Figure 10-5 RLC circuit equivalent

POLARIZATION OF ANTENNAS
In spherical coordinates, it is apparent that the electromagnetic waves radiated from an
antenna or received by it consist of two vectors, the electric E and the magnetic H vectors.
Both of these vectors rotate and vary according to the sinusoidal signal. In practical
antennas, however, the orientation of the transmitting antenna with respect to the earth will
determine the dominant orientation of the transmitted electric field, E, signal. Simple
monopole and dipole antennas which are oriented in the horizontal plane, i.e. their
elements are parallel to the surface of the earth, generate horizontally polarirez waves.
Antennas wich are oriented, i.e. their elements point down to the earth, are considered
vertically polarized. Vertically polarized signals are best received by vertically oriented
antennas, and horizontally polarized antennas are best suited for the reception of
horizontally polarized signals. In TV broadcasting, for example, all signals are horizontally
polarized, but in FM bradcasting all signals are vertically polarized.
In addition to vertical and horizontal polarization, special antenna desings (see Helical
Antennas) permit circular polarization. In this method the phase relationships of signals
traveling different paths become important. In circulary polarized TV signals, for example,
the reflected signal which would result in ghosts if horizontally polarized, will be canceled
out. Proposals for changing TV transmission to circular polarization would permit continued
reception by horizontally polarized antennas, though with some reduction in efficiency, and
would eliminate or reduce ghost problems when circularly polarized antennas are used.
GENERAL ANTENNA PARAMETERS
While many of the general parameters are specifically derived for halfwave, center-fed,
dipole antennas, they apply equally well to all types of antennas and from the basic
concepts for more detailed and practical calculations.
(a) Near and far fields: The electromagnetic field in the immediate vicinity of an antenna is
usually called the near field and includes induction (magnetic) as well as electrical field
and radiation field considerations. Evaluation of these effects is essential when antennas
are located close to each other or to other objects and the mutual effects must be
determined. Near field effects are of primary importance in the desing of antenna
configurations and arrays, as described in section 10.3. the far or radation field is
considered to start at least five wave lengths away from the antenna and is used in the
reception and transmission calculations of communications systems. Unless the near
field is specifically mentioned, all antenna formulas aplly to the far field only.

(b) Antenna gain: Although the term antenna gain is loosely applied to both the power gain
Gp and the directive gain Gd, it is often important to make the distinction. The directive
gain is a function of the radiation intensity which is defined as the power per unit solid
angle in that direction and the total power radiates as indicates below.

Gd = ; W r
Wr

= power radiated, in watts

Directive gain is also often called directivity D, which is defined as the maximum directive
gain.
The power gain is given by the formula below:

G p=

4
;Wz
= total power input, in watts
Wz

The ratio of power gain and directive gain provides an indication of the efficiency of the
antenna, since the power loss of the antenna is included in this term. For a half-wave
dipole antenna, D=1.64=2.15 db.
(c) Effective area (aperture): Not all of the antenna area is always utilized to radiate
properly polarized signals nor is there a 100% efficient and correcct impedance match
between the antenna and the transmitter or receiver. The effective area of antenna is given
by the following formula:
2

A e = G d ; = wave length
4
(d) End effect: the plates of a capacitor do not provide the exact capacity indicated by
geometry because the ends of the plates are no longer completely opposed by the other
plates. For similar reasons, there are ends effects in antennas. The magnitude of these
effects depends on the ratio of length to diameter of cylindrical antennas and to other
objects (in the near field). The end effect results in apparent lengthening of the antenna
dimensios, meaning that they will be longer, beyond the resonance point. In practical
applications, a 5% shortening of the mecanical antenna dimensions results in the most
accurate electrical length.
(e) Antenna elevation: It is common practice to raise antennas well above the earth for a
number of practical and compelling reasons. Antennas should clear the surrounding
terrain, and for all frequencies above about 100 MHz, where line of sight transmission
occurs, raising the antenna increases the range. In addition to thes considerations, there is
a near field effect on the radiation resistance which is a function of antenna elevation of
wave length, to the radiation resistance of vertical and horizontally polarized half-wave
dipole antennas.

Radiation resistance
(ohms)

Height of antenna center in

wavelengths
10.2 COMMON TYPES OF ANTENNAS
MONOPOLE ANTENNAS
Any simple wire, connected to a source of RF, acts as a monopole antenna in that it
radiates energy. One type of monopole antenna is the vertical whip antenna used for
automobile radios. This type of antenna is considerably smaller than a quarter wave length
and depends on the proximity of the ground plane for its operation. The impedance and
radiation characteristics