II

II
I

I
.

MANUFACTURING
AUTOMATION
METAL CUTTING

CIRO RODRIGUEZ

MECHANICS,

MACHINE TOOL VIBRATIONS,

AND CNC DESIGN
, !

YUSUF ALTINTAS
University of British Columbia
.

..'~~ CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

32

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

~
QGj

dynamometer:
dFy,1I
dFx,n
dFz,n

chips

ribbon

= dFr,n cos o - dFr,n cos O.

= dFr,n
dFt,n. cos o + dFr,n sin O, }

chips

-;'
nt,
-a.
1)
.,'"

comma
9
commaOF MllLlNG
MECHANICS
2,7 PROCESSES
33 8
.10
chips

,11''i

long

chips
splral

short

(2.72)

Integrating the differential cutting forces along the curved chip segment
gives the total cutting forces contributed by the chip in region 11:
Fq.ll

= 1110dFq,n,

= x. y, z.

(2.73)

where the approach angle limit is 00 = :rr-cos-1(c/2r). Because the cutting constants and chip thickness are functions ofthe instantaneous approach angle O,
the continuous integration in Eq. (2.73) is not trivial. It is much more practical
to use constant average cutting coefficients by assuming a mean approach angle
of :rr/2 in Eqs. (2.62) and (2.63) or by digitally integrating the forces along the
curved chip segmento The curved chip is divided into K = 00/ /:,,0 small chip segments, and the cutting forces contributed by each small segment is evaluated
and summed numerically:
K

Fq,n

= LdFq.n,

q =x.y.Z.

(2.74)

k=O

where the instantaneous approach angle for each segment is Ok = k/:"O.

The total cutting forces acting on the tool are evaluated by summing the
forces generated in regions I and 11.Thus
Fq

= Fq,l + Fq.n,

The torque

(T)

= x. y. z.

(2.75)

and power (P) required from the spindle drive can be predicted

by
T

= Fx (d-a)
-2-

= Fx V.

(2.76)

where d is the diameter of the shaft in [mJ and V is the cutting speed in [mlsJ.
The units oftorque and power are [NmJ and [WJ, respectively. It is also important to select a suitable feed rate, which does not leave larger feed marks on
the surface than specified by the tolerance of the parto The amplitude of the
feed mark (R.,) can be evaluated from Figure 2.13 as
(2.77)
Similar analysis can be applied to other turning tools by dividing their cutting edges into small oblique elements as evaluated here. The prediction of
cutting forces, torque, power, and cutting constants are important in sizing
machine tools for a particular operation or for selecting cutting speeds, feeds,
and depth of cuts to avoid tool breakage aIld chatter vibrations. It is equally
important to predict the direction ofthe chip flow and the type of chip produced

acceptable

Figure

2.14: Classification of chip fonns. Source: Kluft et al. CIRP [25].

by the particular tool geometry used at certain cutting conditions [24]. The
chips produced in continuous turning processes may be of a ribbon, tangled, or
corkscrew type, which are unfavorable (see Fig. 2.14 [25]). They can rub the
finished workpiece or entangle around the tool, and it is hard to remove them
from the machine tool with mechanized chip conveyors. Such un favorable chips
also cause danger for the operator's safety; productivity of the machining operation suffers from the scratched finished workpiece surfaces; and the chips can
cause tool breakage as they can become entangled around the cutting edge. The
basic factors that influence the chip form are the workpiece material, the tool
geometry, the cutting fluid, the dynamic properties ofthe machine tool, and the
cutting conditions. Chip breakers, which are clamped on the rake face ofthe tool
or formed on inserts, are used to break long chips. Chip breakers disturb the
free flow direction of the chip; they force the chip to curl toward the workpiece
or tool, thus creating tensile stresses in the chip that lead to its breakage.
2.7

MECHANICS OF MILLlNG PROCESSES

A sample vertical CNC machining center, which is capable of milling, drilling,

and tapping, is shown in Figure 2.15. The milling operation is an intermittent
cutting process using a cut ter with one or more teeth. A milling cutter is held
in a rotating spindle, while the workpiece cIamped on the table is linearly
moved toward the cutter. A sample face milling operation and various inserted
milling cutters are shown in Figure 2.16. Each milling tooth therefore traces a
trochoidal path [26,27J, producing varying but periodic chip thickness at each
tooth passing intervaI. Various milling operations are shown in Figure 2.17.
Depending on the workpiece geometry, different milling cutters and machines
are used. In this section, the mechanics of the milling process are presented
for simple face milling operations. Mechanics of other milling operations are
modeled by geometrically extending the mechanics of face milling.

34

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

2.7

MECHANICS OF MILLlNG PROCESSES

Face mllllng

Figure
2.15: A vertical CNC milling
machine. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.

Plunge mllllng

The standard tool geometry in milling is shown in Figure 2.18. Double negative tools are shock resistant in heavy-duty face milling operations. Rigid and
high power milling machines are suitable for heavy machining with negative
cutters. For accurate and light milling operations, double positive milling cutters are ideal. Negative-positive tools produce a good surface finish and are
efficient in removing the chips from the insert pockets. There are three types
of milling operations used in practice:

face milling operations, in which entry and exit angles ofthe milling cutter
relative to the workpiece are nonzero;

Figure
rials.

Ramp mllling

2.17: Various milling operations.

Sall end mllllng

Source: Mitsubishi Mate-

up-milling operations, in which the entry angle is zero and the exit angle
is nonzero; and

down-milling operations, in which the entry angle is not zero and the exit
angle is zero.

Figure 2.16: A face milling operation and various inserted milling cutters.
Materials.

Source: Mitsubishi

Both up- and down-milling operations are caBed peripheral or end milling
operations. The geometry ofchip formation in milling is shown in Figure 2.19.
Unlike in turning processes, in milling the instantaneous chip thickness (h)
varies periodically as a function oftime-varying immersion. The chip thickness
variation can be approximated as
h(cf = e sin cf>.
(2.78)
where e is the feed rate (mmlrev-tooth) and cf> is the instantaneous angle of
immersion. First, the helix angle is considered to be zero, which is the case in
face milling operations with inserted cutters. Tangential (Jit(cf>)), radial (Fr(cf>)),
and axial (F.(cf>)) cutting forces are expressed as a function of varying uncut
chip area (ah(cf>)) and edge contact length (a):
Fr(cf
Ft(cf
F.(cf

= Kn;ah(cf + Krea,
= Kacah(cf
Kt.cah(cf + Kt.ea,
K a,

(2.79)
}

35

36

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

2.7

Axial rake angle (positiva)

Axial rake angle (negative)

-,

r~.'__
~dJi------

Fy ( ~ )

.J

...x

Axlal rele! angle

F, (9)

Effective diameter Slde view

Effective dlameter Side view

chip load

r-

\ __ ~

Axial relie! angle

Cutting-edge
angle

MECHANICS OF MILLlNG PROCESSES

I ~~ -',
.' ~Radialrelie!

angle

_~

lJ

".
Nega~ial

rake angle

Bottomview

Bottomview
(a)

(b)

chip formation
in milling
Figure

Down milling

Up milling

2.19: Geometry of milling procesa.

zone as

Rake

ha

Positive axial rake

</Jex
- </JBt

The instantaneous

(c)

Figure

J:':' e sin </Jd</J

= -----

2.18: Standard face milling cuttar geometry.

where Ktc. Kre, and Kae are the cutting force coefficients contributed by the
shearing action in tangential, radial, and rodal directions, respectively, and
Kte. Kre~ and Kae are the edge constants. If we assume zero nose radius and
zero approach angle on the inserts, the axial components of the cutting forces
become zero (Fa = O). Otherwise their influence must be modeled as presented
in the section on turning (Section 2.6). The cutting coefficients are assumed
to be constant for a tool-work material pair, and they can be evaluated either
mechanistically from milling tests or using the classical oblique cutting transformations given by Eqs. (2.62) and (2.63). They are sometimes expressed as
a non linear function (Eq. 2.44) ofthe instantaneous or average chip thickness
ha [28]. The average chip thickness per revolution is calculated from the swept

cos </Jex
</JBt
-c------.
</Jex
- </Jst
COS

cutting torque (7;,)on the spindle is

7;,

= Ft

(2.80)

(2.81)

2'

where D is the diame ter of the milling cutter. Horizontal (Le., feed), normal,
and axial components ofthe cutting forces acting on the cutter are derived from
the equilibrium diagram shown in Figure 2.19:
Fy(</J)
Fx(</J)
Fz(</J)

= +Ftsin</J - Frcos</J,
= +Fa.
-Ftcos</J - Frsin</J'}

(2.82)

It must be noted that the cutting forces are produced only when the cutting
tool is in the cutting zone, that is,
Fx(</J).

Fy(</J).

Fz(</J)

>

when </Jst:::</J:::CPex.

where </JBt
and </Jex
are the cutter entry and exit angles, respectively. Another
important point is that there may be more than one tooth cutting simultaneously depending on the number of teeth on the cutter and the radial width of

37

38

2.7

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

cut. The tooth spacing angle

t/>p

(or cutter pitch angle) is given as

27r
t/>p

= N'

where N is the number of teeth on the cutter. There will be more than one
tooth cutting simuitaneously when the swept angle (t/>s = t/>ex - t/>st) is larger
than the cutter pitch angle (Le., t/>s > t/>ex - t/>st). When more than one tooth
cuts simultaneously, the contribution of each tooth to total feed and normal
forces must be considered. It must also be noted that since each tooth will be
away from its neighboring tooth by the amount of pitch angle, the uncut chip
thickness removed by each cutting edge will be different at an instantaneous
position ofthe cutter. We can formulate the total feed, normal, and axial forces
as
N

Fx

= "Efx)(t/.

Fy

)=1

= FyCt/),
)=1

MECHANICS OF MILLlNG PROCESSES

Fz

= Fz)(t/).

E~
f~~
O

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

2400

(2.83)

)=1

whenever t/>st .::: t/ .::: t/>ex. Each term in the summation block represents the
contribution of each tooth to the cutting forces. If the tooth j is out of the
immersion zone, it contri bute s zero to total forces. The instantaneous resultant
cutting force on the cutter (or workpiece) is given as

Eu
O

(e)

50

D~D
100

150

200

Spindle Rotation

F=

1r;+FJ+F.

Instantaneous

D
Te

(2.84)

cutting torque on the spindle is

= "2 .

)=1

Ft)(t/)

-->

t/>st .:::

(Pt)

drawn from the

Pt

= V

)=1

FtCt/)

-->

t/>.t .:::t/ .::: t/>ex.

300

350

[deg]

Figure 2.20: Sirnulated resultant rnilling forees. Faee rnilling eutter: N = 4 teeth, a =
2 rnrn. e = 0.1 rnm/tooth, K, = 1.800 MPa, Kr = 0.3. a) Halfirnrnersion up rnilling, b) half
irnrnersion down rnilling, e) eenter faee rnilling with 4>., = 75. 4> , = 105.

(2.85)

t/ .::: t/>ex.

where D is the diameter of the cutter. The cutting power

spindle motor is

,o, ~

250

(2.86)

where V = 7r Dn is the cutting speed and n is the spindle speed. For a given
set of cutting conditions, the engineer may be required to predict the maximum cutting power, torque, and cutting forces required from the machine tool
spindle"and feed drives. The cutting forces, torque, and power are uniformly
periodic at tooth passing frequency. Periodic cutting forces dynamically load
and unload the machine tool structure, workpiece, and the cutter at each tooth
periodo Typical resultant cutting forces for three types of milling operations
are shown in Figure 2.20. Half-immersion (Le., b = D/2) up- and down-milling
forces have opposite trends. The chip load starts with zero and gradually increases to maximum at the exit in up-milling; hence forces have the same trend.
However, the tooth experiences maximum chip load during entry followed by a
gradual decrease of the chip load and hence the cutting forces. Manufacturing

engineers are advised to use up-milling operations for heavy metal removal
rates where the shock loading is reduced. For light tinish cuts, down-milling
is preferred in order to obtain a smooth surface tinish. Center face milling has
severe interrupted, pulse loading of the machine tool, which is not advised for
light machines and positive tools. Pulse loading of the machine may reson ate
various structural vibration modes as well as cause transient vibrations during
each entry and exit.
2.7.1

Mechanics of Helical End Milis

Periodic loading causes cyclic mechanical and thermal stress es on the tool,
which leads to a shorter tool life. Helical end milis are used to dampen the
sharp variations in the oscillatory components of the milling forces, and they
are used when the depth of cut is large but the width of cut is smal1. Their
primary function is peripheral milling, where the walls of parts are the target
tinish surface. A typical end milling cutter with helical flutes is shown in
Figure 2.21. The helix on the cutter provides a gradually increasing chip load
along the helical flutes of the end mili [29]. If the helix angle on the cutter
is {J, a point on the axis of the cutting edge will be lagging behind the end
point of the too1. The lag angle (1/F) at the axial depth of cut (z) is found as

39

40

2.8

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

ANALYTICAL MODELlNG OF END MILlING FORCES

(Fig. 2.21)

a)Half
milling
with immersion
a cylindrical Upend
mili
D1/1

tan

al

~~

!, , III
1
1

L..
,

-I-...J
1

,
I,II,.I I, I I", 1I - II - ...11 - .Q.rp

"

/':

fJ '.....

f3

= z.;
2z tan

1/1=

f3

-D-'

and

t;.600
~
800[

(2.87)

~ 400~.

/\

11\ FY7~'\\

When the bottom point of a c: -200 )(

,
'- F'x
reference flute of the end mill 'i!
;:]
400
',_
~~/~~".
__
~ -600
20~j~\~~\
/F~~~ "-_"';~~
is at immersion angle P, a cuto
45
90
135 180 225 270 315 36C
ting edge point that is axially
Rotation angle [degree)
z [mm] above will have an im~ 300
b) Slot ball end milling
mersion angle of (P - 1/1). Obvit;. 1 Fz
ously, the chip thickness removed
along the flute's axis will also be
different at each point. A general pseudocode of a milling force
simulation program is given in
Table 2.2. The input variables set
Rotation angle [degree)
by the user are helix, entry, and
Figure
2.22:
Simulated
and measured cutting forces in en,
exit angles, axial depth of cut, the
number of teeth, feed rate, spin- milling of TiSAl4V alloy. Feed rate = 0.05 mm/tooth, an = (
a) !lo = 9.05 mm, V = 30 m/min, Nf = 4 flutes, an = 12, axi.
die speed, cutter diameter, and depth of cut = 5.08 mm, io = 30. b) Single flute ball end mil
cutting constants. The cutter is ro- with radius !lo = 9.525 mm, nominal helix angle io = 30'
tated with small incremental an- axial depth ofcut = 1.27 mm, spindle speed N = 269 rev/mir
gles. At each incremental rotation,
the cutting forces are integrated axially along the sliced differential elements
from the bottom of the flute toward the final axial depth of cut.
Sample experimental and simulation results for helical cylindrical and helical ball end milling of a titanium alloy are given in Figure 2.22 [18,30]. The
cutting coefficients are obtained by transfonning orthogonal cutting constants
oftitanium given in Table 2.1 to oblique end mill geometry (see Eq. 2.62). The
agreement between the experimental and simulation results are very satisfactory owing to careful evaluation of shear stress, shear angle, and friction coefficient in a series of orthogonal tests, as well as accurate modeling of geometry
and oblique transfonnation of mechanics. More complex milling cutters and
operations can also be modeled by employing the same mechanics approach, by
designing a generalized, parametric milling cutter geometry as presented by
Altintas and Lee [30].

z
y

dE",

2.8 ANALYTICAL MODELlNG OF END MILLlNG FORCES

Figure

2.21: Geometry of helical end milling.

41

The discrete simulation of cutting forces in end milling has been explained in the
previous section. The accuracy of the cutting force prediction strongly depends
on the selected digital integration interval. When the axial depth of cut is large

2.8

TABLE2.2. Pseudocode lor MillingForce SimulatonAlgorithm

; Inputs:
Cutting conditions
Tool geometry
Cutting constants
Integration angle
Integration height
; Outputs:
Cutting force history
Cutting torque and power history

:a. c. n. 4>st.
:D.N.fJ

cJex

:Kti,. Krc. Kte. Kre

:tJ.cJ

:tJ.a
:Fx(4)). Fy(4)). F(4))
:Tc(4)). Pc(4))

; Variables
cf>p=~

K=

i~

L=;"

i=ltoK

= cJst + itJ.cJ
= Fy(i) = Ft(i) = 0.0
k=ltoN
cJ(i)

F..(i)

<Pl

= cJ(i) + (k

th = cJ1

1)cf>p

j = ltoL
a(j)

= j .tJ.a

th = cJ1 - 2~na(j)
if 4>st .:': th .:':4>ex
h = e sin th

tJ.Ft = tJ.a(Ktch + Kte)

tJ.Fr = tJ.a(Krch + Kre)
tJ.Fx = -tJ.Ftcosth
- tJ.Frsinth
tJ.Fy = tJ.Ftsinth - tJ.Frcosth

FA)
Fy(i)
Ft(i)

= Fx(i) + tJ.Fx
= Fy(i) + tJ.Fy
= Ft(i) + tJ.Ft

else
next
next k

;Cutter pitch angle

;Number of angular integration steps
;Number ofaxial integration steps
;Angular integration loop
;Immersion angle of flute's bottom edge
;Initialize the force integration registers
;Calculate the force contributions of all teeth
;Immersion angle for tooth k
;Memorize the present immersion
;Integrate along the axial depth of cut
;Axial position
;Update the immersion angle due helix
;if the edge is cutting
;then
;Chip thickness at this point
;Differential tangential force
;Differential radial force
;Differential feed force'
;Differential normal force
;Sum the cutting forces
;contributed by the all
'active edges

; Resulting cutting force values at immersion angle

F(i)
Tc(i)

nexti

in helical end milling operations, the differential element height in the axial
direction must be very smalI to avoid numerical oscilIations on the cutting force
wave forms. When the cutting forces are used to predict the vibrations of the
end milI or workpiece, the numerical oscilIations lead to faulty simulation of
vibrations. Also, an accurate prediction offorce distribution
along the end mili
and flexible thin webs is necessary to predict the dimensional
form errors left
on the tinish surface. When kinematics and certain properties of the milling
process are considered, it is possible to derive semianalyticaf
expressions
for
end milIing forces [311. An end milI with a helix angle of /3, diameter of D,
and N number of flutes is assumed (see Fig. 2.21). The axial depth of cut
(a) is constant and the immersion
is measured clockwise from the normal (y)
axis. Assuming that the bottom end of one flute is designated as the reference
immersion angle 4>,the bottom end points ofthe remaining flutes are at angles
4>(0) = 4>+ Np; j = O. 1.2 ... (N - 1). At an axial depth of cut Z the lag angle
is '" = kz, where k = (2 tan /3)/ D. The immersion angle for flute j at axial
depth of cut z therefore is
(2.88)
Tangential (dFt.j), radial (dFr.j), and axial (dFa,j) forces acting on a differential flute element with height dz are expressed similar to Eg. (2.79):
dFr,(4). z)
dFa.j(4).
dFt.j(4). z)

= FJ(i) + FJ(i)
= ~ Ft()

cJ(i)

;Resultant cutting forc~

;Cutting torque

= [Krch(4)j(z)) + Kre1dz.
= [Kachj(4)j(z))
Kae1dz,
[Ktchj(4)(z)) + Kte1dz.

where the chip thickness

is

The directions

ofthe cutting

forces are aligned with the cutter axis. The cut-

ting constants can be evaluated from Eg. (2.62) by accepting the helix angle as
the obligue angle ofthe end milI (Le., i = /3). The elemental forces are resolved
into feed (x), normal (y), and axial (z) directions using the transformation

dFy,j(4)(z))
dFz./4>(z))

= -dFt.j
= +dFt,j
= +dFa,j'

cos4>(z) - dFr.j sin 4>j(z).

sin 4>j(z) - dFr.j cos t/Jj(z).

Substituting
the differential
into Eg. (2.91) leads to
dFx,j(4)j(z))

= {~[ -Ktc

; Plot Fx(i). Fy{i}. Fi Tc(i) with varying immersion 4>(i)

stop
end

(2.89)
}

(2.90)

dFx.(4)(z))

ANALYTICAL MODELlNG OF END MILLlNG FORCES

+ [-Kte
dFy.(4)j(z))

dFz.(4)j(z))

= [Kacc

{~[KtcCl

(2.91)

forces (Eg. 2.89) and the chip thickness

(Eg. 2.90)

sin 24>(z) - KrcCl - cos 24>(z))]

cos 4>(z) - Kre sin 4>j(z)J }dz.
- cos 24>(z - Krc sin 2t/J(z)]

+ [Kte sin 4>(z) - Kre cos t/Jj(z)J }dz.

sin 4>(z) + Kae1dz.

>

(2.92)

43

44

2.8

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

The differential cutting forces are integrated analytically along the in-cut portion ofthe flute j in order to obtain the total cutting force produced by the flute:

= [;.
Z).l

Fq(t/>j(z))

dFq(t/>j(z))dz,

= ~,y,

z,

(2.93)

where Zj,l(t/>/z)) and Zj,2(t/>j(Z)) are the lower and upper axial engagement limits
of the in-cut portion of the flute j. The integrations are carried out by noting
t/>j(z) = t/> + Jt/>p- k{Jz, dt/>j(z) = -k{Jdz.
Thus

The values for the integration limits Zj,l and Zj,2 are taken from the cases
listed above substituted into (2.94), and the resulting expressions can be further
simplified for an efficient computation in computer programs. Note that to use
the expressions, flute j = O must be aligned at t/> = O in the beginning of the
algorithm. The remaining flutes must be indexed (j = 1, 2, ... , N - 1) from the
reference tooth at pitch angle (t/>p)intervals. The cutting forces contributed by
all flutes are calculated and summed to obtain the total instantaneous forces
on the cutter at immersion t/>:
N-l

= {4~(J[-Kre cos 2t/>j(z) + Krc[2t/>j(z)

F."j(t/>/z))

+ k[Ktesint/>/z)-Krecost/>j(z)]
1
= {~:

[Ktc(2t/>j(z)

())

t/>j

(K
= k1 [K acccost/>jz)
{J

Figure 2.23: Helical flute-part face integration

zones, and difTerential forces on the cutting too1
at a particular rotation angle '" and depth z,

aet/>j

The axial integration limits Zj,l and Zj.2

are required for each flute to implement the
cutting force model. When extruded axially each [t/>.t,t/>ex]cutter arc segment defines an immersion section that can interact
with a helical tooth j in five distinct ways
(Fig. 2.23). The lag angle at full axial depth
of cut Z = a is o/a = k{Ja.
The following computer algorithm is used
in determining the axial integration boundaries:
If t/>.t< t/>j(z = O) < t/>ex
then Zj,l = O;
Case o: If t/>.t < t/>j(z = a) < t/>exthen
Zj.2

= a.
t/>j(z

(1/ k{J)(t/>

+ jt/>p

a) < t/>Btthen
t/>.t).

Zj,2

= O) > t/>exand t/>j(z = a) < t/>exthen

= (1/ k{J)(t/> + Jt/>p- t/>ex);
Case 2: If t/>j(z = a) > t/>.t then Zj,2 = a.
Case 3: If t/>j(z = a) < t/>.t then Zj,2 =
(1/ k{J)(t/> + jt/>p - t/>.t).
Case 4: If t/>j(z = O) > t/>ex
and t/>/z = a) >

If t/>j(z
Zj,l

t/>exthe flute is out of cut.

L
j=O

Fzj;

N-l
Fy(t/

L
j=O

N-l
Fyj;

Fz(t/

j=O

Fzj.

(2.94)

()]';.(4>J(z
Z z'J,I (4)(z))"
J

Case 1:

(2.95)

The resultant cutting force acting on the milling cutter is

,
}Zj,'(4)/Z))
Zj,I(4)J(z))

(J

z,j

2t/>/z)]]

+ Krccos 2t/>j(z)]]

sin 2t/>j(z))

+ k[Ktecost/>j(Z)
+ Kresint/>/z)]
1
F

sin

;'Fz(t/

,
}~~~
Z;I(4)J(Z))

(J

Fy,j(t/>/z))

ANALYTICAL MODELlNG OF END MILLlNG FORCES

(2.96)

Thus computationally inefficient and approximate digital integration methods are eliminated by the dosed form expressions of the instantaneous cutting
forces. The dosed form expressions can be used for process planning, investigating the interaction between tool-workpiece structure and the milling process,
and predicting finish surface. The algorithm can be efficiently implemented lo
the CAD/CAM systems for milling process simulation [32].
2.8.1 Mechanistic Identification of Cutting Constants in Milling
Using orthogonal cutting parameters such as shear angle, shear stress, and
friction coefficient to determine oblique milling constants is desired for modeling a variety of milling cutter geometries (see Eqs. 2.62 and 2.62). However,
some cutting tools may have complex cutting edges, and the evaluation of cutting constants by creating a time-consuming orthogonal cutting data base may
not be possible. In such cases, a quick method of calibrating the milling tools,
the mechanistic approach, is used [18]. A set of milling experiments are conducted at different feed rates but constant immersion and axial depth of cut.
The average forces per tooth period are measured. To avoid the influence of
run out on the measurements, the total force per spindle revolution is collected
and divided by the number of teeth on the cutter. The experimentally evaluated average cutting forces are equated to analytically derived average milling
force expressions, which leads to the identification of cutting constants. Since
the total material removed per tooth period is constant with or without helix
angle, the average cutting forces are independent of helix angle. Replacing
dz = a, t/>j(z) = t/>, and k{J = O in Eqs. (2.92) and integrating them over one revolution and dividing by the pitch angle (t/>p= 27C / N) yields to average milling
forces per tooth period,
Fq

= -1 14>"Fq(t/>)dt/>,
t/>p

4>

since the flute cuts only within the immersion zone (Le., t/>Bt<

(2.97)

45

46

2.9

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

Integrating the instantaneous

Fx

8lr
= { Nac

[Ktc

Fy

2.9 MECHANICS OF DRILLlNG

cutting forces leads to

cos 2t/J- Kn;[24>- sin 2t/J]]

+ -[-Ktesin<t>
Na
2lr

+ Krecost/JJ
.
}4>ex
<t>8t

= { ~:C[Ktc(24)- sin 24 + Kn;cos 24>J]

(2.98)

- Na
2[KtecOS4>
+ Kresin4>J}4>ex
lr
4>8t.
T.'I
L'

2[Na

= lr

seCcos 4>+

4>ex
se4>
J'l'8t
A, .

Full immersion (Le., slotting) milling experiments are most convenient; here
the entry and exit angles are 4>8t= O and 4>ex= lr respectively. When full
immersion conditions are applied to Eqs. (2.98), the average forces per tooth
period are simplified as
Fx

= --Kn;c
- -Kre.
4
lr

Na
Fy = +TKteC
_
Na
Fz = +-Ksec
Na
lr

Na
+ --;-Kte.
Na
+ Na)
-Kse
2

MECHANICS OF DRILLlNG

(2.99)

A sample twist drill, which is used in drilling holes, is shown in Figure 2.24. A
twist drill has a chisel edge at the bottom and two helical cutting lips with a
taper angle (Kt)that meet with the flutes with a helix angle of f3o.The helical
flutes do not cut; they are used to evacuate the chips from the drilled hole. The
chisel has a width of2w and an edge angle of t/le. The cutting lips have an offset
from the drill center due to chisel. The lips expand the hole by removing the
material with a constant chip thickness (h) as the drill is fed into the material
at a feed rate of C [mm/rev]. The thrust force that is used to push the drill into
the work material, and the torque applied to the drill and spindle drive, are
required to evaluate the mechanics of the drilling operations. The mechanics
of drilling must be analyzed separately for the chisel and cutting lip regions.
Chisel Edge. The chisel edge does not cut but only spreads the material sideways by an indentation mechanism. Instead of using the laws of cutting, the
mechanics of indentation must be used. If the process is simplified as in a
hardness test, then the thrust force acting on the chis el edge can be simplified
as

THRUST =

Fz.i

(2.102)

= Aeh/f.

where /f is the Brinell hardness of the work material and Aeh is the instantaneous indentation are a of the chisel edge. Aeh is evaluated as the product of
chisellength (2w/ sin(lr - t/le and the contact length of spread material with
the lip (c/(2 cos Yt. Considering both sides of the chisel contact, we have an
Figure 2.24: Twist dril! geometry

The average cutting forces can be expressed by a linear function offeed rate
and an offset contributed by the edge forces:

(c)

(2.100)

The average forces at each feed rate are measured, and the cutting-edge components (Fqe Fqe) are estimated by a linear regression ofthe data. Finally, the
cutting force coefficients are evaluated from Eqs. (2.99) and (2.100) as follows:

= Na'

K te

= ---;;;-.

lrFze

-4Fxe

_
se -

Na'

Kte

= Na .
- lr F xe

Kre =
K

-::;-.

(2.101)

_ 2Fze
se - Na .

The procedure is repeated for each cutter geometry; hence the milling force
coefficients can not be predicted prior to testing ofnewly designed cutters using
mechanistic models. However, oblique cutting transformation using basic orthogonal cutting parameters can predict the cutting constants before the cutter
is manufactured.

__

H.' ~

1~~~~Jj
1-

lr Fye

4Fye

Ktc

~a-_mm
...

.1