Introductory Plant Nematology

Nematodes that attack plants are worms, mostly

microscopic in size, ranging from 0.25 mm to 3.0
mm long where as (1/100-1/8 inch)of body length in
diameter. Cylindrical in shape, tapering toward the

head and tail. Females of a few species lose their

worm shape as they mature, enlarged in diameter and
assuming varying forms, such as pear, lemon, or
kidney shapes. Plant parasitic nematodes possess all
of the major organ systems of higher animals except
respiratory and circulatory systems. (multicellular,
microscopic, worm like or thread like organisms

tapering at both ends belonging to animal kingdom

having all the physiological systems except circulatory
and respiratory).

Life Cycle and Reproduction

Plant parasitic nematodes have a simple life cycle of six
stages: egg, four juvenile stages, and adult (male
female). The embryo develops inside the egg to
become the first-stage juvenile. The first-stage
juvenile molts inside the eggshell to become a

second-stage juvenile, which hatches from the egg,

and in most species must feed before continuing to
develop. The nematode molts three more times to
become a fully developed adult. Male and female

The length of the life cycle depend

nematodes occur in most species, and both may be

on nematode species, host plant

required for reproduction. However, reproduction

and the temperature, their life

without males is common, and some species are

cycles is completed in about 27

hermaphroditic(females, produce both sperm and eggs).

days at 28 C.

Nematode Feeding
Plant parasitic nematodes feed on living plant
tissues. All have some form of oral stylet
or spear, which is used somewhat like a
hypodermic needle to puncture the host
cell wall.
Ectoparasitic: Nematodes may feed on plant

tissues from outside the plant. Endoparasitic:

(or inside the tissues).
Migratory If the adult female moves freely
through the soil or plant tissues.

Migratory Endoparasites Migratory

endoparasites can move into, through, and out
from host tissues at any stage of development

Above-Ground Symptoms
These are rarely, if ever, sufficient evidence to
diagnose a root nematode problem. However,
they are important because possible nematode
problems are almost always first noticed
because of abnormal top growth. Certain kinds
of symptoms are typical of nematode injury to
roots, and should always make one consider
nematodes as a possible cause for the inferior

performance. They can also be used to help

locate the most severely affected areas in the
planting after the problem is diagnosed. Since
most plant nematodes affect root functions,
most symptoms associated with them are the
result of inadequate water supply or mineral
nutrition to the tops: chlorosis (yellowing) or

other

abnormal coloration of foliage, stunted top growth, failure to

respond normally to fertilizers, small or sparse foliage, a
tendency to wilt more readily than healthy plants, and slower
recovery from wilting.
Woody plants in advanced stages of decline incited by nematodes

will have little or no new foliage when healthy plants have

substantial

flushes,

and

eventually

exhibit

dieback

of

progressively larger branches. "Melting out" or gradual decline

is typical of nematode-injured turf and pasture. Plantings which
are stunted by nematodes often have worse weed problems
than areas without nematode injury, because the crop is less
able to compete with weeds than it should be.
Below-Ground Symptoms
These may be more useful than top symptoms for diagnosing many
nematode problems. Galls, abbreviated roots, necrotic lesions

in the root cortex, and root rotting may all help in diagnosing

ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE
Order: Tylenchida
Family: Heteroderidae

Introduction
Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the
genus Meloidogyne.
Root-knot nematodes are distributed worldwide, and are
obligate parasites of the roots of thousands of plant species
About 3000 plants are susceptible to infection by root-knot
nematodes.
Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the
development of root-knot galls that drain the plant's
photosynthate and nutrients.
Infection of young plants may be lethal, while infection of
mature plants causes decreased yield.

Symptoms
As a result of nematode feeding, large galls or "knots" can be
seen throughout the root system of infected plants.
The degree of root galling generally depends on three factors:
1. Nematode population density.
2. Meloidogyne species and race.
3. host plant species and even cultivar.
Large numbers of nematodes penetrating roots in close
proximity also will result in larger galls.

Nematode damage symptoms

Disease Cycle

Management
Use of cover crops. Cover crops can be grown outside
of the normal agricultural growing season, and some
are antagonistic to nematodes.
Flooding and solarization of fields.
Fumigants (such as 1, 3-dichloropropene, methyl
bromide and dazomet) are commonly applied as preplant treatments to reduce nematode numbers.
In tomato, genetic resistance to root-knot nematodes is
conferred by the Mi gene which was obtained from
Lycopersicon peruvianum.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) can be
controlled with a biocontrol agents, i.e. Paecilomyces
lilacinus A bacterium pasteuria penetrans and plant
products i.e neem leaves and cake.

Citrus Nematodes
Tylenculus semipenetrans
Order: Tylenchida
Family:Tylenchulidae
Worldwide with that of citrus.
Occurs in 95% of citrus in California and is common in all citrus-growing
areas.
Originally spread with planting stock and further with irrigation water.

SYMPTOMS
Similar
to
poor
nutritional
symptoms.
Reduction of terminal growth,
chlorisis, shedding of leaves, die
back of branches.
Reduction in number and size of
fruits.
Roots are of brown color and dirty
due to adherence of soil particles.
Destruction of roots is due to
secondary invasion of fusarium sp.

Life cycle of Citrus Nematode

Tylenchulus semipenetrans completes its life cycle within 4-6 weeks.

It moults 4 times to become adult.

After first moult within egg 2nd stages larvae moult three times.

Larvae feed on epidermis, Hypodermis and cortical tissues.

Young female penetrates deeply in root cortex

Nematodes feed on the cells in which head is located.

Anterior portion of nematode elongates and becomes modified

Posterior portion of the nematodes enlarges greatly.

Eggs are enveloped in a mucous like material which is excreted from.

Environmental factors Affecting

Parasitism
Most

favourable

soil

temperature

is

20-30

0C

the

best

is

25

0C.

Nematodes larvae survive more than one year at 15 0C in moist soil. 70% larvae
may

survive

Favourable

at

10
soil

0C

for
pH

24

months
is

in-vitro.
6.00-8.00.

Moderate amount of clay, silt and organic matter favour development and infection.

MANAGEMENT

Nursery seedlings should be planted in plastic bags.

These bags should be placed on raised wooden benches.

Soil used for nursery should be disinfected with formalin.

All nurseries must be registered with any institute who can give recommendation.

Proper Phyto-sanitation practices should be adopted.

Treatment of nursery beds with nematicides/ bio-products.

The pits where seedlings are being planted should be treated with nematicides.
(furadon and Rugby).

Flood irrigation should be replaced with drip irrigation to avoid spread of nematodes.

While Replanting at the spot of dead plant the roots of dead plant should be
completely removed and pits should be treated with nematicides.

Seed Gall Nematode

(Wheat Nematode or Ear Cockle)
Anguina tritici
Order: Tylenchida
Family: Anguinidae

Introduction
Seed gall nematodes (Anguina spp.) were the first plantparasitic nematodes to be described in the scientific literature
in 1743.
Nematodes migrate as J2s in water films to the leaves of
plants where they feed as ectoparasites at the tips, causing
distortion of the leaves.
Plant starts to flower the J2 penetrates the floral primordia and
starts to feed on the developing seed.
In the seed the nematode undergoes molting, continues to feed,
and eventually kills the seed to form a blackened "cockle"
(seed gall).
The nematodes in the seed gall can survive for 30 years if kept
in a dry location.
When proper moisture and temperature conditions arise,
the cryptobiotic J2 becomes active and start their life cycle
over again.

Symptoms
Distorted leaves and stems are evident prior to heading.
As diseased plants approach maturity, galls are formed
in the florets, replacing the kernels.
The galls are similar in shape to the seed they replace
and are dark brown in color.
Large numbers of motile larvae are present within the
galls and become active after the galls have been moistened.

LIFE CYCLE
Juveniles penetrate flower primordia and develop through the
third and fourth stages to adulthood.
Galls can develop from undifferentiated flower buds, stamen
tissues, and various other tissues.
Galls contain up to 80 adults in a 1:1 sex ratio.
Reproduction is amphimictic; females produce up to 2000
eggs per individual over several weeks.
Galls fall to the ground, absorb water, and release juveniles in
springtime, or galls may be harvested and stored with
seed. Juveniles within drying galls can enter a cryptobiotic
state; viable juveniles have been recovered for up to periods as
long as 38 years.
Galls appear darker, shorter, and thicker than seed kernels.
For nematodes forming seed galls, one generation is produced
per year.

Management
Crop rotation for 1 to 2 years to a non-host eliminates A.
tritici from the soil. The nematode does not survive by
feeding on fungi.
Seed can be cleaned by placing it in a 20% brine
solution; galls float to the surface where they can be
separated.
The seed is then rinsed and dried (heat treated).
Mechanical separation also effective in removing galls
from seed.
There are no resistant varieties of wheat.

CYST NEMATODES

Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Nematoda

Order:

Tylenchida

Superfamily:

Tylenchoidea

Family:

Heteroderidae

Genera:
1. Meloidogyne

2.Heterodera
3. Globodera

Heterodera & Globodera

1. Heterodera shachtii (Sugar beet cyst nematode)
2. Heterodera glycines (Soybean cyst nematode)
3. Heterodera avenae (cereal cyst nematode)
1. Globodera rostochienesis (Golden potato cyst nematode)
2. Globodera pallida
(White potato cyst nematode)
Globodera spp.(=round cyst nematode)

Why they are

called cyst

Strong sac like

covering
around the egg
massed called

nematode???

cyst

Soybean cyst nematode

Crop symptoms in response to nematode infections, A: Sugar beet field infected with beet cyst nematodes (H.
schachtii). B: Size reduction of sugar beet roots due to nematode infection. C: Soybean plants infected with soybean
cyst nematodes (H. glycines). D. Different accessions of wheat infected with cereal cyst nematode Heterodera avenae.
E. symptoms of attach of Heterodera avenae on wheat plants.

Potato Cyst Nematodes

Globodera pallida Globodera rostochiensis

Potato cyst nematode (PCN) species are distributed world wide and are major and persistent
pests. The nematode was first reported from Germany and since then it has spread all over
Europe. It reached the Indian sub continent before 1970 being first reported form India in

1972 and from Pakistan in 1980 (Maqbool, 1980). PCN was first reported in Pakistan in
1980 from Abbottabad.

Symptoms

The above ground symptoms are not very specific; however root injury causes stress and
reduced uptake of water and nutrients results in yellowing and discoloration of leaves.
Stunting and wilting of plants is prominent under drought conditions.
Small immature females of white and yellow color can be seen on the roots at flowering
stage.
When females die they become cysts, and their cuticle become brown containing 300-500
eggs.
The nematodes damage the roots and reduce yield, even when infestations produce no
obvious symptoms in the haulm.
With severe infestations, roots are more seriously damaged and may be killed.
Severely infested plants are stunted, often chlorotic and typically occur in patches.

Sources Of Spread
Mainly introduced by cysts of the nematode in soil attached to
potato tubers, farm machinery or footwear.
They are only rarely introduced by infested tubers.
Cysts are also spread locally by wind and flood water.

Life Cycle of Cyst nematode

The active part of the life cycle begins, when the second stage juveniles (J2) emerge form
the eggs after stimulation by substances emanating from host plant roots.

The J2 enter the host roots near the tip and use their stylet to cut through the cell walls,
leaving a trial of ruptured cells.

Their hollow stylet pierces the cell, injects saliva, and later withdraws some cell contents.

The saliva induces cell enlargement and breakdown of surrounding cell walls to form a
large, syncytia transfer cell with dense, granular cytoplasm .

Once the juvenile is sedentary, it undergoes three molts to become the adult. Sex is
distinguishable at the start of the third juvenile stage.

The nematode continues to feed until its development is complete, a period which
takes 2 to 3 months depending upon temperature.
Fourth stage males remain coiled within the sac like third stage cuticle and emerge
from the root after the final moult.
The males are vermiform , about 1 mm long. They live for about 10 days in the soil
and apparently do not feed .
Adult females enlarge as their gonads increase in size, ultimately rupturing the root
cortex and exposing their bodies outside with only their heads embedded in the root. At
this stage the female releases a pheromone that attracts the males.
Fertilization is accomplished when the males coil around the vulvae areas of the
female.
Each female may undergo multiple mating with many different males.
The female accumulates all her eggs within her body and the embryo develops within
the egg upto the second stage juveniles while still in the females body.
When the female dies, the cuticle forms a though, leathery cyst that can contain up to
500 embryonated eggs.
When the potatoes are harvested, the cysts are detached from the roots into soil where
they over winter.
When the next potato crop is planted, exudates from the roots stimulate the juveniles
and life cycle is again initiated.

A cartoon diagram of life cycle of cyst nematodes. A: J2, J3, J4 juveniles in the second, third

and fourth developmental stages (Jung and Wyss 1999), B: Real time picture of J4 H. schachtii
female nematode and female associated syncytium in Arabidopsis roots C: Real time picture of
J4 male nematode and male associated syncytia.

 When the female of either species dies, its body forms a dark,
reddish-brown cyst with a hard skin. (golden in case G.
rostochiensis)
Each cyst usually contains 200600 eggs. If infested plants are
lifted carefully, the swollen females or the cysts appear as
small bead-like objects attached to the roots.
With severe infestations, cysts may occasionally be seen on
the surface of tubers.
At harvest, most cysts become detached from the roots and
remain in the soil as a source of infestation for future potato
crops. In the absence of host plants, most eggs hatch within 7
years, and the population declines.
However, some eggs remain viable in the soil for 10 or more
years.

Management of Potato cyst

Nematodes
PCN is difficult to control because the eggs and juveniles in the cyst are
protected from desiccation and chemicals and remain dormant for many
years in the absence of hosts.
It is only when eggs hatch that the nematode can be controlled with
nematicides.
Resistant varieties
Crop rotation is an effective and practical means of control.
However, rotations of up to 10 years are necessary to reduce populations.
Biocontrol agents (e.g. Piriformospora indica)
Use of transgenic crop plants