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Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the

differences between group means and their associated procedures (such as


"variation" among and between groups), developed by R.A. Fisher. In the ANOVA
setting, the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into
components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form,
ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether or not the means of several groups are
equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test to more than two groups. Doing multiple
two-sample t-tests would result in an increased chance of committing a type I error.
For this reason, ANOVAs are useful in comparing (testing) three or more means
(groups or variables) for statistical significance.
The reason for doing an ANOVA is to see if there is any difference between groups
on some variable.
For example, you might have data on student performance in non-assessed tutorial
exercises as well as their final grading. You are interested in seeing if tutorial
performance is related to final grade. ANOVA allows you to break up the group
according to the grade and then see if performance is different across these grades.
ANOVA is available for
(ranking/ordering) data.

both

parametric

(score

data)

and

non-parametric

Analysis of variance, a statistical method in which the variation in a set of


observations is divided into distinct components.

What do you mean by ANCOVA?


Covariance is a measure of how much two variables change together and how
strong the relationship is between them. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a
general linear model which blends ANOVA and regression. ANCOVA evaluates
whether population means of a dependent variable (DV) are equal across levels of a
categorical independent variable (IV),
What is the importance of the Hypothesis?

Hypothesis supports the research to find and answer to a problem.


It is express in declarative form.
Hypothesis bridges the gap between theory and empirical inquiry.
It does not matter if the hypothesis is positive of negative toward to the
research problem.
The most important is it will provide a guideline to the problem

What are the advantages & disadvantages of SPSS?

Advantages of SPSS
SPSS is the statistical package most widely used by political scientists. There seem to be
several reasons why:

SPSS has been around since the late 1960s. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences,
Of the major packages, it seems to be the easiest to use for the most widely used

statistical techniques
One can use it with either a Windows point-and-click approach or through syntax (i.e.,

writing out of SPSS commands


Many of the widely used social science data sets come with an easy method to translate
them into SPSS; this significantly reduces the preliminary work needed to explore new
data.

Disadvantages of SPSS
There are also two important limitations that deserve mention at the outset:

SPSS users have less control over statistical output than, But, once a researcher
wants greater control over the equations or the output, she or he will need to either

choose another package or learn techniques for working around SPSS


Once a researcher begins wanting to significantly alter data sets, he or she will have
to either learn a new package or develop greater skills at manipulating SPSS.

Overall, SPSS is a good first statistical package for people wanting to perform quantitative
research in social science because it is easy to use and because it can be a good starting point to
learn more advanced statistical packages.
What are the Characteristics of hypothesis?
Characteristics of hypothesis
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Hypothesis should be clear and precise


A good hypothesis is assumption or explanation of why or how something occurs
Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.
Hypothesis should state relationship between variables.
Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.
Hypothesis should be tested in most simple terms so that the same is easily
understandable by all concerns.

Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts, in other words, it should be the

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one which judges accept as being the most likely.


Hypothesis should be agreeable to testing with a reasonable time.
Hypothesis must explain the facts what it claims to explain. It should have empirical
reference.

Eg: Companies manufacturing washing machines spend at least 10% of their annual profits
on advertising.
What is Null Hypothesis?
A type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that no statistical significance
exists in a set of given observations. The null hypothesis attempts to show that no
variation exists between variables, or that a single variable is no different than zero.
It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an alternative
hypothesis.

It is identified by the symbol Ho


It is always stated that There is no significant difference between the samples.
If the H0 is false, something else must be true. That is called alternative
hypothesis
It is identified by the symbol H1.
It should be clear that both Null and alternative hypotheses cannot be true and
only one of them must be true.
For any exercise, our conclusion must result into the acceptance of one
hypothesis and rejection of the other.

What is Alternative Hypothesis?


The alternative hypothesis, H1, is a statement of what a statistical hypothesis test is
set up to establish. For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug, the alternative
hypothesis might be that the new drug has a different effect, on average, compared
to that of the current drug. We would write
H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average.

What is Type I Error?

Type I Error
In a hypothesis test, a type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when
it is in fact true; that is, H0 is wrongly rejected.
For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the
new drug is no better, on average, than the current drug; i.e.
H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.
A type I error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs produced different
effects when in fact there was no difference between them.
The following table gives a summary of possible results of any hypothesis test:
Decision
Reject H0
Truth H0
H1

Don't reject H0

Type I Error Right decision


Right decision

Type II Error

What is Type II ERROR?


In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not
rejected when it is in fact false. For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug, the null
hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the current
drug; i.e.
H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.
A type II error would occur if it was concluded that the two drugs produced the
same effect, i.e. there is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in
fact they produced different ones.

Use in statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics provides simple summaries about the sample and about the
observations that have been made. Such summaries may be either quantitative, i.e.
summary statistics, or visual, i.e. simple-to-understand graphs. These summaries
may either form the basis of the initial description of the data as part of a more

extensive statistical analysis, or they may be sufficient in and of themselves for a


particular investigation.
For example, the shooting percentage in basketball is a descriptive statistic that
summarizes the performance of a player or a team. This number is the number of
shots made divided by the number of shots taken. For example, a player who shoots
33% is making approximately one shot in every three. The percentage summarizes
or describes multiple discrete events. Consider also the grade point average. This
single number describes the general performance of a student across the range of
their course experiences.
The use of descriptive and summary statistics has an extensive history and, indeed,
the simple tabulation of populations and of economic data was the first way the
topic of statistics appeared. More recently, a collection of summarization techniques
has been formulated under the heading of exploratory data analysis: an example of
such a technique is the box plot.
In the business world, descriptive statistics provides a useful summary of many
types of data. For example, investors and brokers may use a historical account of
return behavior by performing empirical and analytical analyses on their
investments in order to make better investing decisions in the future.

What are the Statistical tools used in research?


Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

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