARNINGS) - RETURN TO THE SPREADSHEET PREPROCESSOR + RETURN TO THE CAESAR IT MAIN [Esc] | oPTtONs: | ENTER OPTION —> Ler] OR Espace bar} TO CONTINUE TERMINAL ERROR DISPLAY Figure 4.20. Warning Message Screen Various options are available with each note, warning, or fatal error message screen. Users may restart error processing, return to the input processor, return to the main menu, print the message, or continue the error checking. Note the [Enter] key is pressed to continue error checking. After all the messages are displayed and tallied, and if no fatal errors were found, the screen shown in fig, 4.21 appears as shown below. PIPING ERROR PROCESSING COMPLETED: FATAL ERRORS = 0 WARNINGS = = 1 notes ee oPTToKs: 1 = WARNING MESSAGES ARE 0.K.. GENERATE EXECUTION FILES FOR THIS PART (default) 2 - RETURN TO THE PIPE SPREADSHEET PREPROCESSOR 3 = RETURN TO THE CAESAR IT MAIN PROGRAM MENU 4 = RESTART ERROR PROCESSING FROM THE BEGINNING ENTER OPTION —> Figure 4.21. Error Check Summary3 RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:10 For both successful or unsuccessful checking the user is retumed to the main menu: fig. 3.2 ‘Once success has been achieved a Static Analysis can be started from the Main Menu by going to " 2 Static’s " and pressing the [Enter] key CRESAR 11 INCORE SOLUTION MODULE ‘oPTroxs: FL - Abort Solution Module JOBNANE F2 ~ Single Step Thru Restraints Eouatrons F3 - Change Friction Telerances BANDWIDTH | : Z Fa ~ Send Restraint Status to Printer (Pn Requests serviced after each tack) CURRENT case z rr Ss TOTAL CASES 2 ‘STATUS: TTERATION 2 No. Nonlinear Restraints a Solution Core Use (2 3 ELAPSED TIME ...... @: e: 2 NONLINEAR RESTRAINT CHANGES: Deconposition — Forvard/Back Substitution Nonconverged last Iteration Figure 3.6. Static Solution Status Screen Once completed the screen will change to Static Output Menu fig 3.7 below here the Operator can select or add to the Load Cases, select the type of report required and the destination of the repor, disc, screen or printer. LOAD CASES ANALYZED ‘REPORT OPTIONS 120 DESTINATION 4 coppuers+pisrDR LOTTED RESULTS 2 cSuSuepi+For 3 DIsPLacenEnTS ET 3 CExponzeDi-b2 RESTRAINTS. LDEVICE 152 COLI D RESTRAINT Surrwany DEVICE “ea COLUM E GLOBAL Lent FORCES F LOCAL ELENNT FORCES & STRESSES. ourrur wars W SORTED srREssES TanGeR TABLE Beust MANGER TABLE-TExt RISCELLaNEDUS ‘OPTIONS. ENTER REPORT TITLE © INPUT Box RENAME 1/0 DEUICE Ficactivate Options FaInstructions FaRetum to Input Fi@Reta te Tae Figure 3.7. Static Output MenuRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS ‘Lecture No 6 Page: 11 TO NOD: DISPLACEMENTS «vm? FORCES/NOMENTS( YM? Dx JUNEFORN LOADS <¥~m> by JUEND Loabs. (ym | FROM NODE RESTRAINTS cy bz 2 rand | INsUL TK CORROSION Cee pera POTS. RATIO INSUL ust FLUID ues Figure 4.9. Input Piping Spreadsheet (Blocks) de Numbers From and to nodes must be d Block (1) - Block (2) - Element Lengths The co-ordinate length of an element will be added here, if the element does not lie on one of the three axes X,Y and Z then the user would have to complete two or lines of this block. Block (3) - Pipe Section Properties The elements outside dia., wall thickness and corrosion allowance are collected in this block. This data carries foreword from one screen to the next during the input session and need only be entered for the element where a change occurs. Nominal pipe sizes and schedules may be specified For this block outside dia and wall thickness must be added Block (4) - Special Joint Information Bends, rigid sections and expansion joints re information which is recorded in this block. If the screen ends in a bend or elbow then change the N to Y for a Bend ire additional the element entered onRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 This will open up some auxiliary information in col 3 with additional information. If the element is defined as rigid or an expansion joint change the associated N to Y will open up the auxiliary data box. Block (5) - Piping Material Name For all normal materials added to this section, the values for block (10) and pipe wt in Block (11) will be completed also the coefficient of expansion, If in dought press [7] to get list of materials available Block (6) - Point information and distributed loads The Y/N cells in this block open up auxiliary data fields to allow the input of point information such as supports and concentrated loads Itis recommended that such information be added to nodes that are TO or FROM nodes of the particular screen at the time Block (7) - Piping Code Data If Y is selected the auxiliary field is opened where the hot and cold allowables are added and the code selected. This selection will govern the combinations of the loadings in the results. This block also allows for the generation of additional S.LF s Block (8) - Temperatures The software can consider three separate temperatures and will create load case for each one. This thermal data carries foreword from one case to the next Block (9) - Pressures ‘Two pressure (e.g. design and hydrotest) can be specified for the element. Each pressure set creates load cases for analysis. Pressure data carries forward from one element to the next Block (10) - Piping Material Data If for some reason the material added in block (5) was not in the software library then this section would have to be filled in, Block (11) - Densities The pipe wt will be generated by the information in block (5) if standard, the other two require some info. Insui will default to calcium silicate if info not added. Grn will be an adequate alternative for weight.RICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSI: Lecture, Valves When the user comes to valve in the system it is handled similarly to a Figid section. After putting in the nodes for both ends of the valve go straight to the RIGID section bypassing all between. Change N to Y which will activate the auxiliary screen ‘When this happens press V and another box will appear, see fig 4.10 below, complete the instructions and a valve will have been added PRON NODE (3. 0 NODE 35. | ronces-ronenrsi vn Dx [UNIFORM LOADS Cyn z Sino tants Cae z freee Gem ee eae is [exo ee | ccm oo Ey S |racio wre] care] clone contra aTarLy| Carrow Keys? - Chenge Highlight Options cEnter? ~ Use Current Selections (Eocepe? = ‘Ignore Unive Request STEEL [ELASTIC MOD 2950) POTS. RATIO -25za@ PIPE ugt -28993 INSUL Ugt FLUID ust ALC Cont Fad Ins Del Break Titl Plot Let igh ‘expt Kaux Thelp Updat Suit Figure 4.10. Valve Selection ScreenRICHMOND UPON THAMES COLLEGE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Lecture No 6 Page:i4 Hangers (re Spring Supports) Springs are defined in the HGR command located see fig 411 below id screen at the bottom, Henger Node Number Hanger Connecting Nod | ————— oprronaL DESIGN PARAMETERS ~ Hanger Table . Fi —— Hanger/Can Aveilable Space (Meg. then Cen). Allousble Lond Variation (2) oes Rigid Support Displacerent Criteria ....0: Maximum Allowed Travel Lintt No.of Hangers This Location (Magthen nex.). Allow Short Ronge Springs (@-No, 1-' Operating Lond (Total lond at Hsr loc. Multiple Load Coze Design Option -. Free Anchor/Restraint et Node - Free Anchor/Restraint et Node -.. Free Code (1-¥,2-XY,3-29,44¥2,S-all) 7 PREDEFINED HANGER DATA Spring Rate . ab.7in) Theoretical Cold (installation) Load .......(1B.? Constant Effort Support Load b> FL Exit FZ ~ Shou Hanger Tables «Ese? — Exit F3 - Shou Lond Case Options Figure 4.11. Hanger SpreadsheetY oa oo okt |e | BARE yess oon] ou | gett | ct Heseg| commons on pete [rn ]*[=[=[™ NOTES: UNE Nes. “Tats ORAWING IS THE PROPERTY OF AIR PRODUCTS LIMITED AND IT'S SUBSIDIARIES AN MUST [NOT BE REPRODUCED OR USED FOR PURPOSES OTHER THAN FOR WHICH IT WAS SUPPLIED, ry STRESS ISOMETRIC PROTECT PROIEGT Na FEALEULATION REF | DRAWING No. ca ptea a + | nar sawn is proouess ron | SETS v0 ner | 8 Ch ANON PuRPOsES ONLY AnD | SUPPORTS t - |S ccHOT TE Use Pon rasmicaton AO Von Ri 4 rena305 zs 24 F 244 24 L 4 184 E s4 5 | ne 540-5 i ' me 404 4 FS as 2 t L 370. 4 —2 to es aile 260. tS q Wee 200. 20 q 22-4 25 150. 3F-£ 5 os © a 2 +E % iz iS 4 ] i too al . x Fae it 1s e & STEESS NomOGgR-APH 1 4g £ To cueex ww 's° ' 1) Exeansion oF Ly 2 Fe lo 2 i 200 le ¢ §] [B,E 2 meomouct, $f are 30 de 5 Fag gE 250 z= ¢ 3 o2v x 2 3} [8a a @eFZ Oo oo K 0 “ | Fz |2504y i j{ Ire. 5 Dn ee XQ Ay Az r 1D um Fy Fz 188924 2504y Spare. 2 \ Fe \ a \ esos} - Fy Ls < 12504 re = ~ 2 Fe : Me = 24963 “e Mx = 18432, Le { = YS Aod a X ee IRgo5gf PHATE 2 Let Resolmet of Fy b Fe Fe. (eatteo THe ThosT Lie J he Fx? + Fy2 = / 125047 + 1BB39S* = 226580 & THe Tuever le Avere = ten” (ste 12504 The Momest ® AN Ruse uy Tue Sysren = | (tue detance clas Tue THOS Lust x Fa) wo. Ld boo = Me = 24963 = Fe hoase = bole ‘hy & La Act = ty 2 IBASTpo ae = oO 8Idn Nore - THE Hinitum HoMEST GILL Low A Mw 12 cowele THAT Lise cPeores Phe = oe quele Ou BE Ws Besa HeHENT. Feom Tes DiAGRaH IT 1S A scene Pure Te eceu? wed PosSIBLE cota SALCULATE THE BH ANYWHEGENERAL ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS When calculating wall thicknesses always round up NOT down . Don't follow normal mathematical convention. When specifying steel don't forget to specify grade. Identify all information used i.e. Weld joint factor (Ej) List all the facts at the start of the calc Note all the units especially when converting from Imperial to SI. Standard pressure tests are not a service limitation they are simply a testPo Min Wall Thickness formulae = [5 called HOOP STRESS Lbarinn/mm? = O°} PER ee Pipe Supports span Acceptable deflection of pipe 5/smm : 2 # oo Allowable Stress of pipe S= !38Nimm* FoR PIE SUMORT 25% Max thermal Sess ([25 Sit 0-25Sn) — S“Muouaeie Ess referred to as THE STRESS RANGE What is applied to the bending stresses at all fittings STRESS FNTENSIFCAN@N FACTIR ‘What is applied to bends in a piping system FLEXIBILITY FRCTOR ONLY ‘Where can these values be found APTENOIX D Approx. formulae for section modulas TT r*t 2 ode for allowable loads on pumps API G10 Code for flanges‘Kne Blb-S Code for allowable loads on compressors/turbines NEMA SM23 ‘Name of two Piping Stress Software packages AUTOP/PE CESAR. MX BM. <5 =25% MLowmme stress Zz Bm may TESTTabulated below are a list of salient points that should be known by anyone who has specialised in piping engineering and piping stress. Code ANS! 831-3 Allowable Stress where listed APPENDIX Derivation 7/3 YigLO /; ULT (Lowest oF THE 2) Derived by whom ASTM! Value quoted in (units) PST Convert to n/mm? K Ibine = NJmm* OS Average value for CS Common Cs. material 138 N]mm* 2 Common Grade AP! SL GRADE B ‘Young's Modulas Where listed APPENDIX - Common Value for CS, 192 00D N|mm* Coefficient of Expansion Wherelisted PPPENDI x 831-3 Convert degrees F to C at Convert inches/100 ft to mm/metre inthe hoo mo |m Cee Mean value for CS Lm | waoee | Common Corrosion Allowance |-G mmm | I-Smm (B —_—_where would one find this data PIPE SPECIFICATION Common Pipe Manufacturers Under tolerance *|2'/2 Y/o where would one find his data API-SL [ASTM PIOb CODE oF PRACTKE Common weld joint factor O-@ —~ 0-95 where would one find this data. APPENDIX B3/ -3 per SL As™ fri106