An Introduction t o the Basic5

of Well C0mpletion5~
*
3
5timulations
and Workovers
I

15,OOOpsi wellhead
working pressure
for all surface

2nd Edition
(Version 2.05)

Rubble Zone
S e t liner hanger a t 10,800 ft.

with retarder

PBR s e t a t 12,300 ft.

Hot, High Fi-essure G a s

George King

An Introduction to the Basics of Well

Completions, Stimulations and
Workovers
2nd edition
(version 2.05)

George E. King

Copyright 1988-1998 by George E. King, TuIsa, Oklahoma

Copyright 1988-1996 by George E. King

Document may not be copied in any manner

Inquiries to:
4

George E. King
5555 S. 97 W. Ave.
Sand Springs, OK 74063
(918) 446-7081
(918) 660-3226

Table of Contents
Introduction: Basic Well Completion Concepts .....................................................

1-1
Porosity .......................................................................................................
1-1
Saturation ...................................................................................................
1-2
Permeability ................................................................................................
1-2
Relative Permeability ..................................................................................
1-2
Natural Fractures ........................................................................................ 1-3
Reservoir Pressure ..................................................................................... 1-3
Pressures ................................................................................................... 1-4
Pressure Differential ...................................................................................
1-5
Well Temperature ....................................................................................... 1-5
Fluid Properties ..........................................................................................
i-6
High Temperature and High Pressure Wells ..............................................
1-6
Introduction: Geology ................................................................................................. 11-1
Formation Sequences and Layering .......................................................... ...11-4

Well Planning ...............................................................................................................

Drilling the Pay, Selecting the Interval and the Initial Design ..........................

111-1
1-1

Coiled Tubing Drilling .......................................................................................

1-6
Underbalanced Drilling ....................................................................................
1-6
Slimholes .........................................................................................................
1-7
Initial Completion Design ...............................................................................
1-7
Selecting the Pay Zone ....................................................................................
1-7
References - Drilling ....................................................................................
1-12
Other References ......................................................................................... 1-12

Casing Design ..............................................................................................................

Open Hole Completions ...........................................................................

Cased Hole Completions ..........................................................................
Description of Casing Strings ...................................................................
Casing Clearance .....................................................................................
Connections ..............................................................................................
Casing Weights and Grades .....................................................................
Casing Design Safety Factors ..................................................................
Load Description .......................................................................................
Casing String Design .....................................................................................
API Equations .........................................................................................
Buoyancy ................................................................................................
Example 2.1 ............................................................................................
Collapse Design - Non-API Method ........................................................
Example 2.2 - Single String Casing Design ............................................
Example 2.3 - Casing Design - Intermediate String ................................
Design a 9-5/8"Intermediate String ........................................................
Final Design ............................................................................................
High Pressure Gas .................................................................................
Additional Graphical Illustrations ............................................................
Running The Casing ...............................................................................
Casing String Design - Deviated Wells ..........................................................
Liner Design ...................................................................................................
Example 2.4 - Liner Design ....................................................................
Liner Tie-Backs ..............................................................................................
Cementing .....................................................................................................

-1-

2-1
2-1
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-7
2-14
2-14
2-16
2-17
2-18
2-22
2-26
2-26
2-30
2-30
2-30
2-30
2-34
2-36
2-36
2-38
2-39

Problems

........................................................................................................

References ..................................................................................................
Other References ........................................................................................

2-42

2-42
2-45

Casing Horizontal Wells .................................................................................

Reach Interval .........................................................................................
Rotation and Torque ................................................................................
The Build Interval ....................................................................................
Bending Stress ........................................................................................
Vertical Interval ........................................................................................
Application ...............................................................................................

Cement Density .........................................................................................

Fluid Loss ..................................................................................................
Factors Affecting Cement ..........................................................................
Cementing Design ............................................................................................
Primary Cementing ...........................................................................................
Application .................................................................................................
Cementing Calculations ..........................................................................
Balanced Plug Setting .............................................................................
Squeeze Cementing ................................................................................
Cement Squeeze Tools ...........................................................................
Liner Cementing ......................................................................................
Frictional Pressure Dropin Pipe ...............................................................

2-54
2-54
2-55
2-55
2-56
2-57
2-58
3-1
3-4
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-6
3.7
3.14
3.15
3-16
3-17
3-18
3-19

Production Packers ...................................................................................

Special Equipment ....................................................................................
Dressing Packers ......................................................................................
Allowing Tubing Movement .......................................................................
Effects of Temperature ..............................................................................
Deep Completions .....................................................................................
Seal Considerations ..................................................................................
Seal Problems ...........................................................................................
Tubing and Packer Forces ........................................................................
Length or Force Changes? ......................................................................
Setting the Packer ...................................................................................
Combined Forces ....................................................................................
Special Packers ..............................................................................................
Tubing Stretch and Compression ............................................................
Problems ........................................................................................................

4. 1
4. 1
4-3
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-8
4.9
4-9
4-13
4-14
4-16
4-17
4-17
4-17

Cementing ......................................................................................................................

References .................................................................................................. 3-20

Cementing: Review Questions ....................................................................
3-23
Packer Selection and Tubing Forces ...................................................................... 4.1

References ..................................................................................................
Well Heads, Chokes and SSSVs ...............................................................................

Wellheads ........................................................................................................
Subsea Wellheads ............................................................................................
Coiled Tubing Well Heads ................................................................................
Hydrate Control in Coiled Tubing Completions ................................................
Chokes .............................................................................................................
Subsurface Safety Valves ................................................................................

4-18
5-1
5-1
5-3
5-5
5-5
5-7
5-8

References

...................................................................................................

5-12

Corrosion and Erosion ...............................................................................................

6-1
6-1
6-2
6-2
6-4
6-5
6-1 0
6-1 1
6-12
6-13
6-14
6-1 4
6-14
6-1 4
6-15

Corrosion .........................................................................................................
The Corrosion Circuit ................................................................................
Chemical Reaction ...................................................................................
Acid Gases ...............................................................................................
Controlling Corrosion ................................................................................
Materials for Sour Service ......................................................................
CO2 Corrosion ........................................................................................
Other Factors ...........................................................................................
Corrosion by Stimulation Acids ...............................................................
Destruction of Elastomers ......................................................................
Microbial Corrosion .................................................................................
Nonmetallic Tubulars ..............................................................................
Predictive Techniques and Inspection Devices ......................................
Erosion ...........................................................................................................
Corrosion References ..................................................................................
6-17

Inflow Performance, Tubing Selection, and Artificial Lift ..................................

7-1
Inflow Performance ...................................................................................
7-1
Tubing Design ..........................................................................................
7-2
Heading ....................................................................................................
7-8
Tubing Design ..........................................................................................
7-9
Artificial Lift ...............................................................................................
7-9
Rod Pump ...............................................................................................
7-1 0
Rod Pump ...............................................................................................
7-12
Gas Lift ...................................................................................................
7-1 6
Electrical Submersible Pump .................................................................. 7-1 6
Other Systems ........................................................................................
7-1 6
Lift Selection ...........................................................................................
7-1 6
Reservoir Fluid Classification ................................................................. 7-1 7

References

...................................................................................................

Special Completions (Deviated, Thermal Multiples, and Multi-Laterals)

7-19

.......8-1

Deviated Completions ......................................................................................

Descriptions ..............................................................................................
Horizontal Well Candidate Selection ...............................................................
Horizontal Completions Background ...............................................................
Path of the Horizontal Section .........................................................................
Artificial Lift Options .........................................................................................
Solids Control Techniques ...............................................................................
Fracturing ...............................................................................................
Increasing Reservoir Contact ........................................................................
Logging ...................................................................................................
Wellbore Stability ....................................................................................
Perforating ..............................................................................................
CorrosionErosion ...................................................................................
Gravel Packs ..........................................................................................
Coning Control ........................................................................................
Heading Problems .........................................................................................
Multi-lateral Completions ...............................................................................

8-1
8- 1
8-2
8-3
8-7
8-8
8-9
8-1 0
8-12
8-13
8-15
8-17
8-18
8-19
8-19
8-21
8-21

Lateral Technology Levels ...................................................................... 8.22

Candidate List .................................................................................................
8.24
The candidate list for design is still forming but has the following considerations:

8-24
Thermal Completions .....................................................................................
Steam Projects ........................................................................................
Combustion Projects ...............................................................................
Alternate Heating Methods ......................................................................
Stimulation ...............................................................................................
Corrosion and Scale ................................................................................
Insulation .................................................................................................
Tubular Design ........................................................................................
Cementing Considerations ......................................................................
Completions ............................................................................................
Coalbed Methane Wells .................................................................................
Multiple Completions ......................................................................................
Tubingless Completions ..........................................................................
Selection of a Completion .......................................................................
Monobores ..............................................................................................
Coiled Tubing Completions ............................................................................

References

..................................................................................................

Logging ...........................................................................................................
Stress in an Deviated Well .............................................................................
Well Completion Problems .............................................................................
Productivity Estimates ....................................................................................

Perforating .....................................................................................................................

Temperature Effect ....................................................................................

Perforation Size .........................................................................................
Calculated Pressure Drop .......................................................................
Partial Completion ...................................................................................
Underbalance Perforating .......................................................................
Extreme Overbalance Perforating ...........................................................
Tubing Conveyed Perforating ..................................................................
Wireline Perforating .................................................................................
Highly Deviated Wells .............................................................................
Depth Control ..........................................................................................
Cement Damage .....................................................................................
Casing Damage .......................................................................................
Repetiorating Considerations ..................................................................
Stimulation Considerations ......................................................................
Stimulations in Deviated Wells - Effect of Perfs ......................................
AbrasiveErosive Perforating ...................................................................
Pipe Cutoff Methods .......................................................................................
Questions ................................................................................................

References - Perforating ..............................................................................

Formation Damage Causes and Preventions ...................................................

Clays ...............................................................................................................
Common Types of Clay ...........................................................................
Water lmbibition of Clays ........................................................................

.iv .

8.25
8-25
8-26
8.26
8.26
8-27
8-28
8-28
8.30
8.3 1
8-32
8-35
8.36
8-38
8-38
8-40

8-42
8-50
8-50
8-52
8.53
9.1
9-6
9-6
9-16
9-16
9-17
9-19
9-19
9-21
9-22
9.22
9.23
9-23
9-24
9-25
9-26
9-26
9-27
9-27
9-28
10-1
10-6
10-8
10-9

Clay Swelling ..........................................................................................

Clay Dispersion ......................................................................................
Other Clay Problems ............................................................................
Paraffins and Asphaltenes ...........................................................................
Emulsions ....................................................................................................
Dispersions ..................................................................................................
Foams ..........................................................................................................
Froth ............................................................................................................
Wettability Problems ....................................................................................
Hydrates ......................................................................................................
Scales ..........................................................................................................
Calcite ...................................................................................................
Calcium Sulfate ....................................................................................
Barium Sulfate ......................................................................................
Strontium Sulfate ..................................................................................
Other Scales .........................................................................................
Particulate Damage .....................................................................................
Drilling Mud ...........................................................................................
Cements ...............................................................................................
Kill Fluids ..............................................................................................
Dirty Water ............................................................................................
Bacteria Problems ................................................................................
Effects of Formation Damage on Production ...............................................
Rate and Skin .......................................................................................
Example 70.7 ........................................................................................
Example 70.2 ........................................................................................
Example 70.3 ........................................................................................
Using Production History Curves to Assess Damage ..................................
Example 70.4 ........................................................................................
Workover Candidate Selection ....................................................................
Example 70.5 ........................................................................................
Formation Damage - Questions ...................................................................

10-9
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-13
10-15
10-16
10-16
10-16
10-17
10-18
10-18
10-19
10-21
10-2 1
10-22
10-22
10-22
10-22
10-22
10-22
10-22
10-23
10-23
10-23
10-27
10-28
10-28
10-28
10-29
10-29
10-30

...............................................................................................
Inflow Performance ......................................................................................
Equations of Flow ...................................................................................
Decline Curves ............................................................................................
System Pressures ........................................................................................

11-4

References .................................................................................................
10-30
Formation and Damage Diagnosis ........................................................................ 11-1
Drill Stem Test (DST) ................................................................................... 11-1
Nodal Analysis

Fluid Analysis .............................................................................................

Transient Tests ..........................................................................................
Reservoir Logging Methods .......................................................................
Gamma Ray Logging ............................................................................
Acoustic or Sonic Logging ....................................................................
Neutron Logging ...................................................................................
Density Logging ....................................................................................
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log ...............................................

-V-

11-5
11-9
11-15
11-16
1 1-18

11-21
11-28
11-28
11-28
11-29
11-29
11-30

Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log ...............................................

Open-Hole Logging ...............................................................................
Depth of lnvasion ..................................................................................
Other Logs .............................................................................................
Cased Hole Logging ..............................................................................

1 1-30
1 1-30
1 1-35
1 1-36
1 1-37
Electric Logging Tool Response ................................................................
11-38
Direct Borehole Investigation ................................................................
1 1-40
Formation Tester ...................................................................................
1 1-41
Fluid Movement Surveys .............................................................................. 1 1-42
Fluid Surveys - Formation ............................................................................
11-43
Fluid Surveys - Wellbore .............................................................................. 1 1-43
Noise Logging .......................................................................................
1 1 -46
Borehole Surveys .................................................................................. 1 1-47
Mapping .....................................................................................................
11-47
Completion and Lift Analysis .....................................................................
11-50
Production and Operations Information .....................................................
11-50
Rock Mechanics Information From Logs ................................................... 11-51
Mechanical Properties ...........................................................................
1 1-53
Basic Logging Tool Response ...................................................................
11-55
Gamma Ray Logging .................................................................................
'11-56
Acoustic or Sonic Logging .........................................................................
11-56
Neutron Logging ........................................................................................ 11-56
Density Logging ......................................................................................... 11-57
11-57
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log ....................................................
11-57
Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log ...................................................
11-58
References ................................................................................................
Chemical and Thermal Stimulation ........................................................................
12-1
Example 12.1 ..........................................................................................
12-2
Example 12.2 ..........................................................................................
12-2
Selecting a Candidate Well ............................................................................
12-3
Evaluation of Stimulations ..............................................................................
12-3
Selective Stimulation ......................................................................................
12-4
Diverting vs. Fluid Loss Control .............................................................. .l 2-4
Candidates .............................................................................................. 12-4
Diverter Operation ...................................................................................
12-5
Limited Entry (Pressure Differential Diverting) ....................................... .12-5
Mechanical Diverting ............................................................................... 12-6
Chemical Diverlers ................................................................................ 12-11
lnterface Treatments .............................................................................
12-14
Diverler/Fluid Loss Control Stages ........................................................ 12-15
HCVHF Treatment Diversion ................................................................. 12-17
Recommendations ................................................................................
1 2-17
Cleanup .................................................................................................
12-18
Packoff Techniques ...............................................................................
12-18
Technology of Bridging .......................................................................... 12-18
Depth of Diversion .................................................................................
12-18
Chemical Stimulation Techniques ................................................................ 12-19
Acidizing ................................................................................................
12-19
HF Acid Spending Rates ..............................................................................
12-20

-vi-

Solvents .......................................................................................................
Gases ..........................................................................................................
Surfactants ...................................................................................................
Reactants .....................................................................................................
Treatment Types ..........................................................................................
Damage Removal ........................................................................................
Reaction Rate Factors .................................................................................
Temperature .........................................................................................
Pressure ...............................................................................................
Area Volume Ratio ...............................................................................
Acid Concentration ...............................................................................
Acid Selection .......................................................................................
Formation Composition ........................................................................
Additives ......................................................................................................
Surfactants ...........................................................................................
Weffability .............................................................................................
Mutual Solvents ....................................................................................
Wash Design ...............................................................................................
Wellbore Cleanup and Acid Wash ........................................................
Solvent Wash of Injection Wells ...........................................................
Perforation Breakdown .........................................................................
Extreme Overbalance Perforating ...............................................................
Matrix Acidizing Design ...............................................................................
Obtaining the Required Information ......................................................
Designing the Treatment ......................................................................
Thermal Stimulation .....................................................................................
Chemical Heat Generation ...................................................................

References .................................................................................................

Granular Salt ........................................................................................

100-Mesh Sand ....................................................................................
Calcium Carbonate ...............................................................................
Naphthalene .........................................................................................
Benzoic Acid Flakes .............................................................................
Wax Beads ...........................................................................................
Organic Resin Beads ............................................................................
Organic Resin Dispersions ...................................................................
Micron Size Patticulates .......................................................................
Poiymers ...............................................................................................
Others ...................................................................................................

Fracturing ....................................................................................................................

Recovery by Fracturing ..................................................................................

Fracturing Economics ....................................................................................
Fracturing Length and Conductivity Decisions ..............................................
Fracture Design ...........................................................................................
Fracture Length and Width - Modeling .................................................
Fracture Orientation and Formation Stresses .......................................
Fluid Loss .............................................................................................
Fracturing Design .................................................................................

12-21
12-22
12-22
12-22
12-22
12-23
12-24
12-24
12-24
12-24
12-24
12-24
12-25
12-25
12-25
12-26
12-27
12-28
12-28
12-28
12-28
12-29
12-29
12-29
12-3 1
12-35
12-37

12-38
12-43
12-43
12-43
12-43
12-44
12-44
12-44
12-44
12-44
12-45
12-45
13-1
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-15
13-15
13-16
13-17
13-20

Closure Stress .......................................................................................

Fracture Treatments ..............................................................................
Fracture Treatment Design ...................................................................
When To Fracture .................................................................................
Treatment Pressure Behavior ...............................................................

13-25
13-29
13-29
13-33
13-33

References ................................................................................................
13-34
Unstable Formations and Sand Control ............................................................... 14-1

Sand Cementation ..........................................................................................

14-1
Formation Characterization .....................................................................
14-2
Sand Movement Prediction ..................................................................... 14-4
Sand Control Considerations ................................................................
14-12
Sand Control .........................................................................................
14-13
Alternate Gravel Sizing Methods ........................................................... 14-20
Current Gravel Pack Design Methods and Problem Identification ........14-2 1
Mobility of Fines.................................................................................... 14-22
Sand Sorting Considerations .................................................................
14-23
Benefits of Larger Gravel ...................................................................... 14-24
Carrier Fluids ......................................................................................... 14-26
Equipment .............................................................................................
14-28
Packing Methods ...................................................................................
14-29
Fluid Loss Control .................................................................................
14-30
Alternate Path Gravel Packing ..............................................................
14-30
Pressure Drops Across Gravel Packs ...................................................
14-31
Example ................................................................................................
14-32
Pack and Frac Technology ....................................................................
14-32
Reservoir Lamination and Well Deviation .............................................
14-33
Other Unstable Formations ................................................................... 14-33
References Gravel Pack ..........................................................................
14-34
Workovers and Fluids ...............................................................................................
15-1
Well Control .............................................................................................
15-1
Example 15.I ..........................................................................................
15-2
Example 15.2 ..........................................................................................
15-3
Example 15.3 ..........................................................................................
15-3
Shut-In .....................................................................................................
15-5
(Re)Gaining Control ................................................................................
15-6
Example 15.4 ..........................................................................................
156
Pressure Effects ....................................................................................
15-11
Snubbing ...............................................................................................
15-14
Example 15.5 ........................................................................................
15-14
Completion/Workover Fluids ................................................................. 15-16
Example 15.6 ........................................................................................
15-18
Example 75.7 ........................................................................................
15-19
Example 15.8 ........................................................................................ 15-20
Example 15.9 ........................................................................................
15-20
Example I5.I0 ......................................................................................
15-22
Before the Job W C ................................................................................ 15-26
Fluid Filtration ...............................................................................................
15 27
Field Testing and Measurement of Clean ........................................... 15-32
Application ............................................................................................
.15-32
Kill String Completions .......................................................................... 15-33
Returning Wells to Operation ................................................................
15-33
Workover References ................................................................................
15-34

.viii .

References on Filtration .............................................................................

15-35
16-1
Completions Operations .................................................................................
16-2
Brines ............................................................................................................. 16-5
Stimulation ...................................................................................................... 16-5
Formation Damage .........................................................................................
16-6
Well Design ....................................................................................................
16-7
Completions Equipment .................................................................................
16-7
Subsurface Safety Valves ..............................................................................
16-8
Annular Pressure Buildup .............................................................................
16-10
References ................................................................................................
16-11
Water Production Control ........................................................................................ 17-1
Summary of Important Points ..................................................................17-1
Sources of Water .....................................................................................
17-1
Problem Definition - Reservoir ................................................................ 17-2
Problem Definition - Near Wellbore .........................................................
17-3
Coning .....................................................................................................
17-3
Water Block .............................................................................................
17-5
Problem Definition - Injection Well .......................................................... 17-6
Reservoir Description and Modeling Necessities ....................................
17-7
Treating Considerations ..........................................................................
17-7
..
Modification of Permeability ............................................................................
17-7
Deep Modification - Permeability Reduction ...........................................
17-7
Deep Modification - Increasing Permeability ...........................................
17-7
Shallow Modification - Permeability Reduction ........................................ 17-8
Shallow Modification - Increasing Permeability ....................................... 17-9
References ..................................................................................................
17-9
Wireline and Coiled Tubing Operations ................................................................ 18-1
Wireline Operations .................................................................................
18-1
Downhole Wireline Equipment ................................................................ 18-2
Pressure and Fluid Control ......................................................................
18-6
Special Services ......................................................................................
18-9
Tools for Downhole Measurements .........................................................
18-9
Coil Tubing Operations ................................................................................
18-9
Chain Injector ........................................................................................
1 8-10
Axial Load Capacity ...............................................................................
18-25
Depth Limitations ..........................................................................................
18-27
Buoyancy ......................................................................................................
18-28
Tapered Strings ............................................................................................
18-30
Buckling ........................................................................................................
18-31
Capacity and Displacement .......................................................................... 18-31
Fluid Unloading in Casing .............................................................................
18-40
Friction Pressure ..........................................................................................
18-42
Well Testing with Coiled Tubing ...................................................................
18-44
References ................................................................................................
18-44
Additional References on Coiled Tubing ...................................................
18-46
Workover Fishing .......................................................................................................
19-1
Location of Stuck Point ............................................................................
19-6

High Temperature, High Pressure Completions .................................................

References .Fishing ....................................................................................

References .Milling .....................................................................................
Plug and Abandonment Procedures .....................................................................
Legal Requirements .......................................................................................
Setting Cement Plugs .....................................................................................
Other Plugging Processes ..............................................................................
Milling a Packer .......................................................................................

19-8
19-8
20-1
20-2
20-2
20-6
20-7
20-7

References - Plug and Abandonment ..........................................................

Effects of Completion, Stimulation and Workover Activities on Surface Facility
21-1
Operations ..............................................................................................................
Stimulation Flowbacks ....................................................................................
Testing the Backflow ......................................................................................
Causes of Upsets ....................................................................................
Flowback Duration ........................................................................................
Treating the Returning Acid ..........................................................................
Treatment Choices .......................................................................................
Oil Foams .....................................................................................................

References

................................................................................................

-X-

21-7
21-7
21-7
21-12
21-13
21-13
21-14
21-14

Introduction: Basic Well Completion Concepts

Porosity

Porosity is the fraction of the total volume of the rock that is pore (non rock) space or void and not
made of solid pieces of the formation. It will be filled with a gas, water or hydrocarbon or two or more
at the same time. Porosity will range from a high of 40-50% in some marginally consolidated chalk formations to a low of near zero in some of the evaporites (anhydrite). The average porosity of producing
reservoirs ranges from about 5 1 5 % in limestones or dolomites, 10-25% in sandstones and over 30%
in many of the chalk formations. In most unconsolidated formation, porosity depends upon the grain
size distribution; not on the absolute size of the grain itself. Porosity can be in the order of 35-40% if
all grains are close to the same size, but in most cases where a wide range of grain sizes are available, the porosity will be between 15-25%. Severe cases of formations with mixtures of large and very
small grains may have porosities less than 15%.
Lower porosities, such as 10% or less, are usually the result of chemical modification of the pore
structure, i.e., recementation, precipitation of additional minerals, or leaching and reprecipitation. In
some cases, the very consolidated sandstones with overgrowth of quartz may have porosities down to
near zero.
Geologists further subdivide porosity into several descriptive classifications that help engineers
describe the flow of fluids through the formation and into the wellbore. The major classifications are
briefly described in the following paragraphs.

1. Matrix porosity or intergranular porosity the porosity between the grains of the formation.
2. Vug porosity - porosity in the solution chambers that may range from a tenth of a millimeter to
voids larger than a basketball.

3. Fracture porosity the void space created within the walls of an open natural fracture.

4. Micro porosity the voids between the clay platelets or particles. Although a large micro porosity

may exist, production of fluids from them is often difficult since the fluids are usually held by
strong cohesive forces.
The matrix porosity is referred to as the primary porosity and most other porosities are secondary.
Usually, the pore space described by natural fractures and vugs are produced or swept very early
(flush production) and their continuing use becomes as a conductive pathway to the wellbore. Long
term production rate estimates are usually based upon the reserves in the matrix except in very large
fields where solution porosity (vugs) is very extensive.
Porosity values derived from neutron or sonic logs are usually used alone with other log information
and well observations to establish whether a section of rock is pay. Although the use of porosity in
this manner is common, it can also be very misleading. Obviously, porosity is not a stand along value
for establishing the quality of pay. Shales, for example, have porosities of 30% or more but lack the
conductive pathways (permeability) to make them economic except where fractured gas-rich shales
exist in massive sections.
The location and type of porosity has a great affect on the performance of a well. Relying totally on a
log derived porosity, especially in a carbonate, may provide unexpected low production or may result
in missing productive intervals. The occurrence of lime muds, a low porosity deposit common within
limestones may isolate porosity and result in much lower effective porosities than reported with a log.
Fossils, porosity within grains, and isolated vugs encased by grain overgrowths may also result in high
porosity readings without adding to the porosity of the reservoir. These porosity problems are usually
only spotted with the aide of core examinations.

i-1

Lower porosity rocks (less than 10%) may be pay in a few instances if microfractures exist at reservoir
conditions. The open microfractures serve as drainage paths for fluid flow from very low porosity but
extensive parts of the rock.
Saturation

The fraction of pore space containing water is called the water saturation and usually denoted by an
Sw. The remaining fraction of the pore space that contains oil or gas is called hydrocarbon saturation
Sh. The simple balance sh = 1 - Sw accounts for all of the pore space within a rock. In almost
every porous formation, there is at least a small amount of water saturation. Usually when the sediments were laid down, the matrix materials were dispersed in water. As the hydrocarbon entered the
porous formation, water was displaced from many of the pores, although the displacement process is
not efficient enough to move all the water. This displacement process, whether it was oil displacing
water over geologic time, or water displacing oil during water drive or water flooding, results in a lower
saturation of the fluid being displaced. If a very large amount of the driving fluid is displaced, the quantity of the initial fluid reaches a point, usually a few percent of the pore space, where it cannot be
reduced further. This level of fluid is the irreducible saturation of that fluid. Therefore, an irreducible
water saturation, S,,i, is the saturation of water in the core that cannot be removed by migration of
hydrocarbon. This water or oil, Soil may be trapped in the small pores, held by high capillary attraction,
or bound to clays as a surface layer or in the clay lattice.
Permeability

Permeability, denoted by a lower case k,is a measure of the conductance of the formation to flow of a
fluid. The higher the permeability, the easier it is (takes less driving pressure) for a fluid to flow
through the rock matrix. The law was originally derived by a French engineer named dArcy to
account for the flow of water through sand filters. The original permeability concept used darcies as a
unit of measurement, but most productive formations will be between 0.001 md (1 md = 0.001 darcy)
and 1000 millidarcies (1 darcy). Permeability depends on the absolute grain size of the rock, how well
the sediments are sorted, presence of fractures, and how much chemical modification has occurred in
the matrix. Flowing and bound fluid properties also affect the permeability. Large-grained sediments
with a minimum of fine particles (large, open pores) usually have high permeabilities whereas very
fine-grained sediments with small pores have lower permeabilities. Porosity does not always relate
directly to permeability. Materials such as shales and some chalks may have very high porosities but
low permeability because of lack of effective connection of the pores.
Permeability to oil, water and gas may be different because of viscosity differences and other influences such as wetting and the issue of the thickness of the liquid coating on the pore wall. Oil wet formations are usually thought to be less permeable to the flow of water than water wet formations
because the molecular thickness of the oil coating is thicker than that of water. This leaves less pore
space for fluids flow. When more than one phase exists in the pore, relative permeability relationships
govern the flow.
Relative Permeability

The effects of relative permeability explain many of the problems involved in formation damage and
reduction of flow from a formation, either on initial production or after treating with a material which
severely oil wets the formation. As will be pointed out in the chapter on formation damage, problems
with relative permeability include a significant drop in permeability to the saturating fluid as trace
amounts of a second, immiscible phase are introduced in the flowing liquid. Reductions of up to 80%
of initial permeability are common when saturation of an immiscible phase is increased from zero to
approximately 20 or 25%. It is this significant reduction in permeability that explains much of the damage behind overtreatment with an oil-filming chemical, such as an oil-based drilling mud, or the use of
highly absorptive surfactants or solvents. The surface of the rock also plays an important part since
the charge of a surfactant controls the attraction to a particular formation face. It must be remembered
that severe wettability problems such as the absorption of cationic materials onto sandstones and the
absorption of anionic materials onto limestones can play a significant role in permeability reduction.

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The reduction from this coating or wetting may be severe and can be long-lasting, depending on the
tenacity of the coating.
Matrix cleanup of this type of wetting is imperative to fully restore the flow capacity of the formation.
Cleanup of this type of damage must take into account both the stripping of the relative permeability
influencing layer and the type of rock surface to which it is adsorbed.
Natural Fractures

Natural fractures are breaks in the fabric of the rock caused by a wide variety of earth forces. These
natural fractures may have widths of a few thousandths of an inch to a tenth of an inch or more. Natural fractures generally have a common direction that corresponds to forces generated by a significant
geologic event in the area such as folding, faulting, or tectonic forces. Where solution etching or
cementation forces are active, the fractures may be widened into extensive vugs with permeabilities of
hundreds of darcies or filled completely with precipitated minerals. Stylolites or gouge filled fractures
are examples of these behaviors. Natural fractures influence flush production or high initial production
rate that diminishes quickly after bringing on a new well or the start of flow in a well that has been
shut-in. Although they serve as conductive pathways for oil or gas production, they also will transmit
water at a much faster rate than the formation matrix, leading to early breakthrough of water or other
type floods and sweep problems in reservoir engineering.
Reservoir Pressure

The pressure that the reservoir fluids exert on the well at the pay zone is the reservoir pressure. In single pay completions with little or no rat hole (extra hole below the pay), the reservoir pressure is the
bottom hole pressure, BHP. The initial reservoir pressure is the pressure at the time of discovery.
Flowing bottom hole pressure is pressure exerted as the result of a drawdown (differential pressure
produced by flowing the well). Shut-in pressure is the stable pressure reached after the well has been
shut in long enough to come to equilibrium. Shut-in pressures are often quoted as a function of time.
The initial pressure is usually a function of depth of burial but may be modified by other forces at the
time of burial or at a later time. Driving pressure may be supplied by a number of mechanisms
depending upon the characteristics of the oil and the surrounding geologic and physical forces. The
general types of reservoir drive forces (to the limit of general interest in well completions) are:
1. Solution gas drive - a volumetric displacement where all the driving energy or pressure is supplied by gas expansion as the pressure is reduced and the gas comes out of solution. In reservoirs above the bubble point, all the gas is dissolved in the oil and there is no free gas. In these
reservoirs, there may be a volume change of the oil as the pressure drops and gas breaks out of
solution. Reservoir pressure decreases with fluid withdrawals.

2. Gas Cap a volumetric displacement where the oil is below the bubble point, i.e., there is free

gas or gas saturation in the pores and there may be a gas cap. Reservoir pressure decreases
with fluid withdrawals.
3. Water drive -water influx into the reservoir from edge, bottom or water injection wells can provide very consistent drive pressure to a reservoir. Like the oil, the water moves through the most
permeable pathways of the formation towards the pressure drop produced by removal of fluids.
The water pushes part of the oil in front, entering some of the pores and displacing the oil. Oil
production continues long after the breakthrough of water at the producing well since the formation may contain a number of streaks that have permeability differences an order of magnitude
or more. Reservoir pressure may remain the same or drop with fluid withdrawals, depending
upon how fast the incoming water replaces the withdrawn fluids.
4. Reservoir compression through compaction in poorly consolidated, high porosity reservoirs is

also a method of supplying driving energy but it usually generates serious problems in the reservoir. In these reservoirs, which may often be initially over pressured, the reservoir fluids are a

i-3

overburden load supporting element. Withdrawal of the fluids requires the matrix of the formation
to support more of the load from the overlying sediments (overburden). In some poorly consolidated or weak formations, the matrix compresses under the load, leading to lower porosity and a
continued pressure on the remaining fluids. Although this is a definite form of pressure maintenance, when the porosity is decreased, the permeability also is reduced. Compaction of the pay
in massive sections may also lead to subsidence of several feet at the surface -- a critical problem for some offshore rigs and sea level land fields.
5. Pressure maintenance or sweep projects using water or gas are our methods of increasing
recovery. These processes come with many of the same advantages and limitations as their natural counterparts.

Pressures
To a workover engineer, pressure can be a powerful tool or a nightmare. The difference is in how pressure control is handled. The following "short list" of pressures and pressure related terms presents an
idea of what and how pressures are important to the workover.

1. Reservoir Pore Pressure The pressure of the reservoir fluids, often expressed as a gradient in

psilft. The initial reservoir pressure is the pressure at the time of discovery. Fluid withdrawals
from a reservoir are made by lowering the pressure in the wellbore. The flow of fluids toward the
low pressure creates zones of lower pressure or pressure gradients extending into the reservoir.
The reservoir pressure can only be measured at the wellbore in a new well or in a well that has
experienced complete buildup.
2. Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure -This pressure is measured at the productive zone during flow. A
value of flowing bottom hole pressure is usually reported with a flow rate or a choke setting. A

change in the flow rate will change the flowing bottom hole pressure.

3. Drawdown Drawdown is the pressure differential set by the difference of the reservoir pressure
and the flowing bottom hole pressure.

4. Flowing Tubing Pressure A surface measurement of the pressure in the tubing, prior to the

choke, at a particular flow rate. It is equal to the flowing bottom hole pressure minus the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluids in the tubing. Because of entrained gas production and gas
breakout as the well is produced, it is rarely possible on liquid/gas producers to accurately calculate the flowing bottom hole pressure from the flowing wellhead pressure. Only when the composition of the fluid in the tubing is known can the down hole pressure be calculated.

5. Shut-in Surface Pressure Any pressure measured at the surface immediately after a well is
shut-in will change as bottom hole pressure builds up toward reservoir pressure and the fluids in
the tubing come to an equilibrium. Surface measured shut-in pressures are useful in some buildup tests to assess the productivity of a well.

6. Productivity Index The productivity index is a measurement of well flow potential. It is a term

generated from a delivery plot of flow rate and pressure from a particular well. It is commonly
expressed as a potential flow rate per pressure drop such as barrels per day per psi. By multiplying the PI by the intended drawdown, a flow rate of the well can be predicted. The PI is established by test on the well. It changes with time.

7. Fracture Breakdown Pressure A measurement of what pressure is required to hydraulically

fracture the rock. The breakdown pressure is usually attained from drilling data, breakdown
tests, or fracture stimulations. It is usually expressed as a gradient of pressure per unit of formation depth such as psi/ft.

i-4

8. Fracture Extension Pressure -The pressure necessary to extend the fracture after initiation. Like
fracture breakdown pressure, it is relevant to a particular well or field.

9. Friction Pressure When fluids are flowed at high rates through a conduit, there is a resistance
to flow caused, at least partly, by friction of the fluids at the boundaries of the conduit and by turbulence (mixing) of the fluids. Whether the conduit is pipe or a fracture, friction represents a
back pressure. Friction is expressed as pressure at a rate for a unit length of a particular conduit.
10. Bubble Point Pressure - In a reservoir that contains an undersaturated oil, there will be no gas

cap. As the pressure is drawn down, the solution gas will break out of solution. Because of relative permeability and saturation concerns, the occurrence of reaching the bubble point usually
coincides with a drop in production.

Pressure Differential
Pressure differential is probably the most important pressure during drilling, completion, workover and
production. The differential pressure between the wellbore and the formation dictates which direction
fluids will move and at what rate they will move. Additional controls such as reservoir permeability and
native and injected fluid viscosity also have an affect, as does the presence of solids in the wellbore
fluid when the pressure differential is toward the formation.
In general, drilling pressure differential should be as low as possible to minimize formation damage
and the amount of fluid invasion from wellbore fluids. However, during any drilling, completion or workover operation, the pressure differential must be toward the wellbore (higher pressure in the wellbore
than in the reservoir) when well flow is not wanted. Maintaining pressure differential is the same as
maintaining well control. Certain conditions, such as intentional or accidental swabbing caused by
swab cups or large-diameter tools, can create low pressures at the bottomhole, even with a column of
high pressure fluid above the swab or tool. It is the rate of movement and the diameter difference
between the object in the hole and the inside of the hole itself that determine the swab or underbalance loads. Each step of a drilling, completion or workover operation, particularly when tools or equipment are removed from the hole, should be examined to determine if swab loads can unbalance the
pressure differential and swab fluids into the wellbore.
During production, pressure differential toward the wellbore is essential for fluid flow. Columns of
standing liquids, excessive backpressures or large amounts of solids in the fluids in the wellbore will
act as a check valve, severely limiting production flow into the well.
The study of pressure differential and pressure drop is commonly done using a nodal analysis program. These programs compute pressure drops and backpressures on a system, and help identify
those points that may be bottlenecks to good production practices. There are many instances of wells,
some even with large-diameter tubing where the tubing has been found to be a choke on the production from the well. Changing out the tubing to a larger size in many cases has doubled production from
a high capacity well.
Well Temperature
The reservoir at static conditions has a shut-in or reservoir temperature that is characteristic of the
depth times the geothermal gradient for that area. A 13,000 ft deep reservoir in one part of the world
may have a bottom hole temperature of 16OoF, while a similar depth reservoir in a hotter geothermal
area may be 360F.
As the well flows, the bottom hole temperature will drop depending on the type and amount of gas and
the pressure drop. The cooling is produced by the expansion of gas. Temperature reductions low
enough to freeze water may form ice or hydrates in some gas wells while wells with a smaller ratio of
gas to liquids will flow hot to surface.

i-5

Fluid Properties
The composition of the fluid in the formation, at various points in the tubing and at the surface have
major affects on the performance ofthe well and the selection of production equipment. The following
terms are required knowledge to describe the fluid and their changing nature.
1. Gas-oil-ratio, GOR, the amount of free gas associated with the oil production. The gas may ordi-

narily be in solution or free gas as in a reservoir with a gas cap. When the gas volume is
expressed as a function of the total liquids, the value is the gas-liquid-ratio, GLR. Wells with
GLRs above 8000 are considered gas wells, while those with a GOR less than 2000 are labeled
oil wells. The wells in between 2000 and 8000 are combination wells. The actual GOR value is
usually measured at the surface, its value downhole changes with pressure.

2. Water-oil-ratio, WOR, is the amount of water being produced in ratio to the oil production.
3. Bubble point refers to the pressure that a free gas phase will form in an undersaturated oil. The
significance is the addition of another phase that, most likely, will lower the relative permeability.
4. Dew point is the pressure and temperature at which the light hydrocarbon gases, Cs-C,,

begin to

condense into a liquid. The addition of another phase will lower relative permeability.

5. Cloud point is the temperature in an oil system where paraffin crystals appear
begins to solidify).

+ fraction

(cj8

6. Pour point is the temperature below which the oil will no longer pour.
High Temperature and High Pressure Wells

Wells with pressures over 0.6 psi/ft and temperatures over 300F are often referred to as HTHP wells
or high temperature, high pressure wells. These wells account for less than 1% of the total wells
drilled, but may cost 5% or more of the total expenditures for drilling and completions. The risk, reward
and cost can all be very great in these types of wells. Very special workover and completion operations are necessary to adequately complete and produce these wells.

i-6

Introductions Geology
The geologic understanding of the pay and the surrounding formations plays an important part in the
design of well completions and stimulations. The brief introduction given here will only give a glimpse
of the subject matter in the field. This treatment of geology is very simplistic; reference articles and
books are available for every segment.
The type of formation, composition, strength, logging basics, leakoff sites and other parameters may
be available from a detailed geologic investigation. This information is useful for pay zone identification, fluid and additive selection, longevity of fluid contact, and selecting casing points.
There are several major classifications of rocks of interest to the petroleum industry: sandstones, carbonates (limestone and dolomite) evaporites, and shales are only the major groups. Several others,
such as mudstones, siltstones and washes, are subdivisions of the major classifications.
Sandstones are predominately silicon dioxide and may have various amounts of clay, pyrite, calcite,
dolomite or other materials in concentrations from less than 1 % to over 50%. Sandstone formations
are generally noted for being a collection of grains. The grain size may range from very small, silt
sized particles (5 microns) to pea size or larger. The grains fit together to form a matrix that has (hopefully) some void space between the particles in which oil or other fluids may accumulate. The grains
are usually held together by a cement that may be clay, silica, calcite, dolomite, or pyrite. Some
cementation of the grains is critical for formation strength; however, excess cementation reduces
porosity and permeability.
Sands are deposited in a variety of depositional environments that determine the initial sedimentkock
properties. The depositional environment is simply what type of surroundings and forces shaped the
deposits. In the following descriptions of depositional environment, the energy level is labeled as
either high or low depending upon the level of force that accompanied the deposition of the sediments.
High energy deposits are those with sufficient wind or current to move large pieces of debris while low
energy is sufficient to move only the smaller particles. The importance of energy is described later.
Common depositional environments are:

1. Deltas These mouth of river deposits provide some of the larger sandstone deposits. Because

of the enormous amount of natural organic material swept down the river systems, the deltas are
also rich in hydrocarbons. Quality of the reservoir rock deposits may vary widely because of the
wide variations in the energy level of the systems.

2. Lagoonal deposits - May be regionally extensive along the shores of ancient seas. Lagoonal
deposits are low energy deposits that are hydrocarbon rich. Permeability may vary with the
energy and amount of silt.

3. Stream beds - A moderate to low energy deposit with some streaks of high energy along the fast
flowing parts of the streams. Stream beds are known to wander extensively and chasing these
deposits with wells requires very good geologic interpretation, plus a lot of luck. The deposit volumes are also limited and frequently deplete quickly.

4. Deep marine chalks These are often the most massive deposits available, built up at the bot-

tom of ancient seas by the death of millions of generations of plankton-sized, calcium fixing
organisms. They can be very consistent, thick deposits. Natural fracturing is common.

5. Reefs - These formations were built in the same manner as the reefs of today, by animals that

take calcium from the sea water and secrete hard structures. Because of the cavities remaining
from the once living organisms, reefs that have not undergone extensive chemical modification
are among the most permeable of the carbonate deposits.

ii- 1

6. Dunes - The effects of desert winds on the sands have a shaping effect that can be seen in the

arrangement of the grains. These deposits may be massive but are usually lower energy. Permeability may vary considerably from top to bottom.

7. Alluvial fan - Zones of heavy water run-off such as from mountains are extremely high energy
runoffs. Common constituents of these formations may range from pebbles to boulders and
cementation may be very weak. Formations such as the granite washes are in this classification.
8. Flood plains - Occur along lower energy rivers and form during flood stages when the rivers
overflow the banks and spill into adjacent low areas. Flood plain deposits are mostly silt and
mud.

The level of energy with each type of deposit can be visualized by their modern depositional counterparts. The importance of energy is in the sorting of the grains and the average size of the grains. As
seen in the description of permeability in the preceding section, a rock with larger grains and the
absence of very small grains leads to high permeability. When small grains are present, the permeability is much lower. When there is a mixture of the very large and very small grains, such as in some
alluvial fans, the permeability can be very low. The extent of grain differences in a formation is termed
the sorting, with well sorted formations having similar sized grains and poorly sorted formations
showing a very wide size range.
The events that happen after the deposit is laid down are also factors in well completions and may
have a devastating effect on reservoir engineering. Some of these forces are active for a short period
in geologic time such as faulting and salt domes, and others like salt flows and subsidence, are active
during the productive life of the well. The faulting, folding and salt movement make some reservoirs
difficult to follow. Continuous forces are often responsible for formation creep in open holes, spalling,
and casing sticking and collapse problems. Although these geologic movement factors cannot be easily controlled, the well completion operations can be modified to account for many of them, if the problems are correctly identified early in the project life.
Chemical modifications also influence the reservoirs, though much less drastically than the uplift
forces of a salt dome, for example. Most carbonates (not including the reefs) are laid down by accumulation of calcium carbonate particles. Limestone may recrystallize or convert to dolomite by the
addition of magnesium. Because the limestone is soluble in ground water and very stable (resistant to
collapse), the limestones are often accompanied by locally extensive vugs or caverns which form from
ground water flow. Recrystallization or modification by the water as is flows through the rock may also
lead to a decrease in porosity in some cases.
When dolomite forms, a chemical process involving the substitution of magnesium for part of a calcium in the carbonate structure generally shrinks the formation very slightly, resulting in lower
microporosity but slightly higher porosity through the vugs or the natural fracture systems. Other types
of dolomitization are possible. The carbonates are marked by a tendency towards natural fractures,
especially dolomite. The chalk formations may be almost pure calcium carbonate, are reasonably soft
(low compressive strength) and may have very high porosities on the order of 35-45%, but relatively
low permeabilities of less than, typically, 5 md.
The third formation of interest is shale. These formations are laid down from very small particles (poor
sorting) that are mixed with organic materials. The organic material is often in layers, pools, or ebbs.
The shales may accumulate in deep marine environments or in lagoonal areas of very low energy
resulting in almost no large particles being moved. The shales are marked by high initial porosity and
extremely low permeability. Shales often serve as a seal for permeable formations. The shales are
also extremely important, since they are the source for the oil that has been generated in many major
plays. Oil leaves the shale over geologic time and migrates into the traps formed in sandstones, limestones and other permeable rocks.

ii-2

The evaporites are deposits that are formed by the evaporation of water. Deposits such as anhydrite
are usually accumulations of dried inland seas and serve as extensive local geologic markers and
sealing formations. They are extremely dense with almost no porosity or permeability.
When a deposit of oil and gas is found, it usually has its origins elsewhere and been trapped in a permeable rock by some sort of a permeability limiting trap. The trapping mechanism is too extensive to
be covered in a short explanation on geology, but the major traps are outlined in the following paragraphs.
1. Trapping by a sealing formation is common and accounts for some major fields. These occur-

rences, called unconformity traps, are where erosion has produced a rough topography with
peaks and valleys. Like the rolling terrain of the surface, most formations are rarely flat; they
have high and low points and may have a general rise in a direction. If an extensive sealing formation is laid down in top of the sandstone (or other pay), and the sand is exposed to migrating
oil from a lower source over geologic time, the oil will accumulate in the higher points of the pay
and trend uphill toward the point where the hill drops off or another sealing event stops the
migration. Tracking these deposits is best accomplished with as complete a structural map as
can be constructed. These maps of the formations highs and lows compiled from seismic and
drilling data indicate the better places to drill a well -- small wonder that the maps are among the
most closely guarded secrets of an oil company.
2. Faulting is an event that shifts a large block of the formation to a higher or lower position. The

misalignment of the zones often provides contact with sealing formations and traps the hydrocarbon. There are several types of faulting depending on the action and movement of the rock. In
areas of extensive tectonic plate movements, faulting may be extensive.
3. Folding is an uplift or a drop of part of the formation where the breaks associated with faults do
not occur. The formation maintains contact with itself, although it may form waves or even be
turned completely over by the event. Complete turnover is seen in the geologic overthrust belts
and accounts for the same formation being drilled through three times in one well, with the middle contact upside down. Vertical wells directly on the fold will penetrate the formation horizontal
to the original plane of bedding. Although these wells offer increased local reservoir quantity
when they are productive, the problems with directional permeability and sweep in a flood are
often substantial.
4. Salt domes cause uplift of the formation and result in numerous small or large fields around their

periphery. Faulting is often very wide spread. Brines in these areas are frequently saturated or
oversaturated and evaporated salt formations, stringers and salt-fill in vugs are common.
Because of the uplift of some formations from deeper burial, the productive formations may be
over pressured.
5. Stratigraphic traps (permeability pinchouts) are a change in the permeability of a continuous formation that stops the movement of oil. These deposits are very difficult to observe with conventional seismic methods. This effect, combined with a sealing surface to prevent upward
movement of fluid forms numerous small reservoirs and a few massive ones. Permeability pinchout may also explain poor well performance near the seal. Laminated beds with permeable
sands sandwiched between thin shales are a version of the pinchout or stratigraphic trap. These
deposits may be locally prolific but limited in reservoir and discontinuous. Linking the sands is
the key to production.
The age of a formation is dated with the aid of fossils which are laid down with the matrix. The age of
a formation is important to know if the formation has a possibility of containing significant amounts of
hydrocarbon. In most cases, very old formations such as the pre-Cambrian and Cambrian contain
very little possibility for hydrocarbons unless an uplift of the structure has made the formation higher
than an oil-generating shale, and oil has migrated into a trap inside the formation.

ii-3

Formation Sequences and Layering

Formations are almost never homogeneous from top to bottom. There is a considerable amount of
variation, even in a single formation, between permeability and porosity when viewed from the top of
the zone to the bottom. When formations are interbedded with shale streaks, they are referred to as a
layered formation. The shale streaks, often laid down by cyclic low energy environments, may act as
seals and barriers and form hundreds or thousands of small isolated reservoirs within a pay section.
Many times, the layering is too thin to be spotted by resistivity or gamma ray logs. When a formation is
known to be layered, the completion requirements change. Perforating requirements may rise from
four shots per foot to 16 shots per foot, and in many cases, small fracturing treatments may prove very
beneficial even in higher permeability formations.

ii-4

Well Planning
Before initial operations are started on any well, a plan should be constructed that will take the well
from initial drilling to plug and abandonment. There are a series of steps and operations that go into
completing a successful well. Many of these are interconnected, and the expense of a well in todays
market requires that consideration be given to efficient economical planning.
The method of planning is the same, regardless of the use of the well. Planning starts with cooperation and information exchange between explorers, drillers, completions and operations engineers and
foremen, partner companies, service companies, equipment providers, and government regulatory
officials. The information gathered in this step often prevents expensive misunderstandings that would
occur during the drilling or completion of the well or disastrous environmental problems that could
result from improperly executed operations. Each of the functional operations in well service involves
specialists. Too often these specialists do not have a good knowledge of the operation of other parts
of the industry, and the effects that their specific actions will have on the other operations of a well.
One of the first basic needs in todays environment is to prevent pollution. There is a need to isolate all
usable waters from contamination during the drilling, completion, or producing process. This step
requires careful design and a concerted effort on the application side. The requirements include casing that will withstand pressure and the corrosive atmospheres that will be experienced during the life
of a well, even if a sweet well turns slightly sour. It also requires consideration of cement placement
and elimination of any possible means of migration of fluids through or around the borehole.
The expected use of a well, whether it be observation, production, injection, or a multiple purpose
well, will influence where the well is placed, how large the casing is, and what corrosive service ratings will be required. It should be remembered that many wells serve more than one purpose during
their lives.
The reservoir conditions will obviously affect the completions. The factors that are most known in this
area are temperature and pressure. However, fluids, viscosity, corrosiveness of the fluids, and even
the rate of fluid production become very important. Factors which are not always considered include
the tendency for formation of scales, emulsions, paraffins, and asphaltenes. It is very possible by
modification of the tubing string or the incorporation of special coatings to almost completely prevent
many scale problems.
The rate of fluid production is the main factor in selection of the casing size. Expectations of a very
high rate well cannot be met with small casing. Problems such as this are often in direct contrast to
efforts to reduce well costs by using a small casing string or a small tubing string. Although initial savings in these areas can easily be made, the long-term benefits of the well weigh in heavily for larger
tubulars. There are also alternatives to conventional tubing and casing strings such as monobore
completions, velocity strings, tailpipe extensions, and the use of coiled tubing for rapidly run and
retrieved tubing strings.
The amount of service needed during the life of a well certainly has an influence on the topside connections and the location of the wellhead itself. For sweet gas wells with very low liquid production,
remote wellheads or subsea wellheads in offshore fields make very good sense. These wells would
only be good where well intervention was at a minimum.
Perhaps one of the most difficult parts to effectively plan are multiple layered reservoirs. In this problem area, there is a need to process all of the reservoirs without permitting crossflow from one zone to
another. Obviously, individual wells could be used to isolate each zone. However, the expense of drilling and completion are usually too high to make this a viable alternative, except in the highest rate
producing areas. Other methods of effectively producing multiple reservoirs or layered reservoirs
include a variety of techniques, such as tubing selectives, multiple completions, and sequenced pro-

iii-1

duction of reservoirs. Commingling of zones should be done when permitted by pressures and reactants that may form by mixing waters or oils of various zones.
Physical well design parameters should have been dictated by the expected producing behavior of the
well. Sizes of tubing and casing are set before the drilling bit selection process. During the tubular
design, the use of pup joints (short joints of casing to improve depth control of perforating and other
operations), nipple locations, and the use of special equipment in a string, such as subsurface safety
valves that require larger casing, are needed early in the design phase of the well. In most cases, it is
advisable to minimize the number of restrictions in a producing string to make sure needed tools can
pass through the string and to prevent deposits that are often caused downstream of a flow restriction.
Cementing operations should be carefully planned and applied to eliminate channeling of fluid. Too
often it is assumed that the primary cement job will be a failure before the job is even pumped. This
type of thinking leads to a haphazard placement of cement and a self-fulfilling prophecy requiring
expensive squeeze cementing. It has been shown in a number of tests that proper quality control and
attention to detail can result in effective primary cementing jobs.
Perforating planning is an area that could definitely use attention during both planning and application.
A variety of processes and tools are available from underbalanced to extreme overbalanced perforating and from wireline perforating to tubing conveyed perforating. Perforating expense can run from a
few thousand dollars to over one hundred thousand dollars, depending on the needs of the well and
the care with which it is designed. Expensive techniques are by no means always needed.
The type of artificial lift that will be used on the well should have been decided long before the well
was drilled. A number of artificial lift methods are available: gas lift, beam lift, plunger, jet lift, progressive cavity pumps, electric submersible, and natural flow. Of these lift methods, beam lift, gas lift, and
electric submersible pumps probably make up at least 98% of the artificial lift cases. Many wells that
are on natural flow early in their life have to be artificially lifted as pressures decline or as fluid volumes increase to the point where gas drive and natural gas lift are no longer sufficient. The ability to
change lift methods as fluid volumes increase or decrease is required for well operation optimization.
If the casing and packer are designed with a conversion in mind, the switch of lift systems is easy.
Some formations have special needs, such as sand control. When the strength of the formation is not
adequate to prevent sand grains from being dislodged by the drag forces encountered in production,
then special completion techniques are needed to prevent the sand from entering the wellbore. A
number of techniques have been tried, with resin consolidation of the sand and gravel packing being
the primary control mechanisms. The real concern in most sand control jobs is not what type of control, but whether sand control is needed and when it is needed. The factors that cause sand movement change during the lift of the well. Some wells that will not experience sand production until after
water breakthrough are gravel packed from initial completion. This is a large initial expense that can,
in some cases, be delayed.
Produced fluids including oil, gas, water and returning injected fluids are all reactable fluids. In addition, the well is a reactor when these fluids are moved through the well path. Conditions within this
reactor include temperature, pressure, pressure drop and other factors such as metallurgy and
clearances within the structure of the well. When the well flow path from formation to tank battery is
correctly designed for the flow of a particular fluid, the detrimental reactions are very few. But when
the well design is not suited to the particular fluids that must be produced, a problem well is often
created. Produced fluids are a reactant-rich %oup composed of natural surfactants in both the oil and
the water, free and dissolved salts, hydrocarbons with carbon chain links from C, to Cso, dissolved
and free mineral and hydrocarbon gases, bacteria, micelles, and over 20 possible combinations of
emulsions, foams, froths, and dispersions controlled and stabilized by such things as pH, viscosity,
internal phase concentration, and surface energy. When an upset occurs, the panic that ensues usually requires a quick fix. When the tank battery goes down because of a tank of bad oil (oil with a
higher than allowable water content), chemical treating is usually required as an emergency procedure to reduce the water content and return the well to production. The total chemical approach may
be short-sighted in some instances, particularly when production upset symptoms are treated in a

iii-2

cyclic manner. The best approach often requires an understanding of the individual reactants and their
relationship to both each other and their flow path environment. Often problem wells will yield
improvements only when physical changes are made in the well design. Numerous instances are
available that show chronic production upset problems being eliminated when physical changes were
made to the well architecture.
An understanding of production chemistry is a critical factor in designing the downhole and surface
equipment that makes up the wells system. The approaches that must be used are much the same as
initial design; however, the knowledge that liquid and gas volumes, relative amounts and pressure will
change over the life of a project. Thus, some flexibility must be built in to achieve a low maintenance
well system.
In general, several steps are followed when evaluating and/or designing a well system.
1. Most emulsions, including emulsions, sludges, froths, foams and dispersions, are most trouble-

some because of energy input and a stabilizing mechanism. By eliminating one or both of these
two factors, a significant decrease can be attained in problems with phase separation. The lift
system and pressure drops within the flowing system are the chief inputs of energy into an emulsion.
2. Upsets following acidizing or any type of chemical treating may be severe and are generally

based either on a solid material added with the chemical injection or by a variance in pH which
affects the behavior of natural surfactants. Tracking and controlling pH can often be a significant
factor in eliminating problems with upsets.
3. Production of solids from a well creates problems with emulsion stabilization, solids abrasion
and all types of fluid separation. Where possible, flow of solids should be identified and the
source minimized.

The lift system must be designed for the expected rate after a stimulation and must take into account the
recovery of the stimulation load fluid plus the method with which it commonly flows back. The most severe
problems in these areas generally include hydraulic fracturing and acidizing. Once an acid job has begun
to flow back, the pH may drop, significantly affecting the amount of corrosion during the load fluid recovery
stage. Jobs involving proppantfracturing often give problems because of proppant flowback in the produced
fluids during the initial stage of fluid flow.
In old wells and in marginal wells there is probably no stronger need than that of consideration of produced water control. Water comes in as a response to low pressure caused by hydrocarbon production. There may be many scenarios of water production. In some cases water drives the hydrocarbons
toward the wellbore. If you shutoff the water, you will reduce the hydrocarbon production volume. In
other cases leaks through bad cement, corroded casing, or through fractures can flood the well with
extraneous water. In these cases a water control treatment is often useful. Where bottom water drive
is severe, horizontal wells have often been used to successfully produce hydrocarbon without severe
water production problems. Each of these possibilities can be addressed in the initial well plan.
i

Control of corrosion is needed throughout the life of the wells. In many applications the well will have
a very low corrosivity when first drilled, but the corrosion rate will go up significantly during the life of a
well. In many wells, the original casing lasts 20 or more years before leaks are detected. Repair may
bring temporary relief, but leaks may often return within a few months. Special inhibitor programs are
needed as well conditions change.
Formation damage has been mentioned in earlier paragraphs, and it is well to remember that formation damage may recur during the life of the well. The most prevalent times for formation damage
occurrence are during workovers and when pressure declines or water from a floodfront causes precipitation of either organic or inorganic components in the formation or in the tubing string. Modeling
can often show a trend of formation damage and its effects, but the actual occurrence of formation

iii-3

damage can probably not be adequately predicted by any model without very exacting knowledge of
well behavior.
The occurrence of formation damage or drilling of a formation that is lower permeability than expected
may require stimulations. Stimulations, including fracturing, acidizing, heat, and solvents, can be
applied on almost any well provided that the support equipment and the tubulars will allow the techniques to be implemented. If formation damage or stimulation need can be adequately forecasted
early in the life of the well then cost reduction is often possible.
For projects where enhanced recovery is envisioned, well placement and spacing become critical. In
these applications the use of horizontal wells, deviated wells, and vertical wells are necessary to adequately process and sweep the reservoir. It is unfortunate that we know enough about reservoir to
adequately place wells only when the reservoir is nearing depletion. With new techniques however,
such as well-to-well seismic and 3D seismic, improved mapping of the reservoir if possible. This type
of investigation may also yield additional pay zones and how those pay zones can be accessed.
Every well that is ever drilled will require plug and abandonment. The techniques for plugging abandonment and the rules are many and varied. The underlying objective however is very plain. Wells
should be plugged in a manner in which the fluids that are in the reservoirs will stay isolated. This
need for isolation should be an overriding concern in any completion planning and must be accounted
for when processes such as fracturing or well placement are considered.

iii-4

Chapter I :

Drilling the Pay, Selecting the Interval and

the Initial Design

The completion begins when the drill bit first penetrates the pay. Drilling the pay zone is one of the
most important parts of the drilling procedure, thus drilling mud that is adequate for drilling the rest of
the well may not be acceptable in the pay. Whereas formation damage created by the mud is acceptable in a nonproductive interval, it cannot be tolerated in the pay zone. What is needed is a mud that
can control leakoff without creating permanent damage. The mud may require special treatment and
occasionally, a changeout of the mud to a nondamaging fluid. There are several goals in drilling
besides well control that are of interest to the completions engineer.

1. Drill a usable hole A hole through the pay that will not accept the design size of casing limits the

possibilities of the well and may impair the productivity.

2. Minimize formation permeability damage - High drilling mud overbalance pressure, uncontrolled
particle size, mud filtrate that swells clays and poor leakoff control may mask the response of a
productive formation to a drill stem test (DST) and may lead to bypassing a producing zone.
3. Control washouts - Hole stability problems may cause hole enlargements that make perforation
and formation breakdown much more difficult.
From a drillers viewpoint, there are five main functions of a drilling mud: pressure control, bit lubrication, shale stability, fluid loss control and cuttings retrieval. The most important aspects of a drilling
mud from a formation damage standpoint are to prevent loss of the drilling mud filtrate and to make
sure that the filtrate that is lost will not react with the formation to reduce permeability. Fluid reactivity
is usually controlled by using potassium chloride or other salts to stabilize the clay in the formation.2
Potassium chloride may not always control clay reactions or may require as much as 4% or more salt
where smectite clay is present in the larger pore passages. Fluid loss control is accomplished by rapidly sealing off the permeable sections of the formation^.^^^ The mud accomplishes this fluid loss control by creating an almost impermeable mud cake of particles on the surface of the formation where
leakoff occurs. The mud cake is produced by simple dehydration; as the liquid penetrates into the formation (the mud filtrite), the solid particles are stranded on the surface of the formation. In a properly
formulated mud, there are a wide range of particle sizes that, on dehydration, fit together into a tightly
compacted, very low permeability seal. By carefully controlling the size range of particles and minimizing the clay size particles that could invade the pores of the formation, invasion damage from particles
can be stopped. 4-7 In some drilling and workover fluids, fine particles and at least parts of the solids in
the fluids will be designed to be acid soluble.8
The time required to form the mud cake will depend upon the mud characteristics, the permeability
and the pressure differential, (Must be toward the formation for well control!) A higher permeability formation will generate a mud cake very rapidly than a low permeability formation since the rate of initial
fluid loss (spurt) is higher. After the mud cake is formed, further liquid losses depend on the permeability of the cake. Formation of a cake does not insure that leakoff stops.
In cases where the formation matrix permeability is between approximately 0.5 md and 100 md and
the pressure differential toward the formation is small (APc1 00 psi), the filtrate of even a damaging
mud will not likely extend into the formation beyond a depth of a few inches provided that the filter
cake is successful in controlling leakoff. To build a successful mud cake, there must be leakoff. If the
permeability is very low (e.g., kc0.05 md), the filter cake may be only poorly formed and fluid loss
could be much higher than expected. This is especially true when the pay is an upper formation in a
deep well where a high density mud is used and the formation is exposed to the mud for a long period
of time. Fortunately, most very low permeability formations require fracture stimulation, so the zone of
damage is easily bypassed. The occurrence of the damage is important, however, since a productive
interval might be missed on a test of an unstimulated well. The higher permeability formations pose
special problems if the mud cake cannot be formed quickly. Since every trip out of the hole scrapes off

1-1

much of the protective mud cake, the cake must reform easily to prevent the loss of large volumes of
mud filtrate into the formation. Tell-tail identifiers of a permeable formation are deflections on the SP
log, bit drag and where the caliper log shows a narrow spot of slightly less than the bit diameter. This
sticking point should not be confused with borehole deformation; a plastic flow of the rock in response
to bore hole deformation, active faulting, folding, salt domes, etc.l5
The depth of damage created by the filtrate of the mud is directly related to the amount of driving pressure that the mud exerts on the formation. Even with a high quality mud, damage can be very deep if
there is high mud overpressure. When high pressure zones elsewhere in the hole require the use of
high pressure on the mud system, lower pressure zones are forced to take fluid by the pressure differential. This situation becomes critical when a zone that may be pay is broken down and fractured with
the mud. Several hundred barrels of mud can be lost when the well is fractured. Some wells damaged
in this way never produce as expected. The only safe way to prevent this type of fluid loss from occurring is to case through the zones requiring high mud weights before the pay zones are drilled. Improving the filter cake and making the mud filtrate more compatible with the formation is one of the best
methods of controlling formation damage. The use of inhibited filtrate prepared with potassium chloride (such as 2% KCI) will often minimize the formation damage in pays with even water sensitive
sandstones.
In formations that are sensitive to fluid, the total time that the sensitive zone is exposed to mud may
be critical. Once a section of the well that is known to be sensitive is penetrated, operations should
continue as quickly as possible until casing can be cemented over the zone. This treatment is usually
reserved for sections of caving shale or other unstable formation; however, it may also be used very
successfully in drilling pay zones that are water sensitive. If loss of permeability is plotted against
accumulative fluid loss from the mud, permeability damage increases very steadily as total fluid loss
increases, almost regardless of the type of fluid. This emphasizes the importance of maintaining a
high quality mud and lowering the exposure of the formation to fluid loss.
Most of the solids and cuttings from the mud are halted at the formation face and very little penetration
occurs unless a poorly designed mud with a large amount of clay or silt sizes particles are used in a
formation with large pore throats. The damage from these solids is most apparent in the form of formation face plugging. Movement of the solids into the formation is dependent on the size of the pores,
particle size and quantity of the finest solids in the mud. Although some tests have shown several centimeter penetration of fine mud particles into high permeability ~ a n d s t o n ea, ~properly conditioned
mud will probably not invade the formation.
If the formation has rubble zones (very poorly sorted grains with sizes that may range from fines to
small boulders), very permeable porous sections, fractures or vugs, then severe whole mud penetration may occur and produce lasting formation damage. It is very advantageous to design the mud or
completion fluid to bridge off on the face of the formation to prevent the possibility of particle invasion.

When the mud or kill fluid cannot be circulated, the formation has a lost circulation zone that has very
high permeability or cannot support the weight of the mud column without fracturing. For these problem cases, special pills of LCM, lost circulation material, are often run to plug off the high perm
zonesg Where the formation will not support the mud column, a cement sheath is often tried to reinforce the zone. After setting a cement plug, the hole is redrilled. The cement invades fractures and
vugs, adding strength and controlling leakoff. One problem with lost circulation material (LCMs) cases
is that drillers use a variety of LCMs, such as paper, sawdust, leather, grain, etc., that are very effective in preventing leakoff but cannot be removed if the zone is a pay zone. Any LCM used in a potential pay must be easily removable.
The decision on whether a mud system should be changed before the pay is drilled depends upon the
sensitivity of the pay to the mud filtrate. If the formation contains swellable clays such as smectite, a
filtrite sensitivity test on core from an offset well will tell whether the formation is damaged by introduction of the mud filtrate. Where core is not available, a mud with a low damage potential (potassium
chloride) should be considered. Smectite clay in the pore throats is usually reactive to fresh fluids, up
to 5% or more KCI is sometimes needed to prevent clay problems in formations that have 3 to 8%
smectite. In gas zones, the use of most oil-based muds should be avoided unless the mud has been
proven to be of a nondamaging nature in the zone of interest. In oil or gas zones that are to be frac-

1-2

tured, less emphasis is placed on the mud damage at the wellbore since a fracture will extend beyond
the damage.
When natural fractures or vugs are present in the pay, whole mud can be lost. In these situations, it is
often necessary to set a casing string above the pay and drill the formation without returns or use a
fluid loss control additive capable of sealing fractures at the wellbore. Other methods, such as drilling
the well while flowing and diverting the produced fluids, have also been considered but are dangerous
in high pressure formations.
Because of damage by both incompatible filtrate and the migration of very small particles in the mud,
the completion zone in many wells has been drilled with completion fluid. This practice eliminates
much of the damage from mud and mud filtrate. The basic problem with the process is in completely
cleaning the hole and pipe of residuals from the mud so that the left-over mud and cuttings do not contaminate the completion fluid. Fluid loss from solids free systems may be very high, especially in high
permeability formations.
In very sensitive pay zones, the wells are often drilled with mud to the top of the pay and the pay itself
is drilled with air, mist or foam to reduce the amount of water in contact with pay. Another method of
reducing formation damage is to drill the pay with reverse circulation. This approach has been used in
sensitive formations to limit the contamination of the mud by drill cuttings. Regardless of the formation
sensitivity, well control must always be the Number 1 priority.
The importance of drilling a usable hole through the pay and its importance on running and cementing
pipe cannot be overstated. Failure to get a casing string or a liner to bottom can be very costly in
terms of cost of an additional string or liner and the reduction of working space where pumps and
other equipment need to be set. Simply drilling a hole with a certain diameter drill bit through a formation does not lead to a hole that will accept a string of pipe of an outside diameter just smaller than the
drill
In most instances where casing cannot be run in a freshly-drilled hole, the problem is that
a usable hole has not been drilled, i.e., the drift diameter of the hole is not equal to the bit diameter.
This problem is shown schematically in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. Figure 1.1 illustrates problems with hard
ledges or changes in formation, while Figure 1.2 shows an extreme case of bit wobble. The spiral hole
illustrated in Figure 1.2 was caused by an under-stabilized bit creating a hole too small to run the
planned casing. Normally, casing strings are run with 1-112 to 2 in. minimum clearance between the
hole diameter and the outside diameter of the pipe. In a straight hole, this is adequate clearance, but
in a hole with an incorrect BHA (bottomhole assembly of drilling bit, collars, and stabilizers), problems
will develop during running of the pipe. Drilling slick (drill collars in the BHA without stabilizers) usually leads to a hole with a usable diameter significantly less than the diameter of the drill bit. Estimation of this usable hole or drift diameter is:2

(after Woods, from Adams)

Figure 1.1:

Abrupt change in hole angle caused by drilling with an

unstabilized bit through hard ledges.

Drift diameter

Bit OD + Collar OD
2

1-3

Rm mvded by lap d bit

(after Wilson, from Adams)

Figure 1.2:

A spiral hole caused by an unstabilized bit.

The formula points out that the usable diameter of the hole may be smaller than the bit. If the hole has
been drilled with the intention of running a liner, the problem may be even more pronounced. Liners
are usually characterized by close tolerances between the pipe and the hole, thus it is essential that
good hole diameter stability be maintained.
The type of drilling mud may also make a difference in getting pipe to the bottom. Differential sticking
is caused by a pressure differential into a permeable zone that holds the pipe (or logging tool) against
the wall and buries the lower side of the pipe in the mud cake.14 Sticking is increased by thick mud
cakes because of increased contact area, Figure 1.3. An efficient mud forms a thin, slick mud cake
with very low permeability. A thin mudcake keeps the pipe from becoming deeply embedded, resulting
in less torque and drag.14 The goal is a high colloidal clay-to-silt (or cuttings) ratio that produces a
slick, thin cake.

Figure 1.3:

Differential sticking caused by thick, spongy

mudcake. The pipe is held against the mudcake
by pressure differential.

1-4

Diagnostics of stuck casing are often made after examining the drilling record and trying different
types of pipe movement and circulation. A simple, stuck pipe diagnostic routine is shown schematically in Figure 1.4.14

(Adarns)

Figure 1.4:

Top Left: Differential sticking-pipe held on wall by inward driving pressure. Pipe
cannot move, but circulation is possible.
Lower Left Bridging from formation debris, cuttings or formation movement.
Pipe movement usually not possible. No circulation.
Right: A key seat through a dog leg. Pipe can be rotated and either pushed down
or pulled up until a collar is reached. Circulation is possible.

Calculating the true vertical depth, TVD, from the measured vertical depth, MD, can be accomplished
for consistent deviated wells from simple trigonometry or from tables. When wells use long turn radii,
other corrections may be needed.
During drilling of wildcats or field development wells in sparsely drilled areas, mud density is handled
as a function of well control, with pore pressures estimated from other data. In this type of environment, high mud overbalance conditions may occur, especially in deep formations. Although fracturing
is the most obvious effect of high mud weights, excess formation permeability damage may also
occur. In a study of factors influencing stimulation rates, Paccaloni, et al.,16 reports that in formations
greater than 100 md, 90% of DST's were dry or doubtful when an overbalance of over 1100 psi was
used during drilling. Excessive mud overbalances should be avoided in pay zones.

1-5

Coiled Tubing Drilling

In addition to jointed pipe drilling, coiled tubing (see Chapter 18 for Coiled Tubing Equipment and
Techniques) can also be used for drilling and milling in some applications. Coiled tubing offers several
advantages and a few current disadvantages that should be explored for their potential in completions
and workovers. One of the best uses of coiled tubing drilling may be in combination with underbalanced drilling where the well is allowed to flow during the drilling operation.
The simplest coiled tubing drilling bottomhole assembly (BHA) includes a bit, mud motor, stabilizers or
collars, the connector and the coil. The abilities of coiled tubing for drilling include a continuously fed
fluid transfer mechanism (the coil) with no tool joints. This one feature allows the smooth external wall
that can be sealed very easily at the surface. Fluids returning from downhole up the annular area are
vented under pressure to surface separation equipment and small kicks and gases can be handled
easily.
In many of the first examples of coiled tubing milling and drilling, the mud motors which provide turning ability at bit often stalled or stopped turning because of excess loads placed on the bits from either
the string or the bottomhole assembly. This reoccurring motor stalling problem resulted in very slow
penetration. Motor stalls typically occur when downward forces (weight and force) at the bit are
greater than the ability of the motor to turn the bit. There are a number of reasons for motor stalls.
1. Too aggressive a bit or mill design will require excessive power to turn. Less aggressive (smaller
teeth) milled and bits are easier to turn, although they may drill some materials slightly slower.
2. Coiled tubing milling and drilling typically uses smaller motors with less torque. The smaller
motor design utilizes very small clearances and small loaders and stators in the mud motors.
3. In deviated wells, trying to apply force on coiled tubing from the surface may result in first sinusoidal and then helical buckling. When buckling occurs, regardless of its location in the wellbore,
the stored energy will try to work its way either up or down and add an extra force against the bit
the surface unit.
4. The injector feed control at the surface is often a major source of the problem. The injector is a

source of all upward and downward force exclusive of drill collars and other weight. Ideally, the
feed of the coiled tubing through the injector should be no faster than the penetration through the
bit or mill. If too much tubing runs through the injector at any time, the total force on the bit
increases and a motor stall may occur. For best results, very slow speed or micro movement of
the injector head should be possible in any unit used for coiled tubing drilling.

Underbalanced Drilling
Traditionally the main goal of any drilling operation was to keep control of the well. This resulted in a
positive pressure from the wellbore outward into the formation stopping the inward flow of all reservoir
fluids. Underbalanced drilling with a pressure contained system allows the formation fluids to flow into
the wellbore and prevents invasion of the drilling fluids into the formation. Although this method is
more difficult to handle with its increasing amount of fluid recovery, it does provide the very best
method of damage-free drilling. The elements of an underbalanced drilling system include a contained, safe, surface system that can separate solids, liquids and gases. This type of a separator system generally uses solid separation equipment and a horizontal separator to separate liquids and
gases. Other important aspects of underbalanced drilling include adequate hydraulics of the fluid circulation system to allow bit lubrication, cooling and hole cleaning, plus sufficient pressure in the wellbore to prevent full-scale hole unloading. Typically, underbalanced drilling attempts to maintain from
112-2 Ib per gal under the pore pressure. Depending on the permeability of the formation and the type
of fluids flowing, the pressure might have to be adjusted to keep the solid separation facilities within
their reasonable operating limits.

1-6

Slimholes
Slimhole drilling has become a popular concept in recent years. Although smaller diameter holes are
theoretically cheaper to drill because less formation is actually removed, they are not always a
cheaper hole to drill. Cost of drilling involves not only the time to cut through a part of the formation,
but also involves the use of existing (paid for) versus new and smaller equipment, and several other
factors including pressure control and the cost of the completion. Many times it has been found that
drilling a smaller hole actually costs more than drilling a traditional hole where costs of normal sized
equipments was very cheap in comparison to special ordered newer and smaller equipment.
Pressure control during drilling or workovers in small wellbores is often very difficult. An example,
shown in Chapter 15 on workover fluids and control, shows that the volume of a 1 bbl kick in a small
diameter (3-3/4 in. hole) versus a large diameter hole (9-112 in.) may result in several hundred psi difference just from the volume of the hole filled by the 1 bbl kick. When drilling or working over holes
with small diameters, accurate trip tanks and a functional alarm system must be used to minimize danger from kicks.

Initial Completion Design

Selecting the Pay Zone
Selecting the pay and deciding where to place the wellbore are two of the most important pieces of engineering that most occur in the completion process. Many rocks from shales to fractured granites contain
hydrocarbons, but, not every rock type or reservoir can qualify as a pay zone. Selection of the pay breaks
down into several basic considerations:

1. Prospect development economics,

2. porosity and permeability requirements,
3. hydrocarbon type and saturation requirements,
4. recoverable hydrocarbon volumes (by primary, secondary and tertiary methods),

5. pressure support,
6. reservoir stability,

7. recognition of compartmentalization,

a.

availability of technology to cost effectively produce the reserves,

9. ability to plug and abandon the reservoir,

10. environmental and other risks.

The economics of a project depend simply on whether enough money can be made from sale of the productive hydrocarbons in a limited amount of time to offset the total costs of the project. The associated cost
of the project may include a variety of finding, development, production and abandonment costs. Among
these costs are: prospect leasing, field development, field operation, royalties, interests on the money used,
profit, risks, plug and abandonment costs and contingency funds for all matters problems such as blowouts
and cleanup operations. Substantial deposits of crude oil and gas are known in many parts of the world, but
cannot be currently produced because the production rates cannot offset the cost of development and operation. Every year many of these (outer limit) deposits are being brought on-line as producing reservoirs as
technology is being developed or the cost of development drops through other factors. Even the cost of
Deepwater developments, for example, which can be in the hundreds of millions or even billions of dollars
can be economic if risk can be reduced and if the production rate from the wells is high. Every project from

1-7

the shallowest stripper well at 2 bpd to the 100 mmscf/d or 30,000 bpd oil wells must be judged by some
risks versus cost recovery and profit factor.
Porosity and permeability are the reservoir storage and pathway of flowing fluids. Porosity is the void space
between the grains in which fluids can be stored. Permeability is a measurement of the ability of fluids to
flow through the formation. Rocksuch as shales and chalk, for example, may have extremely high porosities
approaching 30-40 percent, but the porosity is not linked together, thus the permeability is very low. On the
other hand, naturally fractured formations may have extremely high permeabilities approaching tens of darcies in some cases, but have very low porosity, often only 4-6 percent. The amount of porosity and permeability necessary for a project depends on the production rate needs, although, operations such as hydraulic
fracturing can increase the production rate of a well by a factor of 2 to 10 or more. Fracturing alone may not
make the project economic. The economics of a project are such that every factor must be weighed in turn
in the economic justification and critical factors, such as hydrocarbon storage and the permeable pathway,
must be available before even a huge reservoir with billions of barrels of oil can be made productive. In reservoir selection, often times a porosity or permeability cutoff is used for pay versus nonpay identification.
Recognition of this level from porosity logs and flow tests are often critical in establishing minimum pay
requirements.
Hydrocarbon type and saturation determine the amount of hydrocarbons that may occupy the pore space
of a reservoir. Many factors such as moveable versus irreducible saturations and changing factors such as
relative permeability can make the saturation and permeability values moving targets. There are no set
minimum values for hydrocarbon saturation, however, the best parts of the reservoir will usually have the
higher values of hydrocarbon saturation. Saturation of water may also be a key in pay identification.
Extremely high saturations of water may indicate hydrocarbon depletion or movement of an aquifer into the
Pay.
The recoverable hydrocarbonvolumes are usually calculated form the measured values of porosity and saturation. Oil in place quantities do not indicate that all of that oil can be recovered. The porosity of a formation
varies from very large pores to very small pores and the oil in very small pores often will not flow from the
small capillaries even under very high depletion pressures. How much oil will flow from a rock is dependent
on the size of the pore spaces, the oil saturation and type and the amount of energy available to push the
oil towards the wellbore. Recoverable hydrocarbon estimates may vary many percentage points from what
reality shows later on. The differences many times are in how well the pressure supports the drive mechanism in producing the fluids.
The pressures in the reservoir dictate how much fluid will ultimately be recovered. Many different types of
pressure supports are available. The typical pressure support mechanisms include bottom and edgewater
drives, gas cap drives, volumetric depletion and other pressure sources such as reservoir compaction and
other factors. Each of these pressure support mechanisms has advantages and disadvantages to deciding
recovery in a reservoir. Among the most effective types of reservoir pressure support are the bottom and
edgewater drives. These systems may maintain pressure at initial values clear to the end of the project. The
problems with them is they may produce large amounts of water along with the oil. Volumetric depletion is
usually found in a sealed reservoir and then the reservoir may deplete without producing any water. The
recovery, however, from this types of reservoir is extremely low, since reservoir energy bleeds off very
quickly. Pressure support can be added, in some cases, by the use of water floods, gas repressurizationor
other types of pressure maintenance such as tertiary floods. When factors such as bottomwater or edgewater drive are recognized early, the location of the wellbores can be selected to take advantage of flow
paths of the drive fluids and recoveries can be enhanced.
Reservoir stability is an issue which may effect the initial completion or repairs or recompletionsthroughout
the life of the reservoir. Many geologically young formations lack sufficient strength for formation coherency
during all phases of production. Recognition of this stability issue is usually easy because of rapid drilling
rates, sand strength issues in the wellbore or other factors. The decision on adding a stabilizing completion
is usually made after consideration from initial flow tests and other factors. The most common methods of

1-8

completion in low stability reservoirs are frac packs and gravel packs. Other types of completions may
include resign consolidation or production rate restriction to avoid sanding.
Recognition of compartmentalization is probably one of the most important factors in the initial design of well
completions for a project. Compartmentalization is the division of a reservoir into partial or fully pressure
isolated compartments by faults, permeability or porosity pinchouts, folding, shale streaks, barriers or other
factors. When compartmentalization is recognized, the location and type of wellbores can be selected to
efficiently drain the compartments and to take advantage of fluid flow patterns within the reservoir. Many of
the failures of even large fields can be traced to a failure to recognize compartmentalization during the early
development steps in the reservoir.
The availability of technology to produce the reserves is an area which keeps the oil industry active in
research and development. Technology such as water flooding, hydraulic fracturing, artificial lift, cold flow
of heavy oils, coal degassification and many other projects have increased the worlds recoverable hydrocarbons and continue to be a critical part of meeting the worlds energy needs. When the reservoir flow patterns and other factors are understood, technology can often be developed within a moderate time frame
to meet needs in specialized reservoirs.
The ability to produce hydrocarbons should never outstrip the ability to control the flow or the ability to plug
an abandoned reservoir. Plug and abandonment intentions must take into account that the reservoir should
be left in as good a condition as possible for potential tertiary operations that may recover even more fluids.
Plug and abandonment costs can be a significant amount of the project cost. Offshore plug and abandonment of fields may reach over 100 million dollars. There are many associated risks, both political and environmental in developing and producing a hydrocarbon depositry. These risks must be taken into account
during the economic justification for the reservoir and should offer as good a solution as is possible to the
legitimate concerns posed in any situation.
Once the values are known, selection of the pay can begin. The selection process uses a number of pieces
of information gathered by electronics and other factors.
The objectives in this chapter will be to establish ground rules about what general completion mechanisms have the best fit to the reservoir potential.
Completion design is a function of reservoir characteristics. The problem is that reservoir data, particularly the design sensitive data such as permeability, porosity, saturations, pressure, barriers and longevity, are only fully available after most of the wells in the field have been drilled, completed and
tested. In many cases, after initial drilling and completion, reservoir barriers are finally recognized and
extreme redrilling or stimulations are needed to process the reservoir. The key to a good initial completion is to collect and assess the data at the earliest possible time, to allow the best early choice of
completion.
Successful completions recognize the flow characteristics of the reservoir. There are a number of
completion possibilities; each with a limited fit to the reservoir properties. The following is a general
listing of the completion types with a few of the reservoir variables. The numbers for most variables
are typical but only general estimates.
Vertical well
open hole
natural completion

High permeability (Kh 2 10 md for oil, 1 1 md for gas)

stable formation (no movement or spalling)
no bottom or edge water drives
low KJK, c 0.5 KH) (or deviated wells not considered possible)
no fracture plannedlpossible, no limits on surface reservoir access
laminations not frequent.

1-9

Vertical well
cased hole
natural completions

High permeability (Kh 2 10 md for oil, 2 1 md for gas)

possibility of spalling (no sand movement)
bottom or edge water control needed
low K, (K, c 0.5 KH) (or deviated wells not considered/possible)
no fracture planned/possible
no limits on surface/reservoir access laminations not "frequent."

Vertical well
open hole
frac planned

No limits on permeability
stable formation (no movement or spalling)
no bottom or edge water drive control needs
low K, (K, c 0.1 KH) (or deviated wells not considered/possible)
no limits on surface/reservoir access
multiple frac not planned
laminations not frequent in zones not fractured
bottomledge water not penetrated by frac.

Vertical well
cased hole
frac or frac pack planned

No limits on permeability
180' perforating and screenless pack frac for sand control
120, 90" or 60' phased perfs for other fracs
low K, (K, c 0.1 KH) (or deviated wells not considered/possible)
no limits on surface/reservoir access
multiple fracs planned (all heavily laminated zones fractured)
bottomledge water not penetrated by frac.

Vertical well
openhole
gravel pack

High permeability (Kh2 10 md for oil, 2 1 md for gas)

laminations not "frequent" (h c 2 ft)
no bottom or edge water drive, control needed
low Kv (K, c 0.5 KH) (or deviated wells not considered/possible)
no limits on surface/reservoir access
very high production rates possible
gravel packs only where sand control needed.

Vertical well
cased hole
gravel pack

High permeability (Kh 2 10 md for oil, Kh 2 1 md for gas)

laminations not "frequent" (h c 2 ft)
limited bottom or edge water control needed
low K, (K, c 0.5 KH) or deviated wells not considered/possible)
no limits on surface/reservoir access)
gravel packs only where sand control needed.

Deviated path approach

vertical well in pay

Multi-lateral well
vertical or horizontal

Surface/reservoir access limited

deviated wellbore in pay not practical/possible
laminated zones
zones with barriers.
Surface/reservoir access limited
thick layered pay zones
multiple well types needed
compartmentalized reservoirs
wellbore placed mostly for water control
wellbore placement for sweep/drainage
very limited need for reentry (unless mechanical system used)
no pressure isolation needed.

1-10

Horizontal well
openhole

K, >> 0.5 KH or plan to frac

no inter bed barriers
no sealing lamination unless plan to frac
stable formation (no movement or spalling or plan to gravel pack)
good bottom water control possible
surface/reservoir access restricted.

Horizontal well
liner

K, >> 0.5 KH (unless plan to frac)

Horizontal well
cased

no interbed barriers
no sealing laminations, (unless plan to frac)
some spalling control
no sand control problems
no multiple fracs planned (unless isolation packers set)
limited bottom water drive control
production logs/isolation not needed.
Kv >> 0.5 KH (unless plan to frac)
no interbed barriers
no sealing laminations (unless plan to frac)
no vugs or natural fractures (severe cement damage, unless plan to
frac).

Special considerations:
1. Steeply tilting pay: examine hydrocarbon and water fluid flow path to wellbore including effects
of K, and KH. Also investigate fracture growth and path. May choose uphill horizontal wellbore to
go after attic or up-dip reserves that are above vertical well contact.
2. High permeability streaks: The size and permeability contrast to the reservoir location with

respect to oil/water contact can significantly affect production or water break through. Orientation of the well path or decision to frac may be affected.
3. Salt or techtonic forces: Salt Ylow may produce extreme loads on casing. The normal approach
requires concentric dual casing strings with annular spaces cemented. Techtonic forces, and
some horizontal collapse forces may create point loads on the casing which are better handled
by extremely heavy wall casing strings.
4. Sweep/Floods: Well placement to process a reservoir uses the permeability pathways for best

advantage. Wellbore location, orientation and deviation may be influenced.

5. Fluid Requirements: Heavy oil, scaling, organic precipitation, chronic emulsions, bubble and dew
points and other special requirements may make completion compromises or redesigns necessary.
6. Multiple Zones: multiple zones completions and independent completions may be required by
pressure, fluid or royalty owners.
7. The initial design is the starting place for the completion, however, it should never be construed

to be unchangable. Flexibility is required for any completion to take advantage of information

that can be obtained from drilling or other sources.

1-11

References Drilling
1. Greeham, T., McKee, A.: Drilling Mud: Monitoring and Managing It, Oilfield Review, Vol. 1,
No. 2, p. 41.

2. Jones, F. O., Jr.: Influence of Chemical Composition of Water on Clay Blocking of Permeability,
J. Pet. Tech. (April 1964) p. 441-446.

3. Peden, J.: Reducing Formation Damage by Better Filtration Control, Offshore Services and
Technology, (Jan. 1982).
4. Arthur, K. G., Peden, J. M.: The Evaluation of Drilling Fluid Filter Cake Properties and Their
Influence on Fluid Loss, SPE 17617, Intl. Mtg. on Pet. Eng., Tianjin, China, Nov. 1-4, 1989.

5. Krueger, R. F., Vogel, L. C.: Damage to Sandstone Cores by Particles from Drilling Fluids, Drill.
and Prod. Prac., API, (1954), p. 158.

6. Glenn, E. E.,Slusser, M. L.: Factors Affecting Well Productivity-11. Drilling Fluid Particle Invasion
into Porous Media, J. Pet. Tech (May 1957) p. 132-139.
7. Krueger, R. F., Fischer, P. W., Vogel, L. C.: Effect of Pressure Drawdown on the Clean-up of
Clay or Silt Blocked Sandstone, J. Pet. Tech (March 1967) 397-403.
8. Tuttle, R. N., Barkman, J. H.: New Nondamaging and Acid-Degradable Drilling and Completion
Fluids, J. Pet. Tech 1974.
9. Vidick, B., Yearwood, J. A., Perthuis, H.: How to Solve Lost Circulation Problems, SPE 17811,
Intl. Mtg. on Pet. Eng., Tianjin, China, Nov. 1-4, 1989.
10. Wilson, G. E.: How to Drill a Usable Hole, World Oil (August 1976), p. 40.
11. Wilson, G. E.: How to Drill a Usable Hole, World Oil (September 1976), p. 47.
12. Woods, H. B., Lubinski, A.: Use of Stabilizers in Controlling Hole Deviation, Drilling and Production Practices, 1954.
13. Bowman, G. R., Sherer,
p. 58-66.

B.: How to Run and Cement Liners, Part 2, World Oil, (May 1988),

14. Adams, N.: How to Control Differential Pipe Sticking, Petroleum Engineer, (September 1977).
15. Dunbar, M. E., Warren, T. M., Kadaster, A. G.: Theory and Solutions to Bit Sticking Caused by
Borehole Deformation, SPE 14179, 60th Annual Mtg., Las Vegas, Sept. 22-25, 1985.
16. Paccaloni, G., Tambini, M., Galoppini, M.: Key Factors for Enhanced Results of Matrix Stimulation, SPE 17154, Formation Damage Symposium, Bakersfield, Feb. 8-9, 1988.

Other References
1. See Chapter 15 for all references on Adams.

1-12

Chapter 2: Casing Design

Open Hole Completions

The first decision on casing the pay zone is not of size or weight but whether or not to run casing at all.
Open hole completions represent the simplest type of completions and have some very useful traits.
They also present some problems. An open hole or barefoot completion is usually made by drilling to
the top of the pay, then running and cementing casing. After these operations, the pay is drilled with a
nondamaging fluid. Since the other formations are behind pipe, the drilling fluid overbalance is only
that needed to control the reservoir pressure. This creates less damage.
Open hole completions have the largest possible formation contact with the wellbore, allowing injection or production with every part of the contacted interval.
The effect of the open hole on stimulated operations depends on the type of job. Fracturing operations
are often easier in the open hole than through perforations by less possibility of perforation
screenouts, but the perforations may make the zone easier to break down since a crack (the perforation) has already been placed. Matrix acidizing can more evenly contact the entire zone in an open
hole but is more difficult to direct by straddle packer than in a cased hole. Hydraulic jetting is most
effective in the open hole.
Productivity of open hole gravel packs, especially the underreamed open holes are usually much
higher than cased hole gravel packs.
Why then, are casing strings even used? Part of the answer is in formation (wellbore) stability concerns and part is unfamiliarity with completing and producing the open hole completions. A decision
must be reached on the merits of the completions on the pay in question. If the pay is prone to brittle
failures during production that leads to fill, most operators choose to case and cement. In areas of
water coning or zone conformance problems, casing may make isolation of middle or top zones possible. With the advent of improved inflatable packers and matrix sealants, however, isolation is also possible in open holes, although wellbore diameter may be severely restricted.
Cased Hole Completions
A casing string is run to prevent the collapse of the wellbore and to act in concert with the cement
sheath to isolate and separate the productive formations. The size of the casing is optimized on the
expected productivity of the well and must be designed to withstand the internal and external pressures associated with completion, any corrosive influences, and the forces associated with running
the casing.

An optimum design for a casing string is one designed from "the inside out", a design that is based on
supplying a stable casing string of a size to optimize total fluid production over the life of the well
(including possibility of secondary or tertiary floods). The effective design of a casing string for any
well consists of four principal steps.
1. Determine the length and size of all casing strings that are needed to produce the well to its

maximum potential.
2. Calculate the pressure and loads from predicted production and operations such as stimulation,

thermal application and secondary recovery.

3. Determine any corrosive atmosphere that the casing string will be subjected to and either select
alloys which can resist corrosion or design an alternate corrosion control system.

2- 1

4. Determine the weight and grade of casing that will satisfactorily resist all of the mechanical,

hydraulic, and chemical forces applied.

The sizing of a casing string must be complete before finalizing the bit program during the planning of
the well. A casing string can be visualized as a very long telescoping tube with the surface casing or
conductor pipe as the first segment and the deepest production string or liner as the smallest, most
extended section. Each successive (deeper) segment of the casing string must pass through the last
section with enough clearance to avoid sticking. Figure 2.1 illustrates the way the casing string fits
together. The drill bits used for each section are usually 1.5 to 3 in. or more larger than the casing 0.d.
to be run. When one section is cased and cemented, a bit just small enough to pass through the casing drift ID is run to drill to the next casing seat (casing shoe set depth). During drilling, departing from
the bit program is often required, especially in a wildcat when the fluid pressures in the formations
cannot be controlled with a single mud weight without either breaking down some formations by
hydraulic fracturing with the mud, or allowing input of fluid from other formations because of low
hydrostatic drilling mud pressure (a kick). Ideally, just before this noncontrollable point is reached, the
casing point is designated and a casing string is run. Economics of drilling and cementing dictate
that these casing points be as far apart as formation pressures and hole stability will allow. Use of as
few casing strings as possible also permits larger casing to be used across the production zone without using extremely large diameter surface strings.

ii

-.;$:$$,y;.
........
........
..........
.. ;,...........
: .........

F
..........
x:;,.+;:<: ..:.::::::.

......:>.
...,...>~..:2!:...:,

E.iZ:.:i;i

i.....

0.

YDRO-PRESSURE3

WEUS

b. GEO- PRESSURED

WELLS

(Buzarde et al., SPE, 1972)

Figure 2.1:

Typical casing strings for normal and high pressure wells.

In the high pressure wells, the multiple strings in the overlap section will likely be cemented in the annulus, clear
back to the liner top or to surface on a casing string.

Use of small casing severely restricts the opportunities for deepening the well or using larger pumps.
Use of small casing to save on drilling costs is usually a poor choice in any area in which high production rates (including water floods) are expected.
Description of Casing Strings

There are several different casing strings that are run during the completion of a well. These strings
vary in design, material of construction and purpose. The following paragraphs are brief descriptions
of the common required strings and specialty equipment.

2-2

The conductor pipe is the first casing which is run in the well. This casing is usually large diameter and
may be set with the spudding arm on the rig (The spudding arm drives in the casing.). The primary
purpose of the conductor casing is as a flow line to allow mud to return to the pits and to stabilize the
upper part of a hole that may be composed of loose soil. The depth of the conductor pipe is usually in
the range of 50-250 ft with the depth set by surface rocks and soil behavior. It also provides a point for
the installation of a blow-out preventer (BOP) or other type of diverter system. This allows any shallow
fluid flows to be diverted away from the rig, and is a necessary safety factor in almost all areas. In
areas with very soft and unconsolidated sediments, a temporary outer string, called a stove pipe, may
be driven into place to hold the sediment near the surface.
The well is drilled out from the conductor pipe to a depth below the shallow fresh water sands. The
surface casing string is run through the conductor pipe and has three basic functions: (1) it protects
shallow, fresh-water sands from contamination by drilling fluids, (2) prevents mud from being cut with
brines or other water that may flow into the wellbore during drilling, and (3) it provides sufficient protection of the zone to avoid fracturing of the upper hole so that the drilling may proceed to the next
casing point. This surface casing is cemented in place over the full length of the string and is the second line of safety for sealing the well and handling any high pressure flow.
The intermediate string is the next string of casing, and it is usually in place and cemented before the
higher mud weights are used. It allows control of the well if subsurface pressure higher than the mud
weight occurs and inflow of fluids is encountered. This inflow of well fluids during drilling or completion
of the well is called a kick and may be extremely hazardous if the flowing fluids are flammable or contain hydrogen sulfide (sour gas). The intermediate casing may or may not be cemented in place and, if
not cemented, may be removed from the well if an open-hole completion is desired.
If a casing string is not hung from the surface, but rather hung from some point down hole, it is called
a liner. In most wells, the top of the liner is cemented in place to provide sealing. The top of the liner
is set inside an upper casing string. The section where the liner runs inside another string is the overlap section.

Production liners are permanent liners that are run through the productive interval. On some occasions] they may be run back to surface in a liner tieback operation. The tieback consists of a downhole
mechanical sealing assembly in a hanger into which a linear string or the tie back string is stabbed to
complete the seal. A cement job seals the liner into place in the casing and prevents leakage from the
formation into the casing. The lower part of the casing string, into which the liner is cemented, is called
the overlap section. Overlap length is usually only enough to insure a good seal, typically 300 to
500 ft. Overlap length may be longer where water or gas channeling would create a severe problem.
Liners are run for a variety of reasons. If the operator wants to test a lower zone of dubious commercial quality, a liner can be set at less expense than a full casing string. Also, in lower pressure areas
where multiple strings of pipe up to the surface are not necessary to control corrosion or pressure, the
liner can be an expense-saving item. In wells that are to be pumped by ESPs (Electric Submersible
Pumps), the liner through the production section leaves full hole diameter in the casing string above
the pay for setting large pumps and equipment.
The production casing, or the final casing run into the well, is a string across the producing zone that
is hung from the surface and may be completely cemented to the surface. This string must be able to
withstand the full wellhead shutin pressure if the tubing or the packer fails. Also, it must contain the full
bottomhole pressure and any mud or workover fluid kill weight when the tubing or packer is removed
or replaced during workovers. The decision on whether to cement the full string is based on pressure
control, economics, corrosion problems, pollution possibilities and government regulations.
Casing Clearance
The necessary clearance between the outside of the casing and the drilled hole will depend on the
hole and mud condition. In cases where mud conditioning is good or the mud is lightweight and the
formations are competent, a clearance of 1.5 in. total diameter difference is acceptable. For this clearance to be usable, the casing string should be short. Primary cementing operations may not be suc-

2-3

cessful in this clearance and cementing backpressures will be high. A better clearance for general
purpose well completions is 2 to 3 in. For higher mud weights, poorer mud conditioning, poor quality
hole and higher formation pressures, clearance should be increased. For more information on hole
quality and sticking, review the chapter on Drilling the Pay. Excessive clearances should also be
avoided. If the annular area is too large, the cement cannot effectively displace the drilling mud.
A reference for hole size and casing size for single or multiple string operations are shown in

Figure 2.2.2The solid lines indicate the common biffcasing combinations with adequate clearance for
most operations. The dashed lines indicate less common (tighter) hole sizes or bitkasing combinations. Long runs of casing through close clearance holes usually leads to problems. Tight clearances
should be avoided where possible.

(Oil and Gas Journal)

Figure 2.2:

This chart can be used to select the casing bit sizes required to drill
most drilling programs. To use the chart, select the casing or liner
sire to be used and enter the chart at that sire. Follow the solid
lines to select the applications. The holelcasing combinations
linked by the dashed lines are close clearance and require special
techniques. They should be avoided. The deepest casing is chosen
first and the bit and casing program is built in reverse (toward the
surface from the maximum depth).

2-4

Connections
The threaded connection of casing or tubing is important because of strength and sealing considerations. The connections are isolated pressure vessels that contain threads, seals and stop shoulder^.^
The fluid seal produced by a connection may be created in the threads by a pipe dope fluid or by a
metal or elastomer seal within the connection. Strength of the connection may range from less than
pipe body strength to tensile effciencies of over 115% of pipe body ~ t r e n g t hThreads
.~
are tapered
and designed to fit a matching thread in a particular collar. In the API round thread series, the connection may be either short thread and coupling (ST&C) or long thread and coupling (LT&C) as illustrated
in Figure 2.3. If the thread is an eight round, it means eight threads per inch. The length description
refers to the relative length of the coupling and the amount of pipe that is threaded (the pin). Creation
of a pressure tight seal with an API round thread requires filling the voids between the threads with a
sealing compound (thread dope) during makeup of the joint.

Figure 2.3:

Left: Cut away coupling view of a long thread and

coupling joint (LT&C), round thread.
Right: Close-up of the joint connection showing
relative thickness of metal and position of
threads. Seal is formed with pipe dope in the
threads.

Although the standard 8-round threaded connection is reasonably strong, it does not approach the
strength of the body of the pipe. As tensile loads increase toward the limit of the pipe, the connection
will normally fail by shearing off the threads from the pipe or by thread jumpout caused by pipe deformation under severe loads.
To make a stronger joint in tubing, a thicker (larger outside diameter) section is left at the end of the
pipe so that threads can be cut without making the wall thickness of the pipe thinner than in the body.
This form of connection is called external upset or EUE, Figure 2.4. Its inside diameter is the same as
the pipe. A nonupset, or NU pipe and several other joint types are shown in Figure 2.5 The outside
diameter of the EUE joint is larger than the NU connection, and the coupling or collar is normally manufactured on the pipe. Another method of increasing the strength of the threaded connection is by
upsetting the connection to the inside of the pipe. This internal upset restricts the inside diameter of
the pipe at every joint and is only used in drill pipe where a constant outside diameter is necessary.
Other sealing surfaces are available in special connections and have found popularity where rapidly
made, leak free sealing is important. The two-step thread connection uses two sets of threads with a
metal sealing surface between. In other connections, a groove at the base of the box may contain an
elastomer seal. A variety of connection types and sealing surfaces are available, Figure 2.5. The disadvantage to the numerous thread and sealing combinations is that the connections cannot be mixed

2-5

pin end

box end

outside of pipe

- - - * A + " ~ .

constant inside diameter

Figure 2.4:

Cut away drawing of an external upset connection (EUE).

(World Oil Tubing Tables)

Figure 2.5:

Examples of patented or specialty pipe connectors. Tubing and Casing examples are shown.

in a string without crossovers (adaptors). A more detailed discussion of connections are available from
other sources.14
Casing Weights and Grades

Common casing diameters range from less than 4-1/2 in. to over 20 in., and common tubing sizes are
from 3/4 in. to over 4-1/2 in. In some high rate wells, tubing may be 5-1/2 in. to over 7 in. and 2-7/8 in.
casing is run in tubingless completions.
After the size is determined, the grade of the steel must be selected. The grades, along with weight,
are based on pressure and corrosion requirements. The grades of steel used in oil industry tubulars
are shown in the following table for API and non-API sizes. The letters are assigned only to avoid confusion. Grades N-80 and stronger are considered high strength steels. Use of the higher strength
steels increases cost and decreases resistance to some forms of corrosion. Use of the very hard

2-6

alloys, such as V-150, makes packer setting difficult since the slips have difficulty setting in the very
hard steel of the casing.
API Grades

Minimum Strength (psi)

Yield

Ultimate

The yield and burst strength values for each casing size and weight are available from detailed tables
are used for selection of casing once the necessary strength calculations are made.
Often, because of economics or efforts to lighten the casing string, lower grade or lighter weight casing may be considered. Because the weight and pressure loads on a casing string change from top to
bottom, a well designed string may incorporate several weights and grades of casing.
Casing Design Safety Factors

The design criteria for casing strings depends on the intended use and anticipated stresses. Because
variance exists in both pipe manufacture and formation properties, safety factors must be incorporated into a design. The common ranges for safety factors in normal completion are shown b e l ~ w . ~ ~ ~ ~
Factors such as salt flows,7 very high pressures, sour service,8 reservoir compaction loads,g and thermal cycling'0 may change the safety factors.
tension
burst
collapse

1.6 to 1.8

1.25 to 1.30
1.O to 1.25

Earth shift forces, such as salt movement or other faulting and folding events caused by tectonic
movement or are very difficult to address with a traditional safety factor. These forces have been successfully offset in some cases by designs using very heavy wall pipe or concentric pipe (casing
cemented inside casing) over the affected zone. These types of casing designs are rare and most are
generated by a series of trail and error approaches.
Load Description

The casing string must be designed for any load encountered from mud or reservoir fluids in placement or during any phase of stimulation or production. The common forces are tension during running,
internal pressures during drilling, completion or production, and external pressures caused by drawdown, mechanical loads, and zone pressures. These loads are tension, burst, and collapse. The loads
are often applied simultaneously in different parts of the string, and the forces may interact.
The tension design of the casing string is made as if it were hanging free in air. A safety factor of 1.6
to 1.8 is applied to make allowances for a number of other tension factor^.^*^^'' These factors are
briefly discussed in the following paragraphs. Collapse, burst, and tension forces are explained separately, but all must be satisfactorily accounted for in the final design. The design methods in this book

2-7

result in a conservative design. Each design method is based on the worst possible case that could
occur during running.

Collapse loading is force applied from outside the casing by either fluid pressure in a zone or earth
shift forces. Forces from fluid pressure are collapse loadings while earth shift forces produce mechanical crush loadings. The largest collapse load from fluid pressure will usually be exhibited at the bottom of the string where hydrostatic pressure is greatest. The exception is an isolated, very high
pressure zone. These zones are usually noted on the drilling record as places where kicks are taken.
The occurrence of earth shift zones from faults or salt movement are much harder to locate, especially
on wildcats but may often show up on the drilling record as sticking points (not associated with mud
cake buildup) or zones that have to be reamed or redrilled to get back to gauge hole size. The occurrence of salt zones are a very important tip to potential casing problem^.^ In one study area, 87% of
the wells around a salt dome suffered some casing diameter reduction due to external, earth shift
force.
In the collapse design for fluid pressure, the worst case loading occurs with the unlikely combination
of an empty casing string in a hole full of mud. A proper design, for effects of collapse only, would
be a casing string that is strongest at the bottom and weakest at the top. Collapse is also affected by
the effects of tension, which reduces the collapse rating or the set depth limit of the casing. As an
object is pulled, it is more likely to lose diameter as it stretches in length. This thinning is a force in the
same direction as collapse forces. Fortunately, the point at which the effect of tension induced narrowing of the string is at maximum is at the surface where effects of collapse pressure from hydrostatic pressure are the lowest.
Burst pressure is a force applied from inside the casing by produced fluid pressures, hydrostatic mud
load or addition of surface pressure during stimulation or workover operations. Since there is usually
mud hydrostatic pressure along the outside of the casing before and during cementing, the net pressure or the difference between the pressure inside the casing and outside the casing will be used in
the design of the casing. Unlike collapse, however, the shallower casing section is also important in
the burst calculations from a safety standpoint. Burst pressures exerted by produced fluids are maximum at the surface (no offsetting hydrostatic load), while those exerted by mud is maximum at the
bottom of the well. During fracturing, high burst loads may be exerted all along the string. Because
collapse loads offset the burst load at the bottom of the string, the burst calculation is usually important above the buoyancy neutral point. This will be developed later.
Tension is a force produced by the weight of the casing, the pressure differential, and the mud weights
inside and outside the casing. It is largest at the top of the string and decreases with depth toward the
bottom of the string. The tension load is partially offset by the buoyancy of the string in mud and is
affected by pressure. When the pressure inside the tube rises, the pipe diameter is expanded and the
length shortened or the tension is increased in a pipe that is anchored to prevent upward movement.
When the pressure outside of a tube rises, the tube is elongated or the compression is increased if the
ends are fixed, Figure 2.6.
Buckling failure in casing usually results from axial compression (lengthwise) overloading. The load
produces ridges in the casing walls or corkscrewing of the tube. Either of these actions relieve compression, but the pipe is usually permanently yielded.
The effects of buckling, Figure 2.7, is critical on the design of the casing string. The neutral point,
Figure 2.8, is the dividing line between where buckling may occur and where it cannot occur in a tube
that is evenly loaded around its radius. Above the neutral point, the tube is in tension and will not
buckle. Below the neutral point, the upward buoyancy of the mud and other forces including pressure
and mechanical loading place the tube in compression. Buckling can occur if the compressive load is
more than the pipe can tolerate in the wellbore surroundings. The following information describes the
neutral point, first in a theoretical manner and then in a practical way. There can be a neutral point in
the casing or tubing string described by the formula:*

2-8

-HIGH

-LOW
PRESSURE

PRESSURE

REVERSE W N I N G
The tubing will rhomn if k Is frw
to mow or it will c m t i I tinsion
forts on thr packer if it Is m
strainad from moving.

Th. tubing will kngchrn if k I$ fm

to mow or It will cram I mmp d v e f o m on thr packer if k Ir
mtraind from moving.

(Guiberson)

Figure2.6:

Effects of external and internal pressure on length

change in a tube.
NEUTRAL

COIN7

U
111

Figure 2.7:

(Harnrnerlindl, 1977)

Exaggerated view of tube buckling below the neutral point.

Fz $ PiAi- PoAo
where:

(or axial force rating of the tubular)

Fz

= true axial force

Pi

= pressure inside tubular, psi

Ai

= cross-sectional area of ID, in.*

2-9

Figure 2.8:

(Hammerlindl, 1980)
Stress distributions of a tube under various conditions.

PO

= pressure outside tubular, psi

A,

= cross-sectional area of OD, in.*

When F, is algebraically greater than the right-hanc side of the equation, the pipe tends to be straldht.
When F, is less than the equation, the pipe tends to buckle. When F, is equal to the equation, the neutral point is reached. The right-hand side of Eqn. (2.1) may also be referred to as the stability force.
The true axial force will vary from point to point in the string, and will also vary over the life of the well.
Typical considerations necessary to compute F, include the conditions at the time of cementing the
casing or setting the packer in the case of tubing, as well as changes in the environment (temperature
and pressure) to which the tubular is exposed. For casing, buckling primarily affects wear, particularly
for intermediate strings through which additional drilling will occur. In extreme cases, splitting may
also be common. For tubing, the radial clearance between tubing and casing is usually sufficient to
allow corkscrewing, often producing permanent deformation of the buckled portion of the string.
A special case expression for F, uses Poisson's ratio:

Fz = 2pPiAi
where:

= Poisson's ratio, about 0.3 for this application

This equation is only appropriate for an open ended tube, clamped at both ends, with PO= 0 and
A T = 0 , and ignoring weight. Under the unlikely conditions of a weightless string with no outside
pressure, buckling in tension is possible. To illustrate the impact of Eqn. 2.2, consider a weightless
tube that is open ended and subject to internal pressure only. For this loading, the only axial force is
that due to ballooning given by Eqn. 2.2 and shown previously in Figure 2.6. As the inside pressure is
increased, F, increases as 2pPjAis but the right hand side of Eqn. 2.1 increases as PjAi. The tube will
not only buckle immediately, but will also buckle in tension.
The stability equation is also reported as:12
=

Fa+ PiAi- PoAo

where:

2-10

Fs
Fa

= stability force
= axial load

In relating this equation to Eqn. 2.1, Fs = -[F, - (PiAi) - (PoAo)]and F, = -Fa.

Each zone or section of the casing string is checked for tensile requirements following collapse and
burst calculations. In case of corrections made to a string design to compensate for tension load
requirements, the order of selection is usually: (1) stronger connection, (2) higher grade (stronger
steel), and (3) higher weight. Increasing connection strength and steel grade is preferred since they
increase total string strength without adding significant weight. There are so many premium connections available that it is difficult to present a comprehensive data set. Tables of connection specifics
are published yearly.37
For the sole purpose of casing collapse strength derating due to the effects of tension, a practical
buoyancy neutral point, designated N.P., can be estimated by Eqn. (2.4) where:

N.P.

.(I-&)
(2.4)

where:
N.P. = the neutral point for tension effects on casing collapse, ft
0, = settling depth of casing string, ft
prn = mud density, Ib/gal
65.4 is the weight of steel in Ib/gal based on a density of 489.5 Ib/ft3
The collapse resistance values given in the manufacturer tables are for casing that is not affected by
axial load. In a well, the casing will be stressed by fluid pressures, Figure 2.9, mechanical bending
forces, Figure 2.10, and tensile forces produced by the hanging weight of the casing. In collapse calculations, axial tension produces a reduction in collapse resistance. For purposes of this example, the
axial tension is assumed to be from tension loads on a straight, free hanging pipe and not from bending loads.

The equivalent yield strength, Ypal is:5

x

Y,,,

[ ( 1 - 0.75 ( o,/ Y,,) 2,

- 0.5 (CTJ
Y,,) ] Yp

where:
CT,
= axial

stress, psi

Yp = minimum rated yield strength of casing, psi

The percent of yield stress may be calculated by:

Yr =

st
-

Yrn

2-11

Figure 2.9:

Schematic of the location 0.Jxial (03,tangential (03 and radial (or) stresses on a vertical
suspended tube exposed to fluid pressure.
tension from hook loads

Figure 2.10:

Loads on a casing string during running and

on casing landed in a curved section of the
borehole.

where:
Y,

= percent of yield stress

S,

= unit tensile stress, psi

2-12

tension fmhook loads

!

i
tension from casing below

Ym

= minimum yield stress of casing body, psi

The percent yield stress is related to percent of full collapse pressure by the curve of Figure 2.11. The
product of the percent of collapse and the collapse rating is the effective collapse strength (derated for
effects of tension). Because of buoyancy effects, tension only exists above the buoyancy neutral point
calculated by Eqn. 2.4. The effects of compression below the buoyancy neutral point increase the casing collapse resistance although the increase is not accounted for in this design.

gr0
f

'.

TENSION LOAD
BODY YIELD STREETH

(from Halliburton)

Figure 2.11:

Effect of axial tension on collapse strength of casing. The

Y,vaiue is used in the collapse derating calculation.

2-13

Designing for forces involving earth shifts, highly deviated hole, sticking, reciprocating and rotating
casing while cementing or running stresses, involves field optimization and the criteria for design differ
from company to company. Earth shift design usually involves multiple strings of pipe or very heavy
wall pipe across the problem zone. Problem zone recognition can often be made from drilling records
where bit dragging (nonassociated with mud cake buildup) occurs long after a zone is drilled. Wells
near salt domes or flows are considered likely prospects for formation movement.

Casing String Design

A complex solution (API method) requiring computer solution is discussed first, followed by a practical, hand calculated method.
API Equations

Collapse strength rating is the external pressure required to collapse the casing. There are several
methods for designing casing strings that will produce an acceptable casing design. Most methods
use an x-diagram graphical approach or a calculated design based on a single strength concern in
each area of design. The API procedure recognizes the changes in steel behavior in elastic, transition,
plastic, and ultimate yield. The procedure illustrated here for determining the collapse strength is
defined in API Bulletin 5C3.15 This casing design section is merely an introduction to the process. For
a complete treatment, refer to Rabia's Fundamentals of Casing Design.14
When exposed to external pressure from mud or reservoir fluids and the effects of axial tension from
the weight of the casing below any point (plus other loads)," a piece of casing may fail in one of three
possible collapse mechanisms: elastic collapse, plastic collapse, and failure by exceeding the ultimate
strength of the material. Each failure mode is bounded by limits of the ratio of casing diameter to thickness, plus a transition collapse formula was added arbitrarily since the API minimum elastic and rninimum plastic curves do not intersect. The transition formula covers this area. The API minimum
collapse resistance equations are shown in Figure 2.12.15
Figure 2.1215

Applicable D range

1. Elastic

46.95x 1O6
p c = D ( D ,)2

D,2+

BIA

t - 3BIA

t 7-

2. Transition

YP(A-F)
D<2+BIA
<-C+ Y P ( B - G ) - t 3BIA

2-14

3. Plastic
[(A-2)2+8(B+C/YP)]1/2+

(A-2)

2 ( B + C/YP)

pp

575

YP(A-F)
C + YP(B-

G)

(2.9)

4. Ultimate Yield
(A-2)2+8(B+CIYP)1/2+(A-2)
2(B+ClYP)

l
i
l

1
(2.1 0)

where:

2.8762 + 0.10679 x 10-6 YP+ 0.21301 x lO-'OYP

YP

- 0.53132 x 10-l6 YP3

0.026233 + 0.50609 x 10-6 Y P

(2.11)
(2.12)

minimum yield strength of the pipe, lb

- 465.93 + 0.030867 YP- 0.10483 x 10-7 Y p - 0.36989 x 10-13 YP3

(2.1 3)

(2.1 4)

FBIA

(2.1 5)

The effect of addition of axial tension to a casing string has a net effect of reducing the yield stress of
the pipe. The reduction may be severe enough to cause a derating of the pipe by a full grade, e.g., N80 to C-75. The yield strength, Ypa, of the axial stress equivalent grade is:14

Ypa = ( ( 1 - 0.75 (oa/Y P )2,

1 / 2 - 0.5

where:
Ypa

= yield strength of axial stress equivalent, psi

2-15

(Gal YP) ) YP

(2.1 6)

YP

= minimum body yield strength of the pipe, Ib

0,

= axial stress, psi

Axial loads generally result from two forces:

1. hanging weight of the casing string
2. temperature induced forces in thermal wells and in nonthermal wells where operating tempera-

tures may change by over 100F.

Buoyancy

When the hole is filled with cement or mud, there is a buoyancy force exerted on the casing by the
fluid in the hole and opposed by the fluid in the casing. Buoyant force acts on the entire casing string
and results in a reduction in hanging weight. The amount of buoyant force exerted by the mud is equal
. to the weight of the mud displaced by the submerged casing.
The weight of steel at 489.5 Ib/ft3 or 65.4 Ib/gal, is several times the heaviest mud weight, yet the
buoyant contribution of the mud is a significant factor in the hook load during running and cementing
of the casing. Hook loads change dramatically during running and cementing operations and conditions do exist (running closed end casing, dry) where hook load could diminish to zero (the casing
floats).
Buoyant weight, Wb, for an open-ended casing string of air weight W,, filled and surrounded by one
fluid. is:

(2.17)
where:
pf

= density of the fluid

ps

density of the steel, 489.5 Ib/ft3 or 65.4 Ib/gal

When the fluid in the casing is different from the fluid outside the casing, the volumes contained in the
casing and displaced by the casing must be calculated and the weights summed against the air weight
of the casing.
For the special case of an additional surface pressure such as holding pressure on the mud in the casing while cement sets in the annulus, the surface pressure is incorporated with the load produced by
the mud. The buoyant force, FB,applied to the air weight of the casing becomes:

FB

[ (Pis- 0.052pjd)Ai- (PO,+ O.052p0d) A,]

where:
FB

= buoyancy force, Ib

= surface pressure on fluid inside casing, psi (usually zero)

pi,
PO, = surface pressure on fluid outside casing, psi (usually zero)
= density of fluid inside casing, Ib/gal
pi

2-16

(2.1 8)

po

= density of fluid outside casing, Ib/gal

Ai

= inside area of casing, in.2

A,

= outside area of casing, in.2

d
=depth, ft
The pressure terms affect buoyancy much the same way as pressure affects tubing forces.
Example 2.1

A 10,000 ft string of 7 in., 26 Ib/ft, N-80 casing is run in a hole filled with 12 Ib/gal mud. The string is
equipped with a float shoe.
Calculate:
a. hook load of an empty, closed end, casing string in mud.
air weight = (10,000 ft)(26 Ib/ft) = 260,000 Ib
displaced volume of mud = E ( d ) X depth =
4
displaced weight of mud = (2673 ft3)

[12$)(

a( &)'

(1 0,000)

2673 ft3

7 . 4 8 5 ) = 239, 928 Ib

The displaced weight of the mud is a force acting upward on the casing, trying to float it out of the well.
It has the effect of trying to lighten the total load.
hook load = 260,000 - 239,928 = 20,062 Ib
(this ignores the weight of air)
b. hook load of a mud filled string in mud (same mud weights inside and outside).
Since the only action is on the cross section of the steel body, the buoyancy factor difference formula
is adequate.

6,- [I-:)

1-

0.817

489.5-lb

ft3

wb = (260,000

lb) (0.817)

212,420 lb

c. hook load of 16 Ib/gal cement filled string in mud.

total buoyant wt. = wt. of casing in air + wt. of cement - buoyancy of displaced mud.
wt. cement = (x/4)(6.276 in.)2 (16 Ib/gal) (0.052 gal/ft in.2)(10,000 ft) = 257,382 Ib

2-17

buoyancy force = 239,928Ib (from part a)

total buoyant wt. = 260,000 + 257,382- 239,928= 277,455Ib
The effect of gas density is usually ignored for hanging weight or buoyancy calculations. It will be considered, however, in hydrostatic calculations.

Collapse Design Non-API Method

A practical method that considers burst, collapse, and tensile forces is also available. This method
may be worked by equations or by graphical methods. The design is conservative in collapse resistance because of the basic assumptions of an empty string in a hole full of mud. In practice, most casing strings are filled with mud as they are run. The design begins at the bottom of the string.
The collapse force produced by fluid pressure from a homogeneous fluid in the well and an empty casing string is:

(2.1 9)
where:
Pcx = collapse pressure at a depth D,, psi
= density of the fluid on the outside of the pipe, Ib/gal
pf
= depth at the point of calculation, ft
D,

The forces can be visualized graphically by the methods of Figures 2.13 through 2.18.35
b

(Hills)
Figure 2.13: Graphical collapse force analysis.

When the effects of a different fluid, such as cement, inside the pipe is considered, the equation
becomes: 6*1

P,
Pcx
PO

( P O+ D,G,)

- ( P i + D,GJ

= collapse pressure at a depth Dx, psi

= external surface pressure, psi (usually zero)

2-18

(2.20)

(Hills)

Figure 2.14: Graphical burst force analysis.

Figure 2.15: X-Graph design method. Alternative casing design.

(Hills)

Figure 2.16:

Graphical method for tension analysis.

D,

= depth of calculation, ft

Go

= pressure gradient exerted by the fluid outside the pipe, psi/ft

pi

= internal surface pressure, psi

Gi

= pressure gradient exerted by fluid inside pipe, psi/ft

The external surface pressure, PO,is used where there is an outer casing string and an annular pressure will be exerted. This technique is commonly used to back up the tubing and increase burst

2-19

(Hills)
Figure 2.17: Graphical method for over-pull analysis.

(Hills)

Figure 2.1 8: Graphical buoyancy analysis.

resistance of the inner string. It may also be used in some casing designs. Because outside surface
pressure is rare, the term is generally dropped.
It is customary to design the primary strings for the worst possible case. Since the worst possible case
will be when the pipe is empty, the equation reduces to:

(2.21)
The outside surface pressure is assumed to be zero.
The design on an empty pipe string may seem excessive but it is done to eliminate consideration of triaxial forces produced by hole irregularities and other factors3 The worst possible case design, therefore, covers a multitude of other forces. Because of buoyancy produced by changes in axial load
following setting of the cement, portions of the casing string may be in compression rather than tension. Casing above the point of zero axial tension has less collapse resistance, and casing below the
point of zero axial tension has more collapse resistance since it is in compression. The collapse forces
on a casing are usually visualized as being applied by the pressure of the mud in which the string is

2-20

run. The effect of tension in reducing the collapse strength of the casing is generally considered, but
the effects of ballooning, ovality, and temperature changes during circulating are often neglected.
These effects can be severe, especially in high collapse resistance casing such as some 95-grades.
For the burst calculations, one of two API approved formulas may be used. For plain end (nonthreaded) pipe and pipe with premium couplings (couplings stronger than the pipe body), Barrow's formula is used.

Pv

0.875-

2 Y"t
DO

(2.22)

where:
Py
Y,
Do

= minimum internal yield pressure, psi

= nominal wall thickness, in.

= minimum yield strength, psi

= nominal outside diameter, in.

The 0.875 factor allows for a 12.5% variation in wall thickness as permitted by API manufacturing
specifications.
For threaded and coupled pipe, the internal yield is about the same as for plain end pipe, except
where low clearance couplings are used or where the coupling has less strength than the tube. In the
case of lower strength couplings:

(2.23)
= minimum yield of coupling material, psi
Y,
Do = nominal outside diameter of coupling, in.
= diameter at root of coupling when pipe has been fully tightened.
Di
The design for the upper part of the casing string is dominated by the burst consideration. The safety
aspect of controlling kicks and blowouts places a large amount of importance on controlling full well
pressure in the upper sections of the string. The worst case is when a blowout occurs and the hole
contains only gas. The maximum surface pressure then is the maximum formation pressure minus the
hydrostatic load created by gas. As a simplification, the mud hydrostatic pressure is taken as the reservoir pressure (unless the reservoir pressure in known).

(2.24)
Ps
prn
Dt

Gg

= maximum well shut-in pressure

= density of mud, Ib/gal

= depth of kick, ft
= gas gradient, psi/ft (varies from 0.1 to 0.15 psi/ft based on pressure)

In most cases, the potential problem area will be at the casing shoe. The pressure at the shoe can be
calculated from:

2-21

bx

(2.25)

Pbx = burst pressure exerted at depth D,, psi

Q = formation breakdown gradient, usually from 0.7 to 1.O psi/ft
D,
= casing setting depth, ft
D,
= depth where fb, is being determined, ft

To determine the worst case burst pressure exerted during a blowout with gas in the hole, the external
pressure is subtracted from the previous equation.
pbx = GbdDc-

GgC D,- Dx)- 0.052p,Dx

(2.26)

where po equals external fluid density in Ib/gal.

Burst force design may also be considered graphically, Figure 2.14.35
Eqn. 2.26 can be used to make the start of the X diagram of Figure 2.1 5. The X diagram is constructed by collapse and burst c a l c ~ l a t i o n s . The
~ ~ ~maximum
~
burst line is drawn between the calculated burst at the surface and the calculated burst at the casing shoe. The collapse line is drawn
between U and the maximum collapse pressure at the casing shoe, calculated by Eqn. 2.24 or 2.25.
Tension design is the last step for each section of the casing string. The top of each section should be
checked to see that the tensile ratings are not exceeded. The common safety factor is 1.6 to 1.8.
When the tensile limits are exceeded, a change to a higher strength joint should be made. Tension
limits may be gathered from a table of casing properties or calculated by dividing the API 5C3 value
for joint strength by the safety factor.

Example 2.2 Single String Casing Design

Design an economical casing string that will satisfy the pressure requirements of collapse and burst,
and the load requirements of tensile force. Strings increase in cost with increasing grade and weight.
A packer will be set within 100 ft of the bottom of the well. The string must be designed to allow packer
running and setting. It must also allow efficient well operations. Design for an annulus full of mud and
an empty string; these are the worst normal conditions.
Casing Safety Factors: Collapse 1.l,
Burst 1.25, Tensile 1.7
Data from Well file:
A 10-3/4 in. surface string has been landed and cemented at 450 ft.
Depth = 7600 ft
Mud wt = 12 Ib/gal
bit size = 8.75 in.
Frac gradient = 0.77 psi/ft
straight gauge hole
Reservoir pressure = 0.56 psi/ft
water base mud
Buoyancy Neutral Point for collapse calc.

2-22

Bottom hole pressure

( 12) (0.052) (7600 ft)

4742psi

Maximum collapse pressure (from the mud column) is:

(12 lb/gal) (0.052 gal/in.2/ft) (7600 ft)

~ ~ X B H

2-23

4742 psi

Pick a casing grade and weight that has a collapse rating in excess of [(4742) (1.1)] = 5216 psi The
casing data on size, weight, grade, burst, collapse, body tensile and joint tensile are obtained from
pipe books. A partial table for 7 in. casing from one pipe manufacturer is shown in Figure 12.1 9.

L80*
5595s
595.
CYS95*
C95*
PllO

4320
5250
5410
5410
7800
7800
7800
5070
6210

4980
6790
7240
7240
1240
8600
8600
8600
9950

4980
6790
7240
7240
7240
8600
8600
8600
9960

364' 401
489
519
511
510
602
602
593
693

592
631
667
641
696
747
747
122
853

29.00
C75
N00*
29.00
29.00
LOO*
29.00
SS95*
S95*
29.00
29.00 CYS95*
29.00
C95+
29.00
5105.
29.00
PllO
29.00
V150

6760
7020
7020
9200
9200
9200
7820
9700
8510
9800

7650
8160
8160
8160
9690
9690
9690
9690
11220
15300

7650 7650
8160 8160
8160 8160
8160 8160
9690 9690
9690 9690
9690 9690
9690 9690
11220 11220
15300 15300

562
597
587
655
692
692

707
746
718
779
036
836
800
859
955
1243

32.00
C75
32.00
N80*
LEO*
32.00
32.00
SS95*
32.00
S95*
3 2 - 0 0 CYS95S
32.00
C95*
32.00
S105*
32.00
PllO
32.00
V150

8230
8600
8600
10400
10400
10400
9730
11340
10760
13020

8490
9060
9060
9060
10760
10760
10760
10760
12460
16990

8490
9060
9060
9060
10760
10760
10760
10760
12460
16990

7930
8460
0460
8460
10050
10050
10050
10050
11640
15870

35.00
C75
35.00
N8O*
35.00
100*
35.00
SS95*
35.00
S95*
35.00 CYS95*
35.00
C95*
35.00
SlOS*
35.00
PllO
35.00
Vl50

9710
10180
10180
11600
11600
11600
11640
12780
13010
16230

9340
9960
9960
9960
11030
11830
11830
11830
13690
18670

8660
9240
9240
9240
10970
10970
10970
10970
12700
17320

7.000
7.000

38.00

7.000

38.00
38.00

10680
11390
11390
12700
12700

10120
10800
10800
10800
12820
12820
12820
12820
14850
20250

8660
9240
9240
9240
10970
10970
10970
10910
i2700
17320

7.COO
7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000

26.00
26.00
26.00
26.00
26.00
26.00
26.00
26.00
26.00

7.000
7.000

7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
7. COO
7.COO
7.000
7.000

7.000
7.000
7.000

7.000
7.000

7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
?.COO
7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000

7.000
7.000
7.000
7.000
7. COO
7.000

7.000
7. coo
7.000
7.COO

38.00
38.00
38.00

7.000

38.00
38.00

7.000
7.000

38.00

K55*
C75

N8O*

C75
N8O*
L8O*
5595.
595.
CYS95*
C95*
S105*

38-00 P l l O
V150

12700
13420
14040
15110
19240

4980

4980
6790
7240
7240
7240
8600
8600
8600
9960

415 -362
566 -362
604' -362
60* -362
601 -362
717 -362
717 -362
117 - 3 6 2
830 -362

6.276
6.276
6.276
6.276
6.276
6.276
6.276
6.276
6.276

6.151
6.151
6.151
6.151
6.151
6.151
6.151
6.151
6.151

634
676
676
676
803

929 - 4 0 8
1267 - 4 0 8

6.184
6.184
6.184
6.184
6.184
6.184
6.184
6.104
6.184
6.184

6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059
6.059

812 891
768
947
897 1053
1180 1370

'699
745
745
745
885
985
805
885
1025
1398

6.094
6.094
6.094
6.094
6.094
6.094
6.094
5.094
6.094
6.094

5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969
5.969

7930
8460
8460
8460
10050
10050
10050
10050
11640
15870

703 833
746 076
734 833
819 876
865 964
865 964
853 920
901 964
996 1096
1 3 1 1 1402

814
814
814
966
966
966
966
1119
1526

-498
-498
.498
-498
-498
-498
.490
-498
-498

7930
8460
8460
0460
10050
10050
10050
10050
11640
15870

767 833
814 876
8 0 1 833
894 876
944 964
944 964
931 920
983 964
1087 i 0 9 6
1430 1402

822
877
877
077
1041
1041
1041
1041
I205

-540
-540
-540

C83
721
797
1049

633
672
661

779

823
791
860
922
922

738
779
779

-408
-408

-408
-408
-408
803 - 4 0 8
803 -408
803 - 4 0 0

-453
.453
-453
.453
-453
.453
-459
.453
-453
-453

763 - 4 9 8

-240

-540
-540
.540
-540
-540
1644 -540

6.004

6.604
6.004
6.004
6.004
6.004
6.004
6.004
6.004
6.004

'

5.879
5.879
5.879
5.879
5.879
5.079
5.879
5.079
5.879
5.879

5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920 : 5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795
5.920
5.795

(Lone Star Steel)

Figure 2.19: Casing strength tables from one manufacturer.

The largest casing that can easily be run in the 8.75 in. hole is 7 in. To satisfy collapse pressure
requirements, pick 26 Ib/ft C-75 as a first choice, collapse = 5250 psi. The first casing will extend from
the bottom of the well upwards to a point where a weaker (lower grade or lighter weight) and cheaper
string can be run. That point depends on the pressure rating of the second string. Several small jumps
in weight or grade can be made or just a few large changes. The route depends more on economics
and inventory available than on a scientific selection process. Second casing pick is 23 Ib/ft C-75,
= 3427 psi. How deep can the 23 Ib/ft casing
collapse = 3770 psi derate for safety factor = [3770/1.l]
be set? D, = 3427/(12)(0.052) = 5492 ft.

2-24

The 26 Iblft C-75 (the bottom string) has an initial design length of from 5492 ft to 7600 ft; however,
the collapse rating of the upper string (the 23 Ib/ft C-75), must be derated for the effects of tension
since it is above the neutral point. The 26 Ib/ft casing is not derated for collapse since maximum collapse pressure is exerted at the bottom of the well where the casing is below neutral point and in axial
compression (which opposes collapse forces).
To derate the collapse rating of the upper string for effects of tension:
1. Derate the set depth of 5492 ft slightly; typically 2% to 4% will do. 5400 ft will be used here.

2. Calc. unit tensile stress, St = (6206 ft - 5400 ft) (26 Ib/ft) = 20,956 Ib.
3. Axial load factor, X, = (20,956/499,000) = 0.042, derating factor, Yr, = 0.99 (from Figure 2.11)
4. The derated collapse (for effects of tension) of the 23 Ib/ft = 3427 x 0.99 = 3392.
5. Collapse pressure at 5400 ft = (5400)(12)(0.052) = 3370 psi.

The 3370 psi collapse pressure is less than the 3392 psi collapse rating (derated for safety factor) on
the 23 Ib/ft pipe so the pick of 5400 ft as max set depth is a good one. The bottom of the 23 Ib/ft string
sets the top of the 26 lblft casing. The set points of the 26 Ib/ft are 7600 ft to 5400 ft.
The lesser of the two will almost always be the difference of the pore pressure and the gas gradient. In
special cases where high stimulation pressures must be handled, the stimulation pressure may be
selected as the design criteria. Since the top of the 26 Ib/ft is above the neutral point, the burst design
begins to govern. The 23 lblft will also be checked for burst to see how shallow it can be safely set.
For a burst design, a surface pressure is needed. Use lesser of:
Max pressure at surface = frac press at bottom - gas grad.
P S m a = [(7600 ft)(0.77 psi/ft)-(7600)(0.1 psi/ft)] = (5852-760) = 5092 psi

or
Max pressure at surface = pore pressure - gas gradient
PSm, = [(7600 ft)(O.56 psi/ft)-(7600)(0.1 psilft)] = 3496 psi
Since the 3496 psi is the highest likely pressure while running pipe (before cementing), it will be used
for my design. There will be many cases where the pore pressure is not known. In these cases, use
the mud weight to approximate the pore pressure.

Burst Design (The burst rating of 23 Ib/ft C-75 = 5940 psi)

The shallowest that the 23 Ib/ft can be set is:

3496 - (594OD.25)
Dx =
(0.624 - 0.1 )
Since the value of
from 5400 to 0.

- 3496 - 4752 <

(0.524)

D, is less than zero, the 23 Ib/ft C-75 can be set to surface. The 23 Ib/ft C-75 runs

If the fracture breakdown pressure (with gas column) had been used,

2-25

Ps,,=
5092 psi, the top of the 23 Ib/ft C-75 would have been 649 ft and 23 Ib/ft C-95 would have
needed to reach to surface. Notice that a higher grade pipe was used rather than a heavier wall pipe.
This allows a packer to be run from surface that would set in the 23 Ib/ft pipe. For some close clearance packers, the packer for 23 Ib/ft may not be able to pass through even one joint of heavier wallpipe that was set at the top of the well.
Tensile (uncorrected for buoyancy)

Design

0 - 5400 ft

23 Ib/ft C-75

5400 ft - 7600 ft

26 Ib/ft C-75

Notice that the tensile calculations on the bottom most string only extend to the neutral point.
An intermediate string is slightly different from a single production string since it may experience the
burst pressures from deeper zones. Collapse forces may be felt as well if there is zone communication
between the interval below the intermediate string and any zone that contacts the outside of the intermediate string. This problem is more fully addressed in the section on liners. Depending on the job
conditions and assumptions, a higher pore pressure in a lower zone may have to be used for burst
calculations. It is reasonable in most intermediate casing designs to verify that the burst rating (with
safety factor) is adequate for the mud from the lower zone. If the cement job extends along the full
length of all strings, collapse or burst forces have much less effect.

Example 2.3 Casing Design Intermediate String

Given:
13-3/8" surface casing at 2500 ft
12-1/4" hole drilled to 9500 ft
Mud weight = 12 Ib/gal
Future depth = 12,000 ft, future mud weight = 14.5 Ib/gal
Frac gradient @ 9500 ft, = 0.884 psi/ft
Design a 9-5/8" Intermediate String
An intermediate string is slightly different from a production string since it will experience the collapse
and burst forces encountered during the next deeper segment. If it is fully cemented, it is much less
likely to fail, regardless of the pressure of produced fluid or the mud. Depending on conditions, the job
design may require the intermediate string to stand the pressures of the zone below, particularly the
burst. Additionally, the mud weights inside and outside the string can be considered with the formulas.
1. Determine max BHP
BHP = (pd (0.052)(03 = (14.5) (0.052) (12,000) = 9048 psi
the 12,000 ft depth is used to give a worst case
2. Collapse resistance design and pressures
a. max. collapse pressure generated by mud wt. outside the pipe

2-26

Pcx = Dx (0.052) po- Dx(0.052) pj + ( PO- P;)

po
pi
PO
Pi

= mud density outside

pi

= 0 since the csg is empty, PO= Pi since the top of the string is at the surface and csg

= mud density inside

= external surf. press.
= internal surf. press.

empty
Pcx = D, (0.052) po = (9500) (0.052) (12) = 5928 psi
b. Neutral point (point at which load goes from compression to tension). Note: this is only
usable for casing collapse calculations.
N.P. = D(1-

&)

= 9500( 1

- &) =

(9500) ( 1 -0.183) = 7756 ft

You can round the 7756 value to 7760 to make calculations easier.
c. Casing selection, select lightest, lowest grade. Use safety factor of 1.125 for collapse.
(1) Pick 47 Ib/ft S-95, collapse = 7100 psi, burst = 8150 psi, tension (joint) = 1,053,000 psi
Collapse = 7100/1.125 = 6311 psi (derated) this satisfies Pcx
(2) Pick next lower strength casing, 43-1/2 Ib/ft, col. = 5600, burst = 7510, tens. = 960,000
Collapse = 5600/1.125 = 4977 psi
Now:

Calculate the maximum set depth for the 43-1/2 Ib/ft section. This depth sets the top of the
47 Ib/ft section.

PC

Dx = 0.052 ( 1 2 )

=:

4977
= 7975 ft
0.052 (12)

The 47 Ib/ft casing runs from 9500 ft to 7975 ft.

Since 7975 is below the neutral point of 7760, no correction is needed.
To determine the top of the 43-112 Ib/ft casing string, the base of the next string must be selected.
Select 40 Ib/ft S-95 collapse = 4230 psi, burst = 6820 psi, tension = 858,000 psi. Derated collapse =
4230A.125 = 3760 psi, burst = 6820/1.125 = 6062 psi (both collapse and burst are derated by safety
factor of 1.125.
The maximum set depth is:

Dx = PC/0.052po

3760/ [ (0.052) (12) ]

6025

ft

Since this section will be above the neutral point, the effect of tension on collapse rating must be calculated

2-27

1. Derate the 6025 ft value slightly, use 5900 ft as a first guess.

2. Calculate a unit tensile stress.

S, = (7760-5900) (43.5)

80,910 lb

Note that the weight calculated is the 43-1/2 Ib/ft pipe, above the neutral point. This is the weight that
the 40 Ib/ft pipe feels.
3.

80,910
R = tensile body strength
here.]

80
= 0.074
1, 088, 000

[Note that tensile body strength is used

4. The derating factor, from Figure 2.11, is 0.975.

5. The collapse, derated for tension, is Pc = (3760) (0.975) = 3666 psi.

Calculate collapse pressure at 5900 ft.

P,

DJO.052) (p,)

(5900) (0.059) (12)

3681 psi

The guess of 5900 ft was a little too deep, but 15 psi difference is not excessive so we will keep the
5900 ft depth.
The 43-1/2 Ib/ft casing runs from 7975 ft to 5900 ft.
6. Since it is above the neutral point, the burst design will dominate the casing selection. To start
the burst design, calculate a surface pressure that is the lesser of:
a. Fracture gradient at the 9-5/8 in. casing shoe, less a gas gradient.
b. Formation pressure in the future pay (at 12,000 ft), less a gas gradient. The maximum surface pressure, P,, that the frac gradient will support is:

P,

Dtfg- DtGg = (9500)(0.88)

- 9500 (0.1)

7448 psi

For a calculation of the formation (pore) pressures effect on the surface pressure, use the pressure
on the zone at 12,000 ft. Since all that was given is the mud weight, we use that as the formation pressure gradient. To get maximum surface pressure, subtract the gas gradient (times depth):

Ps

D f ( p f ) (0.052)-Df(O.l)

(12,000)(14.5)(0.052)- (12,000)(0.1)

7848

if this maximum pressure at the surface ever occurred, what would be the pressure at the shoe ofthe
9-5/8 in. casing?

2-28

P(at 9500 ft)

D,(p,)

(0.052)

- [ (0,0,)
Gg]

- [(12,000-9500)

[(12,000) (14.5) (0.052)]

8798 or a gradient o f 0.926 psi/ft

(O.l)]

Since the 8798 psi is above the pressure necessary to fracture the formation at the shoe of the 9518 in., the surface pressure of 7848 psi would never occur. To proceed with burst design, use the surface pressure of 7448 psi from the frac. gradient.
The shallowest depth that a casing string can be set (limited by burst) comes from: Pbx= P,
P O (0.052)
(0x1
b
x

7448 + (0.1) (0,) - (12) (0.052) (0,)

Q,

+ GgDx-

7448 + Dx(0.1 - 0.624)

7448 - Pbx
=

0.524

The shallowest depth that the 40 Iblft pipe can be set is:

D,

7448-6062
0.524

(6062 is the derated burst of the 40 lb/ft casing)

2645 ft

as a check, the collapse pressure is:

(the derated collapse was 3760 for
the 40 Ib/ft casing)

P, = (12) (0.052) (2645) = 1650 psi

The 40 lblft pipe runs from 5900 ft to 2645 ft.

Since the 40 Ib/ft pipe cannot be run above 2645 ft, a stronger pipe is needed. Although 43-1/2Ib/ft
pipe would handle the pressure, the smaller id would restrict the packer size that could be run below it,
hence, a stronger grade of pipe (at 40 Ib/ft) is needed. Since the casing tables show that a 40 Ib/ft P11 O is unavailable, the lower string design must be changed to 43-1/2Ib/ft strings to allow a packer to
pass any section of the string and still be set in the bottom section. Select 43-1/2Ib/ft P-110 for the
upper section (collapse 4430 psi, burst 8700 psi, tension 1,106,000Ib). This practical overriding of the
design theory is very common, especially when higher grades are more available or occasionally more
economical.
Burst = 8700/1.125= 7733 psi

D,

7448 - 7733 <

0.524

2-29

The 43-1/2 Ib/ft, P-110 can be run to surface.

Check for tension design

Final Design

Interval
0-14/5

1475-2645
2645-5900
5900-7975
7975-9500

Grade

Wt
43.5
43.5
43.5
43.5
47

P-110

LI BC

S-95
S-95
S-95
S-95

LT&C
LT&C
LT&C
LT&C

The string from 2645 ft to 5900 ft would have been the 40 Ib/ft except that upper sections had to be
the heavier weight with smaller diameter to handle the burst load. For packer access, the id of the
string must be at least as large at the top as it is in the sections below it.
High Pressure Gas
For purposes of simple calculations, the pressure exerted by the gas column is approximated by
0.1 psi/ft. As pressure rises, gas density increases. In high pressure cases, the hydrostatic column of

gas can be substantial. The following graph, from the Baker Calculations Handbook may be useful in
more closely estimating pressure. More exact figures are available from computer programs that use
PVT data.
Additional Graphical Illustrations
The method of graphical illustration of collapse and burst used in Figures 2.13 and 2.14, can be
extended to analysis of tension, Figure 2.1 6, the stresses involved in overpull, Figure 2.1 7, and buoyancy 2.1 8. All these illustrations are from Hills and are the start of the X-diagram casing design process.
Running The Casing
Dynamic loads from running casing into the well can be estimated with the following formula from
Vreeland.

Fm- W
vc =

pC,A

2-30

(2.27)

.-. ---

Bottom-Hole Pressure
for a Column of Gaseous Nitrogen
-!-

700(

E
a

500(

U)
U)

2
a

3001
<

200(

1001

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Nitrogen Wellhead Pressure in PSI

Temperature of Nltrogen at
Wellhead 70" Fahrenheit

2-31

Geothermal Gradient 1.6" Fahrenheit

Increase Per 100 Feet of Depth

I
I

where:
V,

= critical velocity

F,
W
p

= the force required to yield the casing

= weight of casing hanging below the slips
= mass per unit volume

CO

= speed of sound in the material =

= cross-sectional area

For steel, pC, = &

= 150 lb-sec/h3

For example, the load increment produced when 7 in. diameter, 29 Ib/ft casing is being lowered at
3 ft/sec (12 seconds per 40 ft joint) and is stopped suddenly can be calculated by rearranging Eqns. 2
and 3 to solve for a force, 6 applied at any casing running velocity, V:
F

=VpCd

F
= (36 in./sec) (150Ib ~ e c / i n . ~(8.449
)
in.2)
F
= 46,000 Ib
The force would be in addition to string tensile weights.
Once a usable hole has been drilled, the casing string or liner is run to depth and cemented in place.

Actual running of the string involves several operations to properly place the pipe and to avoid damaging the well. Like any pipe or drill string run in the well, casing is susceptible to differential sticking. To
minimize the problem, mud conditioning and centralizers are used. In the case of differential sticking,
the pull required to free differentially stuck pipe is:9

(2.28)
where:
F
AP

= pulling force, Ib
= differential pressure into the zone from the hole, psi

Ac
= contact area of pipe and mud cake, in.2
= coefficient of friction (avg. of 0.25 is normal)*
Cf
As seen from the formula, differential sticking force (equal in magnitude to F) is dependent upon the
contact area of the pipe and the mud cake and the mud weight. In a situation with 1.5 in. to 2 in. of
diameter difference between pipe and hole, there is about 2 in. contact between the casing and the
mud cake. When the mud cake is thick and spongy or when clearances are very tight, contact crosssectional area may double.

The force involved in differential sticking is illustrated in the following example. For a casing string run
across a series of permeable zones with a total zone thickness of 100 ft, the mud overbalance is
4000 psi at a depth of 8000 ft with a mud weight of 11 Ib/gal against a pore pressure of 10.0 Ib/gal.
AP

= (8000)(11-10) (0.052) = 416 psi

A,
F

= (100x12~2)= 2400 in.*

= (416 psi) (2400) (0.25) = 249,600 Ib

2-32

Increased mud weight and increased contact area can significantly increase the differential sticking
force.
The differential sticking force can be considerably lessened by the use of centralizers. Although centralizers cause an increase in drag in the casing and are often difficult to run in the well near the surface, Bowman and Sherer20*23estimate that the increase in drag from running centralizers will be less
than the weight of the casing over the zone where differential sticking is a problem. In the case of the
previous example, the air weight of a 100 ft section of the 8-5/8 in. casing (40 Ib/ft) is 4000 Ib. Thus, if
the drag caused by centralizers over a 100 ft section were equal to the weight of the casing, the
increase in drag would be 4000 Ib or 1.6% of the differential sticking force. Such an analysis and an
associated estimate of cost savings is dependent on the zone of differential sticking being located
near the bottom of the well. This would mean that only the section of casing to be landed across the
zone would need to be centralized. In reality, the simple example provides a very low estimate of centralizer drag since centralizers need to be run over the entire string and more densely on casing that
passes intervals prone to differential sticking. Centralizers, however, are a necessary design item on
most strings and every effort should be made to run them. It is nearly impossible to differentially stick
a casing string with centralizers on every joint2 but field experience is that it may be difficult to run
that many in a hole with 2 in. or less clearance. Centralizers aid in getting the pipe to bottom, being
able to move the pipe and to improve chances of a successful primary cement job.
The number of centralizers needed depends upon pipe and mud weight, hole deviation and hole condition. Calculation programs are available for centralizer spacing. The number of centralizers per joint
depends upon the lateral forces exerted by the weight of casing and casing
It is this
weight that forces the casing into the side of the hole. Obviously, the lateral force increases with casing weight, hole deviation angle, and weight differential between cement and mud while the cement is
in the annulus. Occurrence of doglegs and other hole problems also influence the force on casing.
The use of centralizers in soft or unconsolidated formations is very difficult since the centralizer blades
or springs will tend to imbed in the formation.
The number of centralizers must be sufficient to offset the lateral force and position the casing near
the middle of the hole.
For the lowest possible drag while running pipe, it is important that the right number and type of centralizers be run. Slim hole centralizers should be used in close-clearance holes. The strongest centralizers are full bodied types described in the chapter on Cementing. Necessary support equipment
includes stop devices to keep the centralizers in place and avoid bunching them on the pipe by free
sliding along the pipe at a bend or a point of close-clearance. Casing collars are usually used for stop
devices when only one centralizer per joint is needed. When more than one centralizer per joint is
required or where a flush joint liner is used, stop devices must be added to position the centralizers.
With the use of very hard grades of flush joint liners such as V-150,slip on stop devices, even those
with set screws or slips may not work.
Centralizers should not hinder the ability to move pipe during cementing: rather the centralizers prevent the sticking that hinders pipe movement. The inability to rotate some liners is often caused by
insufficient starting torque or increased torque as cement travels up the annulus.21The following
example of starting torque for a liner is taken directly from Lindsey.21
For example, assume a liner joint has a maximum allowable torque rating of 5500 ft-lb, and
rotating drill pipe and liner before hanging requires a torque of 3500 ft-lb. After hanging the
liner and releasing the setting tool, torque required to rotate only the drill pipe is 1000 ft-lb,
and rotating drill pipe and liner totals 4200 ft-lb. To calculate maximum allowable surface
torque, the torque required to rotate drill pipe only and the torque to overcome bearing friction
must be added to the maximum permissible liner joint torque of 5500 ft-lb. In this case, it takes
700 ft-lb (4200-3500) to overcome bearing friction, plus 1000 ft-lb to rotate only the drill string.
All 1700 ft-lb of torque is above the top liner joint and must be added to the maximum permis-

2-33

sible liner joint torque of 5500 ft-lb. Therefore, maximum allowable surface torque to initiate
rotation, and for the duration of the job, is 7200 ft-lb - not 5500 ft-lb.
The torque to start rotation may approach the maximum but should reduce to a lesser value as the
string is rotated.20121
The second torque factor increase, that of cement movement up the annulus will steadily increase
rotating torque. The torque limit for the string being run should be known before the job. Torque is read
from a torque indicator or estimated by the number of pipe turns to initiate downhole rotation.21
The most successful methods of rotation are power swivels, rotary tables, and casing power tongs.
The power swivels and rotary tables are the most reliable; casing power tongs are normally only used
for joint makeup.
Drilling a usable hole is vital to the use of centralizers. It is a high risk operation to run centralizers in a
hole drilled without stabilizers. Bowman and Sherer20give four reasons why liners (and other casing
strings) do not make it all the way to bottom:
1. a usable hole was not drilled (the drift diameter is not equal to the bit diameter),

2. differential sticking occurs because centralizers were not used,

3. the wrong type centralizers and support equipment were used, and
4. a dirty hole was drilled (one full of bridges or fill).

Speed of running the string is a critical factor in formation damage since the casing is like a piston in a
cylinder with mud as the pressure seal. The pressures created by running casing can be easily
enough to fracture the formation and force mud into pay zones. Loss of mud in this manner will also
reduce hydrostatic load and can cause a blowout. Safe running speeds on wells with normal clearances and low viscosity mud are 40 to 60 seconds per joint (equal or less than 1 ft/sec). Close clearance strings or heavily gelled muds require longer run times.
A procedure for actual running of a casing string is advanced by API Bulletin D-17, and was reported
by Bowman and Sherer.23

Prior to running the casing, the hole should be cleaned by mud circulation with the bit on bottom and a
conditioned mud with low solids content and low viscosity should be circulated into the hole. After the
casing is run, circulation of mud bottoms up at least twice is recommended. The mud circulation with
the casing in the well is necessary since velocity of the mud in the close-clearance annulus of the casing and hole will be much higher than with the drill string in the hole and more cuttings will be moved.
If these cuttings are not removed, they may form bridges in the annulus, blocking or restricting cement
flow.

Casing String Design Deviated Wells

The basic difference in casing design for a deviated well is the magnitude of the loads encountered in
the deviated or angle build section. This requires bending and torque considerations. Greenip offers
three major points for consideration:
1. Axial and torque loads can be estimated by analyzing separate sections.
2. Relationships can be developed for various parameters in casing string design.

2-34

3. The pickup, set down, and neutral states produce sufficiently different loads and magnitudes to
analyze each separately.

First, divide the string into three segments, (1) the extension or reach interval, (2) the build interval
(containing the deviation) and (3) the vertical interval, Figure 2.20. As with conventional casing
design, the casing in a horizontal well is designed from the bottom up. Interval (2),the build interval, is
simplified by assuming the angle is constant. Interval ( l ) , the extension or reach portion is assumed to
be a constant inclination. An example of the magnitude of the forces at pickup, neutral and set down
are shown in Figure 2.21.

-r

Point 3 -surface

Vertical interval

Point 2 KOP
Build interval
Point 1

TD

(Greenip (Hydril) P.E.I. Dec. 1989)

Figure2.20: On a deviated well, divide the well into three

areas: vertical, kickoff or build interval, and
extended reach interval.
Compression, 1.OOO Ib
-10

-5

0
.

Tension, 1,000 Ib

10

15

20

25
I

30

TD = 6,400 MD
= 0.35
Build angle = 20"/100 n
Reach length = 2.000 R
Reach angle = 80'

(Greenip (Hydril) P.E.I. Dec. 1989)

Figure 2.21: The stress in the casing is most in the build section.
Conditions are shown for set down, neutral and
pickup.

2-35

Liner Design
A liner is a casing string that does not extend back to surface. Liners may be permanent or temporary
and run for a variety of reason^:^*^^^
1. Wear protection of the permanent casing string from rotating drill pipe or frequent tubing move-

ment, especially in a deviated section.

2. Correction of hole difficulty such as doglegs, Key seats, or ledges.
3. Zone isolation of a high pressure zone or a lost circulation zone.
4. As an economical alternative to a full casing string.

5. To allow adequate room above the liner top for a large diameter pump.
6. To reduce casing tension loads in deep wells or to allow use of an available, low strength connection.
7 . For repair of leaks or buckled casing.

8. For casing strengthening in earth shift zones.

Most reasons for liner design incorporate the cost reduction factor of not running casing back to surface. Liners have drawbacks as well, including several problems related to liner cementing. From a
design standpoint, perhaps the biggest concern is that the intermediate string or the last full string
becomes the top part of the liner and must handle the burst force generated by the zones crossed by
the liner. Before a decision is made on use of a liner, the strength of the top part of the last full string
must be checked against the new maximum expected surface pressure. Unless proven otherwise by
cement bond evaluation tools, the upper pipe strength alone (no assistance from the cement sheath)
must be capable of withstanding the pressure. If the upper section will not withstand the forces, it
should be protected by running a full string, or, the string should be run before perforating the well.
The first approach liner design is the same as for full casing strings. The collapse, burst, and tension
safety factors and design equations are the same. The basic differences between liner and casing
design come to light in the design of liners for deep wells, hot environments, and very high pressure
zones.

Example 2.4 Liner Design

A well is being drilled through the formations and pressures shown in Figure 2.22. A conventional
design for the primary 9-518in. casing with safety factors of 1.125 for collapse, 1.125 for burst, and 1.8
for tension is:

D x ( 0 . 0 5 2 ) p 0 - D x ( 0 . 0 5 2 ) p ~ +(PO- Pi)

PO = Pi, pi

8.3 lb/galmd p o = 18.5 lb/gal

(Note pi is normally assumed equal to 0 for a conservative design; however, in this case, the high
pressure zone will be isolated by casing and liner during production so a fresh water weight can be
used in calculations.)

2-36

(13250) (0.052) (18.5)

P,,

P,,

NP,

k)=

D(1-

65.4

- (13250) (0.052) (8.3)

6821 psi

-)

13250( 1 - 18.2
65.4

9563 ft

The casing pick for lowest part of full string: Collapse minimum = (6821) (1.125) = 7674 psi satisfied
by 53.5 Ib/ft P-110
(Note: standard casing design can be used to design the full string to surface, although it will not be
done here.)
The first liner will be 6 4 8 in. Mud weight is 9.2 Ib/gal

P,,

14800 (0.052) (9.2)

collapse minimum

7080 psi

(7080) (1.125)

7965 psi

satisfied by 28 Ib/ft N-80

NP,

14800 1-

12718 ft (above liner top)

The second liner will be 3-1/2 in. Mud weight is 15 Ib/gal.

Pcx = 15900 (0.052) ( 15)

collapse minimum

12402 psi

(12402) (1.125)

13952 psi

satisfied by a 9.2 Ib/gal P-110 (NE)

63

NP2 = 15900 1- -

12253 ft (above liner top)

Burst failure of liners is usually caused by kicks while drilling below a liner,39p40pressure when fracture
stimulating, or a tubing leak while producing a deep, high pressure zone. All these factors are made
worse by a poor cement job. Since filling the casing/openhole annulus with cement significantly
strengthens and supports the pipe, a good cement job over high pressure or earth movement zones is
a requirement in any deep well.
An illustration of the complications caused by a poor cement job 39*40 is illustrated in Figure 2.22. After
a primary cement job on the 9-5/8 in. string, the 6-518 in. liner is run and a circulation cement job is initiated. The low pressure zone at 13,800 breaks down while cementing, returns are lost and the
cement top peaks at 13,400 (Figure 2.23a). A top squeeze with cement seals the top of the liner but
leaves an uncemented zone from 13,120 ft to 13,400 ft (Figure 2.23b). While drilling near TD to test a
deep structure, the temperature of the mud goes from 270" (temp. of the zone at 15,400 ft) to the bot-

2-37

tomhole temperature (at 18,500 ft) of 345F. Since both ends of the liner are cemented, stress will be
induced by the temperature rise.

12800 f t

13100 f t

13800 f t

14400 f t
14800 f t

14-6 1bfgaL (0.759 p i f E t )

1yx,f t

TD 1 8 x 0 f t

Figure 2.22:

An example of two liner design for a deep well. The

high pressure zone is isolated by the primary casing string and the first liner covers the lost circulation zone at 13800 ft. The last liner is designed as
the production zone completion string. Cementing
provides pressure integrity and support.

The amount of stress in fixed end casing is

CJ =

Ea(AT)

200T

where:

o
a
E
AT

= stress, psi

= coefficient of thermal expansion, 6.9 x 10-6 in./in./OF, for steel

= Young's modulus, 30 x 1O6 psi, for steel
= increase in temperature, OF

The stress is compressional axial load that can cause pipe splitting or deformation, Figure 2.23~.
Repair of the collapse may be made by running the 3-1/2 in. liner from above the first liner to TD,
Figure 2.24.

Liner Tie-Backs
Although the liner completion described in Figure 2.22 may be used only as a liner, there are some
conditions when the liner may be run back to surface. This liner tie-back may be temporary, to protect

2-38

A
9-5/8",

6-5/8"
20 Ib/ft
N-80

53.5 Ib/ft, P-110

l b / p l (0.946 pi/ft)

13120'

b/gal (0.468 psi/ft)

I
Figure 2.23: The problem of an incomplete cement job on a deep liner below a high pressure zone
A. The initial primary circulation of cement on the liner breaks down the zone at 13800 ft
and the final top of the cement is measured by a temperature log as 13400 ft.
B. Top squeeze job seals the liner top but leaves a void from 13120 to 13400 ft behind the
6-5/8'1iner.
C. The shoe of the 9-518l casing leaks, allowing the high pressure zone at 13100 ft to pressure up outside of the 6-5/8". Deeper drilling increases mud temperature and results in
higher compressive stresses in the 6-518" liner. Combination of outside pressure and temperature induced stress causes collapse and split of the 6-518".

permanent casing strings from wear during drilling4' or permanently, with cement, to strengthen the
casing string through a high pressure zone or isolate and stop a casing leak38or a leaking liner top.42
To allow a tie-back, most liners are equipped with a liner tie-back receptacle. The receptacle is an
internally polished receiver that will accept the seal assembly of the tie-back liner. The tie-back liner
usually incorporates some type of cement port or sliding sleeve and seat that will allow cement to be
circulated through to the annulus and up the annulus to surface. The seat, float equipment andlor
plugs used in the cementing operation are of drillable material.

Cementing
Cementing a liner in place requires very closely controlled application of existing technology4s46 and
a fair amount of risk. Three cementing methods are generally accepted for liners.47 Calculating the
volume of cement to be used in a liner cementing job is extremely difficult and requires more information than available from a simple caliper run. For maximum caliper information, a four arm device
capable of determining elliptical holes should be utilized for hole volume. Cement excesses of
between 20% and 100% have been used on a number of liner jobs with larger excesses being responsible for better bonding and less channels. There is also a direct correlation with absence of channels
and pipe movement. In liners of 500 ft or less, Bowman and Sherer4s46 recommend 100% excess
over the calculated annular volume and on liners of 3000 ft or more at least a 30% excess is recommended. A single-stage cementing job in which cement is circulated to the top of a liner; much like a

2-39

9-5/8", 53.5 lb/ft, P-110

6-5/8",

28 W f t , N-80

3-1/2", 9.2 lb/ft, P-110

Figure 2.24

Collapsed area repaired by running a 3-112" liner and cementing.

primary cement job and may include pipe movement during cementing. A planned squeeze program in
which the lower part of the liner is cemented and the top part of the liner is squeezed later. This technique does not have good middle support and should not be used to isolate high pressure zones. The
procedure is more widely followed in worldwide operations because of perceived problems of disengaging the liner running assembly from the liner and of flash setting of cement. Disengaging from the
liner before cementing eliminates the ability to move the liner and almost universally results in poor
cement jobs.
A third procedure commonly reserved for short liners is to fill part of the hole with cement and then
slowly run the casing string into the cement, forcing the cement to flow up around the pipe. While this
method can be accomplished with the minimum amount of pumping, the lack of circulation can result
in poor removal of drilling mud. The technique is called a puddle job.

Most liner jobs do not include plans to move the liner during the primary ~ e m e n t i n g .The
~ ~ ?reasons
~~
for this include:
1. Detaching the drill pipe from the liner before cementing minimizes the risk of being unable to

detach from the liner once the cement is in place.

2. It may be necessary to change to a higher strength drillstring to allow pipe movement.
3. Movement may cause the liner hanger to become tangled with the centralizers near the top of

the string.
4. Swab or surge pressures may be created during liner movement, especially in close tolerance

wellbores.

2-40

5. Movement of the liner during cementing may knock off debris from the borehole wall. The debris

may cause bridges and reduce the possibility of circulating cement.

Despite the quoted disadvantages of staying attached during the cementing operation, Bowman and
Sherer4346 site several serious disadvantages with releasing the liner before cementing.
1. If the liner is hung off, the small bypass area around the liner offers a greater restriction to flow

and causes more lost circulation because of the backpressure on the flowing cement.
2. If a downhole rotating liner hanger is used (rotation only), additional torque is required to initiate
rotation to overcome bearing friction. Pipe often rotates easier when it is being raised or lowered.
The difference in torque required is often substantial.

3. The potential for sloughing shale and annulus bridging is lessened when the operator can alternate between rotation and reciprocation.
4. Premature shearing of the pins in the liner-wiper plug is less likely because there is no relative

movement between the liner and the setting tool (these two pieces of equipment move
together).49
5. If cement channels and there is a large hydrostatic pressure difference between inside and outside of the running tools, the cups or seals can give way before cementing of the liner is complete.
6. The displacement efficiency of cement around the tubulars when pipe is not moved is lessened.

When liners are close clearance, then the density differences between mud and cement should be as
close as possible. This negates the advantages of hole cleaning by higher density cement. Reciprocation4 of the string is helpful because it produces lateral pipe movement that causes the pipe to
change sides in the wellbore while it is alternately compressed and stretched (slacked off and picked
up).43 R o t a t i ~ helps
n ~ by
~ ~mixing
~ ~ the
~ ~cement into wellbore irregularities and displacing mud due
to drag forces produced by the flowing cement.43
Although liner movement should be a goal in any liner operation, well conditions may prevent any type
of movement. In many cases, however, liner movement can be achieved in a well conditioned hole.
Two clear cases where liner should not be moved are:43
1. When a short or small liner (3-1/2 in. or smaller) is run in a deep well, the liner should be hung off

first since it may be impossible to tell from the weight indicator whether the liner had been
released from the drill pipe.
2. In cases of hole deviation over 35O, reciprocation may be difficult due to high drag forces.
Many of the problems in liner running can be lessened by drilling a usable hole. Problems with keyseats, ledges, washouts, and other nongauge problems intensify when close tolerance liners are to be
run. For additional information on problems involved in drilling a usable hole, refer to the chapter on
Drilling The Pay.
When cement is circulated from the liner bottom to over the liner top, the cement must remain fluid
long enough to detach from the liner and to circulate the cement from the well or to pull up above the
top of the cement with the drillstring. Ifthe cement flash sets, then the drillstring will become cemented
in place and the hole most likely will be lost. Cement may prematurely set, thicken, or cement circulation may be lost for a number of reasons.

2-41

1. Improper thickening or pump times caused by a poor design, ineffective field operations, or bad
test results.
2. Poor density control on the cement or poor mixing of the cement at the surface.

3. Bridging in the annulus caused by a buildup of cuttings. This is caused typically by the increased
number of particles picked up by higher annular velocities with a liner in the hole (due to its
larger ID) than around the drillstring.
4. Plugging from dehydration of cement caused by excessive water loss in openhole sections
below the overlap.
5. Increased hole cleaning of the cement as compared to4he drilling mud.

One of the most troublesome problems in cementing design is inadequate hole cleaning prior to
cementing. This is especially true when light weight, low viscosity muds are used and little attention is
paid to cuttings removal. Heaving shales are also a problem in hole fill and may cause washouts.
Under no circumstances should circulation be halted with the liner in the hole before all of the cement
has been displaced. Due to the small clearances and the yield point of cement, it may be very difficult
to start circulation again.

Problems
1. For a 16,000 ft string of 5-1/2 in., 20 Iblft, C-75, calculate the final hook load at the end of the

cement job when 16 Ib/gal cement is in the annulus to surface and a 10.5 Ib/gal mud is inside the
casing. Surface pressure on the mud in the casing will be 500 psi.
2. A 5000 ft, 4-1/2 in., 10.5 Ib/ft, K-55 liner is run on 3-1/2 in., 13. Ib/ft drill pipe. The liner top is at
12,500 ft. Calculate maximum hook load in a 15 Ib/gal mud if the drill pipe and liner are filled with
mud.
3. Calculate the weight of mud that will just balance the weight (float) of a 5000 ft string of 103/4 in., 40.5 Ib/ft, K-55 casing string if the string is run empty (neglect wt. of air).

References
1. Buzarde, L. L., Jr., Kastor, R. L., Bell, W. T., DePriester, C. L.: Production Operations Course 1.
- Well Completions, SPE, 1972.
2. Oil & Gas Journal Tables.

3. Bollfrass, C. A.: Sealing Tubular Connections, J. Pet. Tech., (June 1985), pp. 955-965.
4. Goins, W. C., Jr., Collings, B. J., OBrien, T. B.: A New Approach to Tubular String Design,
Part 1, World Oil, (Nov. 1965).
5. Goins, W. C., Jr., Collings, B. J., OBrien, T. B.: A New Approach to Tubular String Design,
Part 2,World Oil, (Dec. 1965), pp. 83-88.

6. Klementich, E. F., Jellison, M. J.: A Service Life Model for Casing Strings, SPE Drilling Engineering, (April 1986), pp. 141-152.
7. Rike, E. A., Bryant, G. A., Williams, S.D.: Success in Prevention of Casing Failures Opposite
Salts, Little Knife Field, North Dakota, SPE Drilling Engineering, (April 1986), pp. 131-140.

2-42

8. Greer, J. B., Holland, W. E.: High-Strength Heavy-Wall Casing for Deep, Sour Gas Wells, J.
Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1981), pp. 2389-2398.
9. Wooley, G. R., Prachner, W.: Reservoir Compaction Loads on Casing and Liners, SPE Production Engineering, (Feb. 1988), pp. 96-102.
10. Holliday, G. H.: Calculation of Allowable Maximum Casing Temperature to Prevent Tension Failures in Thermal Wells, ASME 69-Pet-10, Tulsa, Sept. 21-25, 1969.
11. Pattillo, P. D., Huang, N. C.: The Effect of Axial Load on Casing Collapse, J. Pet. Tech., (Jan.

1982), pp. 159-164.

12. Durham, K. S.: How to Prevent Deep Well Liner Failure, Part 2,World Oil, Nov. 1987.
13. Lubinski, A., Althouse, W. S., Logan, J. L.: Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers,Trans.
AIME, June 1962, p. 655.
14. Rabia, H.: Fundamentals of Casing Design, Graham 8t Trotman, 1987, Boston.

15. API Bulletin 5C3:Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drillpipe, and Line-Pipe Properties, American Petroleum Institute, (1983).
16. API Specification 5A: Specifications for Casing, Tubing and Drillpipe, American Petroleum
Institute, (1982).
17. Halliburton Modern Well Completion Course.

18. Woodlan, B., Powell, G. E.: Graphical Method Speeds Deviated Well Design, World Oil,
(Feb. 1, 1975) pp. 40-43.
19. Wojtanowics, A. K., Maidla, E. E.: Minimum Cost Casing Design for Vertical and Directional
Wells, J. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1987), pp. 1269-1282.
20. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.: How to Run and Cement Liners, Pt. 3, World Oil, (May 1988),
pp. 58-66.
21. Lindsey, H. E., Jr., Rotate Liners for a Successful Cement Job, World Oil, (Oct. 1986), pp. 3943.
22. API Bulletin 5C-1.
23. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.: How to Run and Cement Liners, Pt. 4, World Oil, (July 88), pp. 8488.
24. Lee, H. K., Smith, R. C., Tighe, R. E.: Optimal Spacing for Casing Centralizers, SPE Drilling
Engineering, (April 1986), pp. 122-130.
25. API Specification for Casing Centralizers, API Specification IOD, second edition, API, Dallas
(1973).
26. Myers, G. M., Sutko, A. A.: The Development and Application of a Method for Calculating the
Forces on Casing Centralizer, paper 851-42-H, presented at the 1968 API Spring Meeting of the
Mid-Continent Dist., Amarillo, TX, April 3-5, 1968.

2-43

27. Lubinski, A.: Maximum Permissible Dog-Legs in Rotary Boreholes, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1961),
pp. 175-194.
28. Lubinski, A.: How to Spot Dog-Legs Easily, Oil and Gas J., (Feb. 4, 1957), 129-133.
29. Hammerlindl, D. J.: Basic Fluid and Pressure Forces on Oilwell Tubulars, J.P.T., (Jan. 1980),
pp 153-159.
30. Love, A. E. H.: A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4th ed., Dover Publications,
NY (1944), p. 144.
31. Klinkenberg, A.: The Neutral Zones in Drill Pipe and Casing and Their Significance in Relation
to Buckling and Collapse.
32. Lubinski, A., Althouse, W. S., Logan, J. L.: Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers, J.
Pet. Tech. (June 1962), pp. 655-670.
33. Hammerlindl, D. J.: Movement, Forces and Stresses Associated with Combination Tubing
Strings Sealed in Packers, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1977), pp. 195-208.
34. Woods, H. B.: Discussion of The Neutral Zones in Drill Pipe and Casing by Klinkenberg, API
(1951), pp 65-76.
35. Hills, J.O.: A Review of Casing String Design Principles and Practice, API Production Practices, 1951.

36. Greenip, J. F., Jr.: How to Design Casing Strings for Horizontal Wells, Pet. Eng. Intl., (Dec
1989), pp. 34-38.
37. World Oil Tubing Tables.
38. Linsey, H. E., Jr.; Techniques for Liner Te-Back Cementing, Production Operations, 1979,
pp. 37-39.
39. Durham, K. S.; How to Prevent Deep-Well Liner Failure, World Oil, (October 1987), pp. 46-50.
40. Durham, K. S.; How to Prevent Deep-Well Liner Failure, World Oil, (November 1987), pp. 4749.
41. Manley, D. D.; Installation of Retrievable Liners, SPE 17523, Rocky Mountain Regional,
Casper, May 11-13, 1988.
42. Agnen, J. W., Klein, R. S.; The Leaking Liner Top, SPE 12614, SPE Deep Drilling and Production Symposium, Amarillo, April 1-3, 1984.
43. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.; How to Run and Cement Liners, Part 1, World Oil, (March 1988),
pp. 38-45.
44. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.; How to Run and Cement Liners, Part 2, World Oil, (May 1988),
pp. 58-66.
45. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.; How to Run and Cement Liners, Part 3, World Oil (June 1988),
pp. 55-58.

2-44

46. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.; How to Run and Cement Liners, Part 4, World Oil, (July 1988),
pp. 84-88.
47. Linsey, H. E.; New Tools Make Liner Rotation During Cementing Practical, World Oil, (October
1981).
48. Linsey, H. E., Jr.; Rotate Liners for a Successful Cement Job, World Oil, (October 1986),
pp. 39-43.
49. Howell, F. R.; Liner Reciprocation While Cementing, Drilling-DCW, July 1979.
50. Arceneaux, M. A., Smith, R. L.; Liner Rotation While Cementing: An Operators Experience in
South Texas, SPE/IADC 13448, New Orleans, March 6-8, 1985.

51. Lindsey, H. E., Durham, K. S.; Field Results of Liner Rotation During Cementing, SPE 13047,
Houston, Sept. 16-19, 1984.

52. Garcia, J. A.; Rotating Liner Hangers Helps Solve Cementing Problems, Petroleum Engineer
International, (Sept. 19851, pp. 38-48.

Other References
1. Arceneaux, M. A.; Liner Operations Made Easy, Pet. Eng. Intl. (Sept. 1966).
2. Goins, W. C.; Better Understanding Prevents Tubular Buckling Problems, World Oil, (Feb.
1980).
3. Short, J. A.; Drilling and Casing Operations, Penn Well Publishing Co., 1982.
4. Haut, R. C., Crook, R. J.; Primary Cementing: The Mud Displacement Process, SPE 8253, Las
Vegas, Sept. 23-26, 1979.
5. Clark, C. R., Carter, L. G.; Mud Displacement with Cement Slurries, J. Pet. Tech., (July 1973),
p. 775-783.

2-45

Appendix 2.A
In the following explanation of buoyancy and neutral point, the explanation of Hammerlind129 is used
here almost in its entirety as he explains the concepts and formulas advanced by Lubinski13 and Hammerlindl.29
A tube hanging free in a well exerts its full weight at the surface slips. If the hole is partially or completely filled with liquid, there will be less weight for the same string since the liquid will exert a buoyant force on the pipe. In Figure 2.8a (from Hammerlindl, 1980), the tube is supported only at the
surface (no liquid in the hole) and the stress distribution in the absence of liquid is shown in
Figure 20.20b. Since the only support is at the surface, the neutral point is at the bottom of the string.
Without fluid, the axial stress, oatmay be calculated at any point x above the bottom of the tube by:

where W, is the average wt (in air) per unit length and A, is the cross sectional area of tubing wall.
The 0, curve in Figure 2.8b connects the peak tensile surface load produced by the weight of the tube
with the 0 dividing line separating surface compression and tension forces,
The radial stress, CJ,, in the tube at any point is:32

where:
pressure inside tube at desired depth, psi

pi

Pe

= pressure outside tube at desired depth, psi

ri

= internal radius of tube, in

re

= external radius of tube, in

rd

= radial distance to point under consideration, in

In the case of the tube hanging free, there is no liquid inside or outside the tube, so the radial stress is
zero.
The tangential stress, at any point, is: For the case of no liquid, the tangential stress is also zero.
In the previous formulas, a negative value indicates a tensile force while a positive value shows compression. The direction of the stresses and their position on the pipe is shown in Figure 2.9.
According to the Archimedes principle, a body submerged in fluid exerts and upward force, Fb, equal
to the weight of the volume, V; of fluid of density p displaced by the body or Fb = p V.
If the tube has a constant cross section, then the volume may be replaced by immersed tube length, L,
and the tube cross section A,

2.A-46

since density (expressed as a gradient) times length is pressure, p, the equation becomes:

where p i s the upward pressure exerted on the end of the pipe. This pressure is a compressive force
and shifts the loads in the stress distribution diagram to a positive shown by Figure 2.8~.
The fluid in which the tube is suspended, creates a stress at every point equal to the corresponding
pressure at that point. This assumes the fluid inside and outside the tube is the same. The axial stress
equation is then modified to include buoyancy:

At this point, the liquid is inside and outside the tube and radial and tangential stresses become important. These stresses are equal to a pressure p and p = p/-p;. At a distance x above the bottom of a
tube of length L,

P = P,+p(L-X)
where P, is the surface pressure (if any). Hammerlindl points out that by substituting Pfor Pi for P, in
the equations for radial and tangential stress, or= at = P (some works use a -P depending on direction
of force or pressure). This shows that stress is equal to the pressure at the point of interest.
The difference in stress distribution with and without fluid is seen in Figures 2.8b and 2.8~.The differences (from Hammerlindl) are:
1. The lower end of the tube is now in compression.

2. The radial and tangential stresses equal the fluid hydrostatic pressure.
3. The tensile stress at the top is reduced by an amount equal to the fluid exerted stress at the bottom.

Static fluids exert a force only in a direction normal to a surface. For the case of a constant diameter
vertical tube, the upward force of buoyancy is exerted only at the bottom. This is a concentrated force.
If a compressive or tensile force, F; is applied at the lower end of the tube, (same fluid inside and out)
the axial stress distribution is changed and <Tabecomes:

The new stress distribution is illustrated by Figures 2.8d and 2.8e (with fluid). Note that the neutral
point is the intersection of the <Taand oh or lines and not the intersection of the 0, with the 0point

2.A-41

line separating compressive and tensile loads.33This is true because 0 8 = of= 0; at the neutral point
and thus o, must equal the full hydrostatic load. This can only occur at the bottom of the tube. The
bottom end of the oa line is displaced from the 0 line, first by the magnitude of the pressure (this sets
the end of the o,,ofline and then by the applied force to set the end of the 0, line. The direction of displacement is consistent with the sign of the pressure or force.
In the absence of liquid in the hole, the neutral point is the point of zero axial stress. Since at the neutral point 6, = o r = og the only point where they may equal zero is the bottom of the tube.
In the cases where there is an applied force, F; the neutral point may be shifted up the hole as shown
in Figures 2.8d and 2.8e. A comparison of the neutral point location shows a considerable difference
in location of the neutral point caused by the fluid. With fluid in the hole, the radial, ob and tangential,
og stresses are no longer zero. They reach a maximum at the bottom and decrease toward a minimum
at the top of the fluid column. Since the three stresses are equal at the neutral point, the neutral point
is shifted up the hole. This is not due to buoyancy but due to the effect of fluid pressure on stability.
The neutral point is located by

When fluid of different densities are inside and outside the tubing, the neutral point is described by?

and the neutral point is

2.A-48

Appendix 2.B API Casing Design Example

Determine the collapse resistance of a casing string when
1. the casing has no tension applied (oa = 0)

2. the casing has an axial load of 215,000 Ib.

Given:
Casing 10-3/4,51 Ib/ft, C-75
id = 9.850 in., YP (body) = 1,092,000 Ib, For oa = 0, Ypa= 0
Converting YPin Ib into psi:
YP(body) = l,092,0OO/((d4)(1 0.7s2 - 9.850)2))= 74,993 psi
Diameter over thickness (wall) is:
D/t = 10.75/(0.9/2) = 23.9
Since the casing is under no load, the mode of failure may be obtained from Figure 2.12. The Dltratio
of 23.9 falls in the range of Figure 2.9b, transition collapse. This means that the collapse resistance
equation is:

P,

(&-G)YP

When calculating values of A and B for calculation of Fand G, use the YP expressed in psi.
From the calculations
A
B

= 3.00
= 0.064

3 B/A
2 + BIA
F

0.0317

= 1.99
= 0.042

If tabulated ranges for Dltare not available, the Dlt range equations from Figure 2.12 may be solved to
specify the proper equation to use. In this case

P,

(1.99
- 0.042
23.9

74,933

3094 psi

The 3094 psi value compares to the book collapse resistance of 31 00 psi. For part b, with an axial
load of 21 5,000 psi:

2.B-49

Oa

axial load

Cross sect. area

215,000 psi
( d 4 ) ( 10.752- 9.8502)

Ypa = ( ( 1 - 0.75 (14,765/74,993) 2,

12

14,765 psi

- 0.4 (14,765 psi/74,993) ) 74,993

Ypa = 66,512 psi

The values A to G are calculated using the reduced yield strength.
A
B

= 2.99
= 0.059 F =

1.96

3BA

2 + BIA
F

0.0293

= 1.96
= 0.039

and

pt=

(23.9lSg6 0.039)66,512

2861 psi

The reduction in collapse strength by 233 psi (7.5% of initial) may be significant in some projects
where collapse forces are near the maximum of an unstressed casing.

2.B-50

Appendix 2.C
The lateral load on a centralizer, from API Specification 1O06p7 is:

Wsjsinej+ wsi+,sinej+

+ 27sir16~

C0Sbi

and the tensile force of pipe hanging below the centralizer is:

Tj

COS^

Tj- 1

sisin 8

+ w s p s e + w-

(tantji- tan?ji-

where:

Ni

= Incremental lateral load or force on a centralizer Ibf/in.

= Casing weight, Ib/ft

Si
Oi

Incremental centralizer spacing or casing length between centralizers, inch

= Incremental hole inclination at centralizer, degrees
= Tension of pipe hanging below centralizer, Ib
= One-half of the change in angle between centralizers

at 6, Ni = W, sin@+ 2 q sinbi
and Ti= Tkl + W, cosOi
If the borehole changes angle rapidly, the hole has a dogleg. The incidence of doglegs significantly
increase the load. The term dogleg refers to a change in hole angle and hole direction; this is a 3-D
curve.
Hole curvature is determined by:

26

[ (y-)+ sin(

2 arc sin sin2

y ) s i n e i . sinei-

L ~ b i n s k ireferred
~ ~ i ~ ~the hole curvature to a standard 100 ft length to define dogleg severity. Total
hole angle 26 and the radius of the hole curvature rare interrelated by the following equation.
LetAL= r - 2 6
Then

2.C-5 1

26 (100)
AL

~ D L S=

and

where:
ljDLS

= the dogleg severity in the half angle 6

AL

= the length between survey points

The 3-D effect of the borehole curvature increases the lateral load on the centralizers. If the effect is
ignored, too few centralizers will be used. With the 3-D effect, an effective load is calculated. The
effective load, N, is defined as the root mean square of gravitational, hole-curvature, and axial-load
forces.

We = ( Fb) ( W,> (s) sine

and

T,

2Tsin6

The maximum deflection, ymm, or the sag of the casing between the centralizers is at the m i d p ~ i n t . ~

and

where:
s

= centralizer spacing in.

2.C-52

E
I

= Youngs modulus, 3 0 ~ 1 0
psi~
= moment of inertia for the casing string, in.4

With the preceding equations, it is possible to calculate centralizer load and the centralizer spacing at
any point along the string as long as sufficient hole deviation survey information exists for the task.
Because of the many values involved, most spacing calculations are done by computer program.

2.C-53

Appendix 2.D
Casing Horizontal Wells
Reach Interval
In the highly deviated section, weight does not play the same role as in a vertical well. The act of
pushing the casing in this section generates a friction force that is in the opposite direction of pipe
movement. This force is

dF

( w ) (BF) (cose) f (p) (W) (BF) (sine)

where:
W
= nominal pipe weight/ft
BF = buoyancy factor
0 = inclination angle
p
= coefficient of friction
dF = incremental tension
At the top of the constant inclination reach section, the tension is:

where:
L
= reach interval length
f1 = tension at the top of the interval
While running the string in (setting down on the string), the friction acts to reduce the overall tension:

For a 4000 ft (measured depth) kickoff point (KOP), Figure 2.20, with a build angle of 20/100 ft, an
inclination in the reach section of 80,a reach length of 2000 ft, pipe size of 5-1/2 in. (17 Ib/ft), coefficient of friction of 0.35 and a mud weight of 9 Ib/gal:

B F = 1 - (9 lb/gal) x (7.48 gal/ft3)

(489.5 lb/ft3)

Fl

2000 [ (17) (0.86) (cos80)

0.86

- (0.35) (17) (0.86) (sin80) ]

5001 lb

Since the sign is negative, a 5000 Ib compressive force must be applied at the top of the reach interval
to push the pipe to the full 2000 ft. The force required would start at 0 and increase to the full 5000 Ib
as the pipe reached the end of the run.
The string is usually picked-up after reaching bottom. This action reverses the friction direction. The
total tension is:

2.D-54

F,

2000 [ (17) (0.86) (COS80)

- (0.35) (17) (0.86) (sin80) ]

15,156 lb

The load would be felt at the top of the section with the full column of pipe in the reach section. Put
another way, it requires 5000 Ib of force to push the pipe and 15,156 Ib to pull the pipe. At any load
between these two figures, the pipe does not move.
In this wide range of loads where there is no pipe movement, there may still be a tension at the top of
the section. At the balance point; friction is zero (no tendency toward movement) and the tension is:

F,

2000 [ (17) (0.86) (COS8O) ]

5077 lb

Rotation and Torque

If rotation is used during placement or cementing, the torque should be estimated. The torque is a
function of the normal force between pipe and open hole, the coefficient of friction and the pipe radius.
Using pipe body outside diameter, OD, the incremental torque is

dM

(p) (W) (BF) (sine) ( 0 0 ) / 2

In the constant inclination reach section, the rate of torque increase rises with length. The torque, M,,
at the top of the section is:

M,

(p)(w) (BF) (sine) ( L ) (OD)/24ft-lb

for the full 2000 ft of casing:

M,

(0.35) (17) (0.86) (sin80) (2000) (5.5)/24

2310 ft-lb

A lower torque may rotate the string if it were being simultaneously picked up or lowered.

The Build interval

Unlike the reach interval, loads in the build interval do not change linearly with measured depth. The
incremental tension, dFf, is a function of the normal force, which is a function of the tension, the inclination and the build angle.

dFf = (w) (BF) (Cose) f (p) (Fn)

and, Fn, the normal force, is:

Fn

([(Ff)
(da) (sine)l2+ (Ff) (do)-

where:
Ff

= tension

2.D-55

[(w>

(BF) (sine)]2}0.5

= incremental change in a azimuth

&I= incremental change in inclination angle

da

If the change in azimuth is zero: Fn is simplified to:

Fn

[ (Ff)(do) - (W) (5171

(sine)]

The effect of pickup and set down on tension in the build section has the same force effect as it did in
the reach section, it opposes the moving force.
Because simultaneous equations are solved for Ff, the program is usually handled on a computer. In
the example here, the tension at the KOP in Figure 2.1 9, can be calculated. For pickup where Fl =
15,156 Ib (at the top of reach section), F2 = 28,100 ft (in 400 ft). This is a 32 Ib/ft average rate of
increase and considerable higher than the 14.6 Ib/ft buoyed weight and gives an indication of the drag
in this section. The rate of increase is not constant, but increases as the KOPpoint is neared. At the
KOF the rate of tension increase is 50 Ib/ft in this example.
For the compression at Point 1 of -5000 Ib (F1= -5000 Ib), the set down load is F2 = -4800 Ib.
In Figure 2.20, Greenip illustrates the magnitude of tension and compression forces in the build and
reach intervals. Note that the maximum compressional force occurs at about midpoint in the build
interval. In this example, the maximum compressional force is about 5800 Ib. While not excessive, this
force does show that intermediate calculations are needed. For the condition of Fl= 5100 Ib (neutral
range), the load at point 2 is F2 = 9200 Ib (from Figure 2.19).
Since the torque at point 2 is also a function of the changing normal force in the build interval, its calculation is also done on the computer. Maximum torque would occur when there is no axial movement
(in and out). This could occur during cementing with rotation but no reciprocation. For the neutral
state, using a value of 2310 ft-lb at point 1 (Ml= 2310 ft-lb), M2 = 2800 ft-lb. Setting down on the pipe
(during wash downs) may increase torque load.
In the vertical section of the hole, the torque is usually ignored and M3 z M 2 .
The program calculations assume that rotation and axial drag are independent of each other. In the
real case, rotation will reduce axial drag and make pipe movement easier either running in or out of
the hole. Since the program ignores the effect, the calculations are conservative.
Bending Stress

The bending stress occurs only at locations within the casing string where there is a change in bore
hole angle. The maximum bending stresses occur in the build section of the hole. These stresses may
dominate the design, especially where the build angle is high. For a given build angle BA, the bending
stress, Sb, in the pipe body is given by:

Sb

k(211) (00)
( B A ) psi

Since the bending stress occurs only where there is a change in hole angle, there is no current bending stress in the constant inclination reach section. The pipe in the reach section must be designed for
bending stress since it must pass through the build angle. In passing through a deviated section, a
tensile force on one side of the pipe body and a compressive load on the other (Figure 2.1 0) is created. For design, bending stress is converted into tensile and compressive loads, Fb. This is accomplished by:

2.D-56

Fb

(Sb) (Ap)

The axial force, Fb, either positive or negative, is matched to the stress, Sb, in a pipe body OD using a
pipe body area of Ap.
In this example:

Sb

f (211)(5.5) (20) = f23,200 psi

and

Fb

f(23,200)(4.962) = f115,OOOlb

The axial load of the casing as it passes through the build interval has an additional, simultaneous
load of 115,000 Ib from the bending force.
Summing forces at the kick off point, the net tension load, F2b, is the total of the axial force at point 2,
F2,plus the force, Fb, caused by bending.
During string pickup,

F2b = 28,100f 115,100 = 143,200lb and -87,000lb

During string set down,

F2b =

- 4800 +. 115,000

124,300lb and -105,900lb

For neutral state,

F2b

9200 f 115,100 == 124,300lb and -105,900lb

During pipe movement with a full string in the hole, the loads experienced at the KOPcould be from
143,200 Ib compression to 120,000 Ib tension. In this example in a medium radius build hole, the load
caused by bending is over 75% of the total load.

Vertical Interval
Once the load at point 2 has been determined, the tension at the surface (point 3) can be calculated
by:
For pickup

F3 = F2 + (KOP) ( W) (BF)

28,100+ (4000)(17)(0.86) = 86,600lb

For set down

2.D-57

F3 = - 4800 + 58,500

53,700 lb

For neutral state

F3 = 9200+58,500

67,7001b

Remember, the 14,000 Ib window for starting pipe movement (between the neutral point and set
down) is the result of friction in the build section and the reach sections.
Application
For a 5-1/2 in., 17 Ib/ft L-30 casing and using a safety factor of 1.33 (Joint efficiency of 75%), the joint
strength, Pj, is

Pi

(0.75) (4.962) (95,000)

354,000 lb

Since the tension loads are highest on pickup, the safety factor at surface is:

354,000/86,600

4.09

354,000/143,200

2.47

At the KOe safety factor is:

For a safety factor of 1.1 8 on the compression efficiency of the connection (85%), the compressive
yield strength, Pjc, is

PiC

(0.85) (4.962) (80,000)

337,000 lb

Since the highest compressional loads are produced when setting down the string, the minimum
safety factor occurs in the first joint below the KOR

337,000/119,900

2.81

For the compression calculation, the load, Fib, at the bottom of the build interval is:

337,000/120,100

2.81

When running the string, it will be necessary to apply compression frequently at the top of the reach
interval to run the pipe into the hole.

2.D-58

Chapter 3: Cementing
Cementing is one of the most critical steps in well completion. Sadly, coming at the end of drilling and
in the haste to put a well on production, rarely is the time and commitment taken to get a good job. We
then spend significantly more time correcting it or battling the effects of a bad cement job.
Cement fills and seals the annulus between the casing string and the drilled hole. It has three general
purposes: (1)zone isolation and segregation, (2) corrosion control, and (3)formation stability and
pipe strength improvement. Cement forms an extremely strong, nearly impermeable seal from a thin
slurry. The properties of the cement slurry and its behavior depends on the components and the additives in the cement slurry. This chapter will focus on the basics of the cementing process. For further
information on cement and the cementing process the reader is referred to the Society of Petroleum
Engineerings Cementing Monograph.
Most cements used in the oil industry are a type of portland cement. The name portland was taken
from an English channel island with a limestone quarry that was used as source of stone for the development of portland cement. Portland cement is produced from limestone and either clay or shale by
roasting at 2600 to 3000F.The high temperature fuses the mixture into a material called clinker
cement. After the roasting step, the rough clinker product is ground to a size specified by the grade of
the cement. The final size of the cement particles has a direct relationship with how much water is
required to make a slurry without producing an excess of water at the top of the cement or in pockets
as the cement hardens. The crystals seen in set cement include: C3S - tricalcium silicate, C2S - dicalcium silicate, C4AF - tetracalcium aluminoferrite, C3A - tricalcium aluminate, MgO - periclase or magnesium oxide, and CaO - free lime.
Not all cements, even those made from the same components, will react in the same manner when
mixed with water. Basically, the differences are in the fineness of the grind of the cement, impurities in
the water and in some minor additives added during the cement manufacturing process. Figure 3.1
gives the API designated classes for cements. These classifications of cement were in response to
deeper and hotter downhole conditions. Note that the useful depths given in the data are derived from
average pumping times of neat (no additives) cement for average temperatures involved at these
depths. Actual well environment controls the limits of the cement. Also, additives such as accelerators
and retarders can be used to modify the behavior of the cement. In this manner, a class H cement, for
example, can be used to much greater depths than the 8000 ft limit seen in the table.
Figure 3.1: API Cement Classes

Class A: For use from surface to 6000 ft (1830 m) depth*, when special properties are not required.
Class B: For use from surface to 6000 ft (1830)depth, when conditions require moderate to high sulfate resistance.
Class C: For use from surface to 6000 ft (1830m) depth, when conditions require high early strength.
Class D: For use from 6000 ft to 10,000ft depth (1830 m to 3050 m), under conditions of high temperatures and pressures.
Class E: For use from 10,000ft to 14,000ft depth (3050m to 4270 m), under conditions of high temperature and pressures.
Class F: For use from 10,000ft to 16,000ft depth (3050m to 4880 m), under conditions of extremely
high temperatures and pressures.
Class G: Intended for use as a basic cement from surface to 8000 ft (2440m) depth. Can be used
with accelerators and retarders to cover a wide range of well depths and temperatures.

3-1

Class H: A basic cement for use from surface to 8000 ft (2440 m) depth as manufactured. Can be
used with accelerators and retarders to cover a wider range of well depths and temperatures.
Class J: Intended for use as manufactured from 12,000 ft to 16,000 ft (3600 m to 4880 m) depth
under conditions of extremely high temperatures and pressures. It can be used with accelerators and retarders to cover a range of well depths and temperatures.
*Depth estimates are based on conditions imposed by the casing-cementing, well-simulation
tests (API RP10-B) and should be considered approximate values. The response of the
cement to these conditions can be modified by additives.
There are a number of other cements that do not fall specifically into any general classification. These
cements are special blends of portland and additives or cements based on other chemistry. They
include pozzlin cement, which incorporates organic resin technology, expanding cements, which
increase in volume as the cement sets, silica and lime cement for hot wells, and low heat generating
cements for permafrost applications. These cements are rarely used in general completions because
they are more expensive than portland or have other traits that are less desirable than those of portland.
Environmental conditions and available completion equipment may significantly affect the performance of the cement or place special requirements on the cement. The unique problems of the effect
of temperature on cement setting and long-term strength of cements have led to development of special cements for both steam wells and those in arctic environments. High temperatures sharply reduce
cement strength and durability, necessitating the development of stabilizers. Silica additives and lime
based cements have proved effective in thermal wells. Permafrost cement was developed in response
to a need to cement formations to depths of 2000 ft without producing sufficient heat of hydration from
setting the cement to melt and destabilize the permafrost.
The most important aspect of cementing blending is obtaining a consistent slurry with the proper
amount of additives and mix water. The optimum water-to-cement ratio for a cement slurry is a compromise. Maximum cement strength occurs at a water-to-cement ratio of about 2.8 galhack. This is
the minimum amount of water necessary to fully hydrate and chemically react with the cement ground
to a size that represents Class G. But, a slurry mixed at this water rate has a very high viscosity and
cannot be pumped. If too much water is used to aid in pumping and displacement, low strength and a
very high free water quantity will occur. The tradeoff between cement strength and the mixing water
volume is seen in the data of Figure 3.2.* Free water is defined as water that is not needed by the
cement for reaction. When flow stops, it separates out to the top of the cement column. Separation
may occur at the top of a long column or in pockets in highly deviated w e k 3 These pockets contribute
to annular gas leakage and other annular flow problems.
Cement is mixed by jet mixers that combine cement and water in a single pass operation or the more
precision batch mixers that mix by circulating in a large tank but only mix a limited volume at a time.'
Although an acceptable slurry can be achieved in the jet mixer by an experienced operator, the batch
mixer allows closer control in critical, small jobs. The jet mixers' are used for almost all large jobs that
require a constant supply of cement slurry at a high rate. The density of slurries mixed by these methods must be checked periodically with a pressurized mud balance to obtain consistent density. Density
is important to control the reservoir pressure and prevent formation fracture breakdown.
The quality of the water used to mix the cement varies widely depending upon the specifications
required by the company involved. Fresh water, seawater and some brackish waters are used to mix
cement slurries. For any source of water, the behavior of the resultant cement in terms of setting time
and pumpability must be known before mixing. Pumpability is measured by a laboratory instrument
called a con~istometer.~
This device measures the setting time of a cement slurry by stirring the slurry
(under pressure) until it thickens too much to stir. The output is as units of consistency, and is time
related. This test yields the time that a particular slurry can be pumped at a given temperature.
Because of the development of offshore fields, seawater has become very widely used for cementing.
Seawater, like most inorganic salt brines, slightly accelerates the set time of cement. Fortunately, as

3-2

2.5

M X I N G YITER

-5ULLONS PER 54ck

7.5

10

(Smith, SPE)

Cement compressive strength vs. mix water volume.

Figure 3.2:

shown in Figure 3.3, the chemical composition of seawater throughout the world does not vary to a
large degree,5 but some chemical additive additions may be necessary to control effects of salt and
temperature. Use of brackish water (from bays, swamps, sewage or produced waters) can cause
problems. High salt contents, especially calcium chloride, may decrease the cement set time. Organic
contaminates (such as oil-base mud) may slow the cement set time, sometimes so severely that the
slurry does not set.

"' 1

Alaska
2000
140
0
9319

1080
360
29499
8.0

Grand Banks
Newfoundland

Trinidad

w*''

Persian

(K2;IS)

I 1 1
Gulf of

Sable

Standard
Sea Water

Suer

Island

AS1M.D-1141

18900
2260
140

19359

10690

11155

1199
370
33559

1297
408
35169

11649

24-00
78
27
11170

3100
171
24
13044

3100
134
11
12499

1118
400
35553

1300
408
35283

1500
520
41359

1570
464
40078

2580
305

8.3

82

7.3

8.2
~

2702
142

82
~~

(Smith & Calvert, JPT, 1975)

Figure 3.3: Sea Water Analysis at Various Locations

Accelerators or retarders may be used in the cement to change the set time from a few minutes to
many hours. A retarder is used in deep or very hot wells to prevent the set of the cement before the
job is complete. Accelerators are used in shallow or cool wells to speed up the set of cement so less
rig time is lost waiting on the cement to set. Values such as filtrate loss control and cement expansion
can also be directly affected. Cement additives may be divided into two general classifications based
on their reaction type; chemical and nonchemical. Nonchemical additives are usually materials which
affect the cement by altering density or controlling fluid loss. Chemical additives modify the hydration
(water intake).

3-3

Cement Density
Controlling the cement slurry density is critical for placing a column of cement where the formation
may be fractured by a heavy slurry or would allow the well to flow if the cement slurry was lighter than
the pore pressure. For a lighter weight cement than the normal 15 to 16 Ib/gal, bentonite clay may be
added to absorb water to yield a lighter cement with higher bound water volume. Ten to 12 Ib/gal
cement density can be achieved in this manner. Grinding the cement to a very small size will also
require more water to satisfy the high surface area and lighten the slurry to the 10 to 12 Ib/gal range.
Ultra-light-weight cement^,^'^ using hollow ceramic or glass beads can reduce the overall weight of
the cement slurry to less than 9 Ibs per gallon. Even lower densities can be achieved by foaming the
cement with a compressed gas such as nitrogen.&The foamed cements can create densities of 4 to
7 Ib/gal but require careful control of annulus surface pressures to avoid gas channels and voids. All
these light weight cements, although strong enough to support the pipe, have less strength than the
regular portland cement. Heavy weight materials are added to the cement to increase the cement density, usually to control the pressure in the formation during the pumping of the cement. Iron ore, barite
(barium sulfate) and sand can create slurries to 25 Ibs/gal. Other methods of preparing heavyweight
slurries include the use of dispersants which allow less water to be used in a cement and still maintain
pumpability. A chart of cement density for various methods of density control is contained in
Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Density Ranges for Various Types of Cement Slurries

In some treatments where the light weight cements are not used either by preference, economics or
for reasons of strength, stage tools can be used to control the pressures on a zone by running a multi
stage cement job. A staged job separates the cement job into small cement jobs that only support a
portion of the total column and weight. The tools prevent the cement columns from contacting each
other until set. An example of a cement stage tool is seen in Figure 3.5. The simplest tool uses a drillable plug to seal the pipe below the tool and to open a set of ports that allow the next cement stage to
turn the corner and start up the annulus. Some tools are equipped with a seal device that prevents
cement from falling down the annulus and ruining the job by creating channels or by exerting more
pressure on the lower zones.
With these tools, even a deep well with several zones can be cemented by turning the job into several
consecutive jobs. The staged concept can also be done by cementing with a small volume and perforating the pipe above the last cement top and repeating the process. However, the tools save WOC
time between jobs. The obvious drawback to the tools is the same for all downhole tools; reliability.
Fluid Loss
Lost circulation materials control the flow of whole cement into natural fractures or extremely large
vugs. The control materials come in three basic types: granular, lamellated and fibrous. Granular
materials such as sand and other products set a secondary matrix by filling cracks and vugs in the formation. They may have a size range from 1/4 in. diameter to fine powder to achieve control. Lamellated or flaked products such as shredded cellophane stopped at the formation face and create a
blockage on which cement will form a filter cake. Fibrous material such as paper, nylon or polypropylene are best suited to bridge small fractures.

3-4

S-6

can be lost waiting on cement (WOC) to set. This WOC time can be shortened by the use of accelerators. Cement requires very little strength to physically support the casing. More strength is required in
withstanding loading from drill bits and pressure. In designing the cementing operation, it is imperative
that high strength cements be used around the casing shoe (the bottom end of the pipe) and across
potential pay, thief zones (areas of fluid loss) and water producing zones. Filling the annulus behind
pipe and zone separation requires very little strength and more economical cements or cement
extenders may be used.
While the cement slurry is liquid, the hydrostatic force from the weight of the slurry exerts force to prevent entry of gas into the wellbore annulus. When pumping stops, the cement starts to gel and set and
it begins to support itself by the initial bond to the formation. This initial attachment, coupled with fluid
loss to the formation, reduces the applied hydrostatic 10ad.l~Fluids can then enter the annulus, causing voids and channels in the cement behind the pipe. Methods of control include reaction with the formation gas to plug the channels14 and stopping the gas from entering by reducing ~ermeabi1ity.l~
Use
of an external inflatable casing packer (ECP) is also an option.16 This tool operates like a hydraulic set
packer between the casing and the open hole.
The necessary volume of cement is the volume of the openhole less the volume of the casing across
the zone. An excess of 30% to 100% of the total is usually added to the cement volume to allow for
washouts and mud contaminations. The 30% to 100% range of excess cement volumes is large, even
for the technology of the oil field. It reflects the variability of drillers expertise and formation conditions.
Hole volume is calculated from the caliper log. The bit diameter should not be used for hole volume
calculations since it will not reflect washouts. In most operations, 4-arm caliper tools that give two
independent diameters are more accurate than 3-arm calipers that give a maximum or averaged reading.

Cementing Design
The first use of cement in the oil industry is recorded as a water shutoff attempt in 1903 in California.*
At first, cement was hand mixed and run in a dump bailer to spot a plug. Pumping the cement down a
well was soon recognized as a benefit and a forerunner of the modern two-plug method was first used
in 1910.2 The plugs were seen as a way to minimize mud contact with the cement. Although both
mechanical and chemical improvements have been made in the cementing process, the original plug
concept is still valid.
Cement design includes the selection of additives and equipment to remove mud and properly place
and evaluate the cement. The cement design depends upon the purpose of the cementing operation.
The initial cement is usually to fill the annular space between the casing and the hole from the casing
shoe to the surface or a point several hundred feet above the zone that must be isolated. The first
cement job is called primary cementing and its success is absolutely critical to the success of subsequent well control and completion operations. When a primary cement job fails to completely isolate
the section of interest, repair of the cement job must be done before drilling can proceed. These repair
steps are covered by the collective label of squeeze cementing. In a squeeze job, cement is forced
into the zone through perforations, ports in tools, hole produced by corrosion, or through the clearance
between casing overlap liners or strings. Although squeeze cementing has become commonplace, it
is expensive and its use can be curtailed through improved primary cementing procedures.

Primary Cementing
In primary cementing, the object is to place a continuous sheath or band of cement around the pipe
which extends without channels or voids outward to the formation face. Primary cementing is not an
easy operation to do correctly. Many things can happen during this process to create problems or
weak spots in the primary cement design.

3-6

Application
The mixing of cement and water is the first critical area of application of cementing technology. To prevent fracturing or loss of control, the water and cement must be blended together at the proper slurry
density. The weight of the slurry is equal to the weight of the set cement less any weight of free water.
One of the first questions that should emerge in a design is the volume of cement needed for a job. In
a short string or shallow string, complete cement fill of the annulus is needed, plus at least 30%
excess to displace the lead cement that is in contact with the mud as the cement displaces the mud
from the annulus. Cement contaminated with mud will not form an effective seal; it may have mud
channels through it and may not develop any strength. In cases where the mud has not been adequately conditioned before cementing, as much as 100% excess may be appropriate.
The volume of the hole should be measured with a caliper after removing the drilling string and before
running casing. Calipers may be available in 3-arm, 4-arm or multi-arm styles. Three-arm calipers
report an average round hole diameter based on the smallest diameter reading of one of the arms.
The four-arm calipers work as two 2-arm calipers. The data from this tool draws an average of the
hole based on two circles or ellipses. Both tools are capable of underestimating the hole volume.
The caliper tools report the data on a log track that shows deviation from a theoretical line reflecting
gage hole or bit size. Washouts and irregular hole volumes must be calculated to give an accurate
reading on hole size. The easiest way to calculate hole volume in a washout is to use an average
washout diameter equal to at least 90% of the maximum caliper measured diameter where the diameter is fluctuating widely and 100% of the maximum diameter where the hole diameter is more consistent. Calculating the volume of the hole in vertical segments of similar diameter yields usable results.
The problems in cementing through a washout are that fluid velocity becomes very low in a washout;
swept debris at the leading edge of the cement drops out or mixes in and the cement slurry will no
longer scour or clean the mud cake in the washout.
There are two types of oilfield cement mixing equipment: on-the-fly and batch. Batch mixing is done in
a large tank with circulation or paddle mixers. The cement and the water are measured into the tank,
sometimes with an on-the-fly mixer, with small additions of cement or water to get the right slurry density. Although batch mixing is by far the most accurate method, the size of the cement job is limited by
the volume of the tank at hand. Mixing on-the-fly involves moving steady streams of cement and water
through a zone of turbulence produced by high velocity flow, Figure 3.6. The cement slurry produced
in this manner is highly dependent on the experience and attention of the mixer operator. Numerous
problems with variances in slurry weight have led to averaging pods or tanks, Figure 3.7, downstream of the on-the-fly mixer. To minimize the damage produced from lighter or heavier than
designed slurries, most cementing service companies have density monitoring devices to report slurry
density back to the mixer operator.
WATER

0 DRY CEMENT
0 CEMENT SLURRY
CEMENT HOPPER

..

ROTARY

BREAKER 1

JET

TUB SCREENJ
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP SUCTION

.-

(Smith, SPE)

Figure3.6:

A jet mixer. The slurry density is very much

dependent upon the operator.

3-7

CIntrHUpll Pump

(Smith, SPE)

Figure 3.7:

A pod or batch mixer. The averaging characteristics

makes the slurry density much more consistent.

Incorrect cement density can cause gas migration, poor set strength, inadequate cement bond, blow
outs, formation fracturing and lack of mud displacement. Cement slurry density must be rigorously
controlled to enable the subsequent well completion steps to be carried out successfully.
Once a consistent cement slurry blend has been achieved, the second critical area, that of the displacement step, begins. To effectively bond the pipe to the formation with cement, the drilling mud and
the drilling mud filter cake must be completely removed. Failure to remove the cake or mud will lead to
failure of the primary cement job by leaving mud channels in the cement. Failures necessitate
squeeze cementing or repair operations.
Mud conditioning and displacement are the next critical areas of cementing
In order
for cement to isolate zones, a sheath of cement must completely surround the pipe and bond the formation wall to the pipe. The mud cake must be removed and the pipe must be centralized. Centralization is needed to provide sufficient standoff or clearance between the casing and the borehole wall.
Removal of the mud and mud cake is done by a combination of chemical and physical actions that are
well documented but often overlooked during application. The ease of mud removal depends upon the
physical condition of the mud and the access to the mud. Mud displacement begins with decreasing
the gel strength of mud and removing cuttings. After casing is run in the well, the annular space open
to flow is smaller than when drill pipe was present. The smaller annular area creates higher velocities
that can disturb deposits of cuttings. Cuttings can accumulate in the lead portion of the cement, contaminating the cement and creating blockages that can create lost circulation. The presence of a mud
cake will prevent bonding of the cement to the formation. An estimation of the volume of cement
needed for removal of mud cake by turbulent flow is:

Vt = (t,) (9)5.616 ft3/bbl

where
= volume of fluid (in turbulent flow), ft3

V,
tc

= contact time, minutes

= displacement rate, bbl/min

3-8

Studies have shown that a contact time (during pumping) of 10 minutes or longer provides better mud
removal than shorter contact times. The equation is valid as long as all the fluid passes the point of
interest. The equation will not be valid for mud outside the path of the flowing fluid, such as when the
casing is uncentralized and is pressing against the formation.
Movement of the pipe during cementing is one of the best methods of improving the mud displacement and reducing the number of mud channels remaining after ~ e m e n t i n g . Reciprocation
~~~~
(up
and down) and rotation of casing help force the mud from the pipe/formations contact areas and
insure a more even distribution of cement. Rotation of the pipe requires special rotating heads to allow
pumping while turning. Reciprocation, or moving the casing up and down a few feet while cementing,
can be done more easily but does not force the mud from the contact area in the same manner as
rotation. Addition of scrapers to the casing can help remove hard mud cake.24 Use of centralizers minimizes contact area and may make pipe movement easier.
Displacement of the mud and the mud cake cannot always be accomplished by flowing cement.
Heavily gelled muds and tightly compressed filter cakes are very resistant to removal by any flowing
fluid. Special removal procedures are necessary. The basic mud removal step is to pump the cement
in turbulent flow: the combination of the high velocity, high viscosity and abrasive nature of cement
work in unison to scour the formation and casing. During scouring, much of the mud and cake materials are mixed in with the first cement pumped. This contaminated cement must be removed from the
well. In the cement volume design, the allowance for contaminated cement is contained in part of the
30% to 100% excess cement normally designed into most jobs.

If muds and mud cakes cannot be removed by cement flow, special preflush fluids and mechanical
devices are available to improve displacement. To improve mud and mud cake displacement, the
binding agent in the mud must be broken down. In most cases, the mud binders are clay, polymers or
surfactants. Chemical flushes of acids, solvents, or surfactants are useful but must be selected for
action on specific muds. These flushes are pumped ahead of the cement or spotted in the annulus
before the cement job.
Mechanical devices for mud and mud cake removal include casing centralizers, scratchers for cake
The wire or wire rope
removal and turbulence inducing devices to improve mud
scratchers break up the mud cake during running of the casing. Complete removal of the cake is not
necessary; the action of the cement will often be sufficient to remove the cake fragments once the
integrity of the cake has been disrupted.
The alignment of casing in the borehole is an often neglected factor that has a tremendous impact on
mud conditioning, cementing, perforating, and production, particularly in highly deviated or horizontal
hole^.^^-^' Uncentralized casing always lays on the low side of the hole. In soft formations, the casing
may even embed or bury into the wall of the formation. When casing contacts the wall, the drilling mud
cake and some whole mud is trapped between the casing and the rock. This mud cannot be removed.
Mud removal attempts by flushes and turbulent cement flow will have little contact as shown in the
velocity profile sketches of Figure 3.8 and the photographs of mud displacement and channels created in a flow study recorded in Figure 3.9. Cement bypasses the mud and channels are left behind
the pipe. These channels may completely undermine the principles of zone separation by cement and
usually require repair by squeeze cementing. Channels are the most common form of primary cement
failure.
Centralizers and pipe movement can improve
Centralizers hold the pipe away from
the wall of the hole so that cement may more evenly displace the mud and completely fill the annulus.
The design of centralizers varies widely with the application. Centralizing casing in nearly straight
holes is relatively easy, but as holes become more deviated, centralization becomes more difficult. In
the more deviated wells, the weight of the casing will flatten most spring centralizers and may deeply
embed some of the solid fin body units. The actual number of centralizers needed for a well depends
on the acceptable deflection of the pipe and the severity of dog legs in the well. Examples of centralizers and their spacing are shown in Figure 3.10. Note in the examples that the centralizer spacing

3-9

'WO

1W

- VERCENT

75

STMWFF

Figure 3.8:

PERCENT

STUIMFF

30

- PERCWT

STUIWFF

Cement velocity schematic at different

casing standoffs.

decreases (more centralizers needed) as hole angle, pipe size and clearance increase.'^^^ The spacing is usually calculated by computer using a model such as that of Lee et al.27 These programs
project spacing on the input of depth, dogleg severity, lateral load, tension and deviation. Typical
spacing is from 30 to 60 ft between centralizers.
The variance in casing weight can be illustrated by the following examples of buoyed weight of casing.

where:
WCb = buoyant weight of casing, Ib/ft
W,
= dry wt of casing, Ib/ft
pi
= density of fluid in casing, Ib/gal
po
= density of fluid in annulus, Ib/gal

di
= inside diameter of casing, in.
do
= outer diameter of casing, in.
for circulation with an 11.5 Ib/gal mud in a 7 in., 26 Ib/ft, N-80casing:
WCb =

(26) + 0.0408 ( 1 1.5 (6.276) - 1 1.5 (7.0) 2,

21.5 lb/ft

If fresh water (8.33 Ib/gal) is used to displace 16 Ib/gal cement to the float collar, the buoyed weight
becomes:

WCb = (26)

+ 0.0408 (8.33(6.276) - 16 (7) 2,

7.4 lb/ft

Mud retards (slows) the set of cement. Minimizing this effect requires mud removal and separation
from the cement whenever possible. Most casing strings are run full of mud during casing placement
for assistance in well control. Cement displaces the mud from the casing before it flows up the annu-

3-10

(Wilson & Sabins, SPE)

Figure 3.9:

Examples of 5 (bottom) and 7 (top) casing in 9-518

showing the effect of the flow area at a standoff of
60% (both cases). The smaller flow area in the 7 test
leaves a mud channel that will allow communication.

lus. If the mud is lighter than the cement or the mud has high gel strength, the cement will tend to finger or channel through the mud during its trip down the casing, mixing cement with mud. Mixing of
mud and cement in the tubulars can be prevented by use of the two plug system. Before the cement is
circulated down the well, a hollow rubber plug (Figure 3.11), with a disk that can be ruptured at high
pressure, is placed in front of the cement. The cement pushes this plug down to the bottom of the well,
wiping the inside of the casing and displacing the mud from inside the casing ahead of the cement. At
the bottom of the well, the plug landst or is bumped and pressure builds up, rupturing the disk.
Cement comes through the plug and can turn up the annulus. The second plug is dropped at the end
of the calculated cement volume and the cement is displaced down the well with mud or water. The
second plug, or top plug, is solid and has the same set of wipers as the first plug. At the bottom of the
hole, the top plug reaches the top of the first plug and pressure rises, indicating that the plug has been
bumped. The plugs are made of drillable material that can be easily removed if the well is deepened.
Correct loading of the plugs is critical. If the plug sequence is accidentally reversed and the top plug is
dropped first, the job will end when this solid plug hits bottom and the casing is left filled with cement.
The actual displacement in the wellbore is very much different than the surface pump rate might indicate, especially when the density of the mud is much less than the density of the cement.* When a
lighter mud is displaced, the cement is in a free fall. The cement density is enough to rapidly push

3-11

Maximum Spacing Between

Centralizers, (ft) (Standoff 1 in.)
*Casing size and **hole size
Hole
Angle

*5-112 in.
-8-314 in.

10"
15"

63

20"
25"
30"
35O

53

40"

45O
50

57
50
48

46
44
42
40
(Brouse, World Oil, 1983)

(World Oil, 1988)

Figure 3.10: Examples of centralirers and centralirer spacing.

DIAPHRAGM

KILDED RUBBER
CAST ALUHINUM
INSERT

TOP PLUG
(BLACK)

Figure 3.11:

Schematics of the plugs involved in the two plug system. Note the color difference between the plugs. The
color makes identification easier when drilling out a
problem well where the cement has set p in the pipe.

3-12

the mud ahead and displace it from the well without the driving pressure of the pump. This is most
noticeable in the later stages of the job during displacement when the casing contains more mud than
cement. Surface pressure can go to almost zero at low injection rates (the well is said to go on vacuum). At this point, the well is taking fluid faster than it is being injected and mud return rate from the
well can be more than the cement injection rate (a vacuum, with void space, is being created in the
casing at the surface). As the cement turns the corner at the bottom of the well and starts up the annulus, the injection pressures caused by the heavier cement density will climb. The well returns, which
are monitored continuously at the surface, may go to zero as the cement fills the void volume in the
pipe that was evacuated during free fall. It may appear that the well has lost returns by breaking down
(fracturing) the formation. This rapid movement of fluids must be included in the design to allow control of the mud. The problems involved with free fall are rapidly increasing bottomhole pressure
caused by resistance to faster than design mud flow rates around the shoe and an apparent loss of
returns, as the cement fills the voids created during the initial free fall. An example of a field job showing pump and return rates is shown in Figure 3.12.29 If, for example, the low rate of returns after 2 hrs,
caused the operator to reduce the injection rate in an attempt to limit the apparent lossof cement,
the cement would not be in turbulent flow and the mud cake might not be cleaned off the formation.16

(Mahony & Barrios)

PAV

Figure3.12: The problem of free fall of a

heavier cement in a lighter mud
system. The upper schematic
shows the placement of the
16lblgal cement with the
lighter mud. The graph at left is
a model prediction with measured data from the field
(Beirute).

After the plug has been bumped, the waiting-on-cement time, WOC, begins and pressure is held until
cement has set. Pressure control is assisted by the float equipment. These devices are flapper or poppet valves near the bottom of the string that prevent the cement from returning to the casing. The oneway valves are of drillable material and are designed to stand the high velocity flow of large quantities
of abrasive cement without damaging the sealing mechanism. Examples of the float valve are shown
in Figure 3.13. If the float is at the end of the casing string, it is called float shoe. If it is placed a joint
or two off bottom, then it is called a float collar. The preferred location will depend upon the operator
but for reasons of cement contamination control, float collars are usually preferred. The float collar
results in a joint or two above the shoe being filled with the last cement pumped. This last cement may
be contaminated with residual mud scraped from the casing wall by the top plug. Use of both a float
collar and a float shoe are accepted practice in some areas. The dual floats are used as an extra barrier against pressure leak back.
After WOC, drill bit just smaller than the casing id is then run if the well is to be deepened. The hole is
drilled through the casing shoe and into the formation beneath this string. At this point, the casing
shoe is generally tested to insure that a good, leak-tight cement job has been obtained. If there are

3-13

Figure 3.13: Examples of floats and float locations from Smith (WE).
Note that the float collar is located one joint (or more)
above the end of the string.

leaks during this pressure test, the well is squeezed with cement until a pressure tight seal can be
obtained. Since the casing shoe is the weak spot for blowout control, this step is a necessity.
In summary, to properly place a good primary cement job requires several factors: selection of the
right cement blend, the conditioning of mud, the removal of mud cake, centralization and movement of
the pipe to insure full cement contact around the perimeter of the outside casing wall and use of
enough cement to isolate the full zone.
Cementing Calculations

The following calculations follow the formulas used in the cementing monograph.
Buoyant force on the casing by the fluid in the hole tries to float the casing. Hydrostatic pressure acts
against the effective area of the casing, causing the upward force. The pressure acts on the full area
of the closed end casing if the float is in place and holding or on the area created by do-di if the casing
is open ended. The weight of the casing string minus the upward buoyancy force gives the buoyed or
true weight of the casing string in the hole.
For 13-3/8 in., 61 Ib/ft, K-55 casing in a 17 in. hole, filled with 10 Ib/gal mud:
closed end area = x (do2/4) = 141 in.2
effective area = (1/4)x (do2-di2)= 17.5 in.2
hydrostatic at 4000 ft = 4000 ft (10 x 0.052 psi/ft = 2080 psi
hydrostatic effect on casing = 2080 psi x 17.5 in? = 36,400 Ib
casing string weight on air = 61 Ib/ft x 4000 ft = 244,000 Ib
The buoyed weight of the casing in mud divided by the outside area of the casing gives the pressure
needed to balance the string:

207,600 lb/141 in.2

3-14

1472 psi

Thus, a bottomhole kick or other pressure increase of over 1472 psi (additional 0.368 psilft or
7.1 Ib/gal) could start the casing moving upwards. At shallower depths, especially with large diameter
casing, the additional pressure to lift the buoyed weight can be 100 psi or less.
The pressure to land the top plug when displacing 16 Ib/gal cement with fresh water to 4000 ft
(assuming complete annulus fill with cement) is:
cement hydrostatic in annuls = 4000 ft x 16 Ib/gal x 0.052

.@

= 3328 psi

lb ft

water hydrostatic in casing = 4000 ft x 8.33 Ib/gal x 0.052

psi gal

lbft

= 1733 psi

pressure to land plug = 3328 - 1733 = 1595 psi

In wells where a1 the exposed formations will not support the full weight of the cement while fracturing,
the cement must be lightened or the zone must be protected by only filling the annulus with a partial
column of cement (staged cementing).
Assume the zone at 4000 ft (bottomhole) has a fracture gradient of 0.72 psi/ft. Calculate the height of
a 16 Ib/gal cement column that will be 200 psi below fracturing pressure:
bottomhole frac pressure = 4000 ft x 0.72 psi/ft = 2880 psi
allowable bottomhole pressure = 2880 psi - 200 psi = 2680 psi
cement gradient = 16 Ib/gal x 0.052 = 0.832 psi/ft
full column pressure = 4000 ft x 0.832 psi/ft = 3328 psi
If 16 Ib/gal cement is used, the maximum column height (within the allowable pressure) is:
column height = 2680 psV0.832 psi/ft = 3221 fl
If a full cement column is needed, the maximum cement density is:
maximum density = 2680 psi/4000 ft = 0.67 psi/ft or 12.9 lblgal
Cement densities are only part of the picture, the friction pressures developed by pumping the cement
past restrictions adds to the hydrostatistic pressure of the cement.
Balanced Plug Setting
Determining the height that cement will rise where it can equalize height requires use of a simple balanced plug formula.

H=- N
C+T
where

H = height of balanced cement column,

N = cubic ft of cement slurry pumped,

per linear ft of annulus,

T = ft3 per linear ft of tubing.
= ft3

3-15

Squeeze Cementing

Squeeze cementing forces a cement slurry behind the pipe to repair leaks or shut of fluid 10~s.~
Squeeze cementing is normally thought to be a repair step, but is also used to seal off depleted zones
or unwanted fluid production.
Smith2 documents eight major uses of squeeze cementing for repair and recovery control purposes:
1. To control high GORs. By squeezing the top section of the perfs, gas production can be made to
pass vertically through the top part of the formation matrix, slowing the gas production by the
contrast in vertical vs. horizontal permeabilities.

2. To control excessive water, squeezing lower perfs can delay water production. Only if an impenetrable barrier separates the oil and water or if vertical permeability is very low, will effective
water reduction be achieved.
3. Repairing casing leaks. Cement can be squeezed through holes in casing. This is best accomplished by very small particle cement.
4. To seal thief zones or lost-circulation zones. Cement slurry may penetrate natural fractures for

only a centimeter or two but may develop sufficient blockage to help control leakoff. The cement
slurry bridges on the face of the matrix. Sealing off natural fractures is often difficult.

5. To stop fluid migration from a separate zone. This is usually a block squeeze or channel repair
operation.

6. Isolation of zones. Selective shutoff of depleted or abnormally low or high pressure zones.
7. Repair of primary cement job. Filling voids or channels, and repair of liner tops are common.
8. Abandonment squeezes. Shutting off depleted reservoirs or protecting fresh water sands.

Squeeze cementing is separated into high pressure squeezing and low pressure ~ q u e e z i n g . ~ ~ ~ ~
High pressure squeezing involves fracturing the formation with cement until a required surface pressure is reached. The importance of high pressures at the end of the job, although popular with many
companies, is actually of little importance and should be well below 1 psi/ft.32333The high pressure
squeeze uses neat cement (no additives) with very high fluid loss. The best use of the technique is
usually to shutoff depleted zones and to seal perforation^.^^
The low pressure squeeze technique is probably more efficient in placing a controlled amount of
cement in a problem area of the well. With this technique, formation fracturing is completely avoided.
The pressure is achieved by pressuring-up on the cement and allowing the cement to filter out on the
formation creating a block in the annulus. Once the cement slurry has hardened or dehydrated to a
sufficient extent, no more fluid will be displaced. The excess cement that is still the drill pipe or the
annulus can be displaced from the well by opening the casing valve and flushing with a displacement
fluid. The advantages of the low pressure squeeze are less pressure exposure to tubing and casing
and special cementing tools, and a smaller quantity of cement.
For either of the squeeze cementing process, a relatively low water loss, strong cement is part of the
design. Most operations use nonretarded API Class A, G or H, which are suitable for squeeze conditions to 6,000 ft without additives. For deeper wells, Class G or H can be retarded to gain necessary
pumping time. In hotter wells (above 230F), additives should be considered at high temperature to
increase strength.

3-16

Although squeeze cementing is often used to help repair primary cement failures to protect the pipe, it
is possible to collapse the casing during squeeze cementing. If a packer is set immediately above the
zone to be squeezed and an open channel exists that links the backside of the casing above the
packer to the interval being squeezed Figure 3.14, then the outside of the casing above the packer
may be exposed to the full pressure of the cement squeeze. If the inside of the casing is not be loaded
or pressurized, casing failure can occur if the Ap is above pipe strength.

(Hodges, API, 1959)

Figure 3.14: An illustration of how cement squeezes below

a packer can result in casing collapse above
the packer. Some zone of communication is
required.

The thickening time and set time of cement used in squeeze operations are calculated in the same
manner as those used in primary cementing. Squeeze pressure does effect the dehydration of the
slurry, particularly across zones which are very permeable. Fluid loss additives may be included if the
slurry is designed to move any significant distance across a permeable formation. Normal dehydration
of a cement on a permeable section is severe enough to seal off the flow channel before complete displacement is accomplished.
Cement Squeeze Tools

A drillable or retrievable cement retainer is a modified packer that helps control the placement of
cement and protects other zones from pressure and excess cement. Retrievable tools can be set and
released several items and can be used for several squeeze repairs in one trip. Drillable tools are a
single use tool that stays in place and is drilled out (if needed) after the cement has set. The tools are
modified packers and are available in compression set and tension set models. Compression set models are normally used below 3000 ft where the weight of the string is adequate to completely engage
the slips.
Drillable cement tools are more restricted in setting and application than retrievables but offer more
control on the set cement. The drillable models are preferred where continued pressure must be maintained after squeezing.%
When squeezing formations that are naturally fractured, it is more important to fill the fractures rather
than buildup a filter cake.
Smith cites a two slurry system as successful in fractures: a highly accelerated slurry and a moderate-fluid-loss slurry. Accelerated slurries are pumped into the zones of least resistance and allowed to

3-17

take an initial set. After the first slurry has gelled, the moderate fluid loss slurry is forced into the narrower fractures. The first slurry used for this type of squeeze should take an initial set 10 to
15 minutes after placement.

Liner Cementing
Cementing of liners requires special equipment and techniques to obtain a seal in the close clearances found between the liner and the open hole or the casing string. For more information, the
reader is referred to a set of articles by Bowman and Sherer, published in World
47-54 Two
cementing techniques are use for liner cementing; a modified circulation job (looks much like a
cement squeeze) and a puddle cement technique. In the circulation/squeeze, Figure 3.1 5, the liner
and associated equipment is run on drill string with a liner running tool and a retrievable packer
assembly. After the base of the liner is squeezed, usually up to the shoe of the outer casing or slightly
above, the liner running tool is pulled out of the liner up to a point just above the liner top and the top
section of the liner is squeezed. After drillout of the remaining cement, a liner packer, may be run.

(Bowman & Sherrer)

Figure 3.1 5: Liner cementing sequence.

Cementing liners, especially deep liners at high pressures, is complicated since the liner is often isolated from the rest of the string by packers and close clearances. The result is that pressures are often
trapped behind the pipe. Pipe collapse and deformation are ~ o m m o n . Liner
~ ~ , cementing
~~
technology
is little different from full string technology except that pipe movement (including rotation) is done on
drill pipe40r43and use of plugs requires two part plugs. Liner tie back operations may require special
circulating guidelines because of the narrow clearance^.^^

3-18

Liner hanger clearances near the top will be critical in minimizing backpressure if the cement is circulated around the top of the liner in a complete circulation job. Close clearances created by a large liner
hanger can raise the backpressure and the equivalent circulation density. In some cases, this increase
in equivalent density is enough to fracture the well.
In a puddle job, the cement slurry is spotted by the drill pipe over the section in which the liner is to be
run. The volume calculation for the puddle of cement must consider hole volume and liner volume.
Undetected washouts in the hole can lead to lack of cement around the liner top. Although the procedure is much simpler than the circulation/squeeze technique, it is also often less effective in providing
a seal. The technique is used for short liner sections.
Frictional Pressure Dropin Pipe

The pressure drop of general slurries in pipe is given by:

APf

0.039 6, pv2f

where
dpf
L
p
v
f

= friction

loss, psi,

= length of pipe, ft,

= slurry density, Ib/gal,
= velocity, Wsec,
= frictional factor, dimensionless.

The frictional factor is

for general, nonviscous slurries in turbulent flow
f=-

0.0303
No1612

Re

for plug and laminar flow

Reynolds number, N R ~is,

where:
K = consistency index, Ib-secN, per ft2,
N = flow behavior index, dimensionless.

3-19

References
1. Smith, D. K.: Cementing, SPE Monograph, 1987.
2. Smith, R. S.: Internal Amoco Report on Cementing.
3. Keller, S.R., Crook, R. J., Haut, R. C., and Kuiakofsky, D. S.: Deviated Wellbore Cementing:
Part 1 - Problems, JPT, (Aug. 87), 955-960.
4. API Bulletin RP-lOB,
5. Smith, R. C., Calvert, D. G.: The Use of Sea Water in Well Cementing, J. Pet. Tech., (June
1975), 759-764.

6. Smith, R. C., Powers, C. A., Dobkins, T. A.: A New Ultralightweight Cement with Super
Strength, JPT, (Aug. 1980), 1438-44.
7. Harms, W. M., Ligenfelter, J. T.: Microspheres Cut Density of Cement Slurry Oil and Gas J.,
(Feb. 2, 1981), 59-66.
8. Davies, D. R., Hartog, J. J., Cobbett, J. S.: Foamed Cement- A Cement with Many Applications, SPE 9598, Middle East Oil Tech, Conf. Manama, Bahrain, March 9-12, 1981.
9. Harms, W. H.: Cementing of Fragile Formation Wells With Foamed Cement Slurries, JPT,
(June 1985), 1049-1057.
10. Benge, 0. G., Spangle, L. B.: Foamed Cement - Solving Old Problems with a New Technique,
SPE 11204, SPE Tech. Conf., New Orleans, Sept. 26-29, 1982.
11. Bannister, C. E.: Evaluation of Cement Fluid-Loss Behavior Under Dynamic Conditions, SPE
7592, Houston, Oct. 1-3, 1978.
12. Brice, J. W., Holmes, B. C.: Engineered Casing Cementing Programs Using Turbulent Flow
Techniques, J. Pet. Tech. (May 1964), 503-508.
13. Cheung, P. R., Beirute, R. M.: Gas Flow in Cements, SPE 11207, presented 57th Annual Tech.
Mtg., New Orleans, Sept. 26-29, 1982.
14. Bannister, C. E., Shuster, G. E., Woolridge, Jones, M. J.: Critical Design Parameters to Prevent
Gas Invasion During Cementing Operations, SPE 11982, presented Ann. Tech. Mtg., San Francisco, Oct. 5-8, 1983.
15. Cheung, P. R., Myrick, B. D.: Field Evaluation of an Impermeable Cement System for Controlling Gas Migration, SPE 13045, presented Ann. Tech. Mtg., Houston, Sept. 16-19, 1984.
16. Smith, R. C.: Successful Primary Cementing Can Be a Reality, J. Pet. Tech., (November 1984),
1851-1858.
17. Sauer, C. W.: Mud Displacement During Cementing: A State of the Art, JPT., (Sept. 1987),
1091-1101.
18. Smirk, D. E., Kundert, D. P., Vacca, H. L.: Application of Primary Cementing Principles, Rocky
Mountains and Texas, SPE 16208, Prod. Operat. Symposium, Okla. City, March 8-1 0, 1987.

3-20

19. McLean, R. H., Manrey, C. W., and Whittaker, W. W.: Displacement Mechanics in Primary
Cementing, J. Pet. Tech. (February 1967) 251-260.
20. Parker, P. N., Ladd, B. J., Ross, W. M., and Wahl, W. W.: An Evaluation of a Primary Cementing
Technique Using Low Displacement Rates, SPE 123440th Annual Meeting, Denver, October 36, 1965.
21. Clark, C. R., Carter, L. G.: Mud Displacement with Cement Slurries, J. Pet. Tech. (July 1973),
775-782.
22. Garcia, J. A.: Rotating Liner Hanger Helps Solve Cementing Problems, Pet. Eng. Int. (September 1985) 38-48.
23. Bowman, G. R., Sherer, B.: How to Run and Cement Liners, World Oil (March 1988), 38-46.
24. Crook, R. J., Keller, S.R., and Wilson, M. A.: Deviated Wellbore Cementing: Part 2 - Solutions,
JPT, (Aug 87), 961-966.
25. Reiley, R. H., Black, J. W., Stagg, T. O., Walter, D. A., and Atol, G. R.: Cementing of Liners in
Horizontal and High-Angle Wells at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, SPE 16682, 62nd Annual Meeting,
Dallas, September 27-30, 1987.
26. Wilson, M. A., Sabins, F. L.: A Laboratory Investigation of Cementing Horizontal Wells, SPE
16928, 62nd Annual Meeting, Dallas, September 27-30, 1987.
27. Lee, H. K., Smith, R. C., Tighe, R. E.: Optimal Spacing for Casing Centralizers, SPE Drilling
Engineering (April 1986), 122-130.
28. API Specification 1OD, Casing Centralizers, Feb. 17, 1986, 3rd Ed.
29. Beirute, R. M.: The Phenomenon of Free Fall During Primary Cementing, SPE 13045, Ann.
Tech. Conf., Houston, Sept. 16-19, 1984.
30. Howard, G. C., Fast, C. R.: Squeeze Cementing Operations, Trans., AIME (1950) 189, 53-64.
31. Baret, J. R.: Why Cement Fluid Loss Additives Are Necessary, Paper SPE 17630 presented at
the SPE International Meeting, Tianjin, China, November 1-4, 1988.
32. Patton, L. Douglas: Squeeze Cementing Made Easy, Petroleum Engineer International (October 1987), 46-52.
33. Rike, J. L.: Obtaining Successful Squeeze - Cementing Results, Paper SPE 4608, presented at
the fall meeting, Las Vegas, September 30-October 3, 1973.
34. Goolsby, J. L.: A Proven Squeeze-Cementing Technique in a Dolomite Reservoir, reprinted
from Journal of Petroleum Technology (October 1969), 1341-1346.
35. Shryock, S.H. and Slagle, K. A.: Problems Related to Squeeze Cementing, Journal of Petroleum Technology (Vol 20, August 1968), 801-807.
36. Hodges, J. W.: Squeeze Cementing Methods and Materials, SPE Squeeze Symposium, Lubbock, March 15, 1918.

3-21

37. Carter, L. G.; Harris, F. N. and Smith, D. K.: Remedial Cementing of Plugged Perforations,
Paper SPE 759 presented at the California Regional Meeting, Santa Barbara, October 23-25,
1963.
38. Edwards, A. G.: Squeeze Tools, Squeeze Cementing Symposium, Lubbock, March 5, 1981.
39. Brouse, M.
40. Gust, D. A., McDonald, R. R.: Rotation of a Long Reach Liner in a Shallow Long-Reach Well, J.
Pet. Tech., (April 1989),401 -404.
41. Harms, W. M., and J. S. Febus, Cementing of Fragile-Formation Wells With Foamed Cement
Slurries, Journal of Petroleum Technology (June 1985),1049-1057.
42. Harms, Weldon M., and David L. Sutton, Ultra-Density Cementing Operations, Journal of
Petroleum Technology (January 1983),61-69.
43. Lindsey, H. E., Rotate Liners for a Successful Cement Job, World Oil (October 1986),39-43.
44. Lindsey, H. Ed, Techniques for Liner Tie-Back Cementing, Production Engineering, 1978,3739.
45. Durham, Kenneth S.,How to Prevent Deep-well Liner Failure (Part l), World Oil (October
1987),46-50.
46. Durham, Kenneth S.,How to Prevent Deep-well Liner Failure (Part 2),World Oil (November
1 987),47-49.
47. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part l),World Oil (March
1988),38-46.
48. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 3),World Oil (June
1 988),55-58.
49. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 4),World Oil (July
1 988),84-88.
50. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 5),World Oil (September 1 988),65-70.

51. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 6),World Oil (October 1988),69-72.
52. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 7),World Oil
(November 1988),75-79.
53. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 8),World Oil
(December 1988),71-74.
54. Bowman, Glenn R., and Bill Sherer, How to Run and Cement Liners (Part 9),World Oil (January 1989),44-48.
55. Goodwin, Joe, Centralizer Placement in Deviated Holes, Drilling (April 1985),54-57.

3-22

56. Parcevaux, Philippe, Guides Emerge for Cementing Horizontal Strings, Oil & Gas Journal,
October 19, 1987, 35-41.
57. Smith, R. C., R. M. Beirute, and G. B. Holman, Improved Method of Setting Successful Cement
Plugs, Journal of Petroleum Technology (November 1984), 1897-1904.
58. Rike, J. L., and Erik Rike, Squeeze Cementing: State of the Art,Journal of Petroleum Technology (January 1982), 37-45.
59. Sauer, C. W., and W. R. Landrum, Cementing - A Systematic Approach, Journal of Petroleum
Technology (December 1985), 2184-2196.
60. Hartog, J. J., D. R. Davies, and R. B. Stewart, An Integrated Approach for Successful Primary
Cementations, Journal of Petroleum Technology (September 1983), 1600-1610.
61. Mahony, Bernard J., and John R. Barrios: Cementing Liners Through Deep, High Pressure
Zones, Engineering Essentials of Mud Drilling, HBJ Publishers, 1962.
62. Smith, R. C., R. M. Beirute, and G. B. Holman, Postanalysis of Abnormal Cementing Jobs with a
Cementing Simulator, SPE Production Engineering (August 1987), 157-164.

Cementing: Review Questions

1. Calculate the buoyant weight of 9-5/8 in., 47 Ib/ft, N-80 casing when 16.4 Ib/gal cement just
reaches the shoe and there is a 8.33 Ib/gal surfactant water flush in the annulus.

2. Derive a formula for the required density of a displacing flush that will give a neutral density with
a flush PO.
3. For a well with a fracture gradient of 0.6 psi/ft at 7000 ft, calculate the maximum cement height
above the zone when using 16.4 lblgal cement (use a maximum bottomhole pressure of 200 psi
below frac pressure).
4. For the example in #3, calculate the cement density that will allow a full cement column to surface (use a maximum bottomhole pressure of 200 psi below frac pressure).

3-23

Chapter 45

Packer Selection and Tubing Forces

Packers create a seal between the annulus and tubing. They may also serve as anchors and/or hangers for tubing strings. Although the concept of a packer is simple, the variety in devices is extensive. A
packer may be described by its setting mechanism; hydraulic or mechanical, by its running mechanism; wireline or tubing, by its permeance; permanent or retrievable, by its function or by some other
description. Its purpose is clear, it is the main downhole wellbore pressure control in many wells. Slips
anchor the packer in place in the casing, a necessity where differential pressures exceed several
thousand psi. Mechanical set packers set their slips by pushing a wedge- or cone-shaped piece
against a set of tapered slips (hardened steel gripping surfaces) to drive the slips out and into the casing wall. Mechanical energy is supplied by tubing rotation, tension, or compression. Hydraulic set
packers set slips by fluid pressure, supplied by liquid or gas generating explosive charge. The slips
are made on pistons that move out laterally for the few millimeters needed. The pistons may be
designed to retract when pressure is released or remain out in some permanent installations. Packer
slips are usually designed to hold in one direction, acting as an anchor to resist upward movement or
as a hanger to resist downward movement. By using two sets of opposing slips, the packer can be
anchored from either direction. An accompanying packing element (an elastomer, e.g., synthetic rubber) is expanded by the slip setting action tubing or pressure which expands the seals against the wall
of the pipe and generates a pressure tight seal.
The purposes of packers are:
1. Casing protection from pressure or fluids in the tubing
2. Separation of zones

3. Subsurface pressure and fluid control for safety

4. Artificial lift support equipment

Picking the right packer requires knowledge of the operational and completion requirements. This puts
an early design load on completions/operational engineers: get it right or risk an early workover to
replace a poorly selected packer.
Packers can be selected with aid of a decision tree planner such as shown in Figure 4.1. If a fully open
wellbore is not required, the choice will most often be a permanent packer. As the name implies, the
permanent packer is a permanent feature of the well. Removal requires milling of the slips.
Production Packers

A gas well completion with a packer can often eliminate problems of produced liquid heading and
loading if a tail pipe is run below the perforations. For some wells, including many older wells with
increasing water cut and decreasing flowing tubing pressure and rate, smaller tubing or velocity
strings can assist in keeping the gas velocity high enough to lift the liquids?
Because the packer seals the tubing string, it must have compatibility with string size and string movement. The packer must be metallurgically compatible with produced fluids and the metal in the tubing
string. Elastomers must be stable at operating temperatures, pressures and in produced fluids and
completion or stimulation fluids.
Special Equipment

When large pressure differentials are expected in any tool that needs to be released, a pressure
equalizing valve must be incorporated to keep the pressure from driving packer and tubing up (or

4-1

Isapnckerand

for Isolation?

ard metal
selection

(modified from Peden)

Figure 4.1:

A packer selection criteria flow sheet.

down) the well. Most valves work with the first tubing movement; opening a vent between upper and
lower sections before the continued tubing movement releases the anchoring slips.
When the tubing must be routinely pulled, a plug profile in the packer and an ON/OFF tool eliminates
killing the
A wireline plug may be set in the profile in the packer to shut in the well and the tubing
may be pulled while the retrievable packer remains in place with the well shut in. The well is effectively
controlled by the packer and plug for repair or replacement of the tubing, without needing to kill the
well.
Various types of packers are schematically illustrated in Figure 4.2. The discussion that follows
describes several of the features3-
Solid head retrievable tension packers are used when the pressure below the packer is greater than
the annulus pressure above the packer. This commonly occurs in an injection well or during low pressure treating. Tension packers are preferred in injection wells so that the slips are in the annulus:
away from the corrosive effects of the injected fluid. Caution must be exercised when setting tension
packers on small diameter tubing in a well with large diameter casing. In some cases, such as 23/8 in. tubing in 7 in., casing the tension needed to set the packer may exceed the tensile strength of
the tubing.8 When a force is applied to the tubing, it will respond by stretching. Figure 4.3 can be used
to estimate stretch on tubing for an applied force.
Solid head retrievable compression packers are used when pressure above the packer is greater than
the pressure below the packer. This normally occurs in a producing well with a full annulus of packer

4-2

VUVE
IIUmIcR
I I P

(from Guiberson)

Examples of various packers that might be used in a normal

completion.

Figure 4.2:

VALVE

au?
WMU
W
U
C

SEALS

RIBEER
SLIP

#
fluid. The compression set packers are the easiest to unseat and pull. Both compression set and tension set packers can be affected by tubing length changes caused by pressure fluctuations and temperature changes. Probably the most popular retrievable packers use a J-latch set with tubing rotation
and slack off as the setting forces. When the tubing is latched in or otherwise solidly connected, careful consideration must be given to temperature effects to avoid cork screwing and buckling the tubing.
Retrievable packers have a wide range of applications but are not used in deviated, thermal, or deep
wells where tubing movement may be a severe problem.
Retrievable hydraulic set packers are set by applying hydraulic pressure in the tubing. The pressure
expands the elements and sets the slips against the wall of the casing. This packer may be removable
and is usually released by pulling on the tubing which shears pins or opens a valve within the packer
and releases the seals and slips. Hydraulic packers are very common in dual completions, especially
in deviated wells.

Dressing Packers
Equipping a packer for the characteristics of an individual well is called dressing a packer. Most
packers will work in a range of casing weights of a particular size casing.

Allowing Tubing Movement

Polished seal bore packers are usually permanent packers set at a predetermined depth by either
wireline or tubing. A seal assembly attached to the bottom of the tubing string is stung into the packer
polish bore receptacle to achieve sealing. In wells with a severe amount of tubing movement, a long
seal assembly and a polished seal bore packer are used to establish a slip joint to let the tubing
expand and contract as needed.

4-3

Effects of Temperature

Any well component will react to a change in temperature by a volume or reaction change. The components affected by temperature include tubulars, produced fluids, cements, acids, and corrosion
properties. The changes in these fluids and materials, especially when the changes are unexpected,
may lead to failures in components of the well. In most wells, a value for bottomhole temperature,
BHT, is usually available from logging runs. As with most remotely sensed values, the BHT should be
checked with other methods to make sure the value is correct. An incorrect BHT may lead to expensive problems with an otherwise correctly designed completion.
As a check on BHT, use the following formula. Average temperature gradient is 1.6"Fper every 100 ft
of true vertical depth, d. The formula is BHT = T, + (0.1) (U) (1.6),where T, = average surface temperature OF. Gradients vary with geothermal activity. Substitute the local gradient for the 1.6 value. With
the correct gradient values for individual areas, bottomhole temperature may vary by a factor of 2 for
wells of the same depth but in different thermal activity areas.

Changes in temperature are at least as important as the total temperature. The first change in temperature is experienced as the well warms up from a circulating BHT to the static BHT. Whenever the well
is circulated with a cooler fluid, BHT decreases. The rate of warming after circulation is stopped,
depends on the amount of temperature differential between the static and circulating BHT and the volume of circulation that has occurred. Wells that have experienced long-term injection or circulation of
cool fluids will reach static BHT much slower than wells in which the injection or circulation is limited.
In general, the following statements describe how temperature affects the tubing or casing in a wek7

1. The tubing temperature is assumed to be the same as the injected fluid if no circulation is
involved. If circulation occurs, the temperature of the top few tubing joints will be the same as the
injected fluid, but the "temperature front" will only slowly work down. The analogy of heat transfer
in a circulating well is that of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The fluid rising in the annulus
exchanges heat with the injected fluid.
2. In injection without circulation, or in the case of produced fluids, assume the entire tubing string
is the same temperature.
3. The temperature of an unheated injected fluid is assumed to be the same as the ambient air temperature in an onshore well. In offshore wells, injection of sea water from a deeply placed intake
or injection of any fluid into a deep water well where the riser is not appreciably insulated can
drastically lower the temperature. The coldest point in these systems is the mud line ternperature.

4. In a dual packer situation, treat each string as a separate calculation. The calculations on dual
strings are made with the bottom string first, working up to the top.

The assumptions that all the tubing be considered as the same temperature is a simplifying move. It is
a "worst possible case" that will result in a more conservative design (higher than needed safety factor). Where temperature alone affects the pipe, steel expands or contracts 0.0000828" per ft per O F
gained or lost
The extremes of temperature change in well completion and producing operations is usually seen in
completions that are exposed to thermal stimulation or cyclic thermal production (or steam injection).
The effect of tubing and casing length changes in the wells that are thermally cycled is covered in the
chapter on thermal completions. Other severe cases of temperature cycling occur in a CO2-flood environment. In both injection and production wells, CO2 expansion may significantly reduce temperature.

4-4

Deep Completions

Deep well operations pose special problems. In most deep well operations, the use of retrievable
packers is extremely limited. Most operators choose to use a permanent packer for reasons of tubing
movement (with a PBR) and with temperature and pressure limitations on some retrievables.11f2

IsolatesCasing AboveLiner
From Producing Fluids

Figure 4.4:

No

No

No

NIA

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

A Comparison of features and limitations of several packer types for deep completions.
The descriptions refer to the packers listed in Figures 4.5 to 4.13.

4-5

Figure4.5:

The simplest method of allowing tubing movement. A permanent packer with internal
polished bore receptacle and
seals on tubing.

Figure4.6:

A seal bore or polished bore

added to the packer to give
extra sealing and protection
against corrosive fluids.

I 'I

(left) An alternative to
a packer i s a liner top
receptacle and seal
assernbly.
Figure 4.8:

4-6

(right) The same completion as in 5.7

except that the liner
is cemented in place.
(no liner hanger).

Figure4.9:

Liner top receptacle and permanent packer sharing common seals on tubing.

Figure 4.10: Seal bore extension below

packer and separate liner top
recept.

W B

Figure 4.11:

4-7

Packer with extra long seal

receptacle to allow for tubing
movement in extreme operating conditions.

Figure 4.12:

Polished bore receptacle

mounted on top of the
packer.

Figure 4.13: Combination of a liner top

receptacle (below) and a polished bore receptacle (above)
on top of the permanent
packer. This isolates liner
movement from tubing movement.

Seal Considerations
Successful seal selection involves specifying a seal that will operate at the production and treating
conditions. The seal bore assembly may range from 1 to 3 ft in cool operations to over 30 ft in extreme
cases of temperature ~ y c l i n g . Seal
~ materials such as those in Figure 4.15 are common in the industry. There are no universal elastomers (polymer, plastic, rubber, etc.) that are suitable for all uses.
Seals must be selected on the basis of cost, thermal environment and chemical resistance. Seals may
deteriorate by swelling, gas permeation, softening, hardening, nibbling under pressures, or failure of
the internal bonding system that holds the elastomer compound together.21
Inserting the seal assembly on the tubing into the polished bore receptacle, is referred to as stab-in. It
is the first and often the most severe task that a seal system must undergo.13 Damage caused by running may be overcome with a protective sleeve around the seals. Metal spacers between the seals are
used to decrease damage from friction during ~ t a b - i n . ~

4-8

Seal Material

1 = satisfactory2 = fair (OKfor static seal)

Figure 4.14: Chemical Resistance of Several Seal Compounds

Seal Problems

The force to pull out of a seal assembly may often be more than expected due to normal seal friction,
pressures above and below the seal, areas on which the pressure can act, solids covering the seal
area, and seal problems such as seal deteriorization that will cause sticking.
The general force balance to unseat a seal in good condition is:

where
F
W
Pa
A,
Pb
Ab
C

= upward force,

= mass of the string,

= pressure above seals,
= area on which Pa is exerted,
= pressure below seals,
= area on which Pb is exerted,
= the seal friction for the mechanism.

See Figures 4.1 8 and 4.1 9 for details on areas.

Tubing and Packer Forces

Forces on the packer may come from fluid pressure experienced during production and from packer
fluid or other source of annulus pressure. In all these calculations, it must be remembered that all
the changes of pressure and temperature are changes from some original or starting point
condition.
The are four classifications of tubing movement caused by pressure or temperat~re.~-*~

4-9

All the movements but buckling can be expressed as a force, and each force is a straight line function
of pressure or temperature differential.

1. Temperature Tubing length changes with temperature change, expanding with a temperature
rise and contracting with a decrease in temperature. The change in length is:

AL,

CLAt

where:
AL4

= change in length, inches

C
L
At

= coefficient of expansion, for steel

C = 6.9 x 1OW6/OF

= length of tubing, inches

= average temperature change, O F from initial.

The force, f 4 , caused by temperature change on tubing latched in place is:

F,

207 Ata A,

where:
F4
Ata

= temperature induced force, Ib

= change in average temperature of tubing,

O F

= cross-section area of tubing, sq. in.

A,
2. Piston Effect The internal and external tubing pressures at the packer act on the differential
area created by the tubing and packer mandrel to change the tubing length.

AL1

-EA,

[ ( A p - AiIAPi- ( A p - A o ) A P o ]

(4.3)

where:

= change in tubing length, in.

= length of tubing string, in.

= modulus of elasticity for steel = 3 x 1 O7 psi

A,

= cross-sectional area of tubing, in.2

Ap
Ai
Ao

= area of packer bore (stinger), in.2

AL,

= area of tubing id, in?

= area of tubing od, in.*

A P i = change in pressure inside tubing at packer, psi
A P o = change in pressure in annulus at packer, psi

When the tubing is latched in place, the force created by the piston effect is:

4-10

Fl

= [ (Ap-Ai)APi-

(Ap-Ao)APo]
(4.4)

3. Ballooning - The ballooning effect is the result of pressure changes inside and outside the tubing. It may be expressed by:

AL3

2L APia - R2 APoa
-[108
R2- 1
1

In latched tubing, the force, F3, generated is:

where:
F3
R

= ballooning force, Ibs

= ratio of tubing OD to ID
= tubing length in inches
APia = change in average tubing pressure, psi

Ai

= inside area of tubing, sq. in.

APoa = change in average annulus pressure, psi

A,

= outside area of tbg., sq. in.

The ( A P j d j ) term is the shortening effect of ballooning and the (AP,,tA,) term represents a force
that tries to lengthen the tubing.

4. Buckling buckling of the tubing can be caused or increased by a variety of conditions. Some of
these are: (1) upward acting packer forces, (2) higher pressure inside the tubing than outside,
(3) increased casing diameter to tubing diameter ratios, (4) lower density fluid in the tubing than

in the annulus, and ( 5 ) larger packer bores.

Buckling of the tubing above a packer permitting free motion will shorten the tubing. Such buckling is a result of the differential between the pressure inside the tubing and that outside the tubing acting on the full cross-sectional area of the packer bore at the tubing seal. Where the
packer limits tubing motion, the tubing weight set on the packer must also be considered.
Calculation of the length change from buckling forces are shown in the following formula.
= -

AL2

r2AP ( APi- A PO)

8 El ( ws + wi- wo)
(4.7)

where:
A 4

= contraction of tubing, in.

r
Ap

= (casing ID -tubing OD) + 2, in.

= area of stinger OD (packer bore), sq. in.

4-11

= Modulus of elasticity for steel (30 x 1O6 psi)

E
APi

= change in pressure in TBG. @ packer (affected by applied surface pressure and

change in fluid density in TBG.), psi
APo = change in pressure in annulus @ packer (affected by applied surface pressure and
change in fluid density in CSG.), psi
= moment of inertia of TBG. around its axis = d64 (OD4 - ID4)
I
w,
= weight of TBG./in. in air (1/12 of nominal weighvft)
Wj
= weight of fluid inside one inch length of TBG. (fluid density x area of TBG. ID)
w,
= weight of annular fluid displaced by one inch length of tubing (density of CSG. fluid
times area of TBG. OD)
The tubing constants for W, + Wj+ W, are shown in Figure 4.1 6. Since the values for I, w,, Wj,
and w,, for common size tubing and mud weights will become constants, the term:

;:E

2.000
2-1/16
2-318
2-7/8
3-112

2.40
2.90
3.40
3.40

3.142
3.341

2.190
2.405

4.70
6.50
9.20

4.430
6.492
9.632

3.126
4.880
7.031

1.304
1.012
2.590

.428

1.393
1.434
1.389

.704
1.611
3.885

1.417
1.307
1.368

w,+ w,. w,
Tubing OD
(Inches)

+-t

1.660
1.go0

Welght
(lbslln.)

w, w,

Wland WO
(lbdln.)

200

W\

242

WO

52.3

55

.065

.062
.086

.m
.OS

.073
.101

2-318

w, 9.392

,095
.134

.142
.196

213
291

Figure 4.16: Tubing Constants and Values of A, A,, A, 1, and (W,

tions

+ W,

- WO)for Use in Buckling Calcula-

r2Ap2
8 E / ( Ws+ Wi- WO)
will become a constant for any particular completion. Once the constant is calculated, a curve
can be plotted for varying (APi- AP,). There is no buckling movement caused by differential
pressure when annulus pressure is greater than the tubing pressure; the tubing will have buck-

4-12

ling movement caused by differential pressure only when tubing pressure is greater than annulus pressure at the packer.''v20

Length or Force Changes?

Whether tubing length change or force change calculations are needed depends on how the tubing is
attached to the packer.vb
1. If there is no packer and the tubing is freely suspended (not touching the bottom of the well), all

effects produce a length change.

2. If the tubing is landed on the packer, it is restrained from moving downward. Positive length
changes cannot occur and are translated to force. Tubing shortening can occur.
3. If the tubing is latched into the packer, no movement can occur in either direction and all effects
are converted to forces.
4. If the tubing is stung through the packer, all effects will be length changes unless the stop at the
top of the seal assembly contacts the packer. If the tubing elongates enough to engage the stop,
the movement will then be converted to force.
5. If the tubing is set in tension or compression, the effects of pressure or temperature induced
force changes are added or subtracted from the force in place before the change. Sometimes
these changes are enough to unseat the packer.

Example: A well is completed with a PBR packer set at 9300 ft. and uses, 4-1/2 in., 12.6 Iblft, N-80
tubing. The tubing weight (compression) on the shoulder of the PBR is 20,000 Ib, at flowing conditions of bottom hole flowing pressure of 1700 psi, and a surface pressure of 250 psi. The average
producing tubing temperature is 250" F. The average tubing injection temperature is 75F. Use fracture pressures calculated in problem 2. What seal assembly length is needed to keep from pulling out
of the PBR during a fracture stimulation? Assume that the seal assembly needs to be 1 ft longer than
the length change from ballooning and temperature change. Consider both temperature and ballooning forces (ignore buckling and piston force). Seal assembly OD and ID are same as 4.5 in. tubing
(4.5 in. and 3.958 in. respectively).
Solution:
First, account for the 20,000Ib force, DF , with temperature change =>
AF = 207 A, At
A, = cross sectional area of tubing wall, in2
At = change in average tubing temperature, OF
A, = n/4 (4.52 - 3.9582) = 3.6 in2
At = [20,000/ ((3.6)(207))l= 36.8 OF (this is the temperature change (cooling) in the tubing that is
required to remove the 20,000 psi of force load applied by the tubing at the packer. Remaining temperature is (250 - 75)- 26.8 = 148.2"F.
Now, what length change will be produced with a temperature change (cooling) of 148.2OF?
AL = LCAt
L = length, inches
C = coefficient of thermal expansion, 6.9 x 1 0-6
At = change in average tubing temperature, OF

4-13

AL = (9300 x 12) (6.9 x 10-6) (148.2) = 114.24 inches = 9.51 ft

Ballooning Induced Pipe Length Movement
AL

(-2L$E) [(APia-R2APoa)/(R2-1)]

E = modulus of elasticity, 30 x 106

L = length, inches
y = Poissons ratio, 0.3 for steel
R = ratio of tubing OD to ID
APia = change in average tubing pressure, psi
APoa = change in average annulus pressure, psi
AL = change in tubing length, in
APia = ?
tubing pressure before = (1700 + 250)/2 = 975 psi
tubing pressure after = (7836 + 4423)/2 = 6130 psi
(the 7836 psi = BH frac pressure D hydrostatic back to packer, or
= [9600 ft x 0.83 psi/ft] D [(9600 - 9300) ft x 8.5 x 0.0521 = 7836 psi.
(the 4423 psi way surface pressure during fracturing).
APia = (6130 - 975) = 5155 psi
R = 433.958 = 1.1 37, R2 = 1.293
AL = (-2L$E) [(APia-R2APoa)/(R2-1)]
AL = (-2 (9300) (12) (0.3) / (30 X 106) ) [((5155 A ((1.293) (0))) / (1.293-l)]
AL = (-(0.002232)) (5155 / 0.293) = 39.27 inches = 3.27 ft
The total length change = 9.51

+ 3.27

= 12.78 ft

The stinger needs to be at least 12.8 + 1 ft = 13.8 ft long to keep the tubing from pulling out of the
packer during the fracture stimulation. A greater safety margin than 1 foot is common.
Setting the Packer

Successful packer setting depends on having a clean set point in the casing. Before a packer is set, a
casing scraper, Figure 4.1 7, is run to remove mud, scale, cement, or corrosion debris and mill scale.
Chances of successfully setting the packer go up sharply when a casing scraper is run. Some personnel resist running a scraper because of creating debris that can go to the perforated interval and
cause formation damage.

..

-----aa(OM scraper, Composite Cat.)

Figure 4.17: An example of a casing scraper. They are run prior to setting a packer
to clean the casing set point.

The effect of pressure in the annulus and in the tubing on the packer depends on the tubing/packer
configuration. When the tubing id is larger than the bore of the packer, Figure 4.1 8, the annulus pres-

4-14

sure pushes up and the tubing pressure pushes down. When the tubing id is smaller than the packer
bore, Figure 4.19, the annulus pressure pushes down and the tubing pressure pushes up. The effect
of pressure in this example is a piston effect.

Figure 4.18:

When the tubing id is larger than the bore of the

packer, the annulus pressure pushes up and the tubing
pressure pushes down.

Figure4.19: When the tubing id is smaller than the

packer bore, the net force may be
upward for equal pressures of PO and
pi.

4-15

In a sting through completion with a very short seal assembly or in a latch in completion, it is necessary to know how much weight to set off on the packer. Assuming the tubing id is smaller than the
packer bore, the needed weight would be the product of the expected operating pressure times the
difference in area between the tubing id and the packer bore.21
Packers are always tested for seal after setting. If the test pressure is too high, the packer can unseat
and move. In a tension set packer, for example, the maximum annulus pressure for test can be calculated as follows.21
An injection well is equipped with a tension set, hook wall packer. The tubulars are 7 in., 23 Ib/ft, N-80,
(id = 6.366 in., Ai = 31.8 in.2) casing and the tubing is 2-7/8in., 6.5 Ib/ft, C-75 (id = 2.041 in., Ai =
6.5 in.2) tubing. The packer is set with 18,000psi Ib tension with the annulus filled with treated water
(density = 8.4 Ib/ft). The annulus pressure that can be applied before the packer releases is: (Remember that fluid pressures must account for the hydrostatic gradient.)

P=

18,000 lb
((31.8-6.5) inch)2

739psi

In the surface pressure test, pressure up to 739 psi could be applied before the packer would unseat
and move.
Combined Forces

The combination of temperature and pressure effects on the length of the tubing produces a net
change. The values from the previous four calculations are added to give a net movement or force.
The stresses produced by pressure on the packer itself are also important and will determine if weight
set or tension packers will become unseated under particular operating conditions. The pressure,
either annulus or well pressure below the packer act on the exposed areas of the packer. The method
of calculations of the packer forces is to sum the forces; upward acting forces are negative. There are
three forces that must be considered - (1)tubing weight or tension, (2) annular pressure force and
(3)the pressure acting on the bottom of the packer. The annular pressure force is:

where:
FpA = Annular force exerted by the pressure at bottomhole, Ibs
Aa

= Area of inside of casing, in.2

ATO = Area of tubing od, in.2

PAB = Annular bottomhole pressure, psi
The force pressure underneath the packer is:

(4.1 0)
where:

4-16

FPT = Force beneath the packer exerted by fluid in casing, Ib

Ac/

= Area of inside of casing, in2

AT, = Area of inside of tubing, in2

PTB = Pressure from fluids in casing below packer, psi
The piston force, previously described, is the net effect of the forces trying to push the seal into or out
of the packer.

Special Packers
There are a number of packers that are made for special applications. Coiled tubing packers are available that will pass through 3-1/2 in. tubing and packoff in 7 in. casing.22 Inflatable packers are made
that can be filled with cement for permanent repairs under partially collapsed casing, Figure 4.20.
These packers are also used to packoff in openhole. Many packers are made of drillable materials
that can be removed easier than the permanent packers that must be milled.23 This type of packer
includes many of the cement retainers and squeeze tools.

- Liner

- Collapsed Casing

Figure 4.20:

Inflatable packer shown in a

cased hole section below a
partially collapsed section.

Tubing Stretch and Compression

When packers are set by tension or weight of tubing, some deformation of the tubing is to be
expected. Pulling force to set a tension set packer may stretch the tubing several feet depending on
amount of pull and size of tubing. Figure 4.3 can be used to estimate the ~ t r e t c h Compression
.~
set
packers can result in tubing buckling and some steel compression. This accounts for a small amount
of length and reduces the amount of weight that is set off on the packer.

Problems
A 10,000 ft well with 7 in. casing has a permanent packer set at 9300 ft. A seal bore assembly with 8 ft
of seals on the end of a 3-1/2 in. tubing string is stabbed into the packer. Four ft of seals extend into

4-17

the packer at constant producing conditions. BHT = 185F. BHP = 4600 psi. Production is 1000 bpd
with a 30% water cut. API gravity = 32. The flowing bottom hole pressure is 4400 psi, shut in BHP is
5100 psi and the frac gradient is 0.7 psi/ft. Packer seal bore is 3.7 in. Tubing is 10.3 Ib/ft, with id =
2.922 in. and seal od = 3.6 in. The well is shut in for 24 hours and then fractured with 50,000 gal of
water based frac fluid. Surface temperature is 85F.
1. What effect will the temperature change produce on the tubing?
2. What will be the piston effect?
3. What will be the buckling effect?
4. What will be the ballooning effect?
5. Will the tubing unseat from the packer during the job?

References
1. Buzarde, L. E., Kaster, R. L., Bell, W. T., DePriester, C. L.: Production Operations Course 1 Well Completions, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Lecture notes for a video course, 1972.
2. Wesson, H. R. Jr., Shursen, J. L.: Coiled Tubing Velocity Strings Keep Wells Unloaded, World
Oil, (July 1989), pp. 56-60.
: Pick the Right Production Packer, Pet. Eng. Int. (September 1987), pp. 54,57, and

3.
58.

4. Patton, L. D., Abbott, W. A.: Well Completion and Workovers -Tubing and Packer Systems, Pet.
Eng, Int., (May 1981), pp. 137-144.
5. Smart, E. E. Sherwood, J. H.: Special Jobs: Workover Packer Selection, Oil Patch,
(March/April 1981)
6. Smart, E. E.: How to Select the Right Packer for the Job, Pet. Eng. Intl., (July 1978)
7. Packer Completion Techniques, Guiberson Publication.
8. Conversation with Jerry Bowen, Amoco, Sept. 1, 1989
9. OBrian, T. B. Webster, K. B.: Deep Duals Simplified SPE 3904, 1972.
10. Holliday, G. H.,: Calculation of Allowable Maximum Casing Temperature to Prevent Tension
Failures in Thermal Wells, ASME Pet. Mech. Eng. Conf., Tulsa, Sept. 21-25, 1969.
11. Moseley, N. F.: Deep Well Completion Methods, Production Operations, Pet. Eng. Int. Pub.,
pp. 48-50, 1978.
12. Moseley, N. F.: Graphic Solutions to Tubing Movement in Deep Wells, Prod. Operations, Pet.
Eng. Int. Pub., pp. 31-35, 1978. Rubbo, R. P.: What to Consider When Designing Downhole
Seals, World Oil, (June 1987), pp. 78-83.
13. Lubinski, A., Althouse, W. S., Logan, J. L.: Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers, Trans.
AIME, June 1962, p. 655.

4-18

14. Lubinski, A.: Influence of Neutral Axial Stress on Yield and Collapse of Pipe, Trans., AIME
(1975) 97.
15. Hammerlindl, D. J.: Movement, Forces and Stresses Associated with Combination Tubing
Strings Sealed in Packers, J. Pet. Tech., (Feb. 1977), 195-208.
16. Hammerlindl, D. J.: Basic Fluid and Pressure Forces on Oil Well Tubulars, J. Pet. Tech., (Jan.
1980), 153-159.

17. Hammerlindl, D. J.: Packer-to-Tubing Forces for Intermediate Packers, J. Pet. Tech., (March
1980), 515-526.
18. Lubinski, A., Blenkarn, K. A.: Buckling of Tubing in Pumping Wells, Its Effects and Means for
Controlling It, Trans., AIME, (1957) 97.

19. Patton, L. D., Abbott, W. A.: Well Completion and Workovers The Tubing/ Packer System:
Movement and Forces, Pet. Eng. Int., 112-122.
20. King, P. G.: Basic Hydraulics as They Affect Packer Calculations, SWPSC, Lubbock, pp. 45-48.

21. Technical Handbook, Properties of Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers for Seals, Fluid Sealing
Association, 2017 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.
22. Evett, A.: Thru-Tubing Straddle Packer Expands, Seals in Casing, Ocean Ind., (Feb. 1989),
p. 44.
23. Hushbeck, D. F., Streich, S. G.: Drillable Service Packer Systems Increase Well Service Versatility, SPE 18896, Prod. Oper. Sym., Okla. City, March 13-14, 1989.
24. Hushbeck, D. F.: Precision Perforation Breakdown for More Effective Stimulation Jobs, SPE
14096, Int. Pet. Mtg., Beijing, China, March 17-20, 1986.

4-19

Chapter 5:

Well Heads, Chokes and SSSVs

Well heads
Wellheads are the connection point for the tubulars and the surface flow lines as well as being the surface pressure control point in almost any well operation. They are rated for working pressures of
2000 psi to 15,000 psi (or greater). They must be selected to meet the pressure, temperature, corrosion, and production compatibility requirements of the well. There are three sections of a wellhead,
and each serves a function in the completion of a well. The outermost cemented casing string, usually either the conductor pipe or the surface string, is fitted with a slip type or threaded casing head.
The head, Figure 5.1, also called a well head flange, supports the BOPs during drilling and the rest of
the well head during production. A port on the side of the head allows communication with the annulus
when another casing string is run. For all additional casing strings, a casing spool is used. The spool
has a flange at each end. The flange diameter, bolt pattern and seal assembly are a function of the
spool size range and the pressure rating. When specifying well head equipment, all pieces should be
rated for the same pressure. The tubing is hung and isolated in a tubing spool. The tubing is spaced
out to come to the right height for the seal assembly by the use of pup joints (short pieces of tubing).
Annulus communication is provided in the ports on the side of the spools.

(Kastor, 1972)
Figure 5.1:

Wellhead assembly showing casing and tubing hangers. The casing head is screwed or
welded to the conductor or surface string.

Each spool has alignment screws for aligning the tabular in the center of the spool. Alignment is critical since each flange connection (bolt hole alignment) depends on the last casing being in the center
of the spool below it.
Multiple tubing strings can be accommodated by special heads. These head designs depend on isolation seals in the well head and multiple tubing spools. Setting the tubing and casing strings in tension
is a common practice to offset the effects of buckling created by tubing expansion when hot fluids are
produced.

5- 1

The seal between each section is a single metal ring that fits in grooves in the top and base of connecting spool sections. The pressure to seat these metal-to-metal seals is provided by compression
when the section flanges are bolted together. Oil is applied to the seals before bolting down the
flanges. Various methods and devices for sealing have been tested for seals. Elastomers are subject
to attack by solvents2 and temperature ~ y c l i n gMetal
. ~ to metal seals are the most common, especially
in severe service areas. In sour gas (hydrogen sulfide) areas, special metals are often needed for

wellhead^.^
The final section of the wellhead is the familiar Christmas tree arrangement of control valves. The
tree sits on top of the tubing hanger spool and holds the valves used in well operation, Figure 5.2. The
master valve is a full opening valve that is the main surface control point for access to the tubulars. It
is always fully open when the well is producing or when a workover is in progress. The working pressure rating of the master valve must be sufficient to handle full wellhead pressure. If a valve or fitting
in the upper part of the tree must be replaced, the master valve can be closed without killing the well
(for all wells with a clear tubing, i.e., no rods). On very high pressure (P, > 5000 psi) or hazardous
wells, there may be two master valves; a backup for insurance against leaks in the main valve. The
wing valve (often two valves) are mounted immediately above the master valve in a separate spool.
Produced fluids leave the wellhead at the wing valve connection. The purpose of multiple wing valves
is to allow changing of chokes or flow line repair without interrupting well flow. The swabbing or lubricator valve is mounted above the wing valve and is used to open the well to entry by a tool string. A
schematic of the wellhead and tubulars is shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.2:

S2-w-

(Kastor, 1972)

Christmas Tree valve assembly for surface

well control. On high pressure or sour gas
wells,

The choke is the only device used to limit the production of flowing fluids. Using a valve, such as the
wing valve or master valve, to limit fluid flow would allow fluid flow (possibly with solids) to cross the
sealing surface of the valve. This could lead to erosion and a leaking master valve and would require
killing the well to replace the valve.

5-2

Drilled Hole for Conductor

Pipe (if not driven)
Surfaw Pipe DrilkdHob

Prcdmon Caring

Hole Drilled for Liner

Production Liner

Figure5.3:

A rough schematic of a completed

well with normal hardware.

A connection on top of the swabbing valve can be used to mount a lubricator. A lubricator is a pressure rated tube that allows a tool string to be lowered into the well, even while the well is flowing. One
end of the lubricator is attached to the swabbing valve and the other contains a seal assembly that
seals against the wireline that is used to run the tool. Since the lubricator stands straight up to allow
the tool string to drop into the well, the length of the lubricator (and the length of the tool string) is controlled by the length of lubricator tube that can be safely supported by the equipment on location. A
more detailed discussion of the lubricator will be given in the chapter covering wireline techniques.

Subsea Wellheads
A special type of well head is involved in a subsea well. In subsea wells, the wellhead sits on the
oceans bottom at depths from less than a hundred feet to over 2500 ft. Access is much more difficult
than in a surface well, thus subsea completions require a well to be low maintenance, usually a sweet
gas or flowing oil well. The wellheads for these wells must be self contained units with controls that
can be manipulated by remote action at the well head by a ROT (remotely operated tool), by diver or
by ROV (remotely operated vehicle). Almost all subsea operations, including drilling, begin after a
template is installed on the ocean floor. The template serves as a locator for almost all tools used to
drill, complete and workover the well. A schematic of the template and several workover and completion tools are shown in Figure 5.4. The modular work devices in the figure are characteristic of a surface wireline assisted operations. The production well head that fits into the template must provide the

5-3

same solid connection to the well as all land based well. Because of the remote or diver operation,
however, appearances are vastly different than a surface well. Replaceable components of the wellhead such as valves and chokes are often equipped with guide bars to assist in remote replacement.

Figure 5.4:

A subsea template and assorted workover and completion tools.

5-4

Coiled Tubing Well Heads

The use of coiled tubing for recompletion and even initial completion of some wells requires the use of
special hangers or even complete wellheads that are designed especially for coiled tubing. Coiled tubing is being used in place of conventional tubing in some wells to minimize rig cost or to avoid killing
the well to run tubing. Because of the lack of connections, coiled tubing can be run through stripping
rubber seals in the BOP or through a standard stripper head. Hanging the tubing off in the wellhead
requires slips; and, in live well workovers, these can be attached to the tubing and snubbed through
the BOP stack to the slip bowl portion of the wellhead, or the slips can be made a part of the wellhead
and activated from outside.
Coiled tubing completions may incorporate well ore bolt-on components or may be completely spoolable including gas lift valves, SSSVs and packers.
Examples of a hanger element are shown in Figure 5.5 and 5.6. These heads require a setting point
below the master valve for a workover where the wellhead is nippled down. For low cost recompletions where the existing tubing and wellhead will not be removed, the coiled tubing is set through the
existing master valve with the coiled tubing hanger and a new master valve set above the old master
valve. Success of the coiled tubing completions and recompletions has been good when the tubing is
sized correctly for the well condition.

LIFT TWEADS

'

SLICK NECK

,UPPER SEAL ASSEMBLY

.I21 POLY PACK SAL5
'BELLEVLLE SPRNGS

SLIP KTTING PINS

1-14)

-SLIPS

+0-RNG

-SLP RETAWG SPRINGS

p l Ls -A/ / v
cCOIL TUBING HANGER BODY

i-,l41

POLY PACK SEALS

w
1-

SET SCREWS

ETDr

COL TUBING INSTALLATION

RECEPTACLE

TBr

rota1 Tool Co.]

Figure 5.5:

Coiled Tubing Hanger

Hydrate Control in Coiled Tubing Completions

Coiled tubing offers very good opportunities for recompletion or even initial completion of some wells,
however, coiled tubing is particularly susceptible to collapse and compaction from production forces if
an ice plug or hydrate plug forms either in the tubing or around the tubing. Problems in some opera-

5-5

COILED TUBING HANGER

WSnNGPROWCTlON
TvBlNGHANOw
(Camco, 1996)

Figure 5.6:

Coiled Tubing Hanger.

tions where ice plugs have formed in the annulus during flow have caused sufficient force to collapse
and compact coiled tubing to the point where 30-40 ft of coiled tubing are compressed into an area
only 5 or 6 ft long. The only way to prevent ice plugs is either to control the rate of the gas flow so that
the temperature drop during gas expansion does not create ice plugs or to inject a freeze inhibitor
below the hydrate point to totally inhibit the formation of the ice.
Example: Wellhead configuration - For a gas producing formation at 9600 ft with a reservoir pressure
gradient of 0.55 psi/ft, what is the minimum wellhead equipment pressure rating (in psi) needed to
cover production or fracture stimulation with an 8.5 Ib/gal frac fluid, when fracturing the zone at 960011000. The friction pressure down the 4-1/2 in., 12.6 Ib/ft, N-80 work string (packer set at 9300 ft)
during the frac will be 75 psi/lOOO ft of tubing length. During production flow the friction pressure is
10 psi/lOOO ft. Shut in during production will be with a full column of gas (0.1 psi/ft). Standard safety
factor for well head working pressure is 80% of rated capacity.
Solution: Calculate highest possible surface pressure.

5-6

1. Max producing pressure (shut in with gas column) = (9600 x (0.55-0.1) = 4320 psi

Dont use the friction pressure on producing since the worst production surface pressure case is static
with gas in the tubing.
2. Max fracture stimulation surface pressure = (0.83 x 9600) - (9600 x (8.5 x 0.052))
(7968 psi) D (4243 psi) + (698 psi) = 4423 psi

+ (9.3

x 75)

Minimum wellhead pressure rating 4423/0.8 = 5529 psi

Chokes
Chokes hold a backpressure on a flowing well to make better use of the gas for natural gas lift and to
control the bottomhole pressure for recovery reasons. In vertical pipe flow, the gas expands rapidly
with decreasing hydrostatic head and the liquid moves in slugs through the tubing. The potential gas
lift energy is rapidly lost and liquids fall back and begin to accumulate over the perforations. Accumulating liquids hold a back pressure on the formation. If enough liquids accumulate, the well may die
and quit flowing. A choke holds back pressure by restricting the flow opening at the well head. Back
pressure restricts the uncontrolled expansion and rise of the gas and thus helps keep the gas dispersed in the liquids on the way up the tubing. Chokes may be variable or have a set opening,
Figure 5.7. The set openings, often called beans, are short flow tubes. They are graduated in 6 4 t h ~
) small to moderate rate
of an inch. Common flow sizes are about 8 through more than 20 (in 6 4 t h ~for
gas wells. Liquid producers and high rate gas wells us 20+ choke settings. The size of the choke
needed depends on reservoir pressure, tubing size, amount of gas, and amount and density of liquids.
Variable chokes may use a increasing width slot design that allows quick resetting. They are useful on
well cleanups following stimulation where choke size can vary over the course of a single day from
4/64ths to over 40. They are also used where periodic liquid unloading necessitates frequent choke
size changes.

I JI

(from FMC)

Figure 5.7:

One form of adjustable choke.

Solids in the produced fluids are the major source of failures for chokes. Abrasion from sand, scale,
ice, corrosion particles and other solids can cut out the choke restriction and cause the well to load up

5-7

with fluids and die. Choke abrasion from solids and cavitation is increased when large pressure drops
are taken. In these situations, choke life is often measured in minutes. For better performance at high
pressure drops, take the drop in stages across three or more choke sets in series. The problem is with
gas expansion; as gas goes from 5000 psi to atmospheric pressure, the gas expands 340 fold, with a
similar increase in velocity. The same pressure drop, taken in series from 5000 to 3000, from 3000 to
500 and 800 to atmospheric results in gas volume (and velocity) increases of 136 fold (5000 psi to
3000 psi), 150 fold (3000 psi to 800 psi) and 54 fold (500 psi to atmospheric). The 340 fold total drop
is the same, but the velocity increase across any one choke is significantly reduced.

Subsurface Safety Valves

When a well head is damaged, through accident or even terrorist incident, the fluids from a producing
well can continue to flow, creating pollution and safety problems. One solution to the wild well potential is the use of safety valves. Safety valves are used to automatically halt the flow of fluid from a well
in the event that the surface equipment of the well is damaged. Safety valves located at the surface
are surface safety valves (SSVs) and those located below the wellhead are subsurface safety valves
(SSSVs). SSVs are located above the master valve and below the choke and/or beyond the choke on
the production line. SSSVs are located in the tubing string below the ground or mud line. Together, the
surface safety valves and subsurface safety valves form a redundant system of fail-safe valves. The
valves are designed to be fail-safe; they are designed in a normally closed position. Opening of the
valves requires application of a pressure to the valve to hold the valve open. When the pressure is
lost, all safety valves close automatically. Safety valves are typically used offshore, in environmentally
sensitive areas and in some remote locations on unattended wells.
Any requirement for a subsurface safety valve and the depth of the valve below the wellhead depends
upon the application and local government requirements. In offshore U.S., SSSVs are required and
the subsurface safety valve is usually set in the tubing string 100 ft or more below the mud line. In the
event of an accident or disaster, in which the wellhead equipment is partially or completely damaged
or removed, the valves will shut in the wells and prevent pollution and fire.
The pressure that keeps the safety valves open is supplied by a small pump in a hydraulic-controlled
panel on the surface platform.12 The pump is an automatic hydraulic supply unit, powered usually by
clean gas pressure. The pump supplies the control line with a 7 Ib/gal clean hydraulic oil at a set pressure. Other types of actuation systems that have been tried for control of the SSSVs include differential flowing pressure,0 electric downhole solenoid, velocity actuatedIg gas,l3 electromagnetic wave
control (directed through the sediment^)'^-'^ and through loss of tension in the tubing string.
The earliest valves were designed to close if the well flow reached some maximum rate and were
used almost exclusively offshore. The idea behind the design was that the valve would close if the
platform was damaged in a storm. The problem with this type of downhole flow sensitive control, was
that the valves were continually in need of resizing as the wells production capacity declined (reservoir depleted). The maximum rate trigger-mechanism was also a nuisance when high rate flow of gas
was needed to meet market demand or when liquid slugged through the tubing. SSSV control is now
almost exclusively from the surface via a small hydraulic control line on the outside of the tubing. If the
pressure supply is interrupted, the valves closes automatically.
The valve sealing mechanism varies with manufacturer and the age and type of the valve. Most
SSSVs use either a flapper valve or a ball valve with the current favorite being the flapper. The seat
and flapper unit are protected from the well stream by a spring opposed sleeve that slides through the
open flapper and isolates both the seat and the flapper. The sleeve is held in place by the hydraulic
control pressure. The flapper assembly may be elastomer seal, metal-to-metal or a mixture of the two
systems. Metal-to-metal seal units can be built for pressures in excess of 25000 psi. Ball valve units
are equipped with spring loaded mechanisms that rotate the throat out of the well stream when the
hydraulic opening pressure is removed. Examples of flapper and ball valves are shown in Figure 5.8.
Other types of seal mechanisms have also been tried.

5-8

Figure 5.8:

Examples of ball valves

(above, 0 t h ) and flapper (left,
Camco).

The two conveyance types of subsurface safety valves are tubing retrievable and wireline retrievable.
Tubing retrievable valves are run as part of the tubing string (the valve body is made up as part of the
string) whereas wireline retrievable valves can be run and retrieved from a profile set in the tubing
string. In the U.S., the tubing retrievable valves ars almost twice as popular as the wireline retrievable
valves, while in non-U.S. areas, the wireline valves are more popular than the tubing retrievables. The
reasons for the popularity differences are found in personal preferences, workover cost differences
and, to some extent, in regulations regarding well operation. The benefits of the tubing retrievable
valve is that it has a fully opening bore, with very little obstruction to the flowing fluids. One disadvantage is that if there is a problem with the valve, the tubing must be pulled to the depth of the valve for
service. This requires use of a rig; a large cost for many remote platforms. The tubing retrievable
valves also require a relatively large upper casing section because of large valve body. The large
outer body diameter (over 7 in. for a 4-1/2 in. bore valve) is necessitated by the flapper, spring and
pressure equalization equipment within the valve. The wireline retrievable subsurface safety valve can
be replaced by wireline without pulling the well, but it restricts the opening through which fluids may
flow. The flow restriction for this type of valve may reduce 4-1/2 in. tubing to about a 1-112 in. bore
over the 5 to 6 ft length of the valve. For most wells, this is not a severe restriction over a very short
length. In wells that produce paraffin or scale, however, this flow restriction, especially near the top of
the tubing may serve as the site for solids deposition and promote rapid valve failure. In wells that produce sand, any restriction may be a site for abrasion. In wells that do not precipitate or produce solids,
the valves are often a good choice, especially in areas where well deliverability rate is critical and time
consuming workovers (such as pulling the string to replace a tubing retrievable SSSV) must be
avoided. Wireline retrievable valves must be set in a special profile that is made up as part of the
string. The profile seat is connected to the same type of external control line that is used for the tubing
retrievable valve. A set of seals on the outside of the wireline valve isolates the hydraulic pressure
port in the profile and allows a connection to the valve control mechanism. If the valve fails or malfunctions, the wireline unit can be removed and replaced by a low cost wireline operation with minimum
productivity interruption.

5-9

Safety valve failures are rare but have been documented. When a valve fails to close, it is classified
as a failure. When a valve fails to open, it is classified as a malfunction. The difference between the
two labels comes from the design intent of the valve. Since the valve is designed to close when surface control pressure is lost, a failure is failure to close. Either event is troublesome.
One study on the reliability of SSSVs, showed the valves to have a failure rate that was on the order of
0.8 to 2.3% in normal operations.16 One of the biggest reasons for SSSV failure (of valves tested) is
plugging of the sealing mechanism with paraffin, scale, produced sand, ice and other ~ o l i d s . It~is, ~ ~ ~ ~
very important to operate the valves periodically so debris can be removed from the assembly and
that valves internal mechanism can be lubricated. This operation is known as exercising the valve
and is recommended to be done once per month. To exercise the valve, the wing vent is usually
closed to shut the well in and the safety valve is open and closed several times. Merely releasing and
restoring the hydraulic pressure at the surface will not confirm that the valve has actually closed. After
the hydraulic control pressure is released, a few hundred psi can be bled off the tubing at the surface.
If the pressure does not come back to initial shut-in pressure, then the valve is sealing. The amount of
pressure that needs to be bled off at the surface depends of what seat material is in the valve. Elastomer seals are tested at about 500 psi while metal-to-metal seals are usually tested at least 500 to
over 1000 psi. The recommended test pressure is available from the valve manufacturer. A regular
maintenance schedule may be a legal requirement of ~ p e r a t i o n . ~ - ~
Reliability of the valves is very good if precautions are taken on regularly exercising the control
mechanism. All of the 36 wells on the ill-fated Piper Alpha platform in the North Sea were equipped
with SSSVs as per regulations. After the platform was destroyed, the fire was caused by the uncontrolled volume of produced gas in the pipeline (nearest shutoff was reportedly 1-1/2 miles away). The
fire-fighting crew reported only minor leaks from tubing of the shutin wells. In Kuwait, ten wells of the
700+ that had well heads damaged or destroyed were reportedly equipped with SSSVs. The valves
prevented fires on those wells.
Opening the valve, either on initial well startup or after shut-in to check valve operation should follow a
set of simple rules. To prevent valve damage, the pressure on both sides of the valve must be equalized. If the valve is a flapper design, the pressure is best equalized by pumping down the tubing to
open the valve. If the unit is a ball valve, it may have to be opened by activation of the hydraulic pressure control unit. Flapper valves can also be opened by hydraulic actuator pressure. With either system, if the valve must be opened by the hydraulic mechanism, the differential pressure across the
valve must be equalized before valve opening to prevent valve damage. Pressure equalization is
accomplished with internal baffles that allow controlled flow of gas or liquid through the a part of the
valve body. After pressure above and below the valve is equalized, the valve can easily be opened. If
the valve is opened with a differential pressure across the valve, the fluid flow across the seal may
cause erosion of the valve face.
An additional element of consideration for SSSVs is the construction material. Since they are directly
in the flow stream, the SSSVs must be designed to withstand operational corrosion or erosion forces.
Construction materials of corrosion resistant metals such as lncalloy or Hastelloy are common.
Selection of the type of SSSV depends on well condition^.^ Included in the considerations are legal
requirements, depth of placement, pollution standards, dual strings,20r21subsea wellhead,22? casing
size near surface, presence of kill strings, annular flow, cost of workovers, frequency of workovers,
type of workovers, deliverability obligations and the cost of the valve. When these and other variables
such as pressure, setting depth, and temperature are considered, a decision can generally be made
by examining the requirements and behavior of the available equipment.8
Setting depth of a valve depends on the ability of that valve to close in the event of an accident. The
SSSV is rated with a closing pressure, F, If the control line pressure drops below F, the valve closes,
shutting in the well. The F, value effectively limits how deep the valve can be set since either control
line hydrostatic fluid pressure or annular fluid hydrostatic (in the event of a control line break) could

5-10

keep the valve open if the fluid hydrostatic exceeded the SSSV closing pressure. A simple formula
translates the closing pressure rating into maximum set depth.

Max Set Depth

MHFG

Set Depth = maximum set depth of SSSV

F, = closing pressure rating of SSSV
F,
= a safety factor, F, = 0.15 F, usual minimum is 75 psi.
MHFG = maximum hydraulic fluid gradient.
In th case of the valve with F, = 350 psi, an empty (unpressured annulus) nd a 7 Ib/gal hydraulic oil,
the set depth is:

Max Set Depth

350 psi - 75 psi

0.364 psi/ft

755 ft

The 0.364 psi/ft is the gradient of 7 Ib/gal fluid and 75 psi was used because F, = 0.15 x 350 = 53 psi.
If the annulus is liquid filled (or gas under pressure), the MHFG that would be used is the maximum
gradient produced at the SSSV. For example, a 15 Ib/gal packer fluid in the annulus would change the
maximum setting depth for the same spring to:

Max Set Depth

350 psi 75 psi

0.78 psi/ft

352 ft

Example: An offshore platform uses a SCSSV, set at 450 ft below the mud line (ocean floor). The
water depth is 300 ft and the platform is 75 ft above the sea surface. The hydraulic fluid used for valve
operation has a density of 8.4 Ib/gal. Sea water density is 8.5 Ib/gal. The annulus of the well is filled
with inhibited sea water (8.5 Ib/gal). What is the minimum flapper closure pressure (Fc) needed (in
psi) for operation under all environments including loss of the control line at the downhole valve.
FS = 75 psi
Solution: Set Depth = [Fc D Fs] I MHFG,

Fc = [Set Depth x MHFG] + Fs

There are two possible hydraulic fluid and set depth combinations:
1. at operating conditions, set depth = 450 + 300 + 75 = 825 ft, The hydraulic density = (8.4 x
0.052) = 0.437 psilft for this condition.
2. at "disaster" conditions (loss of control line at valve) set depth = 450 + 300 = 750 ft, (note that
the air gas is not use D and fluid now is sea water). The hydraulic fluid density = 8.5 x 0.052 =

0.442 for this condition.

Condition 1, Fc = (825 x 0.437)
Condition 2, Fc = (750x 0.442)

+ 75 = 436 psi
+ 75 = 407 psi

..

The minimum flapper closure Dressure needed is 436 D S ~

5-11

The other safety valve path that must be considered is the annular area. Annular safety control is necessary in areas that require SSSV isolation where the annular area is or could become a flow path.
The annular pressure control systems that are currently on the market are packer type devices that
use an applied hydraulic force to hold the annular flow channels open. All of these devices serve as a
hanger so that the tubing suspension is maintained regardless of wellhead damage. Hanging significant tubing weight from these devices causes significant problems because of potential casing deformation. Two approaches have helped cure this problem. The packer slip assembly has been enlarged
in one model to spread out the load. In the other approach, a casing profile is run in the casing string
and the tubing hanger is set in the profile.
A special case in subsurface safety valves is the coiled tubing completion, Figure 5.9. This completion, all completely spoolable onto a coiled tubing reel .can be more easily pulled in the event of a
workover.

CONTROL LINE HANGER

CT HANGER WITH SUPS

AND PACK-OFF SET
CONTROL LINE
COILED TUElNQ

SAFETY VALVE

QAS LIFT VALVES

LOCATOR SEAL ASSY

PER
FLAPPER

(Carnco, 1996)
Figure5.9

A coiled tubing completion with a subsurface

safety valve.

References
1. Buzarde, L. E., Jr. Kastor, R. L., Bell, W. T., DePriester, C. L.: Production Operations Course I
Well Completions, SPE, 1972.

2. Bazile, D. J., I I , Kluck, L. M.: New Wellhead Equipment for Old Oilfields, SPE 16122,
SPEAADC Conference, New Orleans, March 15-18, 1987.

5-12

3. Coxe, B., Pyle, C. L.: Wellhead Innovations for Hot, High-pressure Wells, J. Pet. Tech. (February 1983), pp. 284-290.
4. Fowler, E. D., Rhodes, A. F.: Checklist Can Help Specify Proper Wellhead Material, Oil and
Gas J. (January 24, 1977), pp. 62-65.
5. Bleakley, W. B.: The How and Why of Downhole Safety Valves, Petroleum Engineer (January

1986), pp. 48-50.

6. Peden, J. M.: Rationality in Completion Design and Equipment Selection in the North Sea,
Paper SPE 15887 presented at SPE European Petroleum Conference, London, October 20-22,
1986, pp. 347-361.

7. Krause, W. F. and P. S. Sizer: Selection Criteria for Subsurface Safety Equipment for Offshore
Completions, Journal of Petroleum Technology (July 1970), pp. 793-799.
8. Nystrom, K. 0. and D. W. Morris: Selecting A Surface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve for
Deep, Hot, High-pressure, Sour Gas Offshore Completions, Paper SPE 11997 presented at
58th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, October 5-8, 1983, pp. 1-4.
9. Beggs, H. D.; J. P. Brill; E. A. Proano, Roman-Lazo, C. E.: Selection and Sizing of Velocity-Actuated Subsurface Safety Valves, Trans. ASME, June 1980, Vol. 102, pp. 82-91.
10. Gano, J. C.: Differential Sensing Direct-Control Gas Storage Well Safety Valve, Paper SPE
19086 presented at the SPE Gas Technology Symposium, Dallas, June 7-9, 1989, pp. 287-294.
11. Gresham, J. S.and T. A. Turcich: Development of a Deepset Electric Solenoid Subsurface

Safety Valve System, Paper SPE 14004 presented at the Offshore Europe 85 Conference,
Aberdeen, September 10-13, pp. 1-9.
12. Schaefer, H.: Subsurface Safety Valves, Paper OTC 1295 presented at Second Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, April 22-24, 1970, pp. 681-688.
13. Morsi, K. M.: Surface and Downhole Production Safety Systems for Sour Oil and Gas Wells,
Paper SPE 13743 presented at Middle East Oil Technical Conference and Exhibition, Bahrain,
March 11-14, 1985, pp. 1-6.
14. Drakeley, B. K.: Electromagnetic waves used for valve control, Offshore (September 1987),
pp. 53-54.
15. Kleckner, J. J.; R. C. Dickerson; P. M. Snider; J. A. Zublin; R. L. Sphan; P. F. Menne; J. H. Van
Der Lichte; B. H. Ter Horst; N. H. Akkerman; L. H. Rorden; H. S.More; J. E. Kattner; A. Samuels;
R. A. Wendt; T. Hoh; E. Beauregard; P. L. Ferguson; P. J. H. Carnell and H. H. Clark: Production
Operations Forum, Paper SPE 15468 presented at the 61st Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, New Orleans, October 5-8, 1986, pp. 1-6.
16. Medley, E. L.: Experience With Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valves, Paper EUR 32
presented at European Offshore Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, London, October 24-27,
1978, pp. 257-262.
17. Molnes, E.; M. Rausand and B. Lindqvist: SCSSV Reliability Tested In North Sea, Petroleum
Engineer (November 1987), pp. 38-40.
18. Engen, G. and M. Rausand: Reliability Studies Test SCSSVs In The North Sea, Petroleum
Engineer (February 1984), pp. 30-36.

5-13

19. Busch, J. M.; B. J. Policky and D. C. G. Llewelyn: Subsurface Safety Valves: Safety Asset or
Safety Liability? Journal of Petroleum Technology (October 1985), pp. 1813-1 818.
20. Geyelin, J. L.: Down Hole Safety Valve for Concentric Completion, Paper SPE 16536 presented at Offshore Europe 87, Aberdeen, September 8-11, pp. 1-9.
21. Calhoun, M. B.; M. Deaton and J. W. Tamplen: Subsurface Safety Systems for TLP Completions, Paper SPE 12996 presented at the European Petroleum Conference, London, October
25-28, 1984, pp. 313-315.
22. ;Yonker, J. H.: Newest Through-Flowline Retrievable Safety Valves for Subsea Completions, J.
Pet. Tech., (Nov. 1984), p. 1922-1928.
23. Going, W. S.and R. E. Pringle: Safety Valve Technology for the 1990s, Paper SPE 18393 presented at SPE European Petroleum Conference, London, October 16-19, 1988, pp. 545-552.
24. Morris, A. J.: Elastomers Are Being Eliminated in Subsurface Completion Equipment, Paper
SPE 13244 presented at the 59th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, September 16-19, 1984, pp. 1-4.
25. Mason, P. G. T.: Downhole High-pressure Equalizing Safety Valves: A Solution-Variable Labyrinth Seals, Paper OTC 5576 presented at the 19th Annual OTC, Houston, April 27-30, 1987,
pp. 217-227.
26. Raulins, G. M.: Safety by Down-Hole Well Control, J. Pet. Tech. (March 1972), p. 263-271.
27. Rubli, J.: New Developments In Subsurface Safety Valve Technology.
28. Sides, W. M., Going, W.: Controlling Self Equalizing Velocity Extends Valve Life, Petroleum
Engineer Int., February 1992.
29. Hopper, Christopher T.; Simultaneous Wireline Operations from a Floating Rig with a Subsea
Lubricator, SPE Production Engineering (August 1990), pp. 270-274.
30. OBrien, E. J. Ill, Hetland, Torger; The Underwater Production System, SPE (February 1991),
pp. 33-39.
31. King, Gregory W.; Drilling Engineering for Subsea Development Wells, SPE (September 1990),
pp. 1176-1183.
32. Cyvas, M. K.; Subsea Adjustable Choke Valves: A Focus on a Critical Component, SPE
(August 1989), pp. 301-308.
33. Simpson, D. M., Pearce, J. L.; Downhole Maintenance of Subsea Completions, SPE (May
1989), pp. 161-166
34. Dines, Chris, Cowan, P., Headworth; An Operational Subsea Wireline System, Journal of
Petroleum Technology (February 1989), pp. 171-1 76.
35. Dawson, A. P., Murray, M. V.; Magnus Subsea Wells: Design, Installation, and Early Operational
Experience, SPE (November 1987), pp. 305-312.
36. Reynolds, P. W., Marquette, L. J.; Completing Subsea Wells at Ekofisk, Petroleum Engineers
International, (1978), pp. 57-60.

5-14

37. Shell tries Recessed Subsea Completion, Drilling Contractor (April 1982), pp. 132-136.
38. Kelly, A. O.,Bourgoyne, Dr., Jr., A. T., Holden, Dr. W. R.; A Computer Assisted Well Control
Safety System for Deep Ocean Well Control, Paper presented at international Well Control
SymposiumNVorkshop in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, (November 27-29, 1989), pp. 1-18.
39. Davis, R. J. R., Pond, R. J.; Development of the Subsea Completion System for the Highlander
Field, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (April 1986), pp. 453-460.
40. Morrill, David L.; The Simple Subsea Well Concept, SPE (September 1979), pp. 1083-1091.

5-15

Chapter 6:

Corrosion and Erosion

Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. It is reported that 80% of failures in production and pipeline operations are caused by corrosion.2 Corrosion may be apparent by metal loss, strength loss by cracking and solids problems
caused by formation of corrosion by-products. One of the first decisions in well completion design is
the selection of the proper casing and tubing. Corrosion will not alter calculation of the tensile, burst
and collapse, but it may dictate the selection of the grade of material necessary to satisfy these
requirements. Corrosion is common in almost all hydrocarbon-producing environments and costs hundreds of millions of dollars throughout the industry every year.3 In addition, the economic problems are
intensified through loss of revenues due to down time and deferred p r o d ~ c t i o n . ~
For corrosion to occur, there must be a circuit produced through which electrical current can flow. The
circuit is called the corrosion cell and the electrical current produced by the process, although very
small, can do enormous damage to metal systems.
The basic cause of corrosion is instability of metal in its refined form. Because of the free energy relationship, the metals tend to revert to their natural state through the process of corrosion. Pure metals
rarely exist in the natural world. To obtain a pure metal, a salt of the metal (the ore) is refined (energy
added). This energy input is stored in the metal and serves as a source of potential (voltage) for the
corrosion circuit. Since different metals require varying amounts of energy to refine, there are variations in the amount of voltage available for the circuit. The following table from Patton5 is included to
show the tendencies of metal to corrode. The half-cell potentials, which were reported by Peabody,6
were measured with a hydrogen reference electrode in a solution of the metal salt.

The ranking of metals from most easily corroded to least corroded is a galvanic series. For metals
common in the oil industry, the ranking is as follows.2
magnesium (and magnesium alloys)
zinc (and galvanized coatings)
aluminum (soft alloys)
cadmium (and cadmium coatings)
aluminum (hard alloys)
steel, cast iron
stainless steel (300 AISI, active)
lead
tin

6-1

naval brass, magnesium bronze, yellow brass

admiralty brass, aluminum bronze, red brass
cooper, silicone bronze
lnconel
Monel
stainless steel (300 AISI, passage)
Hastelloy B and C-276 (and other high nickel alloys, super alloys)
Galvanic corrosion occurs when the dissimilar metals are coupled in an electrolyte. The attack is from
current flow within the simple battery formed by the metals and the water. Metals that are widely separated in the previous galvanic series will show the highest level of corrosion. Coatings on the metal
surface, such as iron carbonates, block the galvanic current and lessen c o r r o ~ i o n . ~
In any steel, the important sources of galvanic cell potential difference are:8

1. The various states of heat treatment of the steel, such as:

a. weld metal deposits,
b. the junction of weld and base metal,
c. tubing end heat treatment prior to upset (joint) manufacture
2. Cold Work and residual stress that result in anodes.
The Corrosion Circuit

The corrosion circuit requires an anode (the site of corrosion on the metal), a cathode, a metal connection between the anode and the cathode, and an electrolyte (liquid) surrounding the anode and the
cathode.
Chemical Reaction

In acid solutions (pH e 7),reduction of hydrogen ions to hydrogen gas can be the dominant reaction in
the absence of H2S gas. In neutral or basic soluiions (pH 17),reduction of oxygen is the dominate
reaction. When gases such as CO2 and H2S are present, the reactions are modified by the gases.
Presence of CO2in neutral solutions can cause direct reaction of bicarbonate or carbonate ion with
the steel. This can deposit a beneficial protective films such as iron carbonate. H2S on the metal surface stops the formation of hydrogen gas from hydrogen ions and permits a large percentage of the
cathodic hydrogen ions to enter the steeL7 This is the start of one of the hydrogen embrittlements;
cracking in hard steels or blistering in soft steels.

As the metal corrodes, it dissolves at the anode and enters the solution as ions. It is an oxidation reaction since the iron leaves in an
state. The electrons flow toward the cathode, where hydrogen gas
is evolved. The schematic of the corrosion cell is shown in Figure 6.1.5 The anode reactions are:

2 F e 4 2 F e +,+4e
2Fe +%2Fe

+3+2e

The cathodic reaction involves electrons received from the anodic reaction:

312 0, + 3 H, 0 + 6 e + 60 H-

6-2

1 F2e 03 H' O2 ~

1/2 02

2H+
k " 2
2e'

ANODE
-

20H'

2e'
CATHODE

ELECTROLYTE
METAL SURFACE

ELECTRON
FLOW
(Jones. 19881

Figure 6.1:

A representation of the corrosion cell.

The overall corrosion reaction is:

2Fe+3U20+3/2 0 2 + 2 f - e ( O H ) ,
This reaction is for corrosion produced in neutral, agitated salt water.5 The actual location of the
anode and cathode may vary with the inhomogeneities in the metal and attack may be localized or
may occur over a very wide area. The rate of reaction is dependent upon many factors, including the
salinity of the water, flow velocity, temperature, pH, metal alloy characteristics, and dissolved gases
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
The overall corrosion process results in weight loss at the anode caused by the loss of iron and hydrogen embrittlement of high strength and highly stressed steels by penetration of the atomic hydrogen.
The corrosion reaction is most severe where pits are formed. The intensity of the pitting is affected by
the manufacturing, handling and production factors. In these areas, abnormalities such as large
grains, poor heat treating, improper stress relief, mill marks, pipe wrench nicks, damage during running, and other factors contribute heavily to the location of electrochemical attack that causes pits.
Endean summarized the common sources of metal corrosion as:*

1. Hydrogen sulfide causes both pitting and general attack. The reaction product is a black, usu-

ally shiny mass and may be in the form of a hard scale or a finely divided solid dispersed in the
water.

2. Carbon dioxide attack is through pitting with brown or black reaction product. Pits produced in
CO2 attack are frequently in a line and resemble a large cavity. The remainder of the pipe may be

unaffected.
3. High concentration chloride brines with a pH of 6-7 produce shallow wide spread pitting attack
similar to acids but much less severe.

4. HCI mineral acid attack produces severe general pitting with frequent occurrence of deep channels and deep pits.

6-3

5. Sulfate reducing bacteria SRBs produce a localized corrosion by trapping their own low pH
waste product and protecting the corrosion from inhibitor contact. The location of the corrosion is
usually under the bacteria colony.
6. Erosion damage - high velocity contact by fluids, gases containing mists and droplets, or fluids

containing solids generates a smooth surface with frequent shallow channels, plateaus, and
sharply defined transition areas, especially around the area of highest fluid velocity and directly
across from perforation^.^
The amount of corrosion is often expressed as a mils (or thousandths of an inch) per year, MPY. This
means of expressing corrosion is only usable when the corrosion rate is an even attack on the surface
of the steel. Where pits occur, an MPY value is useless: generation of even a few deep pits can ruin a
piece of equipment without loosing but the smallest fraction of a percent of the total metal mass. Rate
of pit growth varies with the depth and size of the pit and the rate of penetration of the pit will actually
increase with depth of the pit.2 As the pit is growing, the very bottom of the pit is the anode. This area
becomes smaller with pit depth as the pit forms a V shape. The smaller bottom area looses metal at a
faster rate to satisfy the current flow of the corrosion circuit. This is the reason for pin hole leaks in an
otherwise solid piece of equipment.
Acid Gases
The special case of production of hydrogen sulfide gas, H2S, carbon dioxide gas, CO2, or a mixture of
the two is the area of acid gas technology.O The corrosion produces one or more types of Hydrogen
Embrittlement, HE, in the steel. Hydrogen embrittlement reduces the toughness of steel (a loss of ductility) and is most prevalent around existing defects (micro or macroscopic) in the steel. The steels
most susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement problems are those with a yield strength of 80,000 psi, or
greater (N-80 and higher alloys). In lower strength steels, hydrogen blistering is occasionally found.
The corrosion caused by acid gasses is influenced by the pH and by pressure, temperature, the corrosion resistance of the metal and the passive corrosion films formed on the surface of the metal.
Several forms of hydrogen embrittlements, HE, have been described including stress corrosion cracking and stress sulfide cracking.&

All forms of hydrogen embrittlement are brittle failures of a metal at a stress level below its yield
strength as a result of their exposure to atomic hydrogen. The atomic hydrogen is generated on
metal surfaces by corrosion r e a ~ t i o n . The
~ hydrogen is diffused into the metal and causes a reduction in the ductility of the metal. Sour gas increases the corrosion of HE by: (1) low pH of fluids that
contain H2S, (2) sulfide causes a greater percentage of the hydrogen created at the surface to enter
the metal, and (3) the anodic portion of the corrosion reaction tends to be localized, which helps
cracks initiate. The result of these actions is extremely rapid failure of some metals in sour fluids.
HE is generally associated with high strength steel and is common with H2S wells. The factors controlling HE are:*

1. Steel yield strength steel with yield strengths of 90,000 psi or lower (C-90, N-80, L-80, C-75,

etc.) are usually less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.

2. Hardness Maximum hardness should be a Rockwell C scale of 22 or lower (the hard steels
are much more prone to attack from HE).

3. Stress level - At low stresses HE failures are lessened. In HE susceptible steels there is a
threshold below which HE will not occur. This threshold value is lowered for higher strength
steels.

6-4

4. Internal stress The internal stress, which includes stored tensile stress produced by welding,

bending or surface damage is a common initiator for corrosion.

5. Hydrogen concentration The time to failure of any high strength steel is a function of the con-

centration of hydrogen.

6. Temperature HE failures usually do not occur above 150F. (A special exception to this is the

case of stress corrosion cracking7)

Two special cases of HE are sulfide corrosion cracking and stress sulfide cracking. Sulfide corrosion
cracking, SCC, causes a brittle failure of metals by the action of localized corrosion and stress.lg SCC
is normally encountered near the bottom of wells and in hotter environments than other forms of HE.7
In sour gas systems, SCC causes failure of high strength steels, all types of stainless, and many low
alloy nickel-based alloys.lg SCC will also occur in production of hot brines (chloride rich). SCC is common in stainless alloys and materials. Alloys containing about 8% nickel are the most ~usceptible.~
Alloys with over about 42% nickel are usually immune to SCC.7 These alloys include Inconel, Incoloy,
Monel and Hasteloy. Other immune alloys may include cobalt-cromium-nickel-molybedenum alloys,
nickel-free low alloys, and nickel-free martensitic stainless steels.
There is a relationship between the environment and the metal to cause SCC; only certain metals will
crack in given environments at the critical stress level. SCC is considered to be an anodic process in
which a crack is initiated (usually by HE) and reaction progresses inside the crack. The dissolution of
metal at the tip of the crack controls the process. The environment inside the crack may be very different from that on the surface of the casing due to the large area of metal and the protected environment. The pH of the produced fluids, for example, may be between 4 and 6, while inside the crack, pH
may be between 1 and 2 (highly acid) because of higher concentration of chloride ions, which
increase the local corrosion rate.lg The overall corrosion rate of a material that is undergoing SCC
may be low and outer appearance may be good. However, the detrimental SCC corrosion in the crack
occurs as the result of the localized, often unseen, attack.
Stress sulfide cracking, SSC, occurs in high strength (high hardness) steels exposed to sour gas production. It is also known as hydrogen stress cracking and hydrogen embrittlement cracking.20 SSC is
cracking that results from hydrogen charging (large volume entrance of hydrogen) of high strength
and/or high hardness steels. Most SSC occurs at lower temperatures and is prevalent in the upper
parts of the well. It may accelerate during periods of shutin or cool down, requiring only a reduction in
temperature to become active. SSC is a form of hydrogen embrittlement and is a bulk alteration of the
metal surrounding the surface areas.
Most corrosion rates increase with an increase in temperature up to about 140 to 150F. At this point,
several forms of corrosion are lessened and some corrosion inhibiting films begin to form. Although an
increase in temperature renders the steel more susceptible to attack by SCC, an increase in temperature decreases the rate of stress sulfide cracking, SSC.At higher temperatures, the atomic hydrogen
that contributes to the initiation of the crack by embrittlement is able to diffuse out of the steel. Temperature thresholds exist for SSC and above these limits, SSC does not occur. The limits for hydrogen
sulfide content and temperature are indicated in Figures 6.2 and 6-3. Figure 6.3 shows that the temperature threshold for SSC free behavior is dependent upon the grade of steel. SSC can be controlled
with use of lower strength alloys.

Controlling Corrosion

Approaching corrosion control from a well completion position may involve selection of corrosionresistant alloy,i1~i2*19*2-24 films and coatings,2532 liquid
or cathodic protection
device^.'^^^-^^ The least expensive route will depend on the produced or injected fluids, completion
design and the level of protection required in the operation.

6-5

ssc

0.001

10

do

80

120
140
YIELD STRENGTH (kri)
100

160

180

(Kane & Greer, 1977)

Figure 6.2:

The maximum H2S concentration limit for

SSC-free behavior at 100% of yield strengthapplied stress, shown as a function of the
yield strength of the steel.

m
U

'i20
U

Q6T

Ic

ssc

100

(Kane & Greer, 1977)

Figure 6.3:

Mimimum temperature for SSC-free behavior

at 100% of yield strength-applied stress,
shown as a function of the yield strength of
the steel.

Modifying the produced fluid by changing pH or removing water or dissolved gasses such as oxygen,
CO2, or H2S are usually only available for use in pipelines and injection systems. Gas removal systems such as gas stripping, degeneration and chemical treating may all be used to remove or reduce
the content of gases. Changing the character of the produced fluids is usually achieved by changing
operating conditions to control the separation of the condensing phase.

6-6

T
c
r

i'

f 2

0
00

d
F

(rr

r;

1
0
0
CI

Coatings are a relatively simple and inexpensive way to isolate the metal (the anode and cathode)
from the electrolyte liquid. Permanent coatings include plastic, tars, cement and paint. Coatings are
usually chosen for a protection against a particular liquid. The plastic coatings, for example, include
resins and polymers that are resistant to low pH waters, oxygen, COs, or salts. Coatings are not resistant to all influences however: acids, alcohols, and other materials will destroy some coatings. Care
must be taken in working over wells with coated tubing to avoid damage to the surface of the coating.
Abrasive action such as wireline action or coiled tubing are very detrimental. Damage to coated surfaces offer sites for very localized, intense corrosion.
Liquid corrosion inhibitors act as temporary coatings or films on the surface and are effective in providing a passive film or a coating if they are replenished on a regular basis. Selection and application
of inhibitors are critical elements in the corrosion control program of a well. There are literally hundreds of chemical inhibitors for control of dozens of different corrosion problems on various types of
steels. The inhibitor for a particular application must be selected from lab or field tests at the conditions where the corrosion will be active. Normally, these selection tests are started in the lab and completed in the field with field trials on test metal coupons.
Complete reviews and comparisons of the methods of applying corrosion inhibitors are rare, but a few
case histories do exist. Houghton and W e ~ t e r m a r khave
~ ~ provided data on some corrosion problems
in the North Sea and compared the methods for application of corrosion inhibitors. In the wells that
were used for a database, average workover life was approximately 60-120 days. CO2 corrosion and
erosion were present in these wells. Erosion was determined to have a significant influence on the
rate of corrosion and CO2 corrosion/erosion was found to be the normal mechanism of attack on these
wells.
During the study, the rate of corrosion for these wells was determined to be exponential rather than
linear. Once the corrosion started, very rapid increases in the corrosion rate were common. The most
prevalent place for attack of the corrosion/erosion was at changes in diameter or direction of the fluid
flow. The paper pointed out that sweet corrosion was prevalent in these wells even though there was
less than 1 4 % formation water in the total produced fluids.
Ekofisk wells in the study that had a high GOR showed increased corrosion; probably by providing
greater volumes of CO2 and by increasing the flaw velocities of the produced fluids. The GOR has
also been shown to be a factor in corrosion in other studies. Even in gas wells, a change in flowing
fluid composition because of condensation of C-3+ hydrocarbons can result in a change in corrosion
intensity or location.40 The most common corrosion site depth was in the mid-range from 40007000 ft. The mid-range location on these wells corresponds with gas breakout and increased turbulence from suspended gas that is rapidly expanding due to the lowering of hydrostatic head.
In all cases of wells deviated more than 20, a preferential attack along the low side of the tubing was
spotted. This attack reportedly resulted in troughs 1 in. wide that tracked along the inside of the low
side of the tubing.
This pipe trough development has also been though to be the result of a low oil wetting tendency of
the Ekofisk crude, which would result in a water wetted pipe. If the fluid velocity in these flowing wells
is below 2.5 to 3 ft/sec, the approximate minimum velocity for water entrainment in the oil, a free water
layer would exist at the lowest point due to gravity separation and increased corrosion could occur.8
The corrosion/erosion attack location was identified using casing calipers. Corrosion in caliper tracks
has also been observed. The cause may be that early caliper surveys were not followed with inhibitor
treatment to repair damaged protective films.
In the higher volume wells, preferential attack occurred on the pin-end shoulder on the coupling. The
shoulder seems to cause additional turbulence and pitting is a byproduct of the turbulence.

6-9

The paper reported a comparison of inhibitor treatment types, in terms of both economically application and performance. Formation squeezes with inhibitor, continuous injection, and tubing displacements were all examined. Continuous injection was found to be the least expensive in almost all flow
rates studied.
A second case study, and one that covers economics of chemical inhibitor usage was provided by
Akram and Butler.41 This work showed that the cost of the successful inhibitor protection program was
about $29,000 per well per year, compared with a super alloy tubular cost (for passive control) of
about 1.25 million. The cost of carbon steel tubulars for the same well was $271,000 (all dollar values
are 1982 U.S. dollars). The economic impact of the successful inhibitor program was significant;
34 years of inhibitor operation to equal the simple difference of super alloy and carbon steel tubular
cost. Obviously, the successful control of corrosion using either method depended upon good design
and strict application. All inhibitor films have to be replaced on a regular basis. While this addition is
relatively easy in injection wells by surface addition to injected fluids, it is more difficult in producing
wells. The inhibitor must be circulated into position and allowed to film on a clean surface without
being disturbed by action of other surfactants, inhibitors or solvents. Most inhibitors must be placed as
a dispersed phase in a non reactive fluid without the aid of surfactants. The application of these materials may range from simple dump jobs down the back side (low pressure injection into the annulus
at the surface in a well without a packer) to periodic workovers requiring the well to be shutin while
inhibitor is injected down the tubing. Some wells are completed with a small string of tubing (1/4 in. to
1 in. diameter) down the outside or inside of the tubulars where the inhibitor and other treating chemicals can be injected continuously.
Some naturally passive films (a reaction product of the metal and the wetting fluid) provide a barrier
surface that reduces the potential produced in the corrosion circuit by altering the reactivity of surface.
The film may be a metal oxide laye?5v27 or other reaction by-product that is not easily attacked by produced fluid. These films are recognized as major corrosion controlling mechanisms. Corrosion of low
alloy steels at temperatures below 140F, increase with the partial pressure of CO2 in the gas phase.
Above 140F the corrosion decreases with temperature because of the formation of iron carbonate
and iron oxide films. The films are destroyed by acidizing or erosion during high velocity flow. In certain cases, passivity is designed into the alloy by combining chromium and nickel with iron. Whether
these iron-chromium and iron-chromium-nickel alloys are active or passive depends upon the alloy
composition and the electrolyte. For example, in CO2 rich environments, 13% chrome alloys are successful in preventing corrosion that destroys other alloys.25
Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes or impressed current to offset the current of the corrosion
cell, can be applied to the outside of casing and pipelines and to the insides of production processing
vessels where a continuous water phase exists. It cannot be used internally in most production tubing
or inside pipelines.

Materials for Sour Service

The following description of materials for Sour Service is from Wilhelm and Kanelg and represents
generalized guidelines on selection of tubular components for hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide
service.
High strength tubular steel grades, often containing chromium and molybdenum designated for use in
H2S service include C75, L80, C90, and some specially processed C95. These materials exhibit necessary resistance to SSC under some specific conditions for use in sour gas operations.
In general, the higher the yield strength of a material, the more susceptible it is to SSC. There are no
recognized carbon or low alloy steel compositions suitable for sour service at ambient temperatures
with yield strength in excess of 110,000 psi. The most widely used criterion for selection of materials
for sour service is hardness. NACE requirement MR-01-75 specifies that for steels to be considered,
they must have a hardness value below HRC-22 (some exceptions to HRC-26).42

6-10

Stainless steel casing (greater than 12% chromium) are used when superior resistance to general corrosion is necessary. Table 2 shows composition of several of the high nickel alloy materials. The
steels increase in cost as corrosion resistance is increased.
The following paragraphs, also from Wilhelm and Kane,lg describe the general classifications of the
high strength alloys available for use in corrosive environments. Stainless steel is a generic term for a
group of steels having a chromium content of over 12%. Most metallurgists refer to the stainless steels
with the more widely based term corrosion resistant alloy, or CRA. The general classes of the alloys
are listed in order of increasing resistance to SCC and SSC (also increasing cost).
1. Martensitic stainless steels, (11-18% chromium) have applications in wellheads and tubing

where high yield strengths are not required.

2. Precipitation hardened stainless steels (12-18% chromium and 6-1 2% nickel) are useful for
downhole equipment or tools that require non-cold-worked, high yield strength materials. Some
of these materials, depending on composition, may be susceptible to SCC and SSC.

3. Duplex stainless steels (22-28% chromium and 5-7% nickel) have a resistance to chloride cracking that exceeds the resistance of low alloy austenitic stainless steels, but they may be susceptible to SSC or SCC in the presence of H2S.
4. Low alloy austentinic stainless steels (18% chromium and 10% nickel) offer better resistance to
SSC than martensitic stainless steels, but yield strengths are limited. These alloys are susceptible to SCC and pitting by chlorides.

5. High alloy austentinic stainless steels contain 20-30% chromium and 20-35% nickel. They
achieve strength through cold work and offer the best combination of corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties of all the CRAs. The cost for these alloys is high.
6. Nickel-based super alloys such as C-276, 718, and MP35N (cobaltlnickel-based) have better
resistance to H2S than most other types of commercial alloys but may be extremely expensive.
They do have the advantage of very high yield strengths.

7. Titanium alloys are slowly being introduced to the industry although the use is rare at the present
time.
CO2 Corrosion

CO2, one of the acid gases, is a very common contaminate in gas, oil and water production, even in
sweet reservoirs. CO2 corrosion of steel is usually a localized corrosion that takes the form of pits of
various sizes. Liquid water is necessary for CO2 corrosion to take place.43 The typical corrosion product of the CO2 reaction is ferrous carbonate.a Dissolved carbon dioxide content is a function of pressure and temperature and pH is much less important. Corrosion increases for increasing carbon
dioxide content.

Pitting produces severe penetration. Outside of the affected areas, the corrosion rate might be limited
and the transition from an affected to an unaffected area can be very abrupt. The action of CO2 attack
has been described as both chemical and physical through e r o ~ i o n Erosion
. ~ ~ ~ can
~ ~ accelerate the
overall corrosion rate by a hundredfold or more by removal of protective scales, oxides and corrosion
inhibitor films. Even for CO2, however, the increase in rates usually is in the area of five to ten
The addition of CO2 gas to water can reduce the pH to a value below 4, promoting acid attack. CO2
corrosion from chemical attack has been generally effectively controlled through the use of 13%
chrome tubulars.

6-11

Although CO2 corrosion and stress sulfide cracking have nothing in common when both corrosion factors are present in a well, control of both forms of corrosion may be accomplished by using a corrosion-resistant alloy to block CO2 attack and a reduced hardness to prevent SSC. Choosing a 13%
chromium steel that has a hardness below 22 Rockwell hardness-C, (LSO tubing), should also be
effective.
One severe drawback to using the 13% chromium steels is that they exhibit very limited resistance to
pitting during storage where air and chloride are present (seacoasts). This type of corrosion can much
more significant inside the pipe, particularly if condensation inside the pipe forms standing puddles.24
In the well, control of pitting corrosion of the 13% chrome steels relies on the deaeration of water.
The second type of severe corrosional effect produced by CO2 is largely physical -the erosional effect
produced by changes in fluid flow direction or an effect often described as ~ a v i t a t i o n . ~Erosion
~ * ~ ~is* ~ ~
the increase in the rate of metal deterioration from the abrasive effects of a fluid flowing into or
through a pipe. Other sources of erosion may include entrained gas in liquids, liquid droplets in gas,
solids in any fluid, very high flow rates, or any restriction in the completion strings that causes a drastic change in the flow velocity of the produced fluids. Erosion may often lead to a removal of the effective inhibitor, corrosion film, or reactant film. Severe cases can be identified by grooves or rounded
pits or holes that are usually smooth and lie along the direction of flow. Removal of a protective inhibitor or corrosion oxide film takes place when the strain on the film or corrosion oxide layer exceeds the
strain for the failure of the film. Erosion by solids and droplets may also affect the tenacity of the film
on an exposed surface. The failure of a corrosion oxide layer takes considerably longer than the failure for most film-forming materials.
Squeezing or continuous injection of inhibitors may not be cost effective if the completion string ID is
smaller than the minimum ID required to prevent erosion. Ifthis principle is violated, the film may be
continuously stripped off, even at high loading rates. Not all inhibitor films react in the same manner to
stripping by erosion; a few products offer very good performance in high velocity applications.
Other Factors

The presence of oxygen either as dissolved or entrained gas substantially increases the corrosion,
Figure 6.4.2 In almost all fluid handling systems, oxygen must be removed prior to injection of water or
shipment of the fluids by pipeline.
The pH of the water and the velocity of the water influence the corrosion attack. The chart in
Figure 6.5 illustrates the relative corrosion of flowing and nonflowing fluids versus the fluid pH. The
velocities shown in the graph are for water velocities of 3 to 7 ft per second. Below 3 FPS, corrosion is
reduced at pHs above 7. Notice for the flowing case that there is very little corrosion in waters with a
pH above 7 (basic). In these high pH waters, iron is almost insoluble, so the byproducts of a corrosion
reaction cannot be swept away from the corrosion site and the corrosion reaction is stopped.
The amount of water in the production is also a factor in corrosion. Water cuts below 25% are likely to
cause less corrosion than water cuts above 45%, especially at pHs below 7. As water cut increases,
the tendency for a steel surface to be oil wet decreases. Corrosion is very low for most oil wet surfaces and very high for most water wet surfaces. Since most wells are at least very slightly deviated,
the water caused corrosion damage may be confined to a trench in the low side of the pipe. In wells
where the flow rate in the tubing is not high enough to keep all the liquids moving at near the same
velocity, the water may reflux (up and down with gas rate changes) in the low side, creating a serious
corrosion trench even at very low water cuts. Inspection with caliper or electromagnetic surveys (measures metal loss through field generation and interruption techniques) can usually spot the trench if
one exists. Water can be produced and carried as an emulsion (entrained water) at flow velocities of
3-1/2 to 5 fps.

6-12

5
10
15
20
CARBON DIOXIDE PPM

25

(Endearn, 1989, Champion Chem.)

Figure 6.4:

Effect of dissolved oxygen on relative corrosion rate.

RELATIVE CORROSION VS pH L VELOCITT

CORROSION-EROSION

7-

11

12

10
8
ALKALINE -pH-

4
ACIDIC

(Endearn, 1989, Champion Chem.)

Figure 6.5:

Relationship of velocity of water and pH to corrosion.

Corrosion by Stimulation Acids

The use of stimulation acids such as HCI and HCVHF create severe problems in the specialty tubulars. Special problems of selective effects of inhibitor^,^^ pitting and intergranular attack,47 detrimental
influence of added organics,48i49and increased corrosion of the fluoride ion,50 require special inhibitors and special inhibition techniques for the high allow steels. The primary attack of the steels by acid
is severe pitting and intergranular attack that is difficult to control with inhibitors. Localized pitting may
be severe enough to ruin a section of the string.
Acid inhibitors work in the same manner as other corrosion inhibitors; by filming and passivating the
surface. The HCI and HCVHF acids are much more severe environments than other types of corrosion
and the inhibitors for these uses are specially blended and have much shorter effective life spans.

6-13

Also, presence of mutual solvents, alcohols, oil solvents and surfactants in the acid may alter or
destroy the effectiveness of some inhibitors.
Some of the expensive super alloys, such as the 13-chrome materials, may be especially sensitive to
HCVHF acid attack and special inhibitors are required.
Destruction of Elastomers

The steels used in the tubulars and well equipment are not the only materials susceptible to corrosion.
The elastomers (plastics and rubbers) used in the seals are also affected by the well fluids and must
be carefully selected to avoid problems. The attack on elastomers by gas is usually by swelling or blistering,5 both involve invasion of the elastomer by the gas. Rapid release of the pressure around a
gas permeated seal will likely cause explosive decompression and destruction of at least the outer
layer, the sealing edge, of the seal. Surprisingly, although gas permeation of a seal can destroy the
seal when pressure is released, the seal may function adequately before pressure release. Reaction
of various liquids to elastomer seals depends on seal type and position, temperature, liquid type, pressure, previous seal contamination and the presence of some lubricants used for tool assembly.52 In
general, nitrile seals are used for most general purpose applications where oil contact is necessary.
Other compounds such as the fluorinated elastomers (e.g., Viton) are available for contact with aromatic solvents (xylene and toluene). Other specialty compounds are available for specific, highly corrosive conditions or contact with powerful solvents; however, seal cost increases quickly with the more
exotic elastomer compounds. Some metal-to-metal seals are being offered where elastomer destruction is most severe.53
Microbial Corrosion

Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) active corrosive influence of the attached (sessile) bacteria c o l o n i e ~ . The
~ * ~ problems
~
are two fold; the colonies cover areas of steel, blocking corrosion
inhibitors from reaching the pipe surface, and the waste products of the colonies are often very corrosive in the protected areas under a colony. The sulfate reducing bacteria, SRBs, are the most detrimental, with the capability of souring wellbores and parts of reservoirs with H2S. Bacteria are
controlled by cleaning the water and treating with bactericides.
Nonmetallic Tubulars

As an alternative to steel casing with its problems with corrosion, fiberglass casing, tubing and rods
are being applied in some ~ e l l sThe
. ~advantages
~ ~ ~ ~ of the plastic materials are excellent resistance
to most forms of water related corrosion and some scale and paraffin deposition. Most applications
have been in shallow, low pressure wells, where high strength is not needed; however, new placement
techniques and plastic formulations are stretching limits of application.
Predictive Techniques and Inspection Devices

Monitoring the rate of corrosion is of critical importance to determine when to repair or replace equipment and to judge the effectiveness of corrosion control techniques on well e q ~ i p m e n t . A~ system~-~~
atic examination of the produced fluid chemistry, operating conditions and failures can describe the
potential for further failure.55 Monitoring of corrosion in the well uses several logging techniques to
monitor abrasion (and other wear), pitting and surface corrosion.
The data from produced fluid analysis includes ion analysis, pH, gas type and content. It can be used
with computed based predictive models to establish a general potential for corrosion in the well. Corrosion coupons inserted into the well stream can verify the predictive results and help evaluate the
effect of an inhibitor. Sections of test pipe are also used, normally in surface piping, to evaluate
selected metals.

6-14

When a corrosion related failure occurs, it is most important that the cause of the failure be determined. The analysis of corrosion products and the characteristic corrosion pattern can usually determine the type of corrosion that caused the failure. Hardness tests, microscopic examination, and
chemical analysis of the failed and unaffected surfaces are also tools of identifi~ation.~~
To monitor the corrosion rate and general condition of the tubulars in the well, a set of instruments are
used that provide data for comparisons with earlier readings to arrive at a corrosion or erosion rate.
These tools include multifingered c a l i p e r ~probes
, ~ ~ for measuring anodic activity,57induction tools to
measure pipe mass,58magnetic devices,59 sonic tools that measure pipe thickness,60and some
experimental tools that locate cracks in the pipe.60 These tools will establish a rate of corrosion or
wear when the results from several regular runs are compared.

Erosion
Surface erosion from solid particles in a high velocity produced fluid stream is normally associated
with unstable formations such as unconsolidated sands. Other occurrences of erosion include cases
of choke and tree loss following rapid back flow of wells after fracturing. The common denominator is
the high flow velocity.
Maximum velocities that can be tolerated in a situation will depend on the flowing fluid and other factors including foaming or emulsifying tendency, solids and entrained gas. Mechanical limitations in the
piping design or metering apparatus may also influence the maximum permissible flow rate.
Although some information exists that a corrosion inhibitor film is removable by high velocity flow,2i61
other authors offer evidence of successful inhibitor film performance at mass velocities of up to
100 Wsec with abrasion where inhibitor was continuously present.62 In any design where flow rates
will be high, a testing program should be used to identify the best method of corrosion protection.
The concept of critical velocity for flow of fluids with no solids in sizing of piping is covered in API RP14E.63 In general, the limits for dry crude flow velocity in pipe is about 30 to 35 fps (ft per second) and
for wet crude, the maximum velocity is 20 to 25 fps. At faster flow rates, some steel may be lost to
abrasion from the clean liquids. In some inhibitor protected systems, the limit of fluid velocity is often
much higher than set by the API equation.

V
P
C
C
C
C

= maximum velocity to avoid corrosion

= fluid density in pounds per cubic ft

= operating constant
= 100 to 125 for long life projects
= 160 for short life projects
= 150 to 300 for projects with good inhibitor filming

The validity of the RP-14E equation has been debated by Craig68-70and Smart,71 and a version of
Craigs information is relayed in the following information.
The erosion rate of any metal surface is strongly controlled by the presence and hardness of naturally
occurring (but metal-composition related) oxide or sulfide film. This film, which depending on composition, can be much harder than the pure metal surface, is one of the main factors that reduce erosion
(and some forms of chemical corrosion).

6-15

Presence of mist droplets in the stream can destroy the natural or added inhibitor barriers and rapidly
increase corrosion. Actual abrasive induced failures of the pipe depend on the entrained droplets or
solids in the gas as well as the density of the gas. Estimates of the densities and good design velocities are contained in Figure 6.6. For further information, refer to the Oil Field Corrosion Detection and
Control Handbook, by Endean, available from Champion Chemicals Inc., Houston.

(Endeam, 1989, Champion Chem.)

Figure 6.6:

Empirically derived curve of suitable design velocities

for flow of liquid and gas in tubing in vertical wells.

The API RP-14E equation is a quasi-rigorous attempt to determine critical velocity for general purpose
projects. Craig 68 proposed flow ranges for a modification of the RP-14E equation, proposed by Griffith and Rabinowicx (1985), where the C factor was calculated. The calculated value of C was based
on actual well conditions. The equation was only very slightly different:

vc = Cp37,
but the C was dependent on flowing fluid and pipe metallurgy, rather than a range of operating constants. When using chemical resistant alloys such as stainless and some nickel based materials
(especially those containing Chromium), the stable range of the C factor in the equation would be in
the range of 160 to 300. The 160 to 300 range for CRA tubulars is well proven infield performance for
long lived projects.
The ultimate value of C is then dependent on alloy composition, oxide or sulfide layer composition,
and flowing fluid composition (H2S, CO2, etc.). The layer composition and fluid resistance would also
change with temperature and impact resistance. Craig proposed a further modification of the equation
to allow input of the oxide hardness layer:

6-16

where P is the measured hardness of the oxide layer in kg/mm2 and p is fluid density in Ib/ft3. The use
of such an equation for calculations is limited at the present time by available data on hardness, P.
Craig offers the following explanation: for Ti alloys, using a hardness of 1,000kglmm2 for titanium
dioxide (Ti02) film formed on the alloy, the C factor would be 189.However, if aluminum oxide (aI2O3)
were incorporated into the oxide of any alloy so it was the predominate film, then P E 200 kg/mm2and
C = 255. Conversely, if a SS or Ni-based alloy containing Cr is exposed to a high H2S environment,
then the film could be predominately Cr2S3, with P - 480 kg/mm2 and C would drop to 138l (with data
from A.A. Ivanko Handbook of Hardness),

Impingement of particle laden fluids on a screen, casing wall, choke, or other surface in the well will
result in some erosion, regardless of the velocity flow. Erosion is usually only severe however, when
the fluid flow velocity is high enough to impact the solid particles on the surface with enough force to
abrade the metal or the natural or man-made coating on the metal surface.
Well completion decisions in wells with solids erosion problems may take one or more of three routines: (1)decrease the flowing liquid velocity with larger perforations, larger wellbores and larger tubing, (2)use hardened blast joints to slow the rate of erosion, and (3)control the solids with gravel
packs and screens.
If the erosion problem is slight, blast joints represent the cheapest methods of control. If erosion is
severe, the producing pays are usually gravel packed.

The erosion rate of any surface exposed to fluids that contain solids depends on the size, roundness,
and composition of the solids, the amount of solids in the flow stream, the velocity of the flowing fluid,
the shape of the flow path and the hardness of the metal layer exposed to the fluid. The worst erosion
conditions are created when sand grain sized (0.01 to O.l),particles of high density materials rapidly
strike the metal surface at angles of about 45to 95.If the energy of the impact is sufficient to dislodge or break the oxide layer, then erosion and some forms of corrosion will be accelerated.

Corrosion References
1. Uhlig, H. H.: Corrosion Handbook
2. Endean, H. J.: Oilfield Corrosion Detection and Control, Champion Chemicals, Houston, 1989.

3. Tuttle, R. N.: Corrosion in Oil and Gas Production, Journal of Petroleum Technology (July
1987),pp. 756-762.
4. Cron, C. J. and G. A. Marsh: Overview of Economic and Engineering Aspects of Corrosion in Oil
and Gas Production, Journal of Petroleum Technology (June 1983),pp. 1033-1041.
5. Patton, C. C.: Applied Water Technology, Book, Campbell Petroleum Services, Norman, OK,

1986.
6. Peabody, A. W.: Control of Pipeline Corrosion, Nat. Assoc. of Corrosion Eng., Houston, TX,
(1967).
7. Rice, P. W.: Selecting Metallic Materials For Downhole Service, World Oil, (Nov. 1989),pp. 7076.
8. Comments from Jack Smart, Welchem.

6-17

9. Smart, J. S.Ill: A Review of Erosion Control in Oil and Gas Production, NACE Paper for presentation at the 1990 Annual Meeting, Las Vegas.
10. Hamby, T. W.: Development of High-pressure Sour Gas Technology, Journal of Petroleum
Technology (May 1981), pp. 792-798.
11. Currie, D. M.: The Use of Corrosion Resistant Alloys in Sour Gas Surface Production Facilities,
Paper OCT 6111 presented at the 21st Annual OTC in Houston, May 1-4, 1989, pp. 583-588.
12. Corbett, R. A. and W. S.Morrison: Comparative Corrosion Resistance of Some High-Nickel,
Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys, Materials Performance (February 1989), pp. 56-59.
13. Bradley, W. B. and J. E. Fontenot: The Prediction and Control of Casing Wear, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, (February 1975), pp. 233-237.
14. Jasinski, R.: Corrosion of N80-Type Steel by C02/Water Mixtures, Corrosion-NACE, Vol. 43,
No. 4, April 1987, pp. 214-218.
15. Bowman, R. W.; A. K. Duniop and J. P. Tralmer: CO/CO2 Cracking in Inert Gas - Miscible Flooding, Materials Performance (April 1977), pp. 28-32.
16. Storey, W. D.: Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion of Metals, Oilweek, May 20, 1963, pp. 721-724.
17. Littmann, E. S.: Control of Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion in Oilfield Production Equipment, Paper Spe 16909 presented at the 62nd Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Dallas, September 27-30, 1987.
18. Berkowitz, B. J., Horowitz, H.. H.: The Roles Of H2S in the Corrosion and Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steel J. Electrochem. Soc., (March 1982), 468-73.
19. Wilhelm, S.M. and R. D. Kane: Selection of Materials for Sour Service in Petroleum Production, Journal of Petroleum Technology (October 1986), pp. 1051-1061.
20. Merrick, R. D.: An Overview of Hydrogen Damage to Steels at Low Temperatures, Materials
Performance (February 1989), pp. 53-55.
21. Kane, R. D.: Special Tubulars Find Expanding Role, Petroleum Engineer (March 1988), pp. 4346.
22. Parkins, R. N.; A. Alexandridou and P. Majumdar: Stress corrosion cracking of C-Mn steels in
environments containing carbon dioxide, Materials Performance (October 1986), pp. 20-27.
23. Ogundele, G. I. and W. E. White: Some Observations on the Corrosion of Carbon Steel in Sour
Gas Environments - Effects of H2S and H2/CO2/CH4/C~H8
Mixtures, Corrosion - NACE, Vol. 42,
NO.7, July 1986, pp. 398-408.
24. Crolet, J.: Acid Corrosion in Wells (CO2, H2S) - Metallurgical Aspects, Journal of Petroleum
Technology (August 1983), pp. 1553-1558.

25. Craig, 6.: How to Determine Erosion-Corrosion Resistance of Chromium Steels, Petroleum
Engineer (March 1989), pp. 24-27.

6-18

26. Videm, K. and A. Dugstad: Corrosion of Carbon Steel in an Aqueous Carbon Dioxide Environment; Part 1 : Solution Effects, Materials Performance (March 1989),pp. 63-67.
27. Videm, K. and A. Dugstad: Corrosion of Carbon Steel in an Aqueous Carbon Dioxide Environment; Part 2: Film Formation, Materials Performance (April 1989),pp. 46-50.
28. Roche, M. and J. P. Samaran: Pipeline Coatings Performance Field Experience of an Operating
Petroleum Company, Paper NACE 28 presented at the Corrosion 87 Conference, San Francisco, March 9-13.
29. Bellassai, S.J.: Coating Fundamentals, Materials Performance (December 1972),pp. 55-58.
30. Banach, J. L.: Pipeline Coatings - Evaluation, Repair, and Impact on Corrosion Protection
Design and Cost, Paper Nace 29 presented at the Corrosion 87 Conference, San Francisco,
March 9-13.
31. Burton, S.A. and R. Ross: Corrosion Protection with Elastomers; An investigation of cathodic
protection effects on elastomeric coated pipelines and risers, Corrosion Prevention & Control
(April 1987),pp. 45-50.

32. Evans, S.:Cost Effective Treatment Looks at Entire Production System, World Oil, (Jan 1990),
pp. 105-107.
33. Annand, R. R.; H. M. Hilliard and W. S.Tait: Factors in the Corrosivity of Seawater Used for
Secondary Petroleum Recovery, Oil Field Subsurface Injection of Water, pp 41 -53.
34. Weeter, R. F.: Conditioning of Water by Removal of Corrosive Gases, Journal of Petroleum
Technology (February 1972),pp. 181-1 84.
35. Alexander, R. A.: Environmental Method Controls CorrosionlCracking in Mobile Bay, J. Petroleum Technology, (Jan. go), pp. 62-66.
36. Simmons, E. J.: Cathodic Protection of Oil Well Casings, SPESC, 1968,pp. 245-255.
37. Smith, H. M.; M. F. Bird and R. H. Penna: Factors Affecting the Cathodic Disbonding of Pipe
Coatings, Materials Performance (Noamber 1988),pp. 19-23.
38. Houghton, C. J. and R. V. Westermark: North Sea Downhole Corrosion - Identifying the Problem; Implementing the Solutions, J. of Pet. Tech., (January 1983),pp. 239-246.
i

39. Frank, W. J.: Heres how to deal with corrosion problems in rod-pumped wells, Oil and Gas
Journal, May 31,1976,pp. 63-72.
40. Reinhardt, J. R.: Phase diagrams can locate gas-condensate-well corrosion, Oil and Gas Journal, April 4,1988,pp. 41-47.
41. Akrarn, N. F., Butler, J. C.: Corrosion in Sajaa Field, Proceedings of the 4th Middle East Corrosion Conference, Bahrain Society of Engineers, Bahrain, January 1988,pp. 535-550.
42. Material Requirements, Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic materials for Oil Field Equipment, National Association of Corrosion Engineers Standard MR-01-75.
43. Hilliard, H. M.: Corrosion Control in Cotton Valley Production, Paper Spe 9062 presented at the
SPE Cotton Valley Symposium, Tyler, May 21,1980.

6-19

44. Carbon, H. A.: Corrosion in Natural Gas - Condensate Wells, industrial and Engineering
Chemistry, March 1949, pp. 644-645.
45. Bradburn, J. B., Kalra, S.K.: Corrosion Mitigation - A Critical Facet of Well Completion Design,
J. Pet. Tech., (Sept. 1983), pp. 1617-1623.
46. Garber, J. D. and M. Kantour: How High-Alloy Tubulars React in Acidizing Environments,
Petroleum Engineer (July 1984), pp. 60-68.
47. Burke, P. A.; J. L. Dawson; G. Bailey and R. C. Woollam: Corrosion of Chromium Steels in
Inhibited Acids, Paper NACE 41 presented at the Corrosion 87 Conference, San Francisco,
March 9-13.
48. Jasinski, R.; W. W. Frenier, and S.Grannan: Inhibiting HCI Corrosion of High Chrome Tubular
Steels, Paper NACE 188 presented at the Corrosion 88 Conference, St. Louis, March 21-25.
49. Walker, M. L. and T. H. McCoy: Inhibition of High Alloy Tubulars I1- Effect of Fluoride Ion and
Acid Strength, Paper Nace 189 presented at the Corrosion 88 Conference, St. Louis, March 2125.
50. Walker, M. L. and T. H. McCoy: Effect and Inhibition of Stimulation Acids on Corrosion Resistant
Alloys, Paper Nace 154 presented at the Corrosion 86 Conference, Houston, March 17-21.
51 Spriggs,

D.: Equipment Selection Critical to EOR Operations Pet. Eng. Intl., (Nov. 1987), 28-

30.
52. Moore, N. B.; J. Hellums and R. T. S.Chang: 0-Ring Seal Failure Mechanisms, Paper OTC
6131 presented at the 21st Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 1-4, 1989,
pp. 83-94.

53. Haeberle, T. and P. J. Kovach: Material Considerations for High-Deformation Sealing Systems
in H2S and Chloride Environments, Paper OTC 6084 presented at the 21st Annual Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, May 1-4, 1989, pp. 403-41 0.
54. Chen, E. Y. and R. B. Chen: Monitoring Microbial Corrosion in Large Oilfield Water Systems,
Journal of Petroleum Tech. (July 1984), pp. 1171-1176.
55. Walker, C. K. and G. C. Maddux: Corrosion-Monitoring Techniques and Applications, Materials
Performance (May 1989), pp. 64-70.

56. Stephens, R. M. and M. F. Mohamed: Corrosion Monitoring and Inhibition in Khuff Gas Wells,
Journal of Petroleum Technology (October 1985), pp. 1861-1866,
57. Myers, R. D.; G. R. Cameron and D. B. Lebsack: An Evaluation of Corrosion Monitoring Techniques for Measuring Corrosion Inhibitor Performance in Sour Gas Gathering Systems, Paper
CIM 88-39-1 16 presented at the 39th Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of CIM
held in Calgary, June 12-16, 1988.

58. Iliyan, I. S.;W. J. Cotton and G. A. Brown: Test Results of a Corrosion Logging Technique Using
Electromagnetic Thickness and Pipe Analysis Logging Tools, Journal of Petroleum Technology
(April 1983), pp. 801-808.
59. Moyer, M. C. and B. A. Dale: Methods for Evaluating the Quality of Oilfield Tubular Inspections,
Journal of Petroleum Technology (January 1986), pp. 88-96.

6-20

60. Kiefner, J. F.; R. W. Hyatt and R. J. Eiber: Metal-loss, crack-detection tools targeted, Technology, April 24, 1989, pp. 69-71.
61. Salama, M. M., Venkatesh, E. S.: Evaluation of API-RP-14E Erosional Velocity Limitations for
Offshore Gas Wells, Offshore Tech. Conf., Paper 4485, Houston, 1983.
62. Jones, L. W.: Corrosion and Water Technology, Oil and Gas Consultants International, Inc.,
Tulsa, 1988.
63. API Recommended Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore Production Platform Piping
Systems, API RP-14E.
64. Altunbay, M., Kalra, S.K.: Nomograph Helps Predict Erosional Control, World Oil, (March
1988), pp. 43-45.
65. Oney, C. L. Fiberglass Line Pipe Requires Special Care, Pet. Eng. Intl., (Nov. 1987), 34-36.
66. Oney, C. L. Special Considerations Needed for Fiberglass Tubing, Pet. Eng. Intl., (Dec. 1987),
29, 30.
67. Kane, R. D., Greer, J. B.: Sulfide Stress Cracking of High-Strength Steels in Laboratory and Oilfield Environment, J. Pet. Tech., November 1977, pp. 1483-1488.
68. Craig, B. D.: Predicting Critical Erosion-Corrosion Limits of Alloys for Oil and Gas Production,
Material Performance, pp. 59-60, September, 1998.
69. Craig, B. D.: Critical Velocity Examined for Effects of Erosion-Corrosion, Oil and Gas J., pp. 99,
Vol. 5, No. 27, 1985.
70. Craig, B. D.: Equation Clarifies Critical Velocity Calculation, Pet. Eng. Int., pp. 42, Oct. 1990.
71. Smart, J.: The Meaning of the API RP14E Formula for Erosion Corrosion in Oil and Gas Production, Corrosion/91, paper 85, Houston, NACE, 1991.

6-21

Appendix 6.A
Velocity limits for clean liquid erosion in tubulars can be described with an equation from API RP 14E:

"@

0'/2

(6.11)

where:
V,

C
p

= maximum allowable velocity, Wsec, above which erosion would be expected to occur

for a clean, solids free fluid.

= a constant, typically 100 to 125. 100 recommended for continuous flow, 125 recommended for intermittent flow.
= density of fluid at flowing pressure and temperature, Ib/fL3

From this equation, it is seen that erosion for clean liquids would be unlikely at normal flow rates.
Presence of gas and solids can quickly change the erosion attack and damage may occur at much
lower flow rates. When gas in the produced fluid is responsible for erosion, the solution is usually a
reduction in rate or the use of larger id tubulars. With tubing strings that are single sized, the velocity
at the top of the string is a maximum for the well. Tapered strings, with smaller diameter tubing near
the bottom of the well may have the maximum velocity downhole. This velocity may be estimated by
calculating an estimate of the flow rate of the gas and then dividing by the tubing area.

where:

Q
R
Z

= gas flow rate mcf/d

= absolute temperature,

O F

+ 460"

= compressibility factor
Z estimates: Z = 1 if P c 1000 psi, Z = 0.9 if P > 1000 psi

P
= operating pressure at the depth of interest in psi
= gas flow rate, cfs
F,
The gas velocity, V; in feet per second is then the rate divided by the area of tubing id.

V=

6
tubing inside area in ft2

If the pressure is not known, it can be estimated by subtracting the gradient of the gas from the surface pressure to the proper depth. This process, as detailed in Figure 8.8 is not highly accurate since
it uses the shut in wellhead pressure and a static gradient instead of a flowing wellhead pressure and
a flowing fluid gradient. It will only work for dry gas. Much better estimates are available from multiphase flow programs.

6.A-22

Chapter 7: infiow Performance, Tubing Selection,

and Artificial Lift
Maximizing production from a well depends on reducing unneeded pressure drop all along the flow
path; from the heart of the reservoir to the pipeline. Completion design should focus on the areas of
most common pressure drop, in this case, the tubular flow path. The objective is to design a flow path
that will a) transport both gas and liquids (without allowing liquid dropout) and; b) will minimize pressure drop. Since small tubulars are better to transport liquids with available gas flow and large tubulars are more efficient at reducing pressure drop, there is often a compromise needed or an alternate
life mechanism required. Complicating the problem is the expansion of gas, resulting in a dynamically
changing flow path from top to bottom. To satisfy both requirements, many strings are designed as
tapered strings; small ID on bottom and large on top
The performance of a producing well and the correct tubing size depends on three sets of fluid behavior conditions. There is one set of conditions controlling fluid entry into the well, a different set controlling flow of mixtures from bottom to top and another set describing flow through back pressure devices
at the surface. The first is inflow performance, the second is vertical lift performance, and the third is
back pressure response from the choke. Often the parameters set for one of the three performance
areas will directly affect the execution of the others. A large bottom hole pressure, for example, will
assist in vertical flow but will act as backpressure to reduce inflow.
Effective use of available pressure is the key to an optimum completion. Pressure drops are necessary for well operation. For any steady-state flow, the sum of: the drawdown, the pressure drop from
bottom to top in the tubing, and the pressure drop across the choke is equal to the difference between
the flowing pressure of the well and the surface flow line pressure. Modeling the various pressure
drops to determine optimum production rates is normally done with a nodal analysis simulator. Several
runs on the simulator will generally pinpoint problem areas and the best operation procedures.

Inflow Performance
The inflow performance of a well describes the flow capacity of a well vs. the drawdown pressure at a
certain time for given set of conditions. The data for an inflow performance relationship curve, IPR, is
gathered by producing the well at various drawdown and measuring the fluids production rate. Normally, the liquid rates are plotted separately and as total production. The curve, Figure 7.1, ideally
would be straight line as in this example plot from VogeI.* The productivity index, PI (or J),is:

where:
PI
= Productivity Index, barrels oil per day per psi
(9J = oil flow rate, bpd
= maximum potential flow, bpd
Pr
= reservoir pressure, psi
P d = bottomhole well flowing pressure, psi

The PI is the inverse of the slope of the line shown in Figure 7.1. Inflow data, however, are rarely
straight since two phase liquid flow and gas flow are often combined. Under these conditions, the data
forms a curve similar to the general curve in Figure 7.2. When curvature exists in the inflow data, a
single PI does not exist because the value of the PIvaries continuously with the inverse of the slope.*

7-1

The plotted curve is the inflow performance relationship of a well. Although the straight line approximation has limitations, especially when applied to two-phase flow, it is still used because of the difficulty in calculating solutions.2 The process has been programmed for computer analysis and these
solutions represent the best solutions to the design equipments. GLRs, depletion and water cut
change the shape of the curves. Back pressure on the well and the other factors influencing inflow,
vertical flow, and back pressure also have large effects.

. Drawdown Pr -

hf

Max. Prcd
Rate,

Froducing Rate
Figure 7.1:

Straight line inflow performance relationship.

MMfQ LIZL

Figure 7.2:

(m)

(Buhidma)

Inflow performance relationship for a well producing below the bubble point.

Tubing Design
If there is sufficient pressure, flowing is undoubtedly the simplest and cheapest method of operation.
In some cases, it may also result in production rates higher than can be achieved by many lift methods
and certainly less expensive. Vertical flow in the tubing may move in a variety of flow regimes. In most
flowing wells, the fluids move with some type of two-phase flow. For a well with oil above the bubblepoint and a high solution GOR,the regimes of flow will vary greatly. At the bottom of the well, the oil
moves as a single phase with no free gas. As the vertical rise is initiated, some gas starts to break out
of solution, initiating foam flow. With decreasing depth, the bubbles form larger gas pockets, decreas-

7-2

ing oil density and pushing liquid ahead of it in slug flow. With continued gas expansion (and higher
gas velocity), the oil is a film moving along the walls of the pipe. At the surface, the gas velocity is
great enough to pick the oil up and carry it as a mist. This type of natural gas lift is the most common
form of flow in flowing wells.
The keys to the vertical movement of liquids are pressure, fluid densities and the factors influencing
flow velocity in the tubing. Any selected combination of liquid flow rate and tubular size will result in a
certain velocity. The larger the tube id, the slower the velocity. As tube size increases, the velocity
may decrease to a point where gas breaks away from the liquids, creating unstable flow behavior, followed by liquid loading. When enough liquid accumulates, the well dies (ceases flowing). Selection of
tubular size is based on preserving enough velocity to produce the well without holding a backpressure on the formation. The right tubing size for a high pressure gas well with no water production, will
not be the right tubing size a few years later when pressures and gas flow rates have declined and
water is increasing.697The best compromise is to run a large string when the well is new and to
replace the string with smaller tubulars later when the well has to be worked over, Figure 7.3. Smaller
strings, including coiled tubing, can be run inside the larger strings without pulling the larger string, if
rig cost factors make a workover economically unattractive. In high pressure, deep wells where the
lifting effects of gas are poor near the bottom of the well, multiple sizes of tubing may be run on one
string. A Yapered string may use 2-3/8 in. tubing at the bottom, 2-7/8 in. tubing in the middle of the
string and 3-1/2 in. tubing near the top. The purpose of the tapered string is to maintain similar velocities over the entire tubing string.

01
0

so0

-1Ooo

Is00

2ao

PO0

DWs

Figure 7.3:

1
3Ooo

(Kimmel)

Effect of tubing size on the early and late years in

production of a well. Note that the larger size tubing accounts for more production early when rates
are high (less frictional backpressure) but the
smaller tubing can be unloaded easier (resists
heading) as pressure drops.

Figure 7.4 (Patton and Abbott) shows the tubing performance curve, TPC, and IPR curve matches for
several different wells. In these cases, the tubing size was varied using 1-1/2 in., 2-3/8 in., 2-7/8 in.
and 3-1/2 in. nominal tubing sizes (OD). The tubing length, wellhead pressure, and GOR were held
constant. In the plot, which shows three wells with different IPR curves, the best well, A, has the best

7-3

IPR despite lower reservoir pressure. The well should flow at the following flow rates with the various
sizes of tubing in the well.
#1

Well A
Flow Rate (BPD)
L/1
944

Tubing
1-1/2

2-318
2-718
3-112

1355
.~
2222

#3

#2
Well B
Flow Rate (BPD)

Well C
Flow Rate (BPD)

122

244

1211
1466
1756

400
377
420

(Patton & Abott, 1981)

Figure 7.4:

Effect of tubing size on the performance of several wells

with different IPR curves.

Well No. 2 , with a higher reservoir pressure but a lower IPR, also has increasing flow rates for the various tubing sizes. Well No. 3 is an unusual case of a well with a high flowing wellhead pressure but a
relatively low flow rate. This is often the case in lower permeability formations. In this particular
instance, the smaller tubing will provide nearly the same flow rate as the larger tubing and will make
more efficient use of the reservoir gas for lifting the fluid production, especially over the entire life of
the well. Increasing water cut, wellbore impairment, or an increase in the back pressure on the well
may also cause severe reductions.
The use of pressure gradient curves for flowing wells is advantageous because for any flow rate at set
well conditions of tubing size, water cut, GLR, and fluid characteristics, one curve can be used to
describe all the points in the pressure-depth relationship. If two of the variable set; P~ Pwh,depth, are
known, the other can be obtained from the graph. The curves are available from Brown.8 Use of the
gradient curves is described by Patton & Abbotg In their example, the well has a PWh= 620 psi, tub-

7-4

ing length of 9160 ft, and GLR of 1000. Refer to Figure 7.5 for an example gradient curve for the following sequence of steps.

Actual
length
tublng

1
Pressure

ro

(Patton & Abott, 1981)

Figure 7.5:

Gradient curve for selecting tubing size.

1. Select the family of GLR curves corresponding to the correct tubing size, liquid characteristics,
and producing rate.
2. Find the GLR curve on that set of curves which corresponds to the GLR of the well.
3. Enter the graph from the top on the X-axis with the wellhead pressure and move down to where
the pressure line intersects the proper GLR curve. The wellhead pressure in these graphs is the
flowing wellhead pressure. The depth of the intercept (Y-axis) is the equivalent length of tubing
that will produce a pressure drop equal to the given flowing tubing pressure (-7220 ft).
4. From the intercept at the Y-axis, drop down the scale an equivalent depth corresponding to the
actual tubing length (9160 + 7220 = 16,380).

5. At the corrected depth (the tubing length equivalent), move right until the proper GLR curve is
intercepted. From this intercept, the reading on the pressure scale gives the bottomhole pressure required under the initial conditions (2720 psi).
If the bottomhole flowing pressure is known, the steps can be reversed to establish a PWhfor a certain
flow rate. These curves should be verified early in the life of the well while it will still flow.

After a set of gradient curves has been constructed or checked, pressures at various rates can be
obtained by plotting the flowing, downhole tubing pressure on a pressure vs. rate graph and connecting the points with a best fit curve. This construction is called the tubing performance curve, TPC. A
TPC gives the pressure required for any selected rate according to a given set of well performance
parameters of GLR, WOR, Pwh, and tubing ID and length. Since the flowing tubing pressure and rate
are dependent, ifthere is no intersection with an overplot of the IPR curve, the well cannot flow. This

7-5

is an easy first check of the need for a lift system for initial flow (optimizing production is a little different). Use of the tubing performance curves is as follows (from Patton and Abbott):
1. Draw the inflow performance curve for the total fluid production. If necessary, also drawn an
uphole IPR curve (if the pump is set high).
2. Estimate the produced fluid parameters such as water cut and GOR.
3. Draw a tubing performance curve from the gradient curve that matches the produced fluid

parameters.
4. Plot the tubing performance curve and the inflow performance curve on the same graph. The

TPC and the IPR will have a variety of possible intersections.

5. Curves that do not intersect, Figure 7.6, where the TPC is above IPR, indicates that the well will

not flow under the given conditions and artificial lift is required. For most well completions, this
will be the standard check before an artificial lift method is determined.

Q
Figure 7.6:

P
(Patton & Abott)

IPR Curve no intersection; lift required.

a. Curves that do not intersect on the graph but have the TPC below the IPR, Figure 7.7, indicate that flow will occur and a choke will be required to control production. The flow rates will
actually intersect if the curve is extended.

Uohole

\I
I
I
I

Figure 7.7:

(Patton & Abott)

IPR Curve intersection at far right. A choke is

required to control flow.

7-6

b. Curves that intersect at a low rate and have the TPC below the uphole IPR show the stable
rate at which the well will flow under the given conditions, Figure 7.8. The rate in this case
will be limited by pressure and artificial lift may be capable of improving production.

Figure 7.8:

C.

(Patton & Abott)

IPR Curve intersection shows that lift

could significantly increase production
from well.

Curves that intersect twice, once at low and once at high rate, Figure 7.9, with TPC below
the IPR indicate an area of unstable flow at the low intersection and stable flow rate in the
high intersection. If the well is not kicked off and flowing at the higher rate, it may drop to the
low rate and head (load up with liquid) and die. These wells are often gas lifted until a stable
flow rate is achieved and then gas injection may be reduced or stopped.

a
Figure 7.9:

m
(Patton 8. Abbott)

IPR Curve intersections at two points indicates that the well could heat at the lower
intersection.

6. The final step allows estimation of the effect of water cut on production rate. This requires developments of a TPC curve with varying water cuts for the tubing size, depth, and GOR that is given
for the well. The uphole IPR is overlayed to determine the producing rates for various water cuts.
The IPR is then adjusted for the change in flowing gradient between midformation and the end of
the tubing that accompanies the change. The IPR curve should also be adjusted for changing
reservoir pressure that accompanies the reservoir changes. Once these adjustments are made,
the TPC and IPRs must be replotted and step 5 initiated again to find the pressure differentials
required in the future. As one might expect, most of these functions are available as a computer
program or as part of a nodal analysis program for well optimization. In the nodal analysis programs, the entire system may be analyzed, piece-by-piece without losing sight of how one component affects the other.

7-7

As the reservoir pressure declines in any situation, the IPR curve of any well will tend to shift toward
the origin as shown in Figure 7.10. If the effect of water cut is added to the decline in reservoir pressure, which can happen when water flows in from a separate low pressure zone, the region of stable
flow in any particular IPR curve is driven toward the left. The well may become unstable and will not
continue to flow at high rates. If water can be excluded from the production, the well will continue to
flow even when the reservoir pressure has dropped very low. If the water cut is allowed to rise even a
few percentage points, the well may die.

(Patton & Abbott)

Figure7.10:

An example of declining IPR curve with

increasing production.

The IPR and TPC curves can be used for predicting the performance of wells. Using predictions generated in this manner, it is possible to economically justify workovers to shut off water or field pressure
maintenance in some situations.
Selection of the size of tubing in a well is extremely important from an economic benefit as well as a
lift benefit for the well. In many cases, a larger ID tubular than is commonly employed in deep gas
wells can increase productivity ~ubstantially.~
Heading

Most naturally flowing oil wells that are not on either natural or artificial pressure maintenance, reach
a stage in depletion when both gas and liquid flowing velocities are low. A heading well is characterized by large pressure fluctuations at every point along the tubing string.'' It produces alternately
large liquid slugs with relatively small amounts of gas and a small amount of liquid with a large amount
of gas. This type of inefficient use of the reservoir gas energy will ultimately lead to liquid buildup
within the wellbore causing the well to be killed by the hydrostatic gradient of its own produced liquid.
If heading is not determined as a problem in a well, expensive artificial lift equipment may be installed
too early and money wasted. Wells without packers are often candidates for heading.
Three types of heading are described in the literature: casing, formation and tubing. Casing and formation heading are very similar in their nature and occur by almost the same process. Both problems
exhibit large pressure and flow rate fluctuations and both require a relatively large space or volume
where the gas is allowed to separate from the liquid and accumulate. In the example of casing heading, this space is provided by the annulus, while in the formation, very large formations with high vertical permeability may achieve the same separation. Where the well has been completed with a packer
and tailpipe, only tubing heading may result since, with use of a proper depth tailpipe, the gas will usually break around the pipe and help lift the liquid.

7-8

Tubing Design

Three items are usually considered when designing a tubular configuration for a well: burst, collapse
and tension. Burst and collapse calculations are handled in the same way in tubing design as they are
in casing design. Tension calculations, however, should be designed differently for the tubing string.
Casing is normally designed in tension, with a safety factor of 1.6, where the tensile strength is
required only during running of the casing. Tubing should be designed with consideration given to pulling. The design of the tension forces on the tubing string should allow for the constant overpull
method. The amount of pull over the weight of the tubing up to the yield strength of the pipe at the top
of each section (of a given weight and diameter) is used as a maximum tensile force. If the tubing
becomes stuck on a trip, attempts can be made to free it without jeopardizing the pipe.
Artificial Lift

Selection of the tubing size in a flowing well or the tubing and artificial lift system in a lower pressure
well is one of the most important design segments in well completion. Design of the lift system affects
the economics of most projects.
Selection of artificial lift must account for two main considerations; the inflow performance of the well
and the capacity and operation of the lift system. The inflow performance is a function of the reservoir
and various production characteristics and the efficiency of the stimulation.11-16Ideally, each well in a
field would be drilled and tested prior to lift system selection. Because of the unproductive time
involved in this method, an estimate of flow is usually made from the first well tests. For most field
development wells, the lift system is on location, ready to be installed when the well is completed.
From the initial production appraisal, an inflow performance curve or set of curves is prepared as is
described in the section on inflow performance. To select the best lift system, a set of tubing intake
curves for each lift system should be made. The graphical solution for rate determination is taken at
the depth of the completion interval. The intersection of the tubing intake curve with the inflow performance relationship, IPR, curve is the flow rate expected for a particular method, Figure 12.1 .11~15*16
Other factors such as high GLRs and large volumes of water may alter the selection criteria. The first
intake curve for any well should be prepared assuming that the well will flow naturally. If the tubing
intake curve lies completely above the IPR curve, then the well will not flow, as seen previously in
Figure 7.6.
Preparation of the tubing intake curve must take into account all the restrictions from the bottom of the
tubing to surface facilities up to and including the separator. All losses are additive and the pressure
loss analysis begins at the separator and works down the well. In order to generate the tubing intake
curves for a flowing pressure vs. flow rate diagram, it is necessary to estimate flow rates to calculate
the intake pressures. Analysis of the system usually is centered at a solution point or node (hence;
nodal analysis). Solutions can then be made for optimization of the system by isolation of components: Figure 7.1 1. The nodal analysis of the lift components of a well can be done by hand, but is
much faster when a computer is used.
Rod pumping accounts for about 84% of U.S. wells on artificial lift, while 12% are on gas lift, 2% use
ESPs and the remaining methods (hydraulic piston, jet, plunger and others) combined account for
about 2Y0.l~Worldwide, the type of lift system varies with region and type of well. Gas lift and flowing
wells are more common in new, high production rate areas while various artificial lift systems are in
use elsewhere. Each of the systems has relative advantages and disadvantages as recorded by S.G.
Gibbs17 and modified and reported by Brown in Figures 7.12 and 7.13. Each of the common lift systems will be described in the following paragraphs. Basic design information is reported for the purpose of providing familiarization with the equipment.
The lift system response can be plotted against the IPR curve to help select the optimum unit for the
completion, Figure 7.14. This technique is usually a final comparison before economics are considered.

7-9

Figure 7.11:

(Brown & Lea)

Pressure drops possible in the total completion.

run.,
(Brown)

Figure 7.14: Tubing intake curves for various lift systems.

Rod Pump

The basic design of a rod pump system described here is just slightly modified from that of a classic
description by Gipson and Swaim.18 Operation of a rod pumped well encompasses several design
loads on the beam, rods, tubing, pump and gearbox, which must be understood before a design can
be ~ o m p l e t e d . ' ~Balanced
-~~
design in a rod pumping system is very important. If a part of a balanced
rod pumped system is strengthened, weakened, or made unnecessarily large, it may result in weakening a part elsewhere in the system.
The rod pump is a plunger with a two valve arrangement as shown in Figure 7.1 5.31 The standing
valve is a one-way valve at the bottom of the pump (allows flow from the wellbore to the pump but

7-10

Hydraulic Piston
Pumping

Rod Pumping
Relatively simple
system design.
Jnits easily
:hanged to other
Nells with minimum
:ost.
Efficient, simple
and easy for field
Deople to operate.
Applicable to slim
holes and multiple
mmpletions.
Can pump a well
down to very low
pressure (depth
and rate dependent).
System usually is
naturally vented for
gas separation and
fluid level soundings.
Flexible can
match displacement rate to well
capability as well as
declines.
Analyzable.
Can lift high temperature and viscous
oils.
Can use gas or
electricity as power
source.
Corrosion and
scale treatments
easy to perform.
Applicable to pump
off control if electrified.
Availability of different sizes.
Adjustable gear box
for Triplex offers
more flexibility.
Mixing power fluid
with waxy or viscous
crudes can reduce
viscosity.

'Not so depth limited

can lift large volumes from great
depths (500 BOD
(79.49 m3/d) from
15,000ft) (4572 m).
Have been installed
to 18,000 ft
(5486.4 m).
Crooked holes
present minimal
problem.
Unobtrusivein urban
locations.
Power source can
be remotely located.
Analyzable.
Flexible can usually match displacement to well's
capability as well as
declines.
Can use gas or electricity as power
source.
Downhole pumps
can be circulated out
in free systems.
Can pump a well
down to fairly low
pressure.
Applicable to multiple completions.
Closed system will
combat corrosion.
Easy to pump in
cycles by time clock.
Hollow sucker rods
are available for slim
hole completions
and ease of inhibitor
treatment.
Have pumps with
double valving that
pump on both
upstroke and downstroke.

Electric
Submersible
Pumping

Gas Lift

Can litt extremely

high volumes
(20,000 BPO +
(1 9,078.48 m3/d) in
shallow wells with
large casing. Currently lifting
120,000 B/D from
water supply wells
in Middle East with
600 HP units.
720 HP available.
1000 HP under
development.
Unobtrusive in
urban locations.
Simple to operate.
Easy to install
downhole pressure
sensor for teleme
tering pressure to
surface via cable.
Crooked holes
present no problems.
Applicable offshore.
Corrosion and
scale treatment
easy to perform.
Availability in different size.
Lifting cost for high
volumes generally
very IOW.

Can handle large

volume of solids
with minor problems.
Handles large volume in high P.I.
wells (continuous
lift) (50,000 BLPD) +
(7949.37 m31d).
Fairly flexible convertible from continuous to intermittent
to chamber or
plunger lift as well
declines.
Unobtrusive in
urban locations.
Power source can
be remotely located.
Easy to obtain
downhole pressures and gradients.
Lifting gassy wells is
no problem.
Sometimes serviceable with wireline
unit.
Crooked holes
present no problem.
Corrosion is not
usually adverse.
Applicable offshore.

Hydraulic Jet
Pump
ketrievable without
pulling tubing.
Very inexpensive
installation.
Automatically
keeps tubing clean
of paraffin, scale.
Applicable for high
gas oil ratio wells.
Can be used in conjunction with intermittent gas lift.
Can be used to
unload liquid from
gas wells.

Plunger Lift
ketrievable without
pulling tubing.
Has no moving
parts.
No problem in deviated or crooked
holes.
Unobtrusive in
urban locations.
Applicable offshore.
Can use water as a
power source.
Power fluid does
not have to be so
clean as for hydraulic piston pumping.
Corrosion scale and
emulsion treatment
easy to perform.
Power source can
be remotely located
and can handle high
volumes to
30,000 B/D
(4769.62 m3/d).

Figure 7.12: Relative Advantages of Artificial Lift Systems

S. G. Gibbs (with Modifications by Brown)

stops reverse flow) and the traveling valve is another one way valve that is attached to the rod string.
As the plunger is lifted by the rods on the upstroke, the traveling valve is closed, forming a low pressure area beneath the plunger and drawing in wellbore fluid through the standing valve into the pump
chamber. At the end of the upstroke, the downstroke begins. When the bottom of the plunger (which
contains the traveling valve) hits the surface of the liquid that has flowed into the pump, the traveling
valve is forced open as the valve moves through the liquid and the standing valve is closed. The
downstroke of the plunger forces the liquid in the pump up through the traveling valve, adding it to the

7-11

Rod Pumping
Crooked holes preserve a friction problem.
High solids production is troublesome.
Gassy wells usually
lower volumetric efficiency.
Is depth limited, primarily due to rod
capability.
Obtrusive in urban
locations.
Heavy and bulky in
offshore operations.
Susceptible to paraffin problems.
Tubing cannot be
internally coated for
corrosion.
H2S limits depth at
which a large volume pump can be
set.
Limitations of downhole pump design in
small diameter cas-

Hydraulic
Pumping
Power 011systems
are fire hazard.
Large oil inventory
required in power
oil system which
detracts from profitability.
High solids production is troublesome.
Operatingcosts are
sometimes higher.
Unusually susceptible to gas interference usually not
vented.
Vented installations are more
expensive
because of extra
tubing required.
Treating for Scale
below packer is difficult.
Not easy for field
personnel to troubleshoot.
Difficult to obtain
valid well tests in
low volume wells.
Requires two
strings of tubing for
some installations.
Problems in treating power water
where used.
Safety problem for
high surface pressure power oil.
Loss of power oil
in surface equip
ment failures.

Electric
Submersible
Pumplng

Gas Llft

'Not applicable to
multiple comple
tions.
Only applicable with
electric power.
High voltages
(1WO V ) are necmry.
impractical in shallow low volume
wells.
Expensive to
change equipment
to match declining
well capability.
Cable causes problems in handling
tubulars.
Cablesdeteriorate in
high temperatures.
System is depth limited (10,000 ft )
(3048.0 m) due to
cable cost and
inability to install
enough power
downhole.
(Depends on casing
size.)
Gas and solids production are trouble
some.
Not easily analyzable unless good
engineering "knowhow".
Lack of production
rate flexibility.
Casing size limitation.
Cannot be set
below fluid entry
without a shroud to
route fluid by the
motor.
More downtime
when problems are
encountered due to
entire unit being
downhole.

ut gas IS not
always available.
Not efficient in lifting
small fields or onewell leases.
Difficult to lift emulsions and viscous
crudes.
Not efficient for
small fields or one
well leases if compression equip
ment is required.
Gas freezing and
hydrate problems.
Problems with dirty
surface lines.
Some difficulty in
analyzing properly
without engineering
supervision.
Cannot effectively
produce deep wells
to abandonment.
Requires make-up
gas in rotative systems.
Casing must withstand lift pressure.
Safety problem
with high pressure
gas.

Hydraulic Jet
Pumping
lift methdd.
Requires at least
20% submergence
to approach best lift
efficiency.
Design of system is
more complex.
Pump may cavitate
under certain conditions.
Very sensitive to any
change in back pressure.
The producing of
free gas through the
pump causes reduction in ability to handle liquids.
Power oil systems
are fire hazard.
High surface power
fluid pressures are
required.

Plunger Lift
May not take well
to depletion, hence
eventually requiring
another lift method.
Good for low rate
wellsonly (normally
less than 200 B/D)
(31.8 m/d).
Requires more
engineering supervision to adjust
properly.
Danger exists in
plunger reaching
too high a velocity
and causing surface damage.
Communication
betweentubing and
casing required for
good operation
unless used in conjunction with gas
lift.

Figure 7.13: Relative Disadvantages of Artificial Lift Systems

S. G. Gibbs (with Modifications by Brown)

tubing. The new fluid pushes all the other liquid in the tubing up by the volume of liquid in the pump.
The amount of distance between the top of the pump chamber and the surface of the liquid is void
space. All pumps will have some void space, but too much can lead to equipment damage. The impact
of the plunger on the liquid is described as fluid pound. The void area may result from gas breakout at
the reduced operating pressure of the pump, but the void may be large ifthe plunger goes up significantly faster than liquids can flow into the pump. Free gas is vented up the annulus. In a well with adequate reservoir liquid inflow to keep the liquid level above the pump at all times, filling the pump is

7-12

dictated by oil viscosity, pump size and speed, restrictions in the equipment surrounding the pump,
and gas in the fluids. On wells producing viscous fluids, large diameter valves, less restrictive pump
openings and slow pump speeds are useful in more completely filling the pump and reducing fluid
pound. For normal viscosity fluids, pump operating speed, pump length, and gas content are most
important. Under extreme cases of gassy fluids, the pump can be completely filled with gas (gas lock).
When a pump is gas locked, it is almost impossible to tell the response from a parted rod string or
from the well being pumped off (empty wellbore) since there is no fluid being pumped and no fluid
pound.

Start of upstroke
Traveling valve c l o s e s
Standing valve opens
Fluid begins moving into pump
Fluid above pump moves up the tubing

>

p3 p2
P 2 > P1 a t dynamic (pump f i l l i n g )
P2 P 1 at s t a t i c (pump f i l l e d )

Start of downstroke
Traveling valve opens
Standing valve c l o s e s
Fluid i n pump begins moving into tubing

p2

> p1

P2 7 Pg a t dynamic (pump emptying)

P2 = Pg a t s t a t i c

(pump empty)

Figure 7.15: Schematic of rod pump operation showing valve

action and pressure responses.

The action of the values in the pump follow well defined operating patterns of opening and closing at
certain points in the cycle of rod string movement. It is the stretching and contraction of the sucker rod
string that complicates the description of pump operation. A test instrument called the dynamometer,
which measures forces on the rod string caused by pumping, is used to optimize the operation of the
pump and string.27 The dynamometer is attached to the polish rod. The polish rod is the uppermost
rod in the string, passing through the stuffing box and attaching by a clamp and cable arrangement to
the head of the beam pumping unit. the stuffing box is a seal assembly that wipes the oil from the polish rod and forms a seal against the polish rod, maintaining the well pressure. The produced fluids are
diverted into a surface pipe at a 'T' connection just below the stuffing box. The dynamometer measures loads in the rod string by deflection of strain gauges. The gauges record stretch and recoil of the
rod string.

7-13

The most common recording on a dynamometer is one full pump cycle. An example dynamometer
card is shown in Figure 7.1 6.'' The cycle begins with pump running in steady-state operation and the
polish rod at lowest position (head of the beam lift fully down). This is the start of the upstroke. At the
beginning of the polish rod upstroke, the traveling valve in the pump is still open and the standing
valve is closed. As the polish rod starts traveling up, the pump plunger at the bottom of the well is still
traveling down because of the effects of rod stretch. The pump plunger reaches the bottom of its
stroke soon after the polish rod upstroke has started. As the pump plunger starts upward, the traveling
valve closes and the standing valve opens. The upward movement of the plunger creates a low pressure area that opens the standing valve and allows entry of the wellbore fluid. The fluid above the traveling valve is lifted by the length of the plunger travel. At the beginning of the polish rod downstroke,
the pump is still traveling upward with the standing valve open and the traveling valve closed. This tag
time between the movement of the polished rod and the plunger is brief. The deeper the well, the
more tag time exists between the uppermost position of the polish rod and end of upward pump
plunger travel. As the pump plunger reaches the end of its upstroke, the polish rod is accelerating on
the downstroke. As the pump plunger starts downward, it will be accelerated by the weight of the rods
and opposed by liquid in the working barrel. The traveling valve remains closed on the plunger downstroke until the plunger contacts the surface of the liquid that has flowed into the barrel. At this point,
the standing valve closes and the traveling valve opens. As the plunger continues its downstroke, the
fluid in the barrel is displaced through the traveling valve. A 100% efficient pump (liquid filling and
emptying the entire pump) would lift the liquid in the tubing by the pump stroke length. If the pump is
not completely full, the liquid in the tubing falls back by the height of the void space in the pump.
PEAK LOAD

Compression
of Rods

TV Closin

End of
Upstroke

Rod Recoi

End of
Downstroke
Elongation
of Rods

Compression

Minimum

Figure7.16:

Operation sequence of a rod pump and string labeled on a

dynomometer card.

A sequence of dynamometer charts are shown in Figure 7.17.32 The first chart set is a dynamometer
card from a correctly functioning pump, the second chart set shows the start of fluid pound caused by
pumping off the well and the third set is developed fluid pound. Fluid pound should be minimized in
any well to prevent damage to the rods, tubing, and pump.
To minimize problems with rod pumped wells, a few basic considerations and support equipment are
necessary.'' A rathole below the perforations will be useful in allowing solids dropout and gas separation. A tension tubing anchor 100 to 200 ft above the pump will diminish rod and tubing wear by keeping the tubing straight during the pump cycle. Unanchored tubing twists (corkscrews) every time the
traveling valve closes and the standing valve opens. Tubing stretch on each pump downstroke will
cause the tubing collars to rub against the casing. A gas anchor (gas separator) helps separate
entrained gas from the liquid to minimize gas locks in pumps. The covering over the pump is called the
mud anchor. This device has numerous slots which strain the fluids of potentially damaging solids, it
also prevents damage to the pump if the tubing is run into the bottom of the hole.

7-14

DynamometerCards Showing Full Liquid Fillage

Dynamometer Cards with Wqm Tmveling Valve or Plunger

(Full Liquid Fillage)

Q
Surfake Card

Pump Card

Dynamometer Cards with Worn Standing Valve

(Full Liquid Fillage)

DynamometerCards Showin UnanchoredTubing

(Full Uquid dage)

-c>I/--?
Surface Card

-/

Surface Card

Tubing Movement

Pump Card

DynamometerCards Showing Fluid Pound

I
A.

Pump Card

Dynamometer Cards Showing Pump Hitting Down and/or Up

(Full Liquid Fillage)

Pump Card

JD

Loads ike showing

pump k n g down.

(Kristiansen, Amoco, 1989)

Figure 7.17: Surface and downhole dynomometer cards for various lift
conditions.

Selection of rod strings is dependent upon depth and the buckling loads exerted on the rods on the
downstroke. Increasing depth places larger tensile loads on the rod strings and requires larger rods.
The sucker rods above the pump can be buckled if the force required to drive the plunger down
exceeds 21 Ib for 5/8 in. rods and 41 Ib for 3/4 in. rods.18 Buckling of the rods causes metal fatigue in
the rods and rod coupling-on-tubing wear that often leads to split tubing. To reduce rod coupling and
tubing abrasion, stiffer rods above the pump, sinker bars, and/or rod guides are recommended. To
reduce pump wear, Gipson and Swaim recommend at least one full-bore, fluted, rod centralizer should
be run above the pump.18
Pumps and plungers are sized by computer programs that consider a number of variables. The well
inflow performance, fluid viscosity, well depth, and water cut are all considered. Plunger length
increases with depth. Plunger lengths range from 3 ft in wells of 3000 ft to lengths of 6 ft in wells of
6000 ft or deeper. Shorter plungers can be used when lifting very viscous oil. Leakage between the
plunger and the working barrel (slippage) is inversely proportional to plunger length, and proportional

7-15

to clearance in thousandths of an inch cubed. Cutting the plunger length in half will double the slippage. Increasing the clearance from 0.001 to 0.002 in. will increase slippage by a factor of eight.
Beam pumping units are described in API Std 11E, API Specifications for Pumping Units. The bulletin covers beam design and torque ratings of parts.33 Designing the power system and optimizing
power usage are also discussed in the literature.34B5
Gas Lift

The preparation of tubing intake curves become more complex for gas lift wells because the injection
gadliquid ratio is an additional unknown. Brown advises that the solution point is normally taken at
either the top or bottom of the well. The tubing intake curve is affected by the entire piping system. At
the surface, the piping system has been isolated. In a detailed design, both solutions are advisable.
Most liquids can be lifted by injecting gas into the liquid stream in the tubing near the bottom of the
well. As the gas rises the bubbles expand, increasing the velocity of the fluid and decreasing its density. The amount of gas needed for lift depends on tubing diameter, liquid volume, liquid density, depth
and bottom hole pressure. Gas injection may be needed only at the bottom in shallow wells or the
injection points may be spaced out along the tubing string in deeper

Gas lift valves are spring loaded or pressure balanced release valves. The valves are set to open at a
certain gas pressure. They feed a small amount of the gas from the annulus into the tubing. The
valves are placed in gas lift mandrels: a special section in the tubing that receives the valve and gives
it a port or opening to the gas in the annulus. The gas lift mandrels are spaced out in the tubing string
according to the design. Extra mandrels are usually added to allow for pressure decline during depletion or to meet the demand of larger fluid lifting requirements when water influx starts. When extra gas
lift mandrels are used, dummy gas lift valves are inserted when the string is run to stop unnecessary
gas loss. The dummy valves can be replaced with operating valves by a slick line unit without pulling
the well. Because the valves can be easily replaced at low expense, gas lift systems are usually economical. The major operational expense is obtaining gas and the cost of gas compression. Gas lift is
limited by the availability of injection gas, the available gas pressure, and the depth and pressure of
the well to be lifted. Gas lift is very useful in producing silt and solids-laden fluids since there are few
moving parts where the solids could cause blockages or abrasion.
Electrical Submersible Pump

Electric Submersible Pumps, ESPs, are downhole pump units that are capable of lifting very large
quantities of fluids.2213740The units, Figure 7.1 8 , are composed of motor, pump, and various support
component^.^^ The motor is electric and is fed through armor shielded cable attached to the outside of
the tubing.41 The units operate at a design capacity Figure 7.19, and efficiency falls off rapidly if the
operation is moved out of the recommended range. ESP applications are increasing because of their
economic fluid handling capacity. They are limited by high well temperature, solids, gas, and small
casing
ESPs cannot handle solids laden fluids in most cases and particularly when operation is intermittent. Gas must be vented to maintain pump efficiencies.
Other Systems

Special lift equipment has been developed for specific applications. Jet pumps, Figure 7.20,40p48149
hydraulic lift, progressive cavity,50 plunger pump and other systems all have applications where operating conditions and economics will favor their use.
Lift Selection

Brown lists six economic factors involved in selection of an artificial lift system: Initial Capital Investment, Operating Expenses, Equipment Operating Life, Number of Wells, Availability, Well Life. The

7-16

(Jambs, SPE, 1989)

Figure7.19: An example of an ESP performance curve

showing optimum range.

impact of fluid type, solids content, gas and liquid viscosities on the operating expense and equipment
life usually dictate the types of lift systems that can be considered.
Although a complete handling of artificial lift design will not be covered here, examples from Brown, in
Appendix 7.A, will illustrate some of the considerations and choices for lift design.13

Reservoir Fluid Classification

Hydrocarbon classification is divided into liquid and gas with sub-classification to fit the needs of the
situation. Liquids are usually black oils or volatile oils and gas wells are gas or gas-condensate. The
difference between volatile oils and gas-condensate is defined by the relative amounts of liquids and
gases.

7-17

(Jacobs, SPE, 1989)

Figure 7.20: Schematic of jet pump operation.

Gilchrist and Adams refer to black oils as having gas-oil-ratios (GORs) of less than 2000 scf/bbl, API
gravities of 45 or less and formation volume factors (FVF) of less than 2 bbl/bbl. Volatile oils have
GORs from 2000 to 3000, gravities of 40 or higher (note the overlap) and FVF above 2 bbl/bbl. The
difference between the volatile oils and the gas-condensate can be seen on the phase diagram. The
term near-critical is applied to oils between the established phase areas.

(Gilchrist 8. Adams, PEI, July 1993)

Figure 7.21: A phase diagram of a liquid gas composition. The fluids

in the middle are near critical oil that are very close to
being gas-condensates.

Gases may be retrograde or gas-condensate, wet gas or dry gas. Retrograde refers to a gas (at reservoir conditions) that releases liquids as it drops below critical conditions due to production effects. If

7-18

the liquids drop out in pore space that only contained gas or gas and water, then the hydrocarbon liquid becomes a third phase, reducing permeability to gas. Gas-condensates have GORs from 3000 to
150,000 scf/bbl and API liquid gravities from 40 to 60. The difference in wet-gas and gas-condensate is where they drop the liquids: wet gas drops liquids at the surface; dry gas does not drop liquids.
Sampling wells for pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) tests is essential for proper well classification.
The producing GOR must be stable and the sample should be taken as close as possible to the minimum GOR.
The information available from the PVT test includes bubble point (gas breakout in an undersaturated
oil), dew point (liquid dropout from a gas), gas composition at various pressures (important in depletion), formation volume factor, condensed liquid rates, retrograde information and several other pieces
of information.

References
1, Gilbert, W. E.: Flowing and Gas Lift Well Performance, API, Pacific Coast Meeting, Los Angeles, (May 1954).
2. Vogel, J. V.: Inflow Performance Relationships for Solution-Gas Drive Wells, JPT, (Jan. 1968),
pp. 83-92.
3. Buhidma, I. M.: Inflow Performance Relationship Prediction, Southwest Petroleum Short
Course, Lubbock, April 1989.
4. Kimmel, J. W.: Larger ID Tubulars Boost Deep Gas Well Production, Pet. Eng. Prod. Eng.,
1978.
5. Patton, L. D., Abbott, W. A.: Well Performance: The Effect of Inflow and Outflow Performance
Factors, Pet. Eng. Intl., (April 1981), pp. 58, 62, 64, 67, 70.

6. Duggan, J. 0.: Estimating Flow Rate Required to Keep Gas Wells Unloaded, J. Pet. Tech.,
(Dec. 1961), p. 1173.
7. Turner, R. G., Hubbard, M. G., Duckler, A. E.: Analysis and Prediction of Minimum Flow Rate for
Continuous Removal of Liquids from Gas Wells, J. Pet. Tech., (Nov. 1969), p. 1175.
8. Brown, K. E.: The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, PennWelI Books, (1980), 3A & 3B.
9. Patton, L. D., Abbott, W. A.: The Well Outflow System: Tubing Performance, Pet. Eng. Int.,
(March 1981), pp. 96, 96, 103, 106, 112.
10. Torre, A. J., Schmidt, Z., Blais, R. N., Doty, D. R., Brill, J. P.: Casing Heading in Flowing Oil
Wells, SPE Prod. Eng., (Nov. 1987), pp. 297-304.
11. Brown, Kermit E. and Lea, James F.: Nodal Systems Analysis of Oil and Gas Wells, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, (October 1985), pp. 1751-1763.
12. Brown, K. E.: The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Vol. 1-3, PennWell Books, Tulsa, OK,
1979.
13. Brown, K. E.: Overview of Artificial Lift Systems, SPE 9979, Int. Pet. Exhib. and Tech. Symp.,
Beijing, March 18-26, 1982.

7-19

14. Brown, K. E., et al.: The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Vol. 11-B, PenWell Books, Tulsa,
OK, 1979.
15. Greene, William R.: Analyzing the Performance of Gas Wells, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (July 1983), pp. 1378-1384.
16. Vogel, J. M.: Inflow Performance Relationships for Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs, J. Pet.
Tech., (Jan. 68), p. 83.
17. Gibbs, S. G.: A Review of Methods for Design and Analysis of Rod Pumping Installations, J.
Pet. Tech, (Dec. 1982) 2931-39.
18. Gipson, F. W. and Swaim, H. W.: The Beam Pumping Design Chain, Southwestern Petroleum
Short Course, (1984), pp. 296-376.
19. Neely, A. Buford and Tolbert, H. 0.: Experience With Pumpoff Control in the Permian Basin,
Journal of Petroleum Technology, (May 1988), pp. 645-650.
20. Schmidt, Z. and Doty, D. R.: System Analysis for Sucker-Rod Pumping, SPE Production Engineering, (May 1989), pp. 125-130.
21. Gibbs, S. G.: Computing Gearbox Torque and Motor Loading For Beam Pumping Units With
Consideration of Inertia Effects, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (September 1975), pp. 11531159.
22. Clegg, Joe Dunn: High-Rate Artificial Lift, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (March 1988),
pp. 277-282.
23. Pellegrino, V. L. and Scott, G. T.: Oilfield Power: Technology and Cost Control, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, (April 1989), pp. 389-394.
24. Kelley, Howard L.: Engineering Artificial Lift Equipment to Produce Gaseous Fluids, pp. 143152.
25. Stein, N., Elfrink, E. B.,Wiener, L. D. and Sandberg, C. R.: The Slip Velocity of Gases Rising
Through Liquid Columns, Petroleum Transactions, AIME, Vol. 195, (1952), pp. 233-236.
26. Clegg, Joe D.: Reducing Gas Interference in Rod Pumped Wells, World Oil, (June 1979),
pp. 125-129.
27. Nolen, K. B. and Gibbs, S.G.: Quantitative Determination of Rod Pump Leakage Using Dynamometer Techniques, SPE 18185, (1988), pp. 45-55.
28. Gault, Robert H.: Designing a Sucker-Rod Pumping System for Maximum Efficiency, SPE Production Engineering, (November 1987), pp. 284-296.
29. Clegg, J. D.: Understanding and Combating Gas Interference in Pumping Wells, World Oil,
(May 1963), pp. 107-112.
30. Pickford, K. H. and Morris, B. J.: Hydraulic Rod Pumping Units in Offshore Artificial Lift Applications, SPE 16922, (1987), pp. 431-436.
31. Svinos, J. G.: Use of Downhole Pulsation Dampener to Eliminate the Effect of Fluid Inertia on a
Rod Pump System, SPE 18779, Calif. Regional Mtg., Bakersfield, April 5-7, 1989.

7-20

32. Neeley and Tolbert

33. API Spec. 11AX: API Specifications for Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps and Fittings, Seventh
Edition, June 1979.
34. Coltharp, E. D.: Subsurface Electrical Centrifugal Pumps, J. Pet. Tech. (April 1984), 645-652.
35. Gault, R. H.:Designing a Sucker-Rod Pumping System for Maximum Efficiency, SPE Prod.
Eng. (Nov. 1987), 284-296.
36. Cameron, M. Liang: Gas-Lift Design and Production Optimization Offshore Trinidad, SPE Production Engineering, (May 1989), pp. 135-142.
37. Hoestenbach, R. D.: Large-Volume, High-Horsepower Submersible Pumping Problems in Water
Source Wells, J. Pet. Tech., (Oct 1982), pp. 2397-2402.
38. Wilson, Brown L.: Program Sizes Electrical Submersible Pumps, Oil and Gas Journal, (August
1989), pp. 68-70.
39. Nolen, K. B. and Gibbs, S.G.: Analysis of Electric-Submersible- Pumping Systems, SPE Production Engineering, (May 1989), pp. 121-124.
40. Jacobs, E. G.: Artificial Lift in the Montrose Field, North Sea, SPE Production Engineering,
(August 1989), pp. 313-320.
41. Neuroth, D. H.: Design Features of Improved Electric-Submersible-Pump Cable To Withstand
Installation and Service Conditions, SPE Production Engineering, (February 1989), pp. 83-92.
42. Lea, James F. and Bearden, J. L.: Effect of Gaseous Fluids on Submersible Pump Performance, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (1982), pp. 2922-2930.
43. Lea, James F. and Bearden, John L.: Gas Separator Performance for Submersible Pump Operation, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (1982), pp. 1327-1333.
44. Jacobs, Gary H.: ESP/Rotary Gas Separator Duo Found to Optimize Production, World Oil,
(November 1986), pp. 55-58.
45. Neely, A. B. and Patterson, M. M.: Soft Start of Submersible Pumped Oil Wells, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, (1984), pp. 653 & 656.

46. OToole, W. P. and OBrien, J. B.: Testing New Submersible Pumps for Proper Sizing and
Reduced Costs, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (February 1989), pp. 159-164.
47. Bailey, Martin C. and Bearden, John: ESP - The Electrical Submersible Pump, Part 2 - Operating Ranges and Limits of the ESP System, Petroleum Engineer International, (September 1982),
pp. 128-132.
48. Grupping, A. W., Coppes, J. L. R. and Groot, J. G.: Fundamentals of Oilwell Jet Pumping, SPE
Production Engineering, (February 1988), pp. 9-1 4.
49. Christ, F. C. and Petrie, H. L.: Obtaining Low Bottomhole Pressures in Deep Wells With Hydraulic Jet Pumps, SPE Production Engineering, (August 1989), pp. 290-294.

7-21

50. Saveth, K. J., Klein, S.T. and Fisher, K. B.: A Comparative Analysis of Efficiency and Horse-

power Between Progressing Cavity Pumps and Plunger Pumps, SPE 16194, (1987), pp. 87-92.
51. Gilchrist, R.E., Adams, J. E.: How to Best Utilize PVT Reports, P.E.I., July 1993, pp. 38-41.

7-22

Appendix 7.A (from Brown)

Given Data:
Depth8000 ft (2438.40 m)
G/O
Water Production
Rate
API
Tubing size
(All power sources available)
P
= 2300 psia (15.86 MPa)
PI
= 3 (0.07 m3/d-KPa) until reaching Pb = 1600 psi (11.03 MPa)
Pwh = 100 psia (0.69 MPa) (Wellhead flowing pressure)
Casing Size= 7 in. (1 7.79 cm)
For the above problem, the best type lift is to be selected. The information in the general problem is
used and changes are made in each example to alter the possible lift choice with all else remaining
constant.
Kmol
'm

GiL 3000 SCF/B ( 2 2 . 5 5 3 PI = 0.01

(2.31 'E-04 dd-KPa)

1.

qL = 20 b/d (3.10 m3/d)

The first choice should be intermittent gas lift or plunger lift. Beam pumping or hydraulic pumping may
be considered if proper gas venting can be accomplished. Sufficient gas is available to run a plunger.
Depth 12000 ft (3657.6 m)P/ = 0.1 (2.31 E-03m3/d-Kpa)

2.

qL = 200b/d (31.80 rn3/d)

m3/d-KPa

The hydraulic piston with venting should be considered due to great depth.

Rate = 6OOOB/D( 953.92$)

PI

= 10 (0.23 m3/d-KP)

3. Tubing 4 in. (10.16 cm)

The choice would be continuous flow gas lift or electrical pump. Since 6000 B/D (953.92 m3/d) with a
PI of 10 (0.23 m3/d-KPa) only requires a flowing pressure of 1700 psi (11.72 MPa), it is still above the
bubble point and no free gas is pumped if the pump is set on bottom. Setting the pump higher up in
the hole would induce gas liberation and a means of venting would be required. Jet pumping may also
be considered. After a few considerations:
4. Severe H2S problem: Gas lift is the only lift method where the well fluids do not pass through the

lift mechanism. Electrical submersible and hydraulic may be considered.

7.A-23

Depth 3000 ft (914.40 m)

Rate - 400 b/d (63.59 m3d)

PR = 1200 psia (8.27 MPa)

5. PI = 1.0 (2.306 m3/d-KPa)

This is a good choice for beam pumping due to shallow depth and a rate of 400 B/D (63.59 m3/d)
6. No engineering supervision available: Beam pumping is the most understood method by most
field operators, with continuous flow gas lift also a good choice.
7. Well produces sand: With bad sand production, the choice would be continuous flow gas lift.

8. Bad paraffin problems: All methods can be considered but paraffin removal must be kept in
mind. Rod pumping is probably the best choice.
Depth = 6000 ft (1828.8 m)
Rate - 10, 000 b/d (1589.98 m3/d)
2-7/8 X 7" annular flow (7.30

- 17.78 cm)

9. PI = 25 (0.58 m3/d-KPa)
Continuous gas flow lift is a good choice with electrical submersibl and jet pump as alternate
Rate = 25, 000 b/d (3.974.68 m3 )

9-5/8" casing 4" tubing (24.45 cm casing)

10. PI = 25 (0.58 m3/d-KPa)

Continuous gas flow lift or electrical submersible pump.

PR

drops to 300 psi (2.07 MPa)

PI = 0.02 (4.61 E-04 m3/d-KPa)

11. Rate = maximum possible

Beam pumping or hydraulic pumping.

100% oil
G/O = 4OOO Scfibl(30.07 Kmol/m3 )

PR

= 500 psia (3.45 MPa)

PI = 0.02 (4.61 E-04 m3/d-KPa)

12. Rate = maximum possible

7.A-24

Plunger lift due to the high Gas Oil ratio or beam pumping with adequate venting.
Long 300 ft (91.44 m) perforated interval

PR
PI

= 500 psia (3.45 W a )

=

2 (0.05 m3/d-KPa)

13. Rate = maximum possible

This is a good candidate for chamber intermittent gas lift.
Open hole completion (400 ft) (121.92m)

?'R

= 700 psia (4.83 Mpa)

PI = 1.0 (2.306 m3/d-KPa)

14. Rate = maximum possible
This is a good candidate for an insert chamber type intermittent gas lift.
Example #2
1. Offshore Well
8000 ft (2438.40 m) high productivity, high static pressure, low solution. GOR (150 scf/B)
(1.13 Kmol/m3) with bubble point at 350 psi (2.41 MPa). Desired rate of 10,000 B/D (1589.87 m3/d)
can be obtained with a flowing pressure of 1500 psi (1 0.34 MPa).
Selection Choice
Electrical submersible pump since no free gas will be pumped and a rate 3 m of 10,000 B/D
3
) can only be obtained with either continuous flow gas lift or electrical pump. The very
(1589.87
'd
low GOR of 150 ScWB (1.13 Kmol/m3) makes the electrical pump more attractive. Gas lift runs a close
first choice due to better retrievable reliability.
(b) Same well as Example (a) except a GOR of 800 ScflB (6.01 Kmol/m3)exists with a bubble point of
1500 psi (10.34 MPa).
Selection Choice
Continuous flow gas lift is a better choice since free gas exists at the required flowing bottomhole
pressure. Being an offshore well, the retrievable equipment is again very attractive and the fact that
the electrical pump will need to handle some gas reduces its liquid handling capability.
Example #3
2. Land Well
Depth= 8000 ft (2438.40 m)\

1.A-25

Static pressure= 1920 (13.24 MPa)

PI
= 5 (0.12 m3/d-KPa)
Bubble point pressure= 1500 pis (10.34 MPa)
Gas Oil ratio= 400 ScWB (3.01 Kmol/m3)
Well produces 50% water
2-7/8" O.D. x 2.441" I.D. tubing x 7'' casing.
(7.30 cm O.D. x 6.20 cm I.D. tubing x 17.78 cm casing).
This well was analyzed for rates possible and found to produce as follows:
1. Electrical submersible pump - 4500 BID (715.44 m3/d).
(Assumes no pump inefficiency due to handling some free gas).
2. Continuous flow gas lift with a surface injection pressure of 1500 psi (10.34 MPa), 1750 B/D
(278.23 m3/d).
3. Beam pumping with a 640 unit - 1750 B/D (278.23 m3/d).
4. Hydraulic pumping with a large pump - 1750 B/D (278.23 m3/d).

5. Jet pumping with the assumption of handling no free gas - 2750 B/D (437.22 m3/d).
It was also noted that approximately 4000 BID (635.95 m3/d) could be made by continuous flow gas
lift if a change was made to 4-1/2" (11.43 cm) O.D. tubing. Lower increases were noted for all pumping
systems although less horsepower is required for the larger tubing size. Final selection would depend
upon the objective flow rate (whether maximum or less) and economics.
Example #4 (see Reference 2)

Pr
= 1500 psi (10.34 MPa)
Depth = 7600 ft (2316.48 m)
Bubble point pressure = 1500 psi (1 0.34 MPa)
Maximum flow rate for zero flowing bottomhole pressure is 215 B/D (34.18 m3/d)
GOR = Scf/B
This well was analyzed for rate with the following results:
1. Beam pumping - 200 B/D (31.80 m3/d)
2. Hydraulic pumping - 200 B/D (31.80 m3/d)
3. Jet pumping - 165 B/D (26.23 m3/d)
4. Continuous Flow Gas Lift - 165 B/D (26.23 m3/d).

5. Intermittent Flow Gas Lift with a chamber installation 190 B/D (30.21 m3/d).

6. Electrical Submersible Pumping - 200 B/D (31.80 m3/d).

7.A-26

The logical choice on this well is beam pumping or hydraulic pumping if adequate venting can be
accomplished. The electrical pump requires too many stages to handle the gas and loses efficiency.
If gas venting cannot be properly handled, then a chamber intermittent gas lift installation would be a
good selection. The option of running a plunger in conjunction with a chamber would be another
choice, but should increase efficiency.

7.A-27

Chapter 8: Special Completions (Deviated, Thermal

Multiples, and Multi-Laterals)
Deviated Completions
Completions in deviated wellbores were traditionally viewed as necessary in many cases where the
surface area for locating wellheads was expensive or the terrain would not allow a vertical well. In
most cases, this occurs in mountainous country, offshore platforms, or environmentally sensitive
areas. The primary objective was the increased area of the reservoir available from a single location.
In the past several years, however, the objective has shifted to a renewed interest in using highly deviated and even horizontal holes to augment production in specific reservoirs over that which is available from a vertical well. The horizontal holes or drain holes, as they were referred to during the
1940's, 50's and 603,were of interest as early as 1930, although only a few highly deviated experimental attempts were made until the 1970's. The original work on highly deviated and horizontal holes
is in dispute, but it appears that many engineers from Russia, the U.S., Canada and France provided
significant parts of the early work. The horizontal well concept has evolved considerably in design and
application over the early ideas to a technique that offers benefits in many applications. Change in the
industry's acceptance of the horizontal hole is the result of numerous improvements in the drilling and
completion
Descriptions

Horizontal well^*^^
may be established with normally used drilling equipment and results in either
a single stage step out to form a short radius (Figure 8.1) or a two-stage step out which may result in
a highly deviated portion and a long horizontal portion, of 4000 ft or more.'* The short radius lateral
drilling technique is usually attained with a whipstock and builds hole angle at the rate of 1.5" to 3" per
foot. The long reach, conventional directional drilling builds hole angle at a maximum of about 0.1 O per
foot.
TYPICAL WELLBORE

E.
8
0

c
I
k
w
0

$28
2

PROFlLES
2-

34-

Two-Build Profile

567-

*9-

Single Build Rofile For

Short Departure Wells
0

DEPARTURE (1000 FT)

(Reiley, SPE 16682)

Figure 8.1:

Examples of drilling angles commonly

used for horizontal wells.

8-1

Horizontal Well Candidate Selection

Many of the problems encountered in horizontal wells are the result of normal reservoir performance.
Not every formation is a candidate for a horizontal well. The first consideration in planning a horizontal
well and the first determination in trying to make a horizontal well flow better are the same: check the
vertical permeability and see if it is an impediment to flow. The following few paragraphs may seem
like extremely simple reservoir engineering; they are. Unfortunately, they are frequently ignored as
engineers rush ahead to get involved with the romance of a horizontal well.
Permeability in a formation can vary widely with the direction of flow. The permeability is influenced by
factors including the depositional environment, sediment size and sorting, bedding planes, fractures,
geochemical reactions, and sediment reworking. The major permeability directions, shown in
Figure 8.2, are vertical, horizontal (usually at a maximum) and horizontal perm at 90to the maximum
horizontal perm.

Figure 8.2

The flow patterns in a well are controlled by how it intersects the three functional permeabilities. Permeability in an unfractured formation is usually highest along a horizontal direction and usually varies
very little at 90to the maximum. These two horizontal flow values control fluid entry into a vertical
well as shown in Figure 8.3.
bso.

KV

Ku

KV

KHgg.

Horizontal Wellbore

Vertical Wellbore

Figure 8.3

The vertical permeability has little influence in continuous formations intersected by vertical wellbores
and completed over the whole interval. However, in a horizontal wellbore, only 60% to 80% of the wellbore is connected to horizontal permeability. The top and bottom of the well (in a formation without significant inclination) are fed in some part by the vertical permeability. Vertical permeabilities may range
from being more or the same as horizontal permeability in very rare cases to values as small as 10%

8-2

or less of horizontal perm in more typical formations containing pronounced bedding planes. The
worst comparisons are encountered in laminated formations. Regardless of the cause, if vertical permeability is low, the formation is not a good candidate for a horizontal well with a natural completion.
Horizontal wells may still be used in these cases, but stimulation is required to improve vertical contact.
Although the contact of the wellbore with vertical permeability can appear to influence flow, it is the
formation drainage patterns created by the permeability difference or anisotropy that may create serious problems. By relating the vertical and horizontal permeabilities in a ratio, the drainage patterns
begin to become clear. In Figure 8.4, the drainage area is sketched for three examples; Kv/KH = 0.1,
KV/KH= 1 and Kv/KH = 2.

Figure 8.4
The Kv/KH of 0.1 (horizontal perm ten times vertical) is typical for many formations. As shown in the
schematic, this type of drainage would only account for less than one-half of what might be expected
if Kv/KH = 1. Confirmation of this simple analysis can be obtained by drainage plots in the literature
(Figure 8.5).

'

.
.

R.s.rv011

111helphi

n.,itm-i

loo

11

(00.48mI

draiwss area
varlleal rdl dralnage nIem

tlr.l4rormq

00 .C.S

0 -

4 -

af -

l -

0'

I
loo

I
zoo

'

aoo

400

so0

1
moo

100

moo

BOO

Figure 8.5

1000 1100

(zoo

(SPE 15375 -Joshi)

The purpose of this excursion into basic reservoir engineering is simple; a horizontal well, like a vertical well, is confined by its own set of reservoir factors.

Horizontal Completions Background

The horizontal well has an immense amount of potential and a number of significant problems which
have been addressed in a variety of interesting ways. Fluid entry control, fluid exit control, and the sta-

8-3

bility of the wellbore as a system have all been challenged by the various reservoir properties. There
are no horizontal wellbore problems that are significantly different from those in vertical wellbores.
However, the orientation of the wellbore often makes handling of even minor problems considerably
more difficult. These areas are highlighted in the following general topics.
One of the first problems encountered when turning the well horizontal as a recompletion or as a new
well was sealing off the upper zones in the bend area where milling and angle drilling were prevalent.
Many early horizontal wells were plagued by gas and less often water leaking through poor primary
cement jobs from upper zones. Since the wellbore turned horizontal, it became a collection point, and
this fluid migration down the annulus interfered with fluid feed-in and with operation of pumps or other
equipment. The accepted prevention quickly became the external casing packers, ECP, cement
squeezes and in some cases, a decision to simply live with the problem. As diagnostic techniques
have been applied and the sources of water were determined, routine gel squeezes or polymer
squeezes have become more common. The introduction of the isolation packer on coiled tubing has
helped this treatment tremendously. With these devices, the source of water can often be located as
well as a remedial treatment pumped back in an attempt to shut off the water or gas. It is feasible that
in severe cases, mechanical repair using scab liners of the same type used in vertical wells may also
be beneficial. Because of the clearance and the bend in the location, liner design will be a challenge.
The shape of the hole through this turnout area is a problem for more than just setting liners. Horizontal holes may be drilled in a number of ways from ultrashort radius to long radius. The hole shape
problems in the turnout area are more common with short and ultrashort turnout where a horizontal
well has been recompleted from an older vertical well. In this operation, a window is generally milled
or a section is milled out. After setting a whip stock, drilling commences, an angle is built through the
area with typical ultrashort radiuses of 6 to 20 ft and short radiuses of 50 or 60 ft. Smooth departures
from holes are needed in order to insert too! strings or simple equipment. When the departure area
contains a dogleg from a missed drilling run or a combination angle which turns down and sideways at
the same time, tool passage becomes very difficult. There have been few workable methods to try to
accomplish completions in these particular wells. Better drilling practices were suggested in future
wells and in wells that already have deviation or shape problems in the departure area. Logging tools
with knuckle joints are being constructed. These tools with universal joints or flexible joints in the middle are targeted first at the ultrashort radius turnouts such as those developed by Amoco on their wiggly joint drilling technology.
The next challenge in the near wellbore area is a loss of hole drilling mud to natural fracture systems.
Horizontal wells depend on vertical permeability through the matrix or through natural fracture systems to effectively drain the reservoir. The problems with crossing these natural fractures is the loss of
mud in conventional drilling. In many cases, mud losses to the natural fracture systems have been so
severe that the well has never produced as expected after completion. The accepted standard mud
loss control has been the typical lost circulation materials, LCM. These materials have few solvents
and are extremely difficult to remove from the formation. In most cases, they should be avoided. In a
few places, companies have experimented with drilling underbalanced or drilling with no returns. In
the Piersal Chalk Field, one company continues to drill without returns or while the well is flowing
using a diverter system to divert all fluids away from the rig at the surface. The technique is tricky at
best, and some companies have lost rigs due to fires. One success story in the chalk involved a well
producing over 20,000 barrels of crude oil during the drilling phase. In this unusual case, the well was
paid for before drilling was completed.
Other ways of achieving mudcake breakup and removal has centered on solvents and surfactant
(soap) systems. Use of explosives and openhole perforating are seen as a method of bypassing the
formation damage. Fluid damage bypass is possible if the damage in the crack does not extend too
far. However, connection with the natural fracture system is usually mandatory in these wells. Solvents for muds depend on the mud composition. Oil-based muds have been effectively removed with
either xylene or cosolvent washes and a few surfactant packages. The problems with surfactant packages are that they are very mud specific and may not be effective over a wide range of mud types.
Xylene or cosolvents are more expensive or more difficult to use but apply over a wider range of materials. Water based muds are typically removed by soaps, acids or nitrified washes. The problem is
removing deep formation damage.

8-4

Bypassing the damage with explosives or openhole perforating depends on how shallow the formation
damage occurs. Explosives which have been used for both damage bypass and initial stimulation may
be effective if the explosive stimulation is designed to utilize the benefit of a crack driving gas generator as opposed to a shattering force from a high explosive. Openhole perforating has been used in a
few places to try to bypass very shallow damage. The 6 to 10 in. penetration which is typical from a
perforating charge is usually not adequate to bypass deep mud filtrate damage.
Cuttings and fill collection continues to be a problem, although significant headway has been made in
cleaning horizontal holes. When holes are not cleaned, the cuttings and formation drilling mud contributes to plugs in liners and screens. It limits the cement contact and provides small particles that may
induce emulsions. The accepted practice in this area has been to sweep with viscous fluids and
flushes. However, reverse circulating on tubing or using a liner with removable aluminum plugs and
reverse circulating it into place may be advantageous for removing large amounts of these cuttings.
Filtrate leakoff is found in all wells. The only thing it requires is a liquid, pressure toward the formation
and permeability. Even in a well formulated drilling mud, to form a filtercake, you must have fluid invasion. The potential to cause clay damage, water blocks, emulsions or other problems from the drilling
fluid filtrate is related to the sensitivity of the formation to the particular drilling fluid and to the amount
of the drilling fluid. Removal attempts for filtrate and the associated mud cake in vertical wells has typically been by backflow or small acid washes. In horizontal wells, the problems involved are lower
drawdown unit of area, longer mud exposure time and typically, less acid volume for cleanup. This
forces the operator to look at fluids with very low fluid loss and those materials that can come off the
formation much easier. Mechanical methods such as water blasting or solvent washing are also being
evaluated.
Many horizontal wells have suffered poorer than anticipated production at least partly due to the presence of a fluid column between the horizontal extension and the bottom of the pump (Figure 8.6). The
hydrostatic gradient from such a fluid level is rarely severe, ranging from 0.46 to 0.36 psi backpressure for every foot of standing fluid, but it adds to the resistance to flow. The worst influence of the
standing fluid column is in gas wells. Because gas has low viscosity, it does not serve as a good displacement fluid at low flow rates. This means that the gas will often slug through the wellbore or trickle
through the water in the pores, never completely unloading the pore and driving the water saturation
low enough to raise the permeability to gas. In the final analysis, the pores remain flooded with water
and hydrocarbon production that suffer.

8
Figure 8.6

Any time water is standing in the well, heading can be a serious problem. Heading occurs when the
gas flow velocity in a particular tubular or wellbore size is too low to carry the entrained liquids. The
liquid accumulates in the lowest point, holding a backpressure on the formation corresponding to liquid density and height of the liquid column above the formation. Gas movement through the water
occurs in slugs as (1) the pressure builds up; (2) the gas unloads, often driving a slug of water ahead
of it; (3) the pressure falls rapidly as gas escapes and most of the water drains back. The cyclic nature
of the heading causes fluctuations of 50 to 300 psi or more in some wells. Since most lift systems are
designed for continuous, steady operations, the slugging causes load imbalances or instabilities that
sharply lower lift efficiencies.

8-5

Reducing the liquid buildup is usually accomplished by running tailpipe to a lower part of the well or
using smaller diameter tubulars in wells where the liquid dropout is occurring in the tubing. In nonflowing wells, the problem becomes more difficult since the lift system needs to be spotted at a low point
for liquid unloading. The success of velocity strings or siphon strings, small tubing that more effectively uses gas energy to lift liquids, may be lower in highly deviated wells than in vertical wells. Gas
flow along the top of the deviated tailpipe reduces lift efficiency.
Methods to minimize the column buildup have centered on approaches that maximize drainage. In
short radius turnout wells, the lift system can often be spotted in the old vertical hole below the turnout
or in a pilot hole, Figure 8.7.This reduces liquid buildup, but, because of the turnout radius, it does not
eliminate the liquid in the horizontal wellbore. It is better suited to short radius wells.

Figure 8.7

The problem of a static fluid layer in the horizontal is a problem even in flowing wells. Anytime the flow
rate from the well is not sufficient to create turbulence across the whole wellbore, liquids and solids
drop out quickly and flow may only move in a portion of the wellbore, Figure 8.8, that is dependent on
rate. The effect of the static liquid on the formation is dependent on liquid invasion of the formation,
relative permeability and alternate flow paths. There is one clear conclusion, however: it cannot help
the flow of gas. At minimum, the formation pores at the wellbore contact remain wetted with a high Sw
and lower relative permeability to gas.
A special case of problems in flow caused by liquids, and perhaps even gas, are illustrated in
Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.9

8-6

In this undulating lateral, a common design in several horizontal well paths, low places may act as
traps for liquids or solids, holding backpressures. High points may even act as simple gas locks, adding several tens of psi backpressure. This type of wellpath cannot be kept adequately unloaded unless
the flow rate is sufficient to remove all static liquids.

Path of the Horizontal Section

Several industry horizontals have been drilled more as excursions and exploring attempts through the
pay zone, resulting in the difficult-to-produce scenarios of Figure 8.9. Even in true horizontals, the
problem of solids and liquid entrapment can be severe. A vertical drop of only a few inches in slow
moving fluid in a horizontal wellbore is all that is needed to stratify the wellbore materials.
In this description, proven out by testing in Dressers inclinable clear plastic flow loop in Houston, the
fluids separate in the wellbore at any flow rate below full turbulence. The fastest moving and lightest
fluids flow along the top of the wellbore. At the bend area, much of the liquids drop out or reflux back
into the horizontal. Solids, of course, quickly drop to the bottom of the hole. Solids buildup and cleaning in the horizontal has been the subject of many studies in the field of drilling. Cleaning solids from
the well is difficult. Attempts have been made with viscous sweeps and even turbulent flow; all with
only minor success. In a set of experiments in a clear plastic horizontal well model, solids movement
was studied as part of work on horizontal well gravel packing. The gravel dropped out and built a running dune as the solid/liquid slurry entered the horizontal section, filling the wellbore to a height controlled by the flow velocity of the carrier liquid. At low flow rates (low velocity), the open space
between the top of the dune and the top-inside of the casing was very small. The opening was larger
when the flow velocity was higher. Increasing rate of liquid velocity would decrease the height of the
dune (increase opening): the open area was a function of the flowing fluid velocity. In formations that
produce significant solids, wellbore fill will build to a height controlled by the flow rate and hole size.
As the solids level covers perforations on the bottom and sides of the hole, production may be lost or
restricted by flow through the solids.

Attempts to combat the liquid unloading problem are focusing on better lift and forced drainage. Outlined in the next several paragraphs are methods that have been tried to proposed to help drainage.
Note that several of these methods are suitable only for a specific set of conditions.
One approach is to use an over horizontal well of about 92O, Figure 8.1 0.The over horizontal wellbore inclination maximizes liquid draindown from the toe of the horizontal toward the heel. The problem of liquid cleanout from the heel is still there, but hopefully, improvements in lift may assist in this
area; but if the gathered liquid in the heel cannot be produced, the liquid accumulation may accelerate
heading problems.

Figure 8.10

Reversing the angle to 85 to 88 reverses the liquid collection point and may help minimize heading
but does nothing to assist fluid blockage removal or backpressure unless a lift system can be set into
the toe of the well.

8-7

Another very unusual concept is in the planning stages as two operators in a West Texas field with
high well density consider drilling an inclined wellbore from one existing well to the openhole pay zone
section of another well, Figure 8.11.

Figure 8.11

The pump could be spotted in the section of the target well below the intersection point to achieve liquid unloading. Hitting the target well will require the same gyro surveys used in drilling relief wells to
blowouts.

Artificial Lift Options

The following is a short description of several artificial lift methods that have been attempted or considered for horizontal wells. The aim is to present an overview only, more specialized help is necessary for optimum design and selection of a lift system.
1. Beam Lift - Although popular for many low and moderate rate liquid production wells, beam lift is
limited for horizontal wells since rod wear and load transfer restricts pump placement to the vertical section of the well.

2. ESP Electrical Submersible Pumps will operate in any position, even fully horizontal, but solids
in the liquid can quickly burn out an ESP if they accumulate in the pump clearances. Gas separation may also cause serious problems in ESPs set in the small clearance of a horizontal wellbore.

3. Gas Lift - Gas lift, long a favorite lift mechanism for vertical wells with solids production, will
operate in any position but gas channeling will create same problems in a gas lift as it does in
normal horizontal flow with the gas channeling along the top of the wellbore or tubing. Supplying
gas to the valves requires either dual strings or isolation in the wellbore.

4. Jet Pump The jet pump is one of the highest probability artificial lift mechanisms for horizontal
wells; but like gas lift, jet pumps require a separate string for supply of power fluid. Installation of
a single string into the horizontal is often difficult, especially in an open hole. Installation of two
separate strings is even more of a risk. One possible advance that may help is a jet pump on a
double string (concentric) coiled tubing. This is under test.

5. Tail Pipe Extension In some instances, extending the production tubing into the low spot in the
horizontal may improve liquid unloading. The correct sizing of tubing and selection of landing
points is critical for some flowing horizontal wells.

8-8

Solids Control Techniques

The control of solids from any formation may require one of several available methods; each with its
own set of advantages and disadvantages. Methods of solids control are discussed here for the purpose of highlighting potential problems.
1. Slotted Liners - Liners with slots from 0.020 in. (0.5 mm) to over 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) have been
used for both formation solids control and wellbore stability control. Sizing a slotted liner for formation particle control is usually a very poor control method, useful in only a handful of formations with large, consistent sand grain size (prevalent in California oilfields in the U.S.). The
screen slot size is useful only ifit is sized small enough to stop the sand. In most formations, this
required slot width would be much smaller than the 0.020 in. (0.5 rnm) slot size that is possible to
cut with standard milling equipment. Slotted liners plug easily when the slot width is larger than
the smallest formation particle. Wellbore stability control is usually involved with keeping a flowpath open when operating in a formation that may spall large pieces of rock into the wellbore.
For these applications, slots of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) are usually adequate. Besides the formation
particle plugging problems, slotted liners have two other drawbacks; high friction losses from
flow through the slots and weakening of the pipe section. The friction loss depends on flow rate,
fluid viscosity and amount of open slot area. Problems have been encountered with slot plugging
from asphaltene and paraffin in heavy (viscous) oil completions. The pipe strength reduction
problem was first documented in a series of tests that showed a loss of up to 50% of crush
strength when the pipe is rotated. The amount of loss depends on the slotting pattern.
2. Perforated Liners - Liners drilled with up to 100 holes per foot (328 holes per meter) are more
common than slotted liners. The perforated or predrilled liners have no potential for formation
particle control, but may be useful in cases of borehole stability where the fill is large particles.
The rotational strength is good and lateral crush strength is usually very close to undrilled pipe
(within 15%) if the liner separation (in the same longitudinal plane) of the holes is at least 3 in.
(76 mm) between centers for 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) to 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) drilled holes. Specialty liners
with predrilled holes filled with acid dissolvable soft aluminum plugs are available when circulation is required during setting of the liners.

3. Wirewrapped Screens - These screens are made by wrapping a keystone shaped wire around
the base pipe. The wrap design allows better control of formation sands with available openings
down to 0.002 in. Like most slotted or perforated pipe, the flexibility of screens to go through the
bend area is very good, with little or no deformation in tests in a short radius horizontal well at
the Catoosa Test Facility. Rotational strength is not usually a problem since the perforated base
pipe is relatively strong but the outside, wound screen can be damaged by impact or scraping.

4. Prepacked Screens and Resin Coated Sand Liners These are specialty devices that are
designed to stop formation particles. The resin coated sand (usually -40+60 mesh) that covers
the screen or is immediately behind the screen is an added barrier. Screen installation may be
done in any well, but is only practical where:

a. the wellbore diameter can be preserved by gravel packing, or

b. the formation permeability is more than about 1 darcy.
The importance of having a high permeability layer (either gravel or a high permeability formation sand) is apparent only when friction pressures and flow into a very small wellbore is compared to that in a larger wellbore.
I

5. Gravel Packs - Screen and gravel packs are capable of efficiently producing even high rate for-

mations. The main drawbacks to gravel packed completions are cost, difficulty of placement and
partial obstruction of the wellbore.

6. Resin consolidation is usually not a strong option in horizontal wells because of difficulties
applying the process evenly over long sections.

8-9

in

Gravel packs in deviated wellbores need very special design and equipment considerations to
approach complete fill up of the wellbore and coverage of the screen. Wellbore angle has a very dramatic effect upon the placement of gravel. The normal mode of gravel placement in deviated wellbores are described by a number of authors and consists of the gravel forming a dune at the point of
entry into the wellbore with steady dune growth along the length of the assembly toward the bottom of
the well. As fluid flows over the dune, the dune builds until it fills a sufficient amount of the wellbore so
that the remaining channel at the top of the wellbore is only large enough to channel the fluid flow
without allowing gravel dropout or further dune building, Figure 8.21. If excessive leakoff occurs into
the screen through the gravel pack, bridges of gravel will form in the open channel, and the resulting
blockage will stop the flow of the slurry.
Most operators at the current time are packing deviated wellbores with water rather than gelled fluids.
Model runs have highlighted leakoff as critical to insure movement of gravel to any area. Leakoff into
the formation and into the screen help in transport and packing.
The mechanics of flow over the dune of gravel created in the inclined wellbore is a result of a state of
dynamic equilibrium between deposition and suspension of the gravel particles. The equilibrium velocity is the average slurry velocity required to transport the particles along the top of the equilibrium
bank. This velocity is sufficient to prevent concentration of the gravel particles on the face of the dune
but does not direct gravel from the surface of the dune to the inside top surface of the pipe. In simple
words, the dune height (and the remaining distance to the upper pipe wall) depends on the velocity of
the fluid: the faster the liquid moves, the more clearance is created between the top of the dune and
the pipe. Higher injection rates create a short dune and a large open flow path and lower rates create
a higher dune height.
If a dune has been created and is at equilibrium with the flow rate, an increase in the flow rate will create a decrease in the height of the dune, and a new equilibrium will be established.

When this pattern of flow is interrupted by losing fluid movement, the gravel is carried toward the last
available fluid loss area. As the liquid exits the wellbore at the leakoff area, the gravel that was being
carried is stranded at the surface (of the screen or the formation) and the gravel builds up, creating a
blockage or a bridge. As soon as a bridge is created at any place in the wellbore, the liquid can travel
no further than that bridge and the channel at the top of the screen begins filling back toward the top
of the screen. After the gravel has filled the channel to the last place that liquid can leak off, the pressure will rise dramatically because all liquid flow is being forced into linear darcy flow through the
gravel in the wellbore toward the leakoff sites. The pressure rise is so severe that the job cannot usually continue.
Gravel coverage of the screen is necessary for the gravel pack to work correctly. At the point of
screenout in vertical wells (different gravel transport than in deviated wells), the gravel remaining in
the pipe above the screen will fall by gravity onto the top of the gravel pack, adding to the total gravel
depth over the screen. Even in wellbores of 45-75, if sufficient gravel reserve exists above the
screen, the drop or slump of particles may be sufficient to fill up channels left at the top of the dune. In
wellbores over 75, however, if the channels were not packed during the job, the channels will not be
filled by falling gravel.
Fracturing
The considerations involved with horizontal hole stability and initiating a fracture in the deviated well
are closely related. In the deviated well, the well bore is not usually aligned with the plane of the fracture (assumed vertical). Even at deviations of a few degrees, the plane of a vertical fracture will cross
the axis of the hole on a slant and only a few perforations may be in contact with the fracture. This lack
of fracture-to-well bore contact can create areas of restricted fluid entry and lead to stresses placed
on the formation, by the high drawdown across a thin section of formation.
Fracturing of the horizontal wellbores can improve the productivity over that claimed for the unfractured well, especially if long extensions of the horizontal well are used in massive productive sections.

8-10

The productivity improvement available from fracturing the horizontal well will depend upon the orientation of the horizontal hole section in relation to the fracture direction in the reservoir. If the fracture
orientation is along the same path as the horizontal hole, the improvement from fracturing will be small
except where vertical permeability is low or barriers are present. When the path of the horizontal hole
crosses the plane of the fracture at some angle, more substantial productivities are sometimes available. The productivities increase as the angle of the intersection approaches 90".
The occurrence and the direction of natural fractures in the formation may make be a critical difference in the decision of where to place the wellbore. For best hydraulic fracture separation and drainage on a non-naturally fractured formation, the fractures should be at 90" to the wellbore; thus the
hole should be drilled in the direction of omjn because the hydraulic fractures would align in the direction of amin.However, in a naturally fractured formation, one of the biggest advantages of a horizontal
well is that it can be drilled across the plane of natural fractures, which are usually aligned along
omax. The hydraulic fractures, being also aligned along omm,may not intercept many natural fracthe problem disappears.
tures. In the unlikely event of natural fractures not being aligned along, ,Q
In cases where the natural fracture system is extensive and permeable, it is better to drain the natural
fracture system with the wellbore. Where the natural fracture system is small or of similar permeability
to the matrix, a hole placement to favor the hydraulic fracture would be beneficial.
Since an individual fracture at an angle of other than 0"cuts across the wellbore at only one location
in the horizontal example, the flow within the fracture near the wellbore is radial (Figure 8.19) and
exhibits the converging flow associated with formation flow towards an unfractured vertical well. This
type of restriction may appear as damage on very high rate wells. The restriction may be aggravated
by the bending of the fracture near the wellbore. Addition of perforations or slots (from abrasive methods) in the area of the fracture intersection may be beneficial but may not completely solve the problem when high flow rates are experienced. Multiple vertical fractures at regular spacing from a
horizontal well are envisioned as a method of dramatically increasing the processing of certain formations such as low pressure or high viscosity crude reservoirs. In one such example, Strubhar, et
note the placement and isolation testing of four fractures with 45 ft horizontal separation at the wellbore from a 52" inclined hole drilled through the pay in a direction perpendicular to the known fracture
orientation plane. In this test, vertical fractures were successfully placed in individual stimulations
through four separate groups of perforations. Pressure interference tests with special equipment were
used to show that no communication existed between the fractures in the propped areas. Propped
length and height were estimated to be 200 ft and 100 ft, respectively. Operational problems of the
fracture treatment were reported to be minor. Fracturing in highly-deviated or horizontal holes is predicted to be difficult owing to problems of hole cleaning, vertical proppant transport and accurately
estimating pad and flush location.
The connection of the hydraulic fracture from a horizontal well can be a problem. Fracture orientation
may be at some angle to the wellbore. When this occurs, the linear flow down the fracture is forced to
turn radial to enter the formation. With this inward radial flow, pinch points and flow restrictions occur.
Visually it would be better to intersect the wellbore along the wellbore length for a few feet at least
before the fracture turned and oriented into the plane of preference in the formation. Earlier work
allowed perforation in a short interval with high density, however, later experiments seem to be focusing on perforating along the wellbore for several meters to maximize contact and breakdown of the
fracture in the plane of perforations. This would increase wellbore contact even though it is known that
the fracture will turn and follow a plane perpendicular to that of least principle stress as it leaves the
high energy wellbore.
Fracturing has been viewed as somewhere between the savior of failed horizontal wells and a necessary evil in a few more. The elements of fracturing design that change when a well goes from vertical
to horizontal are very few. Typically, problems involved with displacement or channeling of fluid along
the horizontal wellbore dictate that a proppant transport fluid be used rather than a proppant dropout
fluid. If a carrier fluid is used that allows proppant to drop out of suspension, the proppant will build
dunes along the pipe, reducing the amount of prop that can be placed in the fracture and creating a
wellbore cleanout problem. Also, because vertical flow from the fracture comes directly into the well-

8-1 1

bore, proppant flowback can be even more severe, especially with the restrictions and high differential
pressures that are experienced during inward radial flow. In acid fracturing, there are concerns of the
affect of acid on the wall strength of the formation in the near wellbore area, particularly in chalks.
Wellbore isolation is needed in a few horizontal holes. Many companies require the use of a slotted or
drilled liner in the wellbore. Although these liners may prevent catastrophic collapse of the formation,
they prevent effective isolation of any section of the wellbore should water or other undesired fluid
break through in a channel or high permeability streak. Because of the way that drilled or slotted liners
lay along the bottom of the wellbore, flow along the top can often not be detected by conventional logging tools and fluid entry points into the wellbore remain unknown. The flow behavior in Figure 8.12 is a
result of the flow pattern in the well and the isolating effects of the liner. Only where isolation has been
achieved, such as with external casing packers or in the event of wellbore collapse will low rate wells show
large entrance of fluids into the perforated liner at points other than the heel of the well. When slotted or
drilled liners must be used, external casing packers, or ECPs, should be spaced at several points down the
length of the wellbore to allow fluid entry diagnostics and effective treating where required. ECPs are not
foolproof and sliding these rubber covered devices long distances may wear the outer cover. Integrity of
the sealing point must also be examined closely. In most cases, open holes remain the best methods of
establishing a low formation damage completion and allowing options for treatment of the well later on.
Problems in Measuring Flow in a Well
Equipped with a Perforated Liner

Figure 8.12
Water control in a horizontal well is an item that must be considered during the design phase.
Although many horizontal wells were drilled to eliminate or control formation water, there are cases
where high permeability zones or natural fractures will bring in tremendous amounts of water that
must be controlled to maintain effective well production. If ECPs have been used in the design, the
standard control methods of gels, cements, resins or other control devices can be used. If a slotted
liner has been used, then destructive squeezes with cement are about the only option. In open holes,
selective placement of inflatable plugs or even liners may be useful.

Increasing Reservoir Contact

There are several reservoir conditions that can be effectively approached with horizontal wells and a
few that require creative thinking. Vertical permeability barriers are often a limiting factor for horizontal
well development; but in the special case where thick zones are separated by barriers, stacked laterals have found success. Advantages of this method include increased reservoir contact and even
methods of crude isolation, Figure 8.13. With this type of liner isolation, plugs and selective perforating are used to open or close each wellbore.
The main drawbacks in openhole multilaterals is the difficulty in reentering the desired lateral. Most of
the stacked laterals have been done in a single field in the Austin Chalk where thin barriers separate
thick chalk lenses.
The design of Figure 8.14 offers a few advantages over a single horizontal: minimization of contact
time with drilling mud and the ability to use the wellbores in different manners with potentially different
life spans. Forked laterals in the same direction have been used to tap upper and lower members of a
formation. Slanted laterals may be particularly attractive in sloping formations. Recompletions from

8-12

Rd

Parthl llncr
Isolation

Figure 8.13

existing wells can be directed into the updip reservoir, adding reserves to an existing well. The lower
or downdip lateral could be used in unusual cases to accelerate production.

FIIW drllld Ymnl shut on for r a t

Figure 8.14

Many of these topics are considered in the following pages.

Logging
Just as a horizontal well is
a vertical well turned on its side, the tools and techniques that were
successful in damage identification, removal or treating in vertical wells are not necessarily effective
tools in horizontal wells.
Logging of extended highly deviated or horizontal holes is difficult and requires special procedures,
none of which are entirely fool proof.13 The time to log a highly deviated well is increased dramatically
as the hole section passes approximately 50"-55".Several early techniques involved running tools
slick and fast, counting on momentum to carry the tool all the way to the bottom. Success at this operation varied depending upon operator experience and the deviation. Beyond approximately 55",success was very rare. Other methods involving pump down tools were more accepted: however, only
short sections of the hole could be logged before removing a stand of pipe; this required tripping out
the logging tool prior to pipe removal. The basic technique for jointed tubing has been improved by the
use of a device called a side entry sub (Figure 8.15). This device allows the wireline to enter into the
drill pipe at some distance below the surface, allowing several stands of pipe to be removed or added
in any operation, before the logging tool would have to be tripped from the hole.
The specifics of the side entry sub involve placing the side entry sub several stands of tubing down
the hole and feeding the wireline in through the annulus. The wireline enters the tubing at the side
entry and the tool is generally on the end of the tubing being run. The tubing is stopped usually in the

8-13

Figure 8.15: The side entry sub for allowing wireline tool
operation in deviated wells with assistance of
limited tubing movement. The system requires a
wet connect of the wireline to the tool. The side
entry sub Is usually run a few joints below the
rig floor to a depth that matches the distance of
required horizontal movement.

highly deviated section of the hole, and the logging tool may be pumped out the end of the tubing
where it latches in place on the end joint. The location of the side entry sub is generally in the vertical
section of the hole where cable interference and damage is less likely. Placing the side entry sub in
open hole is not recommended.
Coiled tubing with wireline is one of the best methods to convey light loads and small logging tools in
deviated wells. The wireline equipped CT units are capable of quickly handling many of the jobs once
done with the side entry sub. Additional data is available in Chapter 18.
Production logging with either a radioactive tracer tool or a spinner tool may not be accurate in deviated wells. Smolen reports that in the spinner test, the tools that did not capture and measure the
entire casing cross section of fluids did not accurately measure the fluid and gas flowing along the
upper side of the casing. In some wells, there was also counter flow in the same casing string at the
same time; the higher density gas free fluids would downflow on the lower side of the casing while the
gas rich fluids would be flowing up on the upper side of the casing (Figure 8.16). A tool that was
eccentered toward the low side by its weight would indicate predominate downflow, even in the case
where most of the fluid was flowing up the pipe (Figure 8.1 7). The tracer logging tool could also be
hampered by the same flowing conditions and the tracers were also found to adhere to the walls of the
pipe in some instances. Spinner tools with full opening baskets to direct the entire flow into a small
area are an improvement but may not be completely optimum since the back pressure on the well is
changed slightly and because the baskets are not leak proof.
Flow Zones In a Devlated Well
Sormmownunl

Figure 8.16

8-14

--

--.

Tool Position is Critical to What It Measures

Figure 8.17

Wellbore Stability
Wellbore stability has been a hot item of discussion in almost all horizontal well considerations. The
primary question is will the wellbore fail during drilling or during completion? Because of the use of
horizontal wells in formations that do not lend themselves to vertical wells and fracturing, horizontal
wells have penetrated a number of marginally consolidated formations. With the use of top drive rigs,
which allow circulating during the trip, wellbore failure during drilling is becoming more rare. During
production, however, wellbore failures are often not fully investigated because of the use of slotted or
drilled liners. These liners are often used many times by the drilling department as insurance without
consideration of the problems they cause in evaluating or isolating the wellbore. Where wellbore stability is a problem, several potential treatments exist. Where the permeability is very high (above
1 darcy), many companies simply choose to complete openhole with a nondamaging mud system and
then insert a large prepacked screen. Problems have been very common, however, in perforated completions when the perforations collapse or are filled with formation sand. In these cases, the pressure
differential across the perforation becomes so high that the inflow is severely restricted. For these
applications, underreaming or in some cases, gravel packing of the zone should be considered.
The removal of rock by drilling the well disturbs the in situ forces that are in the formation. The redistribution of stresses around the borehole wall can produce unusual concentrations of stress that make
the borehole unstable. In a vertical well, the mud or kill fluid weight is often just enough to offset the
pore pressure. Although in most formations this is an acceptable level, in some deviated wells more
kill fluid weight is needed to support some of the load produced by the stress concentrations. Compressive failures (spalling) of formations at the borehole wall, are a major cause of many hole problems such as tight spots, formation flow and stuck pipe (not differential sticking). The studies of Fuh,
et al.,4 indicate that the borehole failures were progressive (time dependent) and originate in a major
part from the lack of hydrostatic support from the mud and the increased load caused by drilling. The
borehole collapse pressure gradient increases with hole angle while the fracture gradient remains the
same. As a result, the working range between the two gradients is much closer in highly deviated
wells. This makes control of mud density and data gathering a much more critical step in the horizontal completions. In a model based on drilling experience, Fuh, et al., compared mud weights, borehole
collapse pressure gradient, and formation fracture gradient. The in situ stresses and rock strengths
mentioned in their paper were estimated from leakoff data.
Wellbore stability in the deviated well can be an extreme problem because of a variation of stresses
produced by the formations that are exerted at the wellbore. Stress-induced borehole failures can be
grouped into three classes, as described by Bradley,15 Figure 8.1 8.
1. Hole size reduction caused by plastic flow of the formation into the wellbore. This is characteristic of flowing shale, salt and some chalks. Formations affected by this clastic flow usually exhibit
reduced diameter, requiring reaming of the section or, if unattended, causing sticking of the pipe
in some cases.
2. Wellbore enlargement caused by formation failing in a brittle manner and falling into the wellbore. This includes sloughing shale and other types of rock spalling. These problems are usually
seen in wellbores which have exhibited fill between trips, poor directional control, and poor
cementing due to washouts.

8-15

97-8

... .

4.:-*.

with hole collapse in the pay formation were reported at these pressures. When hole stability was a
problem, the zone of instability was in the shale above the pay zone. Successful handling was
approached on minimizing time of exposure (8 days in the US Gulf Coast) rather than increasing mud
weight.
Low water loss cement is needed to prevent thickened cement masses that may block flow. Additives
and technology to prevent the occurrence of free water that would lead to channels along the top of
the horizontal section, are also required. When designing a cement slurry for cementing a highly deviated well, the free water and settling ought to be measured at an angle equal to the maximum well
deviation angle. Both free water and settling are dependent upon the deviation angle, but, as noted by
Parcevaux, in a totally horizontal cylinder, free water is difficult to collect since it may be consumed by
chemical contraction. The only way to measure the free water may be by measuring the bulk volume
change. Water losses of less than 50 cc/30 min are desired.
Perforating
Perforating in a horizontal well may not seem different at first glance from the same process in a vertical well. The attributes of the horizontal well which make it extremely attractive for fluid recovery and
reservoir management can be controlled or enhanced only to a small amount by the selection of perforating equipment. However, after consideration of the impact of perforating on the other phases of horizontal completion, a clearer picture is formed of the importance and the differences of the perforating
treatment.
Although perforating may be used in open holes as a stimulation or damage bypass technique, it is
required for cased holes to establish fluid entry. The use of casing is less common than open hole or
slotted liner completions, but has advantages in some unstable formations or where zone isolation in
the horizontal section is critical to the success of the well.
The basics of perforating are altered somewhat by the decentralization of both the casing and the perforating gun in the horizontal wellbore. The use of a phased perforating gun for the obvious flow
enhancement benefits, highlights the problem of clearance distance on the performance of the perforating charge. A more complete explanation is available in the chapter on perforating. Gun clearance,
that distance from the outside of the perforating gun to the inside wall of the casing, affects both the
perforation entrance hole diameter and the penetration. Since the gun is forcibly decentralized in any
wellbore with even a few degrees inclination, clearance distances must be considered. The effect of
increased clearances on performance of charges results in smaller diameter and shallower holes. If
hole size and penetration are important, then the effects decentralization of the gun must be part of
the design. In most cases, the largest gun that can be fished is recommended. The effects of casing
centralization in the borehole may also be a factor, especially where enlarged holes are encountered.
Perforating design in these sections must consider penetration through the thicker cement sheath that
invariably surrounds the top surface of any part of the pipe in a deviated h01e.l~
Positioning perforating guns in the horizontal well is a challenge on two fronts; gun conveyance and
depth control. Wireline is very troublesome past about 55" of hole deviation. Tubing conveyed perforating (TCP) and coiled tubing are presently being used in horizontal wells to move guns. Tubing conveyed systems are expensive but have the advantages of strength and almost unlimited gun choices,
while coiled tubing offers cost and time advantages, but only with smaller, lighter gun systems.
Depth control or gun positioning in the horizontal section is complicated because the gamma ray log,
the traditional depth control device, may show less formation character variation in some wells as the
hole turns horizontal. The problems of wireline conveyance of perforating guns also applies to other
logging tools such as the collar locator or the porosity logging tools, that might be used for positioning
in the horizontal section. For the horizontal hole, either accurate tubing length measurements in the
TCP string or other logging conveyance systems are needed. The importance of depth or position
accuracy will depend upon the homogeneity of the formation and the emphasis on accuracy in placing
perforations for gravel packing or fracturing. TCP completions where depth control is necessary, MWD
technology or wet connect and sidedoor tools'3 are necessary to log the position of the gun. With the

8-17

coiled tubing placement technique, tubing is available with logging line inserted through the tubing. In
horizontal wells, especially where depth control is critical, the use of a short joint or pup joint in the
casing string is a requirement to mark the start of the pay zone. Locating the pup joint does require a
collar locator.
Perforating the horizontal well requires special equipment or methods in two primary areas; gravel
packing and fracturing completions. Gravel packing requires selection of whether an upper bank of
holes (pointing straight up) can be effectively filled with gravel. Although one line of thought and tests
says that the upper bank of perforation tunnels can be filled with gravel,18 most of the literature lists
the upper hole packing as difficult at best.9120Many operators have elected to eliminate the upper
bank of holes. The problem of gun orientation to properly align the downward patterns has been
approached through the use of swivels,21 and positive locator devices to release torque built up in the
string. Failure to release this stored torque may result in a twisted gun body and holes in a random
order.
The second problem, that of perforating before fracturing in the horizontal hole, is dependent upon the
expected fracture direction and its relationship to the plane of the wellbore. The two fracture/wellbore
orientations of Figure 8.19. illustrate this problem. If the horizontal wellbore is placed parallel to the
plane of fracture direction (perpendicular to the plane of least principle stress), the fracture may lie
along the wellbore for a large part of its length. In this case, a normal perforation density of 4 to 8
shots per foot is adequate to establish communication with the wellbore without a large pressure drop
at the wellbore. If, however, the plane of the fracture and the plane of the wellbore differ by even a few
degrees, the resultant contact of the wellbore and the fracture will be a pinch point of a few inches of
total contact area. This limited fracture/wellbore contact area may result in large pressure drops and
the indication of damage from a buildup test. To partially relieve the contact problem and the resultant
pressure drop, a high density perforating effort at the fracture exit point should be considered. This
type of perforating dictates that the fracture contact point be selected and only that zone be perforated
before the frac. For multiple fracture completions from the same wellboreZ only the point to be fractured should be perforated prior to each fracturing treatment. Wellbore isolation between the target
zone and the fractured is also needed.

Figure 8.19: Two of several possible fracture intersections with the

wellbore. At maximum contact (above) the fracture flow
into the wellbore is linear but drains the same pattern as
the wellbore. The minimum contact (bottom) drains a
different area but offers a pinch point of radial flow for
fluid entry into the wellbore.
Corrosion/Erosion

Some corrosion problems may be more severe highly deviated wells. In a corrosion study of wells in
the North Sea, it was found that in all cases of deviation more than 20, a preferential erosion or corrosion/erosion attack occurred as troughs of 1 in. or more width, Figure 8.20, always on the low side
of the hole.23 Production of solids increased the rate of erosion.

8-18

Figure 8.20:

Figure 8.21:

Corrosion or abrasion on the low side of tubing. The causes of abrasion are rod guide or
coupling wear. Corrosion patterns are caused
by water running along the low side.

Dune formation during gravel packing in a horizontal wellbore. The

upper drawing shows the gravel being swept along and dropping over
the edge of the dune (alpha wave or dune). The open area above the
gravel is a function of the Injection rate. The lower drawing shows the
channel filling with gravel as the flow dehydrates (leakoff) during the
final stages (beta wave or dune).

Gravel Packs
Gravel packing a horizontal, although not always necessary, is possible and has been done on numerous occasions in pays in the Congo, Trinidad and the US Gulf Coast. The packing proceeds as a dune
formation, Figure 8.21 , first packing the lower part of the wellbore as gravel drops out of the carrier
fluid and then rapidly back packing the upper section as the gravel slurry dehydrates due to leakoff.
Leakoff to the formation and through the screen is required for a tight pack.
Coning Control
Gas and water coning control with horizontal wells is possible and most of the early horizontal wells
were drilled with coning control as a major consideration. Gige$4v25 theorizes that the coning control
in the horizontal well is better because a lower drawdown is required for a given rate and the pressure
gradient is nearly linear, almost to the boundaries of the drainage area. Addington supplied gas coning
correlations for coring in Prudhoe Bay.57 The following equation estimates production from a vertical
well without gas coning.2627

8-19

1.535(p0-Pg)k0[h- ( h - D ) 2 ]
Qmax =

where:
h
D
Q,

= reservoir height, ft
= distance between the gas-oil interface and the top of perfs, ft
= oil production rate without coning, bbl/D

po
pg

= oil density, gm/cc

= gas density, gm/cc

k
= perm, darcy
To calculate Q,
for a horizontal well, substitute the effective wellbore radius, rWaeff
for r, Joshi submits the following equation for a comparison of maximum flow rates in horizontal and vertical wells.

[h2-

Qmaxl
Qmax]

h
v

(h-

D1)2]/n

DI

'e
[ h 2 - ( h - D ) 2 ]In 7

'

( w,eff)

where f? represents the distance between the horizontal well and the gas-oil interface, Figure 8.22. A
horizontal well can theoretically produce oil at a higher rate than a vertical well without coning or the
horizontal interface can be closer to the problem zone than perfs in a vertical well and produce at the
show the comparison of critical coning rates for horizontal and vertical
same rate.25 Sherrard., et
wells as a ratio plotted against horizontal well length for various ratios of vertical-to-horizontal permeability, Figure 8.23. It is this vertical permeability that is critical for the success or failure of a horizontal
well. If the vertical permeability is high, the horizontal well can drain the formations, but is the vertical
permeability is low, less than 50% of the horizontal permeability, the horizontal well may need to be
fractured to be comparable to the performance of a fractured vertical well. Reservoir modeling is
needed in these cased to predict well performance.

oil

I
r

* .....- - . . . .

r ~ r h .

. .. r

(Joshi, SPE 15375)

Figure 8.22: Gas coning schematic illustrating distance to the gas zone
for a vertical and a horizontal well.

8-20

Kv 1%

QW'QcV

= Horizontal Well Critical Coning Rate

OCv = Vertlcal Well Critical Coning Rate
Oil Column Thickness = 200 Feet
PenetrationRatio = 0.15

0,

I#)
.75

0
25

.10

6
5

4
3

500 600 700 800 900 1000 HOa 1200 1300 1400 1500

ORAINHOLE LENGTH (ft)

(Shenard, et al.)

Figure 8.23: Comparison of critical coning rates for various values of

vertical and horizontal permeability.

Heading Problems
One of the more serious problem areas in horizontal well completions is heading. A heading problem
is an intermittent slug of liquid propelled by a gas pressure rather than moving evenly up the tubing.
The liquid accumulates in a low area such as an undulating wellbore or at a low point and is regularly
propelled out as a slug when gas pressure builds up to a sufficient point to push the liquids into the
next section of the hole. When a slug of liquid enters the bottom of the tubing, the pressure at surface
may react wildly. This type of flow is not continuous and does not optimize production. It may also
damage lift equipment and surface equipment.

Multi-lateral Completions
A multi-lateral completion is any well with two or more lateral departure wells drilled from a common
trunk. The laterals may be vertical, deviated or horizontal and in the same or different planes. Both
cased and openhole laterals have been completed.
Multi-lateral wells are usually required where the reservoir has natural compartments that inhibit fluid
drainage. Spotting these compartments can often be accomplished from logs, DSTs, and P/Z versus
cumulative production plots as shown.
Decline Curve (PE v.. Gum. Q) for Homogeneous and ComparbnentalizedReservoir
with Limited Connection to the Main Re8snolr and Wellbore

8-21

Once the compartment has been identified, it must be located (deposition data, geology, and well testing) and a multiple wellbore design created to fit the reservoir needs.
Multi-laterals or any multi-legged well, may be also used to solve other problems. Some uses are:
where surface area or platform drilling slots are limited; where upper hole conditions make drilling difficult or expensive (Le., there is an economic need to use the existing wellbore; where multiple reservoirs exist as stacked or separated horizons; or where enhanced recovery operations can benefit.
The technical challenges presented by multi-laterals include: the location of the junction, the requirements for a pressure seal, the need to re-enter the wellbore and the need to commingle or separate
flow. Once each of these needs have been evaluated, the multi-lateral design process can start.
Multi-lateral technology encompasses both multiple wellbores and the methods to isolate and re-enter
the wellbores if required. The isolation and re-entry needs were considered by an industry focus group
(Tarnil) and numeric levels were assigned to help with description. Those designations, shown in the
following data are simple, but adequately describe most multi-lateral needs.
Lateral Technology Levels

Level 1 - Open/UnsupportedJunction
Level 2 - Mother Bore Cased & Cemented, Lateral Open
Level 3 - Mother Bore Cased & Cemented, Lateral Cased but not Cemented
Level 4 - Mother Bore & Lateral Cased & Cemented
Level 5 - Pressure Integrity at Junction (not cement)
Level 6 - Pressure Integrity at Junction achieved with casing
Level 6s - Downhole Splitter
The decision of what type of multi-lateral well may be best suited for a particular environment can best
be made after examining the local well specifics, plus a general candidate list of relationships.
First, it is useful to examine the basic types of multi-lateral wells.
The stacked multi-lateral, Figure 1, is used to complete reservoirs that have a one or two major barriers to vertical flow.

Figure 1: A stacked multi-lateral well.

Sealing at the lateral departures is necessary only when there are:

1. pressure variances between the zone that prevent commingling of fluids.
2. fluid compatibility problems such as scale or organic deposits that prevent mixing of fluids.
Since sealing of the lateral departure is both difficult and very expensive, it is only recommended
where absolutely necessary.
The opposed multi-lateral wells, Figure 2A are used in a number of environments where extended
reach from a central wellbore is necessary or where extremely high rate liquid wells cause sever pressure drops along a single long horizontal or highly deviated wellbore. Using two 1500 ft laterals
instead of one 3000 ft lateral cuts the backpressure felt at the toe of the lateral by limiting the friction
pressure

8-22

Figure 2A:An opposed multi-lateral.

In a special case of the opposed multi-lateral, designs have been proposed that go up-dip and downdip, Figure 2B,in a formation with sloping beds. The upward lateral may be useful to recover reserves
above the water-oil contact in an active water drive formation.

Figure2B:An opposed lateral in a dipping

formation.

Combinations of stacked and opposed laterals, Figure 3, have been drilled, however, in the complexity of the numerous kickoff points there is always a potential for loosing the well during drilling or a
workover. Relatively few of these wells have been drilled and none are known to have successfully
been reentered for a workover in each leg.

Figure 3: A stacked and opposed multilateral.

In a branched, forked or birds foot multilateral, Figure 4, there are two or more laterals in the same
plane. This is among the simplest of the multilateral wells, but more than two laterals may cause production interference. Reservoir modeling is necessary to determine number and position of the laterals in this type of arrangement.
Multiplanar multilaterals, Figure 5 , are becoming more common as a simple method of draining wells,
that have barriers. These wells offer the advantages of fewer wellbore entry points, a definite advantage that lowers risk of entering the wrong lateral or of loosing the wellbore entirely (when multiple
entries are considered).

8-23

Figure 4A:A forked multilateral in the same

plane.

Figure 4B:A branched multilateral reaching

two separate structures.

/ / / / / / I / / / /
Figure 5: A multiplanar multilateral.

Candidate List
The candidate list for design is still forming but has the following considerations:
1. If workovers or reentries are expected, drill a path that can be completed as needed are worked

over as dictated by the well.

2. No pressure isolations devices or techniques are normally used unless there is a demonstrated

need.
3. No screens or liners (slotted or perforated) are used unless these are a demonstrated need.
4. Limit the number of wellbore kickoffs to a minimum. This protects the well and makes reentry

easier.
5. The well specifics and number of barriers (small and large) that limit vertical flow sets the lateral
placement and the rest of the design.

a. For numerous barriers and where water coning is not a problem, a slightly slopping wellbore
is considered.
b. For few barriers and relatively thin zones, multiplanar wells are considered, particularly
where reentry will be a possibility. If reentry is not important, and barriers are hundreds of
feet thick, stacked multilaterals are a possibility. In any multiplanar well, lift must be
addressed.

8-24

Figure 8.26: A forked or birds foot multi-lateralwell usually has all the laterals in the same horizontal plane. It is often used to develop flank reserves or fault-bounded blocks of a reservoir.

c. When friction pressure along the lateral in high rate oil wells keep the toe from producing,
opposed multilateral are needed.
d. Branched, forked or birds foot multilateral are used in single zones, (without barriers to
enhance production in a single zone), to reach flank areas or reach multiple structures.

Thermal Completions

When steam or combustion is planned, special completions are needed. Heat reduces crude oil viscosity. This is necessary when there is little or no driving energy to propel a low gravity oil toward the
wellbore. Heat loss wide temperature extremes, stimulation, gravel packs, and increased corrosion
are problems that involve well completions engineers.
Steam Projects

Although there are instances of steam use for well flow improvement as far back as the 1930s,the
controlled application of steam was not implemented until 1959.30 Since that time, both steam drive
and cyclic steam injection have been tried with varying success. The type of steam drive will make a
difference as to how the well is completed. Cyclic steam injections or huff and puff operations utilize
injections of steam over a period of time followed by a flow period where the heated oil flows into the
~ e l l b o r eIn
. ~this
~ operation, the cyclic changes of temperature in the well will produce stress forces in
the casing and tubing in a cemented well and pipe movement in an uncemented well. Attempts to control these forces include use of sliding sleeves or other tools that permit expansion and contraction of
pipe, allowing the casing to expand out of the ground, and prestressing the casing to compensate for
the forces created in the cyclic heat pattern. Special sliding seal assemblies and slip joints are typical
in tubing strings in thermal completions. These tools act as an expansion joint to permit free movement of the tubing and relieve the compressive or tensile loading. The sliding sleeve assemblies are
seldom used in casing operations since failed joints would be difficult to replace.
Steam drive projects use a pattern of injectors and producers and may significantly raise the temperature of a large section of the field.75 The temperatures experienced by the tubing strings in a steam
drive are more constant than in a cyclic operation. Temperatures of 240C (464F) have been
rep~rted.~

8-25

Combustion Projects

In-situ combustion projects may offer the most severe test of temperature induced changes in a well.
The in-situ combustion principles were first field tested in 1958?*B3 The injection/ignition wells are
usually completed open hole to facilitate the large volume of injected air and to prevent severe casing
damage. Producers may also be completed open hole if the formation is competent and if the afterburn formation has sufficient strength to allow safe plugging of the well. Gravel packing operations
may be used on either producers or injectors but the solubility of silica in hot water or steam can make
the pack short lived.
The operating period of a combustion well may be divided into a cool period and a hot period. During
early stages, while the front is advancing away from an injector and towards a producer, the well operates normally and is in the cool mode. As the combustion front nears and distillates breakthrough to
the producer, the temperature will climb and excess gas may lock pumps and create emulsions. After
the front arrives, the well can often be operated as a flowing well. Water is often injected at the surface
into the annulus to control bottomhole temperature (annulus open at the bottom).
Placement of the wells in an in-situ combustion is also a critical factor. The best results have been
. ~ ~spacing
~ ~ must be sufficient to
reported with up-dip injectors that allow a top to bottom b ~ r nPattern
give the heated gasses time to transfer heat to the oil. Monitor wells are often used to track the temperature and thus the combustion front of the fireflood. Completion of these wells is usually made with
heat resistant casing top set on the formation and completed open hole. It is not uncommon in fire
floods to destroy the integrity of the casing in monitor wells as the fire flood front passes. Peak temperatures may exceed 1600F (870C).36
Wet combustion is a modification of in-situ combustion. In this technique, also called a combination
thermal drive, CTD,% a heat pad is first established with dry in-situ combustion. After the heat-up,
water is injected and in-situ steam is created. Whether the combustion is allowed to continue burning
or air injection is stopped defines the difference between the CTD and COFCAW (quenched) processe~.~~
Alternate Heating Methods

Application of heat at the wellbore from direct fired heaters is one method of locally applying heat to
solve paraffin or heavy crude problems at the ~ e l l b o r e Heat
. ~ ~loss
~ ~ in
~ the tubing is eliminated with
downhole burners, but the total energy that can be applied with the tool is also less. Whether these
tools are meant to supply heat from the burning process or steam from a downhole steam generator,
the local heat can be quite high, causing tubular expansion/contraction and localized corrosion by byproducts in the exhaust gas.
Downhole electrical resistance heaters have also been mentioned although electrical power losses
through the supply cables are usually prohibitive for most applications involving large heat requirements. At least one method uses the casing as a electrical conductor.
Stimulation

Fracturing may occur as the result of steam injection, both accidental and as a stimulation mechanism. Subsurface and surface heaving caused by steam has been traced by the use of tilt meter^.^'
The fractures are often useful to facilitate heat transfer to a larger section of the reservoir.40 Fracturing
stimulation design or application does not radically change for steam completions, but the fracture
length is dictated by needs of heat transfer rather than economics of inflow. One of the most serious
problem faced in stimulating thermal wells is the thermal decomposition of the proppant. The proppant
or gravel decomposition is caused by reaction of silica with the basic steam condensate.

8-26

Many of the feed waters used to produce steam contain naturally occurring bicarbonate ion, HCO-3.
During steam generation, thermal degradation of HCO-3 ions in the feed water produces CO2 and OH. The OH- ions remains dissolved in the aqueous phase in those operations that produce less than
100% steam. Water with the OH- ions is highly alkaline and will dissolve (and possibly reprecipitate) a
large amount of silica. The source of silica may be from either the formation or the proppant pack from
a gravel pack. Solubility of silica goes up rapidly for increasing temperature, Figure 8.27.41*42Use of
sintered bauxite and alumina pellets have also been proposed since the materials are stable in dry,
high temperature environment^.^' In wet conditions, these materials are also influenced by high pH,
Figure 8.28, although not nearly to the extent of the silica (sand) solution.
In longer term, high temperature tests with highly concentrated brines at high temperatures, more dissolution has been reported. To control the disintegration of the proppant, the HCO-3 ions should be
removed before steam is created or the pH should be balanced. The problem is made even more critical in low strength formations where the effects of dissolution of silica in the formation can be very
noticeable.42
Other types of fracturing such as explosive stimulation have been attempted in the hot environments
without much success.43

TEMPERATURE (F)
(Underdown & Dias)

Figure 8.28: The solubility of quartz increases rapidly in

any type of water as temperature increases.

Corrosion and Scale

Scale formation is a common byproduct of many high temperature completions. Cooling of the wellbore during the production phase of a huff and puff operation may deposit scale, paraffin, or asphaltic
materials at some point of the tubulars. This deposition is usually more severe in certain stages of the
production, typically toward the last of the production cycle when the temperature of the fluid being
produced has fallen significantly from the start of the cycle. Additives to the steam during steam injection or a macaroni string down the outside of the tubing are common treatments. Solvents are used for
paraffin and asphaltenes removal, usually during the initial phase of steam injection in the next cycle.
Steam can alter surfactant adsorption and efficiency.

8-27

Sample
Sintered bauxite
20/40 US mesh

High-alumina beads
20/40 US mesh

Temp
StjO to 600
560 to 600
560 to 600

Time
( 2 hrs
72 hrs
72 hrs

560 to 600
560 to 600
560 to 600

72 hrs
72 hrs
72 hrs

pH
/

9
11

Weight Loss
0./
1.3

3.5

7
9

2.3
2.4

11

3.7

Figure 8.27: Weight Loss of Bauxitic Material in Steam

Data on corrosion is difficult to correlate in thermal projects because of the independent nature of
most thermal completions and the variability of corrosion itself. Holes in the production tubing are usually noted by a sudden increase in the gadoil ratio. Failures in the casing as usually accompanied by
a change in the WOR or WGR ratio if no packer is set or a back pressure change. A string check may
be made by setting an inflatable packer or profile plug in the bottom of the string. Checks of individual
sections are made possible by straddle packers or packer and plug sets on coil tubing. Impression
packers and special corrosion surveys are also available.
Acidizing in thermal operations can produce severe corrosion. Hydrochloric acid spends extremely
rapidly at higher temperatures and it is difficult to inhibit. Other forms of both mineral and organic acid
are available and have much lower reaction rates towards steel and other commonly used metals than
the mineral HCI. Acetic, a formic (organic acids) and phosphoric (an inorganic acid), are only effective
when the damage is acid soluble. The byproducts of the reactions such as phosphoric acid combining
with calcium carbonate to produce the precipitate calcium phosphate must be considered before a
stimulation system is selected. A drawback of steam input is the in-situ generation of CO2 and H2S.
These gases pose metallurgical problems that must be addressed in tubular selection.30
Insulation

Because the heated fluid is expensive and the production tends to become viscous upon cooling, the
use of insulated tubulars are recommended whenever a thermal operation is c ~ n s i d e r e dThese
.~~~~~
tubulars may cut heat loss from the tubing as much as 70-90% depending upon the type and thickness
of insulation and the depth and surroundings of the well.
Tubular Design

Tubular design43i46-50and cementing considerations43949

are among the major well completion considerations in thermal completions. Thermal cycling, fluctuating operating pressures, cement strength,
and were from tubing movement are major casing concerns while thermal stress and increased corrosion dominate tubing and packer selection.
Temperatures are more steady in continuous steam injection, and the tubular forces are usually only
accounted for during the startup and cool off period at the end of a project or during an interruption.
Even in a continuous operation however, allowance must be made for shut downs due to mechanical
problems.
Cyclic steam injection imposes stress patterns that cause either buckling or threaded joint jumpout.
After an extensive downhole TV camera study, H ~ l l i d a concluded
y~~
that most failures were actually
tension failures. The failures were most often seen at the joint and involved:
1. Tensile failure in the last engaged pin thread.

8-28

2. Tensile failure by pin end jump-out.

3. Joint failure by closing of the coupling stand-off clearance.

H ~ l l i d a notes
y ~ ~ that the thermal well casing failures were tensile in nature. Casing was shown to
plastically deform during the heating cycle and then develop tensile loads in excess of the joint
strength during cooling. Tensile failure could be avoided by limiting the total axial stress change to the
sum of the elevated temperature yield strength and the allowable connection strength. The number
obtained is limited by the body tensile yield strength. This work has led to the prestressed casing
design that is the most typical completion mechanisms. Since many thermal projects are often borderline economic, casing failures in non critical areas of the string (where leaks, cross flow, and collapse
are not problems) are often not repaired. In some cases, the casing immediately above the pay in a
cemented, low porosity and low permeability section, may even be notched by abrasively cutting out
an entire section to allow some expansion and contraction of the casing.
The failure of the string by tensile forces is usually in the form of joint pullout at a connection. The tensile forces produced in a string are at a maximum at the minimum temperature of a thermal cycle, as
shown previously. The maximum temperature of the cycle influences the strength of the pipe, however, and may contribute to the tensile failure by yielding the string at the c ~ n n e c t i o n .Generally,
~~
casing strings that did not fail by joint pullout after the first thermal cycle will probably not fail at the
joint as long as the maximum temperature of the first cycle is not exceeded.51 The cycle is not endless; if the stress on the last engaged thread at the coupling approaches the minimum yield strength of
the casing, the joint will eventually fail by cyclic fatigue after some number of cycles. Joint life is further reduced by corrosion, often cutting the number of cycles in half.51 One estimate of joint life, corrected for estimated corrosion, is 10 to 20 cycles.51 The number of cycles can be increased by using a
premium thread connection.

As the well heats up, the casing expands and experiences a compressive load, up to the point of failure dictated by the yield strength or until it buckles. When the well cools, tension loads are developed.
The simplest casing completions for shallow wells is to leave the top part of the pipe free to expand
above the cemented section isolating the pay. This allows the wellhead to move upward, sometimes
as much as a few feet, during the hot cycle and to shrink back toward the ground during the cool
cyc ~e.5*
If the casing is fully cemented (or cemented at both ends) and is not allowed to expand, the stress is:
o

= &(AT)

or
O

= (6.9 X 10-6) (30 X 106) (AT) = 200 AT

where:
o

= stress (psi)

a
AT

= coefficient of thermal expansion, 6.9 x 1 0-6 inches/in./"F for steel.

= increase in temperature over the average formation temp., OF

= Youngs modulus, 30 x 1O6 psi for steel.

Note that the stress induced by temperature change is independent of the tube length.
The steam injection pressure will be one of the factors of selection for grade of tubing and casing. The
minimum temperatures for producing a yielding force in casing can be estimated from the casing
strength. Since each one degree Fahrenheit rise produces a compressive stress of 200 psi, the minimum temperature increase that an N-80 string can tolerate without buckling is about 80,000/200 =
400F.51 Other estimates may produce slightly higher values.% As previously shown, yield and tensile

8-29

strengths vary with initial t e m p e r a t ~ r e Suggested

.~~
yield strength design curves for several grades of
casing are given in Figure 8.29.50

700
900

lW.310
78.545

124.650
92.145

761800
51,400

24,100
19200

212 5
21.5

76.2
77.3

277
277

Figure 8.29: Elevated Temperature Tensile Properties of Various Grades of Seamless Casing and
Tubing (after Youngstown)

Compressive forces may buckle casing in long unsupported sections that are fixed on both ends.
Figure 8.30 predicts temperature changes that will cause buckling by compressive loading.51The uniform loading in the second column assumes full cement contact. A complete cement job can prevent
lateral casing movement only if the formation is competent. If the cement deteriorates because of heat
or other factor, buckling can result.51 Heating of the casing in slant hole sections may also produce
uneven loading and accelerate buckling.

Grade
(spec)

Allowable Temperature Change

Minimum Yield
Stress (psi)
I

N
S

53,000
80,000

95,000

23 I

2f5

346
410

400
475

Cementing Considerations

Thermal completions can have a severe impact on the strength of cement as the temperature
increases beyond about 250F. Portland cement for high temperature wells usually contains a stabilizing additive such as silica flour. Other cements based on pozzolan, lime or other chemistries are also
available.49r54Slurry properties and set strengths of some of these mixtures are contained in
Figure 8.31. The most stable of the mixtures is the calcium aluminate cement, a refractory cement, but
it is also the one with the lowest strength.

8-30

(from Gain, et al.)

Figure 8.31: Slurry properties and strengths of set high temperature cement.

Completions

Three possibilities exist for improving casing life in steam injection?

1. Prestress the casing to prevent the string from exceeding the yield strength at the maximum cas-

ing temperature.
2. Reduce stress by anchoring the casing at the bottom and allowing the wellhead to rise and contract as needed.
3. Increase the yield strength of the casing.
4. Liner failure may be reduced by hanging the liner off bottom to allow for downward expansion.

5. To minimize casing damage during well killing operations, the hot well should be killed by pumping liquid into the casing rather than by venting gas off the casing.
6. For design of thermal expansion forces, use the maximum extremes of temperature. Expansion
joints and seal bore assemblies are the best methods of handling tubing movement. The units do
have to be trimmed for thermal service and seal life is often short.43

7. Use of a thermal packer can reduce temperature of the casing and cement sheath by 120F and
thermal stresses by as much as 20,000 psi.53
Prestressing casing requires careful selection of joint and coupling and a two-stage cement job. The
amount of prestress may also be limited by the collapse design. Loads on a 7 in. string, for example,

8-3 1

that would see 500F might require up to 300,000 Ibs. This would require the use of hydraulic jacks on
the string during setting.

Coalbed Methane Wells

Production of methane gas from coal-bearing formations has been an active dream since the early
1950s and a reality since the 1 9 8 0 ~ . ~Approximately
~-~~.
6,000 coalbed methane wells have been
drilled in the U.S. The majority of this work has been aimed at relatively shallow coal sections where
the gas is adsorbed onto the surface of the coal. These coal wells have a number of unique properties
that must be considered during planning, drilling, completing, stimulating and production.
Coal is a microporous formation possessing a rather large internal surface area but a rather small typical porosity. The average porosity is approximately 1-1/2 to 3% and almost all of the permeable, connected porosity is in the form of fractures within the coal. Gas is adsorbed onto the coal surfaces in a
condensed or liquid-like phase.93 This is entirely different from a normal reservoir rock where the gas
exists in a free state within the pores of the rock or in solution in one of the liquids that exists in the
pores.
There will be more than methane gas within the formation. Nitrogen, methane and CO2 are relatively
common gases, and each sorbed within the rockOg3
Face and butt (secondary) cleat or fracture systems are the primary and secondary natural fracture
permeability avenues in which gas and liquids flow through the coaLS4The fracture systems are generally perpendicular to bedding planes, and the shorter length butt cleats end against the longer length
face cleats. The presence of cleats or fractures is required to make a coal productive. The amount of
cleats influences both the permeability and, to some extent, the available sites for methane storage.
The primary drilling problems encountered while drilling coalbed methane (CBM) wells include largevolume water flow, overpressured gas kicks, wellbore stability and formation damage from drilling,
completion and production operation^.^^ Coal reservoirs are not homogeneous and may have widely
different reservoir and geologic characteristics within the same production area. Most coal reservoirs
are not single coal seams but numerous thin coal sections interbedded with shale and other formations. The characteristics which influence the reservoir quality and reserves of a CBM well include
fracture presence and extent or permeability, pressure, fluid saturations, gas type and amount, relative permeability, and other geologic characteristics.
Before the gas can be produced from a coalbed methane formation, the pressure generally has to be
drawn down sufficiently to allow the gas to desorb from the f o r m a t i ~ n This
. ~ ~ operation generally
requires a relatively long-term production of water from the well. Peak production may not occur for
three to four years after the start of production. Production of water usually requires the utilization of
some form of artificial lift. The most popular lift mechanisms for coalbed methane wells include beam
pumping and progressive cavity pumps. A typical production profile for a coalbed methane well is
seen in Figure 8.32. In this figure, water production starts at a relatively high rate and usually
decreases with time as the water level in the reservoir is drawn down. Pressure is also decreasing
during this time, allowing the gas to desorb from the surface of the rock, increasing until it finally
reaches a stable production stage and then declining with depletion of the gas resource. Coalbed
methane wells can produce for very long periods of time and produce significant reserves. Lowering
the water saturation within the reservoir also increases the reservoirs relative permeability to gas
which increases the ability of desorbed gas to flow through the natural fracture system to the wellbore.
For this reason, it is imperative that the wellbores be kept free of water to avoid creating a lower relative permeability to gas around the immediate wellbore.
The basic investigation tools for coalbed methane wells are the same ones that are used in other formations. The log responses in the following paragraphs are summaries from an article by Scholes and
Johnston in an AAPG bulletin.95 In coals, the resistivity log readings will vary as a function of log type

8-32

Decllno

staw

0
U
Q

'

z0U

El

>

Time
Figure8.32: General time line of events in the life of a coal well
(from AAPG #38).91

and the mud or mud filtrate that invades the cleat system. If the cleats are narrow, only the mud filtrate
will invade the cleat system, and the mudcake can be detected by a response on the microresistivity
logs. In this case, the shallower reading resistivity logs will read a lower value than the deep reading
resistivity logs. This is due to mudcakes being lower resistivity than the coal. Clays may also cause
the resistivity logs to read low. This is due to the presence of bound conductive water associated with
the clays.
Gamma ray tools will usually read very low counts per second in the coal because of lack of natural
radioactive elements. Coals with significant amounts of clay will read much higher.95
Acoustic and sonic logs may read much higher porosities in the coal. The amount of clay does not typically have an effect on these logs within the coal seam because the apparent porosity of pure clay is
in the same range as the apparent porosity of coal. Presence of fine-grained sand may reduce the
apparent sonic logsg5
Neutron logs may read high apparent porosities in coals. This is because they generally regard hydrogen as an indication of porosity and coal is high in hydrogen content. The clay content of coal does not
have a large effect on the neutron predicted porosity.95
Density logs may read low density because of the high matrix density of coal. This may give a false
high apparent porosity. Ash content and fine-grained quartz sand can cause the density to go up substantially. A coal formation with significant amounts of ash or fine-grained sand shows a much lower
porosity (higher density) than is true for the coal sample. Photoelectric (Pe) curve associated with a
density log usually reads in the range of 0.1 7 to 0.2 in pure coals. Ash will cause a deflection from
these values depending on the elemental makeup of the ash. Usually the Pe of ash minerals is ten
times the Pe of
Natural gamma ray spectroscopy logs convert the naturally occurring gamma radiation into the most
likely elemental composition that would emit the gamma rays. The response depends upon the elemental model that is used for the particular logging tool. Since pure coal does not contain sizable
quantities of most of these radioactive elements, the logs typically show low values. Presence of clay

8-33

would increase the radioactive reading, and fine-grained sand might lower the reading unless the
sand is an ash compound which has radioactive elements associated with it.95
Induced gamma ray spectroscopy logs will generally respond with good accuracy to coal. These logs
may help identify coal from key element analysis of carbon, hydrogen, etc. A high ash component
(including clay minerals) would have the effect of indicating more elements, or higher percentage of
those elements, on the induced gamma ray spectroscopy logsg6
Coalbed methane wells require stimulation or special completion techniques to effectively connect the
wellbore to the reservoir. A variety of these completions and stimulations have been tried, and many
are significant only in a particular field or even an area of a particular field. In general, the completion
mechanisms are (from Palmer et al.):
1. Openhole cavity. These cavity completions may be very prolific producers of natural gas. The

cavity is generally formed by surging the well in inward flow, and cleaning the wellbore by high
rate flow or a bit run. The cavity completions may extend several feet into the reservoir, and are
one of the lowest damage completions available. They are good when the permeability of the
formation is relatively high and the natural fracture system is extensive.
2. Polymer fracture treatments. Fracturing stimulations have been conducted in a number of coals
using relatively large mesh sand at concentrations of up to 10 Ib per gallon. There is a trade-off,
however, between the polymer damage to the coal formation and the productivity increase generated by a long propped fracture.
3. Water fracture treatments. Because of polymer damage to the formation, water has replaced
polymer gels as the predominant fracture fluid in many cases. Large mesh sand can still be
used, but the concentration of sand is limited to a few pounds per gallon. In some coal gas wells,
gas production is greater with water fracs than with higher concentration sand polymer fracs.
4. Sandless water fracture treatments. In a few reservoirs, pumping water at frac rates without

proppant has been successful in providing an open pathway to the wellbore. Wells completed in
this manner are generally lower rate than propped fractured wells but may be beneficial because
of lower stimulation costs in some areas.
The cavity completion. Openhole cavity completion techniques involve setting surface pipe in the
same manner as for a conventional cased hole completion, and then drilling through the coal or to a
point above the coal with air drilling fluids. In the most successful wells, the openhole section is usually 200-300 ft in height with the total depth at the base of the lowest coal seam that is deemed producable. The well is then blown down by surging full formation pressure to the atmosphere, allowing
water, gas and coal to flow up the pipe and to the surface. The time for the blowdown will depend on
the formation and area, but is typically about 15 min in cycles. Sometimes compressed air, and even
water, is injected into the reservoir before blowdown to encourage breakup or sloughing of the coal
into the wellbore. Cleanouts are usually necessary with a bit on tubing to circulate coal fines from the
wellbore. The process may be repeated up to 50 times over an 8-10 day period until the cavity stabilizes and the wellbore remains free of debris after a blowdown cycle. The cavity completion is not useful in every case. The usual attitude is that if a cavity can be created, then it will make the best
completion. But if it cannot be created, the well probably needs to be fractured.
Design of fracturing treatments for coal wells must take into account probable damage to the coal by
polymers, the amount of fracture length needed for commercial operation, and the leakoff involved
during the fracturing attempt. The same natural fracture system which is required for coalbed methane
production can also be the source of severe leakoff when the higher pressures of a fracturing treatment open the natural fractures of the coal to leakoff potential. This problem is further complicated
since fluid loss control may produce severe formation damage. Coal fracturing is an accepted part and
has been successful in many parts of the world.

8-34

The design of surface production facilities for coal wells must take into account the anticipated flow,
the likely production of coal fines, early production of large amounts of water, and disposal of the
water. The typical coalbed methane surface facility consists of production well, gathering lines, separators, compressors, dehydrators, flow measurement systems, and water-treating and disposal facilities.

Multiple Completions
In some wells, the presence of two or more pay zones may require separate handling because of
widely different zone pressures or incompatibilities of fluids. In shallow zones, a separate well may be
drilled and completed in each pay zone. In deeper plays, or in areas where drilling time or surface
space is limited, the pays may be completed individually from the same well by using a multiple completion.
55-62

Multiple completions are made for the following reasons:

1. Vastly different zone pressures.

2. Widely separated zones.

3. Fluid incompatibilities.

4. Multiple well replacement.

5. Different mineral royalty owners of different zones.

6. Legal requirements.
Multiples completions are often described as a nuisance because of the increased mechanical problems with the equipment. These problems result from running two or more strings of pipe and setting
two or more packers. The equipment for multiple completions is often very specialized and the completion may be tailored for each well.
Multiple completions may be either the conventional side-by-side tubing completions involving the
equipment shown in Figure 8.33 or a concentric tubing completion as shown in Figure 8.34. The conventional dual is the more common of the two approaches, although the concentric duals allow higher
flow rates in some applications. The concentric completions require special running techniques to
make and break joints. The two strings in a conventional dual are the long string (deep zone) and the
short string (shallow zone).
The packers involved in the multiple completions are frequently customized to the requirements of the
individual well. The packers (Figure 8.35)are usually hydraulic set. Because of the difficulty in rotating
side-by-side dual strings, the pressure set packers are the most popular. Mechanical set packers that
do not require rotation are also used, especially as the top packer in the multiple packer series. Packers in multiple completions may be either permanent or retrievable. In high pressure or sour gas operations, the selection of a permanent packer is favored while in shallower or lower pressure
completions the retrievables are often used.
Sub surface safety valves may still be run and common flow control lines are common, Figure 8.36.
The larger od of the SSSVs make tool offsets necessary.

8-35

Figure 8.33: Conventional dual completion

using side-by side tubing.
This approach requires a large
casing string and setting of
two packers. Zones can be
treated as Individual wells;
however, wireline operations
in the upper zone are usually
limited because of potential
wrap of the wireline around
the tubing string.

Figure 8.34: A concentric dual tubing

completion.

Tubingless Completions

8-36

SEALS
CONE
SLIPS

Flgure8.35: Schematic drawing of a dual completion mechanical packer. Set by

compression and released by picking up the string.

(Barn-, Snider, and Swafford, SPE, 1990)

Figure8.36: SSSVs in a dual completion showing a common

control line.

A special case of multiple completions involve the use of so-called tubingless completion^.^^*^* In
these completions, the tubing is cemented in place in the open hole and acts as tubing and casing.
Tubingless completions are restricted to gas or flowing oil wells that do not require workovers on a
regular basis. Completing these wells usually requires cementing through the long strings and return
of cement to surface. Since there is only one steel barrier, backup with cement must be a part of the
design. Since both strings are cemented in place, a packer is not used. A device in the short string to
orient perforating guns away from the long string is required. Serious problems may require a well
replacement.

Equipment in multiple completions include:

8-37

1. Special BOP rams for work over^.^^

2. Y-block connections allowing ESP use and wireline

operation^.^^

3. Shear release joints or collects on the tubing between the packers for pulling off when the lower
packer
4. Telescoping unions or sliding sleeves for minor adjustments in spacing out tubing during packer

setting.
5. Blast joints or heavy wall tubing over the tubing across from high velocity productive formations
to limit outside tubing erosion.56y65
6. Oriented perforating in the short string, to miss the long strings.
7. Dual polish bore receptacles in deep wells.66
8. Special artificial lift a s ~ e m b l i e s . ~ ~

Selection of a Completion

Selection of a multiple completion is usually made after a detailed examination of the wells deliverability, legal restrictions, operational requirements and field experience. Tubing and annular sizes are
selected on the basis of acceptable pressure drops at expected flow rates. In concentric completions
for example, 2-7/8in. tubing may be used inside 5 in. tubing for dual strings in a 7 in. casing string.
The size of the inner string is selected based upon whether the upper zone or the lower zone is the
maximum producer.
Conventional multiple completions may be lifted by rods, gas lift or slim hole ESPs, while the intervals
producing through the annulus in concentric duals are limited to flowing wells that are not prone to
heading, deep hydrate formation or deep paraffin deposition. Shallow deposition of hydrates or paraffins can be controlled in some instances by hot water or hot oil circulation through a small diameter
tube down the inside or outside of the existing tubing. Multiple strings also limit the application of
wireline operations in all but the lower zone of concentric completions. Problems with wireline wrapping around the pipe preclude its use in upper intervals.
Monobores
A monobore completion is a basic, constant i.d. completion that may be well suited for gas completions. Historically, monobore completions are nothing new. Designs that meet one of the basic definitions of monobores have been seen in the literature into the 1960s and a few articles on multiple
completion strings from the 1950s spotlight use of tubingless completions (actually they are casingless) using smooth 2-7/8in. or 2-3/8in. tubing, cemented in place. These completions were economical but quickly lost favor because of the difficulty of working in these reduced ID wellbores. The
primary problem in the 1950s was lack of reliable tools and methods for circulation, repair and plugback. Although technological advances have surmounted many of the problems, the problems of
working in a small wellbore (friction, sticking, pressure control, miniature tools, etc.) still remain.

There are a number of definitions for monobore completions throughout the industry. Monobore completions have been around since the early 60s and maybe even before. The various definitions of
monobores depend on their application, and often times, on the company involved in the work. From a
search of the literature, the following definitions of monobore and associated completions are
advanced as a starting point.

8-38

True monobore - A true monobore is a well completion configuration in which the production
liner and the tubing are the same diameter. The purpose is to provide full bore access to all
parts of the well.
Decreasing bore monobore - Most monobore completions are decreasing monobore with
smaller bore liners below a larger upper liner. The problems in this type of completion are the
very small work areas and the increasing possibility of sticking strings, as wellbore diameters
decrease.
Nippleless monobore - A nippleless monobore is a monobore completion without nipple profiles
which extend into the bore of the tubing. Some designers keep a monobore in nippleless form
except for the nipple required for a wireline retrievable subsurface safety valve. Other designers
go with a tubing retrievable, subsurface safety valve to prevent even this nipple in the string.
Slimhole monobore - The slimhole monobore is a hybrid utilizing the technology both of the
monobore completion, and most generally, the reduced well size concept that uses tighter clearances in the drilling and placement of tubular products. Slimholes can denote either small wellbores or small clearances between the drilled holes and the tubular.
The primary features of a monobore completion are:
1. Production tubing/liners are usually the same diameter throughout the well, or at least, have full-

bore access to the lower most portions of the liner.

2. A true monobore has no permanent diameter restrictions that will limit fullbore access to any

point of the well.

3. The tubular design in all monobores is extremely dependent upon the flowrate both of gas and of
liquids expected from the well.
The monobore design, while excellent at maximizing rate particularly from gas and gas condensate
wells, does create a few problems most notably with isolation necessary for intervention and some
stimulations.
Many well workover problems are caused by sticking a tool during workovers, stimulation or gathering
data. The list of cased hole sticking locations is interesting:
differential sticking at perforations (especially in depleted zones where kill fluid weight caused significant overbalance,
liner tops where damage, cement residue or other debris collected and caused problems,
profiles, especially where wireline or tubing conveyed tools became stuck due to close clearances or
to deposits (paraffins, asphaltenes, scales) in the profiles,
end of tubing where lack of a tool reentry guide or where misshapen tools (perforating guns) stuck,
crossover from one size of tubing to another in a tapered string.
The nippleless true monobore eliminates or minimizes many of these problems. Monobores using
more conventional tubular sizes (4-1/2 in., 5-1/2in. and 7 in.) also can use conventional, proven
downhole tools with which service people have more experience.

8-39

Coiled Tubing Completions

Coiled tubing (CT) completions are very similar to conventional completions but offer the advantages
of:
1. more rapid deployment; often completed in a few hours,

2. less need for a conventional rig a major asset in offshore, remote, crowded or urban well sites,

3. ability to run the entire completion string without killing the well - a major advantage for fluid sensitive wells,
4. ability to pull the entire completion, quickly, even under pressure, without a rig.
The disadvantages of the technique are ones of equipment cost and sizes; both objections are
steadily being reduced.
The best candidates for CT completions are those wells where:
1. corrosion is minimal,

2. lift requirements are within capabilities of the available equipment,

3. where conventional rig cost is high,

4. where pay zones are sensitive to killing fluids,
5. where stimulations (fracturing) have already been done,
6. solidslsand production to surface is absent.

The candidate list is neither complete, nor exclusive. Special conditions such as pressure, tubing
movement, stimulation needs and even gravel packing can be handled with the right design.
The CT completion string is spooled into the well, Figure 8.34, using mostly conventional CT equipment.
The spooling may be stopped to weld in components or bolt on external gas lift valves, but previously
welded equipment, already spooled reduces running time and the shop welding may improve the reliability of connections. When equipment must be added in the field, a window or entrance point is
included in the surface rig up between the injector and the BOPs.
When seal assemblies, Figure 8.35, are run, it is often advantageous to straighten the bottom 10 ft of
the coil tubing to assist in stabbing the seal assembly.
Lift for the CT completion may be by gas lift (internal or external valves), plunger jet pump or electric
submersible pump (ESP).The plunger lift has been the most common system but the other lift systems have found successful applications. For horizontal or highly deviated wells; gas lift, jet pumps
and ESPs have the most promise.
Corrosion in CT completions is an unknown. corrosion by CO2 over several years has been noted but
reports on other forms of corrosion are not common. The mild steel of most CT strings is both an
advantage (resists cracking) and a disadvantage (low initial strength) in some cases. More corrosion
resistant alloys are being developed, but cost will undoubtably be a factor in its use.

8-40

WIDE ARCH
INJECTOR HEAD
PACK-OFF
LUBRICATOR
COILED TUBINQ HANQER
TUBINQ HANQER

8 A m Y VALVE
WITH FLAPPER OPEN

(Camco, 1996)

Figure 8.34: A typical coiled tubing completion (safety valve for offshore).

One potentially sever limitation in an offshore CT completion string is powering the SSSV. The current
methods of routing hydraulic fluid to a SSSV in a CT string are internal and external lines. The internal
lines can be delivered to the site already in the CT, while the external lines must be attached in the
field and run in carefully. There are difficulties in bringing either line through the well head and special
connections are required, Figure 8.36. Designs are underway to use the existing SSSV profile (where
the existing large tubing is left in the well) and spacing out the CT to the profile.

References
1. Laing, C. M., Ogier, M. J., Hennington, E. R.: Everest and Lomond Completion Design Innovations Lower Completion and Workover Costs, SPE 26743, Offshore European Conf., Amsterdam, Sept. 7-10, 1993.
2. Hennington, E. R., Smith, lan, MacDougall, I. D., Fordyce, R. S.: Logging and Perforating Operations Utilizing Coild Tubing in a 25,000 ft MD, High-Angle Well, SPE 27602, European Prod.
Oper. Conf., Aberdeen, March 15-17,1994.

3. Ross, B. R., Faure, A. M., Kitsios, E. E., Oosterling, P.,Zettle, R. S.: Innovative Slim-Hole Completions, SPE 24981, European Pet. Conf, Cannes, Nov. 16-18, 1992.
4. Robison, C. E.: Monobore Completions for Slimhole Wells, SPE 27601, European Prod. Oper.
Conf., Aberdeen, March 15-17, 1994.

8-41

LUBRICATOR

LOCATOR SEAL AS825yBLY

Wrm PUMP OUT PLUQ

LOCK WITH PBR Am FLAPPER

(Carnco, 1996)

Figure 8.35: Runnint seal assembly on coiled tubing.

5. Tollefsen, S., Grane, E., Svinndal, S.: Gullfaks Development Provides Challenges, World Oil,
May, 1994, p 77-82.

6. Gee, N., Brown, S., Mcltardy, C.: The Development and Application of a Slickline Retrievable
Bridge Plug, SPE 26742, Offshore European Conf., Aberdeen, Sept. 7-10, 1993.
7. Vinzent, M., Smith, R.: New Subsurface Safety Valve Designs for Slimhole/Monobore Completions, OTC 7885, 1995 Offshore Tech Conf., May, 1995.

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3. Baldwin, D. D., Royal, R. W., Gill, H. S.: Drilling High Angle Directional Wells,
4. Hardrnan, P.: Beckingham 36 Horizontal Well, SPE 15895, SPE European Petroleum Conference, London, October 20-22, 1986.

8-42

COwlliOL U#
C O W TUBHQ

(Camco, 1996)

Figure 8.36: The SSSV control line connection at surface.

5. Jourdan, A. P., Baron, G.: Elf Drills 1OOO+ ft Horizontally, Pet. Eng. Int. (September 1981),
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7. Moore, S. D.: High Angle Drilling Comes of Age, Pet. Eng. Int. (February 1987), pp. 18-20, 22.
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13. de Montigny, O., Combe, J.: Horizontal Well Operations, pt. 3, Hole Benefits, Reservoir Types
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8-43

14. Fuh, G. F., Whitfill, D. L., Schuh, P. R.: Use of Borehole Stability Analysis for Successful Drilling
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8-44

32. Moss, J. T., White, P. D., McNeil, J. S.: in-Situ Combustion Process-Results of a Five Well
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8-45

50. Holliday, G.H.: Calculation of Allowable Maximum Casing Temperature to Prevent Tension Failures in Thermal Wells, ASME Petroleum Mechanical Engineering Conference, Tulsa, Sept. 21
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51. Willhite, G. P., Dietrich, W. K.: Design Criteria for Completion of Steam Injection Wells, J.P.T.,
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September 27-30,1987.

8-46

69. Daneshy, A. A., A Study of Inclined Hydraulic Fractures, J. Pet. Tech., 1973, pp. 61-68.
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Sept. 27-30, 1987.
77. Crook, R. J., Keller, S.R., Wilson, M. A.: Solutions to Problems Associated with Deviated Wellbore Cementing, SPE 14198, 60th Annual Mtg., Las Vegas, Sept. 22-25, 1985.
78. Zurdo, C., Georges, C.: Mud and Cement for Horizontal Wells, SPE 15464, 61st Annual Mtg.,
New Orleans, October 5-8, 1986.
79. Kolthoff, K. W., Scales, G. H.: Improved Liner Cementing Techniques for Alaskas Prudhoe Bay
Field, SPE 10756, Calif. Reg. Mtg., March 1982.
80. Dickinson, W., Anderson, R. R., Dickenson, W.: Gravel Packing of Horizontal Wells, SPE
16931, 62nd Annual Mtg., Dallas, September 27-30, 1987.
81. Addington, D. V.: An Approach to Gas Coning Correlations for the Prudhoe Bay Field, SPE
8332, 54th Annual Mtg., Las Vegas, Sept. 23-26, 1979.
82. Giger, F. M.: Low Permeability Reservoirs Development Using Horizontal Wells, SPE 16406,
Low Perm Reservoir Symposium, Denver, May 18-19, 1987. 067. Van Der Vlis, A. C., Duns, H.,
Luque, R. F.: Increasing Well Productivity in Tight Chalk Reservoirs, Proceedings of the
Tenth World Petroleum Congress. Vol. 3, Bucharest, Hungary (1979) 71-78.
83. Jourdan, A. P., Baron, G.: Horizontal Well Proves Productivity Advantages, Pet. Eng. Int.
(October 1984), pp. 23-25.
84. Stramp, R. L.: The Use of Horizontal Drainholes in the Empire Abo Unit, SPE 9221, 55th
Annual Mtg., Dallas, September 21-24, 1980.
85. Reiss, L. H.: Horizontal Wells - Production after Five Years, SPE 14338, 60th Annual Mtg., Las
Vegas, September 22-25, 1985.

8-47

86. Ertekin, T., Sung, W., Schwerer, F. C.: Production Performance Analysis of Horizontal Drainage
Wells for the Degasification of Coal Seams, JPT (May 1988),pp. 625-632.
87. Pratts, M.: Effect of Vertical Fractures on Reservoir Permeability - Incompressible Fluid Case,
SPEJ, (June 196l),105-118.
88. Aadnoy, B. S.:Modelling of the Stability of Highly Inclined Boreholes in Anisotropic Rock Formations, SPE 16526,presented at Offshore Europe 87,Aberdeen, Sept. 1987.
89. Giger, F. M., Reiss, L. H., Jourdan, A. P.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Horizontal Drilling, SPE 13024,59th Annual Mtg., Houston, September 16-19,1984.
90. Muskat, M.: The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through a Porous Media, IHRDC, Boston
(1937).
91. Law, B. E., Rice, D. D.: Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology #38,1993,
Chapter 15,by R. A. Schraufnagel.
92. Law, B. E., Rice, D. D.: Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology #38,1993,
Chapter 12,by T. L. Logan.
93. Law, B. E., Rice, D. D.: Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology #38,1993,
Chapter 9,by D. Yee, J. P. Seidle, W. B. Hanson.
94. Law, B. E., Rice, D. D.: Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology #38,1993,
Chapter 5, by J. C. Close.

95. Law, B. E.,Rice, D. D.:Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology #38,1993,
Chapter 13,by P. L. Scholes and D. Johnston.
96. Law, B. E., Rice, D. D.: Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology #38,1993,
Chapter 14,by I. D. Palmer, S.W. Lambert, J. L. Spitler.
97. Boyer, C. M., Reeves, S.R.: A Strategy for Coalbed Methane Production Development Part Ill:
Production Operations, 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa.

98. Holditch, S.A.: Completion Methods in Coal Seam Reservoirs, SPE 20670,65th Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, Sept. 23-26,1990.
99. Palmer, I. D., Mavor, M. J., Spitler, J. L., Seidle, J. P., Volz, R. F.: Openhole Cavity COmpletions
in Coalbed Methane Wells in the San Juan Basin, JPT, Nov. 1993,p. 1072-1080.
100. Seidle, J. P.: Long-Term Gas Deliverablility of a Dewatered Coalbed, JPT, June 1993,

p. 564-569.

101. Palmer, I. D.: Review of Coalbed Methane Well Stimulation, SPE 22395,International Mtg.,
Beijing, China, March 24-27,1992.
102. Themig, D.: Planning and Evaluation are Critical to Multi-lateral Wells, Pet. Eng. Int., Jan. 1996.
103. Rowan, M. C., Whims, M. J.: Multi-lateral Well Enhances Gas Storage Deliverability, 0. & G. J.,
Dec. 25,1995.

8-48

104. Brockman, M.: Multi-lateral Completions Prepare to Take Off, Pet. Eng. Int., Jan. 1996.
105. Hall, S. D.: Multi-lateral Horizontal Wells Optimize a Utah Five-Spot Waterflood, Pet. Eng. Int.,
May 1996.

106. Comeau, L., Pustany K. R., Smith, R., Giles, I.: Lateral Tie-Back System Increases Reservoir
Exposure, World Oil, July 1995.

8-49

Appendix 8.A Special Horizontal Well Operations

Logging
Running wireline conveyed tools in a deviated well on tubing or drill pipe requires a special coupling
known as a side entry sub. In wells past about 55 degrees, gravity will often not overcome the effects
of friction of the tool on the side of the hole and the logging tools will not slide into the deviated sections. In these cases, the tools have to be pushed by tubing into the deviated sections of the well.
Once the tools are at the end of the section to be loaded, they can be retrieved by wireline to make a
smooth log at a constant pulling speed. To keep the pipe out of the way during retrieval of the tools,
the side entry sub is needed. Since a wireline connection is still needed for tool readout, a way is
needed to have a wireline connection through the tubing while allowing the tools to be pulled along
continuously by wireline rather than by the jerky motions required by breaking out pipe connections
when removing tubing. To allow this wireline movement, the wireline logging cable runs down the
annulus from the top of the well between the tubing and the casing for several joints of pipe. At tile
side entry sub, the cable enters the inside of the pipe and runs to the tools at the bottom of the string.
The pipe provides the force necessary to push the tools along the deviated section while running in. At
the furthest point to be logged, the tools are pumped out of the tubing and the tubing is withdrawn to a
point where the side entry sub is near the surface. The wireline pulled tools can then be retrieved
while logging until the tools are pulled into the tubing. Another logging procedure when using a side
entry sub, is to run to bottom with the tool on tubing and log up by pulling tubing until the side entry
sub returns to the surface. The cable is then unlatched from the side entry sub and removed permitting the rest of the drill pipe and logging tools to be tripped out of the well.
There are two options for protecting the logging tools from the weight of the drilling string or tubing
string during running-in the well. In the first option, a compression sub with a certain amount of stroke
can be placed at the bottom of the tool string and a compression sensor placed above the logging tool.
Standard logging tools may be used without a protective sleeve surrounding the tool. When the wireline is connected and the logging tools are powered, any downhole tool compression is indicated at
the surface. This information may be tied to an alarm system to alert the driller when the bottom of the
hole is reached. The driller then has a reaction time of the distance of the compression sub to stop the
string before the entire weight of the string is on the tools. Pad-type tools, which ride the low side of
the pipe, can be used with a swivel in the tool string to decouple the drill pipe torque from the tool
string. The second option for protecting logging tools involves the use of a protective sleeve that
increases the compressional strength of a tool string. The sleeve is usually constructed from nonconductive fiberglass or metal casing with windows cut out around pad type devices. In this case, tool orientation must be measured and drill pipe rotated to make sure that the pad tools ride the low side of
the pipe.

Stress in an Deviated Well

With the application of three dimensional elastic theory, Yew and Li68analyzed the deviated well and
derived a set of formulas for stress components around the hole. They found that when fractures are
initiated at the deviated wellbore, they would leave the plane of the wellbore and align with the plane
of a fracture preferred by the stresses in the formation. This is consistent with the findings of
Dane~hy.~'
Assuming that the rock medium has a tensile failure stress 2, fracturing will initiate at the inner surface
of the wellbore when the maximum tensile stress at the rock surface reaches this value. Yew and Li
present their information in a coordinate system and a coordinate transformation and solve for
stresses. The stress components around the wellbore with r = R,are:
CJ~,=

- 20,sin

8 + 20,cos8

where:

8.A-50

= principle stress on the surface of the wellbore

8
= position of the initial fracture
x,y,z = Cartesian coordinate values
oxzand ay = in situ stress

oqz

and the maximum tensile stress has a form:

Hsiao also predicted fracture initiation through work on the stresses necessary for failure in a horizontal well. Borehole tensile failure through fracturing was predicted to occur if one of the principie
normal stresses induced on the borehole wall exceeded the tensile strength of the formation. The
stresses are increased by increasing the pressure. When the maximum tensile stress reaches the tensile strength of the formation, fracturing will occur. Fracturing may be beneficial in the form of a stimulation or very detrimental in the form of lost circulation from drilling or workover operations.
For a full understanding of wellbore stability, several stresses in the formation must be known. These
include: (1) the stress in the formation before drilling the hole (in situ stress), (2) the additional load
upon the formation caused by the hole, (3) how the overburdened load on the rock is affected by mud
pressure, (4) the strength of the rock, and (5)how the mud chemically affects the strength of the rock.
Obviously, in most formations, many of the data needed will only be estimations.
Formations are classed in terms of in situ stresses as being either normally stressed or tectonically
stressed. In the normally stressed region, the maximum in situ stress, 03,is vertical and is equal to the
overburden stress. Also, the other two principal in situ stresses, o1 and 02,which are located in the
horizontal plane are nearly equal. For well compacted and cemented formations, the overburden
stress varies linearly with depth. The value routinely reported for this gradient is approximately equal
to 1 psi/ft (22.6 kPa/m) although variances are common. In almost all active oil-producing formations,
the overburden gradient will vary with depth. This assumes that the full or nearly full overburden is
supported by all layers of sediment down to the basement rock. Conditions such as grabens and faults
will alter these conditions.
Besides in situ stresses, the other additional stress that must be considered is pore pressure. The
effective stress concept proposed by
Terzaghi7 used pore pressure, p, as an opposing force to the total applied stress o to give an effective stress 6.The relationship was simplistic:
0=

0-p

and was later modified by Handin23to

where a,the poroelastic constant, varies between 0 and 1, describing the conditions of no pore pressure support (very strong cementation) to total pore pressure exerted (very weak cementation),
respectively. The poroelastic constant is related to the Poissons ratio, v, before initial production
(undrained), and the Skempton pore-pressure ~ o e f f i c i e n t : ~ ~

8.A-51

a=

3 (y+J)
S(1-2u) (1 +v,)

Typically, for petroleum reservoirs, a is about 0.7.

Well Completion Problems

Increased problems with placement of cement and solids removal after drilling operations can be
solved in most formations by very careful application of currently available technology, but areas for
improvement definitely exist. Removal of solids, cuttings, and mud prior to the cement job are critical
to obtaining a good primary cementing operation.
P a r c e v a ~ xdivides
~ ~ the cementing decisions into two categories. Properly located drain holes that
extend through only one pay do not need to be cemented. It may be completed open hole or a liner
may be used if hole stability is a problem. If hole collapse is a problem, heavier casing should be
used. Extended reach holes that may pass through several formations need to have zone isolation for
proper production control. These wells usually involve two strings, both of which may need to be
cemented. The first string, an intermediate string, is usually deviated up to 80".The second string,
probably a long liner, is deviated 50" to 90".The intermediate casing string should pass through the
zones that must be isolated.
Centralizing the casing in the well is critical to the success of the cementing operation. Mud and cuttings are easier to remove in well centralized (> 67% API standoff) casing and almost impossible in
poorly centralized casing (c30% API standoff). Casing centralization is very difficult when the deviation angle is high, because of the increased load on the centralizers. Casing centralization becomes
more difficult when a high density cement slurry is in the pipe and a lighter mud is in the annulus. Casing standoff will be increased by reducing the density differential between the cement and the mud.
The number of centralizers will increase with the increasing angle of deviation. Wells over 50" will
require closer spacing and probably will require full body centralizers.
The cementing successes in detailed in the literature at the present time deal with using large diameter drillpipe and high velocity flow of drilling mud up the annulus. The flow rate required is the minimum velocity necessary to carry the cuttings at the particular deviation and mud condition present in
the well.
Prior to the casing job, the deviated holes may contain more cuttings and solids than in a conventional
The reason is the existence of three separate inclination regions with different levels of hole
cleaning requirements: 0-45", 45"-55",and 55"-90".Region 1 (0"-45") is conventional and is handled
in the normal fashion with cutting removal dictated by standard lift equations for vertical wells.
Region 2 (45'455") presents a different cleaning problem since cuttings will accumulate on the low
side of the hole and may slide down the wellbore into the start of the high angle section of the well.
Cleaning in this region is best accomplished by higher viscosity fluids and turbulence of the lifting
there is less tendency for the cuttings to slide, especially near horizontal,
fluid. In region 3 (55"-90),
although accumulation of cuttings may be severe. Although several studies have shown the benefits
of hole sweep using various rates and gelled fluid stages, field practice has indicated that hole cleaning of horizontal wells is very difficult. The most successful method known at this time is reverse circulation.
Successful use of all the benefits of the horizontal hole hinge on obtaining successful zone isolation
through a good primary cement job. Simultaneous reciprocation and rotation of the pipe, (using a
rotating head and other special equipment) plus pipe centralization, flushes and critical flow rates are
necessary. Some companies have used cement filled formation packers in the horizontal section to
approach centralization and zone isolation problems, Figure 8.35.28976This practice allows the sepa-

8.A-52

ration of areas of the formation for multiple fracturing jobs, although it is not a perfect solution since
problems have been reported with leakage around the packers.
Successful primary cementing in wells over about 50" becomes increasingly sophisticated, requiring
pipe movement, close centralizer spacing and techniques of improving mud d i s p l a ~ e m e n t . ~ ~ , ~ ~ - ~ ~
Liner movement was found by Reiley, et al., to be a critical part of a successful cementing job. Polymer plugs have also been used in the open hole sections to control pressure and flow during cementing.
The removal of cuttings and cleaning of the hole is critical before and during the cementing operation.
This cleaning is made much more difficult in deviated holes by the natural tendency of the pipe to bury
into the wall.
Centralizer spacing in these wells will depend on the competency of formation, the weight of the pipe,
the angle of deviation, type of fluid and other factors.34i4

Productivity Estimates
Estimates of productivity of a nonfractured, deviated well in comparison to a nonfractured vertical well
range from less than one-fold to over eight-fold, depending upon angle of deviation through the pay,
well spacing, the thickness of the formation, vertical permeability, presence of vertical permeability
barriers, and the extension of the horizontal segment of the well into the formation.80~18*81~26
The
severity of the impact of vertical permeability on the productivity of a horizontal well is presented
graphically in Figure 8.36. As vertical permeability decreases below about 50% of the horizontal permeability, the advantage of the horizontal well begins to drop noticeably. In very thick sections, the
advantage also decreases. For increasing extension, vertical permeability, and spacing, the productivity benefits increase, while increasing pay thickness limits the effectiveness of the horizontal completion, especially for low ratios of vertical to horizontal permeability. Laminated zones or other vertical
permeability barriers limit the usefulness of the horizontal completion because they change the drainage pattern of the well. Special cases for low permeability wells are being promoted8* but the process
is untried. The horizontal well may ultimately be tested as a base for hydraulic fracture processing of a
tight well.
Actual production comparisons between horizontal wells and unstimulated vertical wells are on the
range of 1-1/2 to 3, although several authors maintain that as horizontal well completion technology
improves, this comparison may rise into the six- to eight-fold increase r e g i ~ n . ~Inflow
* ~ ~ perforp~
mance comparison between horizontal and vertical wells in comparable north slope wells are shown in
Figure 8.37.
Long-term evaluations (five years) of horizontal well production have been published along with
detailed observations about intersections of horizontal wellbores with high capacity natural vertical
fractures and changes in geology.85 These evaluations of long-term production from horizontal wells
have shown that the wells are very useful in improved processing (sweep) over standard vertical completions in some reservoirs with relative high vertical permeability.86
Special production cases involving fractured formations such as coals have shown that well placement relative to formation parameters, e.g., boundaries and fractures. In numerical simulations,
Ertekin, et al.,87 demonstrated that the placement of horizontal wells in thick coal seams could drastically affect water and gas rate. Also demonstrated was a need to place the borehole orthogonal (at
right angles) to the fracture system to maximize production.
The reasons for the improved productivity benefits from the horizontal hole in homogeneous formations with high vertical permeabilities are related to the reservoir drainage pattern. The horizontal well
drains an ellipse around the wellbore as opposed to the upright, short, cylindrical volume processed

8.A-53

by a vertical
The flow and pressure gradients are different from the vertical case and, in some
cases, the horizontal well may be used for changing the sweep or processing of a recovery flood or to
control gas or water coning. In cases of very thick pays, multiple horizontal completions may be used
to drain or in some cases to vertically flood the reservoir. In the case of short drain holes in a symmetrical pattern around a single vertical (unfractured) well, the productivity is estimated to be 1 to 8 times
the vertical well productivity depending on horizontal well extension and number of drain holes.27
Many factors such as reservoir barriers and channels can decrease these optimistic estimates.
The concept of effective wellbore radius introduced by PramM for deviated and fully horizontal holes
are also useful for comparison of the effects of fractures and other factors which change the natural
matrix flow resistance toward the wellbore. In his analysis, a vertical fracture extending over the full
height of a reservoir can be replaced by an imaginary circular borehole with an effective wellbore
radius large enough to give the same production rate as the fracture under the same producing conditions. When skin factor, s,from a buildup test or other analysis, is known, the effective wellbore radius,
r, is:

Van der Vlis8' modifies the concept from Pratts to give effective wellbore radius, rweff, for deviated
holes.

where:
L
= length of horizontal section
h,
= reservoir height
h
= fracture height
= vertical distance between center of fracture and center of reservoir height
g
The equation is valid for (h, - h) I2L.
The effective wellbore radius can be used to predict production and to compute the expected yield of
fractures. The production rate, Q, is related to rw,efby:

27ckh, [ P, - Pw]
'w, eff

where:
k
p
pe

= reservoir perm
= produced fluid viscosity, cp
= pressure at the external boundary

pw
re

= bottomhole flowing pressure

= external boundary radius

The equation is valid for re > ~ l , , f i The drainage area of the horizontal well is elliptical and the axis, a
and b, of the ellipse in a homogeneous media are

re

-1( a + @ m d L 2 = a2-b2
2

A comparison of actual inflow performance curves of horizontal and vertical wells was shown previously. Using this data, flow rates improvements of 2 to 3 fold are noted at the same drawdown. This is
consistent with other reports of horizontal wells showing actual productivities of 2 to 3 fold over vertical wells but much less than the 5 to 6 projected by theory. The difference in productivity between theoretical and actual may be at least partially explained by the differences in vertical and horizontal
permeabilities dictated by the bedding planes of the formation. These bedding planes, as illustrated by
Aadnoygoin Figure 8.38, offer a glimpse at the way flow restrictions in the form of bedding planes may
be oriented around a deviated well.

Productivity Index of a horizontal well from Giger in SI units, is:

For PI of a horizontal wheel, in ft, bbl, day, psi, md, cp, and base 10 logs, the formula is:

PI,

kL
0.0145-

-j

1+ 1-

For Plof a horizontal well, in M,M3, day, bar, md, cp and base 10 logs, the multiplier is 0.0233 instead
of 0.0145.
For comparison, the Productivity Index for a vertical well is:

8.A-55

PI,

2nkh

The ratio of Pld Plw valid in any consistent system of units, is

1- - +
bln(
In 1 9 m
L
L 2nrwH
h
0..

where:
k
h
L
re

= permeability of matrix
= thickness of the reservoir

r,

= radius of wellbore

= length of the horizontal section in the pay

= radius of the well's reservoir drainage area

= viscosity of the produced fluid

p
The equation, from Joshi, to predict oil production is:

Q,

where:
Q

k,
Ap
p
8,
a
L

=flow rate
= permeability to oil, darcy
= pressure differential
= produced fluid viscosity, cp
= formation volume factor, dimensionless
= half the major axis of a drainage ellipse
= horizontal section length,

8.A-56

The preceding equations treatment of permeability recognize only a single value, and thus are only
accurate when the vertical permeability and the horizontal permeability are the same. In the event of
k, less than kh, the productivity of the horizontal well decreased. In the rare case of kvgreater than k,,,
productivity is increased. By using M ~ s k a t ' saverage
~~
reservoir permeability B =
equation becomes:

8.A-57

k k , Joshi's
G-

Chapter 9: Perforating
The objective in perforating is to place open perforations at the correct depth that extend through the
casing and cement into the formation. To be effective, the perforation tunnel must be in contact with a
permeable part of the formation and not be damaged by any mechanism that would stop or impede
the transfer of fluids between the formation and the wellbore. Perforations are holes through the casing to allow entry of fluids and may be produced by any of several methods, shaped charge perforating, bullet perforating, abrasive/erosive methods, hydraulic punch and performed (deformable) ports.
The best known design considerations for perforating are perforation length, shot phase angle, perforation density, entrance hole size, and perforating flow efficiency. However, to properly design for the
optimum in perforating requires preplanning and consideration of parameters such as filtered perforating fluid, amount of underbalance, through tubing vs. casing or expendable guns, the method for conveying guns, and gun clearance.
The first perforating mechanism which saw large scale use was the bullet gun, which was first used in
1932.' With this technique, a hardened steel bullet is shot from a very short barrel and penetrates the
casing, the cement sheath, and enters into the formation. Currently, bullet perforators are used infrequently but are available in some areas for soft formations, brittle formations, or where consistently
round holes in the casing are needed. Since the perforations are made by a round bullet, the holes are
easier to seal by ball sealers than are the more irregular holes from the shaped charges, Figure 9.1.
Recent testing on break down pressures has shown that in comparable formations perforated with jets
and bullets, the bullet perforations were easier to breakdown. This may be due to the shattering effect
on some brittle formations, such as coal and some shales. A surface test with a coal target showed jet
penetration of 30 in., compared with bullet penetration of 8-1/2 in. The perforation formed in the coal
by the bullet was heavily shattered. Because of shorter penetration in high compressive strength formations, bullet perforating is often relegated to softer formations.

(Amoco)

Figure 9.1:

A sidelooking down hole TV camera photo of a

bullet perforation in 5-112" casing. The debris in
the perf are from injection of unfiltered water.

The shaped explosive charge or "jet" charge is the most commonly used perforating mechanism.
According to theory, the shaped charge produces a hole by explosive propagation of a pressure wave
front from the surface of the metal liner in the charge, through the port or scalloped wall of the gun,

and then through casing, cement, and into the formation.* The metal liner of the charge deforms under
high pressures and provides mass which makes the charge more efficient. The penetration is the
result of the mass of fluidized liner and the amount of pressure (energy) created by the charge. The
length of the perforation created is a direct function of the shaped charge design (i.e., liner shape and
size of the charge), the compressive strength of the formation, and to a lesser extent, the explosive
powder weight.
The detonation of a shaped charge is shown schematically in Figure 9.2. In Frame A, the main components of the shaped charge are shown. The detonating (primer) cord fires the shaped charge, and
as shown beginning in Frame B, the wave front progresses through the explosive charge. As this
wave front moves through the apex of the liner, the pressure generated starts to collapse the liner on
its own axis. Since this pressure is beyond the yield strength of the metal used in the liner, the metal
behaves as a fluid. By the design of the metal cone, this collapsing fluidized liner is squeezed by
peripheral pressure at the plane of the wave front. The jet stream then moves forward and behaves as
a penetrating slug.3 The pressure generated during the firing of the charge reaches a maximum of
approximately 2 to 4 million psi. The forward portion of the fluidized stream has a velocity of approximately 20,000 to 30,000 ft per sec. The stream lengthens slightly as the charge burns, with the back
of the stream traveling at a much slower velocity of about 3000 ft per sec. The rear portion of the
stream does not fully contribute to penetration development and is often blamed for enlarging the protruding burr on the entry hole. For charges which have a wrapped metal liner, rather than a powdered
metal liner, the slug or carrot formed from the wrapped liner will follow the jet and can become lodged
in the perforation or in the entrance hole. Efforts to eliminate this characteristic have centered on the
use of pressed powdered metal liners.

W W EMPONEHIS OF
WWED WRROE PERFORRTW

DETONATION TRRVELS W Y N
THE CHARGE RND STRIKES
THE RPEX OF THE COM

u a v m w tOLLwam LINER.

ROVRNCIWO

URVEFRONT FCM

THE LIMB INNER M F R C E

THE JET STREAM. THE OUTER WRDISINTEDROT S 10 FORM W T FRCE Of THE LINER FORnS A SLUO
OF TltE Z T EtRERn.
M1 CRRROT WICH F O L L W S THE JEl
STRERM

(Dresser)

Figure 9.2:

Sequence of shaped charge detonation.

The best shaped charges have design variables that include the shape and composition of the liner
case design, loading pressure, and the amount and type of explosives. The amount of explosive is
often the most visible factor used for comparison. This is very frequently erroneous: well designed
charges with slightly smaller explosive load can be the better choice. The most desirable explosive

9-2

E-6

3
m

Figure 9.4:

Scalloped and port plug hollow carrier perforating guns.

Hollow carrier guns, depending on their diameter and design, may be loaded with from 1-16 shots/ft
and have all of the commonly used phase angles. Specialty guns to find cement voids and channels
may have 24 shots/ft.
The port plugs in the reusable guns are usually threaded sealing plugs with a thin center section. The
plugs are made from an easily penetrated material such as aluminum or mild steel. The old port plugs
and debris from expended charges are removed after a run and the tool is reloaded and fitted with
new plugs before reuse.
The alignment of charges in a reusable gun is provided by the alignment washer, Figure 9.5 or a rubber pop-up cap. The alignment washer fits over the top of the charges and the alignment sleeve that
goes between the port plug and the washer. In most guns, there is a small amount of compression
load on the rubber boot on the rear of the charge when the plug and sleeve are properly fitted, which
holds the charge in place. The amount of gun diameter swell due to repeated use of port plug type
guns, may make this compression less. Longer alignment sleeves may be needed for correction to
avoid misalignment of charges. The problem with using a longer alignment sleeve or a severely worn
gun is that the standoff distance between the change and the inside of the port plug or casing wall has
now changed and the change may generate less length or hole size. Alignment washers are usually
stamped steel. Alignment sleeves may be steel, sintered aluminum, ceramic, or plastic.
Any wireline conveyed, hollow carrier gun should have a detonator system which will not allow the
charges to fire if the gun is filled or partially filled with water. If a wet gun is fired, the hollow carrier
outer shell will probably rupture and result in a fishing or milling job. Schematics of the standard explosives detonator and the fluid desensitized, resistor detonator are shown in Figure 9.6. The standard
explosive detonator (also called a blasting cap) is a mainstay of the blasting industry but is not well
suited to the petroleum industry. Several accidental discharges of perforating guns have been linked
directly to stray currents or poor electrical panel operational procedures. The resistor detonator incorporates resistors that reduce the possibility of discharge from low power electrical signals. Other types
of detonating systems that eliminate the less stable primary explosive (lead azide) are being developed.
Perforating accidents are a rarity within the petroleum industry. Historically, there are about half a
dozen incidents per year that involve accidental firing of a perforating gun on the surface (any location
above the ground level or water level on an offshore well) where people may be endangered. In most

9-4

Figure 9.5:

Alignment systems for perforating charges.

Left: alignment sleevelwasher system for port plug gun.
Middle: rubber pop-up system for port plug gun.
Right: charge case ready to mount in scallop gun carrier

\-atoa*

&
UIC
D
UIC
D
N~
IIDX,

STANDRRD EXPLOSIVES DETONRTOR

FLUID

Figure 9.6:

DESEkSITIZED. RESISTOR TYPE

Detonator schematics for a standard explosives detonator

and safety detonator. The safety cap reduces the chance of
accidental flring in water or by low voltage signals.

of these incidents, the firing occurred following a missed run (failure to fire at depth) while personnel
are working on the gun at surface. Safe explosives procedures are available and must be followed.
Through tubing hollow carriers are popular because they can be run through the production tubing and
packer and require only a service truck. Generally, the only phasing recommended for the through tub-

9-5

ing guns is 0" since clearance is critical to the small charges used in these guns. The guns should be
run through a lubricator and are limited to about 40 ft in length, less for larger, heavier guns. The
advantages of the guns are low cost, ability to perforate underbalanced, and ability to maintain positive well control. The disadvantages are limited penetration, small entry hole, and the numerous production limitation of 0" phasing.
The expendable and semiexpendable guns use several encapsulated charges held together by metal
strips or wires, or the cases may be linked together. The expendable and semiexpendable carriers can
normally use a larger charge for a given tubing or casing size than the hollow carrier guns since only
the skin of the capsule around each charge separates it from the walls of the casing. With this tool
there is also more flexibility since some bending can be achieved. When the gun is fired, however,
some or all of the linking material as well as the charge capsule remnants are left in the hole. Problems with these guns have centered around misfires from damage to the detonating cord, tubing and
surface line plugging from debris and carrier strip disintegration or severe bending after firing. Another
serious objection to the expendable link charges is the increased possibility for casing damage, particularly in poorly cemented ~ a s i n g . ~ * ~
Temperature Effect

The higher the wellbore temperature, the shorter the time that the charge is stable. Figure 9.26 illustrates stable time at temperature for charges made from two common types of explosive. Guide lines
about high temperature charge selection will vary, but most wireline conveyed charges should be stable at the temperature for 16 to 24 hours while tubing conveyed perforating charges should be stable
at the bottom hole temperature for 100 hours or more. Higher temperature charges for extended times
above 300F (149C) are available although they are more costly. When selecting a high temperature
charge, remember that it is part of a system; all parts of the system, including detonator, detonation
cord, charges, seals and mechanical components must be rotated for the temperature and must work
together.

200

10

TlMEATTUhPEIUTURE HRS

Figure 9.26: Approximate time at temperature stability for three

common explosive types. Other materials are available.

Perforation Size

With shaped charges, the penetration of the perforation has usually been thought to be proportional to
the weight of the charge. Although the charge size has an effect on the performance, the shape of the
liner, the internal standoff in the gun, and the overall design are also important. In the through tubing
applications where the carriers are small, the charge size will vary from 2 grams to about 8 grams with
the smallest charges used in the 1-9/16 in. and 1-1 1/16 in. hollow carriers and the larger sizes used in
expendable strips. In the hollow carrier casing guns of 3-1/8 in. or larger diameter, charge weights of

9-6

over 12 grams are common. The largest normally used charges are the large expendable guns and
casing guns in which the charges are over 50 grams. Open hole perforating guns that are designed to
reach beyond mud damage in a open hole completion may use charges of 90 grams or more.
Perforation length is usually the most important criterion in a perforating design for natural completions or for tests on exploratory wells. As shown in Figure 9.7 for the nondamaged case, the productivity ratio is dependent upon the length of the perforation.6 When damage in the perforation is
considered, it is recognized as a controlling aspect of the flow into the perforation.7i8 The damage
from perforating, often referred to as the crush zone, is a compacted assortment of crushed formation
particles thrust aside by the jet. Removal of the crush zone by acidizing or underbalance perforating is
necessary for high productivity. Flow restriction caused by the crush zone can be estimated from several models but all depend on a subjective guess of the crush zone thickness and permeability.8t9In
wells that must be completed without further stimulation, long perforations in a high shot density pattern are recommended.

1.c

0.6

0.s

Mokmot

I2

IS

ID

PLRCORATIOM LENOTH (Inches)

(Locke, JPT, 1981)

Figure 9.7:

Productivity ratio vs. length of perforation for various

perforation densities. Note that the data assumes no
damage.

Factors such as hydraulic fracturing or prepacked gravel pack operations negate the advantages of a
few extra inches of perforated length. For hydraulic fracturing or gravel pack treatments, having a
large entrance hole through the pipe and cement is more important than total perforation penetration.
Although rarely considered, the perforation diameter also influences the productivity ratio, Figure 9.8,
and the drawdown pressure for a given rate (Fanning Equation), Figure 9.9.6 The perforation diameter
is dependent on charge design and the clearance of the gun in the casing. In instances such as sand
control operations, unstable formations (including some chalks) and wells which are to be hydraulically fracture stimulated, the perforation diameter is important enough to dominate perforator selection. Flow through an open perforation is usually controlled by the permeability of the formation.
Where the formation permeability is essentially infinite (very large natural fractures and vugs), the
pressure drop through a single perforation is:

9-7

Ap

0.2369 qLp
$E2

where:
Ap
q
p

d
&

= perforation pressure drop, psi

= flow rate per perforation, bbl/min
= fluid density, Ib m/gal
= perforation diameter, inch
= perforation efficiency, usually 0.95.

Big hole charges may offer some disadvantages as well. The design of big hole charges produces
maximum force impact at the wall of the casing and can cause damage (and weakening) to the formation adjacent to the entry hole through the concrete. For completions in weak formations where gravel
packing or frac packing will not be used, deep penetrating charges at high density (12 to 16 spf) are
recommended.

IJ

f
*

5: 0.9

0.8

a7

Figure 9.8:

(Locke,JPT, 1981)
Productivity ratio vs. perforation diameter for various
ratios of damaged permeability.

Two factors that affect the charge performance are standoff and gun clearance. Standoff is the distance between the base of the charge and the inside of the port plug or scallop and is a fixed part of
the gunkharge system design. Gun clearance is the distance from the outside of the port plug or scallop to the wall of the casing. The gun clearance distance for a 4 in. hollow carrier, 90" phased gun in
7 in., 23 Ib/fl, N-80 casing could be anywhere from zero to 2.3 in. depending on positioning of the gun.
Unless centralizers are used on the gun, one edge of the gun will contact the casing wall and maximum clearance will occur at 180" to the wall contact. For this reason, small guns are purposely decentralized by magnets and the charges are all aligned to fire in a line in the direction of the magnetic

9-8

.I

.oa

\
1

.-a+TbTrki
CERfO(UTIQ

o h

Oboo

D
u
y
m
R

0-:

(crrrr)

(Locke, JPT, 1981)

Figure 9.9:

The pressure differential produced for smaller

perforation diameters from the Fanning equation.

positioning (0"phasing). Larger guns with small clearance distances use charges aligned in rows
around the gun.
The phasing is the angle between the charges, Figure 9.10. Although there are many possible angles,
there are five common values; O", 90, 60,120, and 180". In the 0"phasing, all the shots are in a
row and the gun must be decentralized against the side of the casing so the charges have minimum
standoff. This phasing is normally only used in the smaller O.D. guns or guns in very large casing. The
0" phasing offers some drawbacks since the practice of putting all shots in a row lowers yield strength
and makes the casing more susceptible to splits and collapse at high shot densities (over
16 ~ p f ) . ~ ~Fracture
' ~ ~ ' ' stimulating in wells which were perforated with 0" phasing also results in a
slightly higher incidence of fracturing screenouts than with 90"or 120" phasing. It is unknown whether
the screenouts result from the smaller entrance holes or from the fact that one wing of the fracture
must wrap around the pipe.
Of the other common phasing possibilities, 60,90" and 120" are the most efficient choices from a
stimulation standpoint since they will produce a perforation just a few degrees from any possible fracture direction. These phased carriers do not necessarily need to be centralized to give good perforations since regardless of where they contact the casing at least two or three good perforations per foot
should be formed. In the small carrier guns only 0" phasing should be used, especially in large casing.
The potential problems with using a 90"phased through tubing gun is shown in Figure 9.11. As shown
in the figure, the perforations nearest the gun will be fully developed while the perforations with the
largest gun clearance (the distance from the surface of the gun to the casing wall) are short and have
a very small diameter. Because of previously mentioned problems and production restriction, 0" phasing and some through tubing guns should be avoided when casing guns can produce perforations that
more closely fit the need of the completion.

9-9

COMMON GUN PHASING

Figure 9.10:

Typical phasings offered by casing carrier guns. Most low

shot density guns will be O", 120, 90 or 180'. High shot density guns will use 60" or similar phasing.

(original source unknown)

Figure 9.11 : Approximate hole orientation, diameter and penetration from firing a 1-11/16" 90" phased through tubing
perforating gun in 7" casing. Note that the perfs on
the far side of the casing (maximum clearance) are
0.1 to 0.18" diameter (just larger than a pencil lead).

The effect of perforating phasing on production may be seen in Figure 9.12. This data from Locke6 is
not corrected for damage permeability but is a reasonably good comparison between productivity of
perforations of O", 180",and 90" phasing. For a shot penetration of 12 in., a productivity ratio of 1.2
results from 90" phasing of 4 shots per foot, while the productivity ratio is 0.99 (productivity will be
decreased in comparison to openhole flow and "formation damage" may be seen on a buildup) when
the 4 shots are in 0" phasing. Again, this is ideal behavior and does not consider damage.

9-10

-1

1.2

1.1

Ef

1.-

---

1.0

0.8

/
I

(Locke,JPT, 1981)

Figure 9.12: The effect of charge phasing on the productivity

of the unfractured well If damage is ignored.
Productivities of cased-hole wells are dependent upon the perforation density (number of holes per ft).
Productivity ratios for various shot densities versus perforation penetration were shown previously in
Figure 9.7. The productivity ratio used in the figure is defined as:

Productivity Ratio

qP
90

where

qp

= flow rate from cased and perforated wellbore

= flow rate from uncased wellbore.

qo
Assuming all perforations are open to flow, shot densities of 4 per foot with 90" phasing are usually
sufficient to insure the equivalent of openhole productivity. However, increased shot densities (greater
than 4 per foot) may improve productivity ratios under certain conditions, such as very high flow rate
wells or in gravel packed wells. The cause for the increase is that the real number of open perforations
(those producing or taking fluid is only about 50% of the total holes in the pipe (The 50% value was
reached after examining hundreds of hours of downhole N recordings in dozens of wells). The effect
of perforation density on the producing rate of a well in a highly productive gas reservoir as plotted on
an inflow function and the effect on modeled cumulative production rate is shown in Figures 9.13
through 9.15. In this example, Cheng uses data from a high flow capacity dry gas well with depth
10,000 ft, 2-3/8" tubing, BHT = 200F, Pr = 3500 psi, pg = 0.75, h = 50 ft, S, = 45%, <p. = 18%, k =
100 md, and a 160 acre well spacing to highlight differences in flow with 1 to 8 spf. Differences of an
additional 2.5 bcf gas recovery in two years, Figure 9.13, is a strong argument for shot densities of 6
to 8 per foot as opposed to 1 spf.'* Figure 9.1 4 highlights productivity and payouts at the various shot
densities for the modeled case, while Figure 9.1 5 tracks flow rate vs. shot density. All three figures
were drawn for the case of 1000 psi wellhead pressure (very high) and all reflect damage traditional to
overbalance perforating.

9-1 1

Figure 9.13: Cumulative gas production vs. time for an

example case study. Productivity difference
between 1 and 6 shots per foot is about 2.5 bcf
at 2 years.

I
I

24

hoQcrionno.MMdd

Figure 9.14: Effect of shot density on rate and economic payout on the same example
model run used in Figure 9.13. Note that rate and payout maximize at about
6 to 8 shots per foot. This data is from a specialized dry gas example.

Referring to Figure 9.7, note that Locke also shows that shot density can be more critical to productivity than penetration. A single perforation 12 in. deep is not as effective as four perforations only 3 in.
deep.6 This analysis, however, neglects damage and the possibility that the shorter perforations may
not contact permeable, undamaged reservoir. When the effects of drilling damage are included,
Figure 9.16, productivity can drop ~harp1y.l~
This is a solid argument for using high shot densities of
12 shots or more per foot in high rate wells.
The ideal fluid for perforating operations is a solids free fluid which will not cause byproducts when
exposed to the formation. Acceptable fluids may include 5% to 10% HCI, 10% Acetic acid, 2% (or
more) KCI water, 2% NH&I water, clean brines and filtered diesel. If a dirty fluid is used, there is a distinct possibility that formation damage will occur due to particle plugging at the surface of the perforation tunnels. Even when a high pressure differential toward the wellbore is used, clean fluids are still

9-12

't
0
0

9
6
8 1 0 1 2
shot density, spt
4

(Cheng)

Figure 9.15: Shot density vs. flow rate for a model case run on a
simulator.

-*-I

0.3

(Locke, JPT, 1981)

Figure 9.16:

Productivity vs. damaged zone thickness with no crush

zone for the example case of a 9" long perforation.

recommended to avoid flow of particles into the perforations in event of a mechanical breakdown,
when formation pressure or productivity is less than expected, or when the well has to be shut in
before all the wellbore fluids have been produced. Drilling mud should never be used as a perforating
fluid. Drilling mud is designed to form a mud cake on the face of a permeable formation. If drilling mud
is used and the pressure differential (either by design or by accident) is toward the formation from the
wellbore, a drilling mud cake will be formed in the perforations that may be difficult to remove unless
the formation can be produced at a high drawdown for a long p e r i ~ d . ' ~Diesel
~ ' ~ or oil may be used as
perforating fluids if the full column is diesel or oil, but 6.8 Ib/gal diesel cannot be kept spotted below
9.0 Ib/gal brine water. Diesel should also be filtered before use.
Perforating produces a zone of damage around the perforation in which permeability may be reduced
substantially below that of native state f o r m a t i ~ n . ~ >For
' ~ * the
' ~ condition of no drilling damage, Locke'

9-13

has shown that the crushed zone permeability can be as much as 50% less than normal formation
permeability without seriously affecting productivity ratio, Figure 9.1 7. These figures show the effect of
perforation length and phasing when a crush zone is present. Longer perforations are less influenced
by the crush zone than are short perforations. Phased perforations, such as 90"phased perfs are less
affected than 0" phased perforations. Klotz, et a1.,13 pointed out that permeability of the compacted
zone is less than the wellbore permeability which has been reduced by drilling fluid and cement particles and filtrate. McLeod' offered the following example of the effect of severely reduced permeability
on production. The example is very interesting in terms of the amount of pressure drop inflicted on the
producing system by damaged perforations.

1.1

0. PHASING

0.9

o.8

1.0

0.5

0.0

CRUSHED ZONE PERYfAllLlTY

fORYAT1ON PERYEA8ILITI

,KC,Ku)

(from Locke)

Figure 9.17: The damage (up to 50% of initial) in a perforation may

have little effect if just the crush zone is considered as
in this example from Locke.

Q = 8080 MSCFD
net h = 26 ft
T = 245F = 705"R
re= 1320 ft
Z- 1.415
w = 4.5 in. = 0.375 ft
j . ~= 0.035 Cp
Pr= 10,162 psig = 10,177 psia
ko = 200 md
rd = 0.875 ft
kd = perm of near wellbore, damaged by mud and cement filtrate = 50 md
kdp = perm of crush zone surrounding perforation = 5 md
NOTE: the permeabilities are estimates, not measured values
G = gas gravity = 0.635
Shotslft = 2
Phasing = 180"
Lp = Perf. penetration into formation = 0.75 ft

9-14

Perf. diameter = 0.38 in. = 0.0317 ft (Perf radius, rp, = 0.19 in.)
rdp = Compacted zone thickness = 0.5 in.
N = total number of perfs = 52
Laminar flow skin
1. Perforation geometry skin, Sp = 0.45 (see Hongg)

Sp, the skin due to the perforations, can be established from the nomographs of Hong.
2. Weilbore damage from drilling

Sd

(g-

1)n- rd

rw

(g-

l)/n- 0.875
0.375

3.9

(9.3)
3. Perforation compacted, damage zone

Sdp

0*1i,:6)*5)
30.95

(52) 26
(0.75) T
2oo -y:)/n(
-

4. Combined laminar skin, S

Sp+ Sd+ Sdp

0.45 + 3.9 + 30.95

35.3

Turbulence Parameter, D

2.6 x 10ok*2 = 2.6 x 1010(5)

BG
D

2.22 x 10-15 ZLp2rpI

2.22 x 10-15

l a 2

0.03285

9-15

3.77 x log

[ ~ l
oh

log (0.635)
[ (52)3.77(0.75)
(0.0158)
X

Calculated Pressure Drop

P&
AP

=8931 psia
= 1246 psi

Thus, the damage in the near wellbore, plus the damage in the crushed zone can cause severe pressure drops. It should be noted, however, that most damage from drilling mud is confined to the face of
the formation. In cases of nonwater sensitive sandstones, the damage zone should not be of significance. The crushed zone will be created regardless of damage, but may be minimized by underbalance or extreme overbalance perforating.
Partial Completion

Inflow of fluids into perforations of an unfractured well, Figure 9.18, shows the normal convergence
into the sides and the end of the perforation. Partial completions may be used for a number of reasons
concerned with controlling or diverting a stimulation job or to slow water or gas coning. Regardless of
the intentions, partial completions restrict flow both into and out of the zone. Partial completions will
appear as skin on a buildup test where the net formation pay height is used instead of the shorter, perforated height. Another severe detriment of partial completions is the effect the limited number of perforations have on fracturing fluids. Most of the high viscosity fracturing fluids are shear sensitive and
undergo radical viscosity change when forced at high rates through a limited number of perforations.

Figure 9.18:

Left Normal convergence of flow towards a perforation in a fully completed zone.

Right: Convergence of flow towards a perforation in a partially completed zone.

Partial completion or limited entry perforating is increasingly being used in combination with stimulations to get effective diversion of injected fluids into all zones. The number of perforations needed for
this type of diversion depends on the fluid injection rate, the injected fluid viscosity, and the pressure
differential or pressure rise needed to inject fluid into all the zones. If the interval is perforated evenly,
fluid will enter the high permeability zones first; then as rate increases, the pressure in the tubulars will
increase from perforation friction and fluid will be displaced by the higher differential pressure into
lower permeability zones.

9-16

The diverting efficiency of the process depends on pumping fast enough to create the pressure rise.
The process does not prevent fluid from entering the higher permeability zones, it only limits the
amount that enters to the amount that can flow through the perforations. The downhole injection rate
must be matched to the numbers of perforations to get effective diversion. The process will work in
either matrix treating or in fracturing but fluid diversion is only affected as far as the tubular contact
with the formation.
If the necessary pressure rise is known, the number of perforations to produce that pressure at the
treating rate can be calculated from friction pressure curves, equations or by the use of a nodal analysis simulator.
The partial completion technique is also very useful in combination with ball sealer diversion. At typical rates, using neutral density ball sealers, perforation densities of 1-2 shotslft yield the best ball
action or diversion. Balls are very effective but also only affect the fluid diversion to the contact area
of the formation.
Any time a partial completion is used, consideration should be given to adding more perforations after
the treatment.

Underbalance Perforating
Underbalance perforating or perforating with the pressure in the wellbore lower than the pressure in
the formation is generally acknowledged to be one of the best methods for creating open, undamaged
In underbalance perforating, the pressure differential from the formation of the wellbore helps remove the crushed formation from the perforation and provides improved flow channels.
The pressure differentials necessary to remove damage from a perforation is affected by pressure and
flow
and perhaps limited by formation integrity.20r21The pressure differentials necessary for
perforation cleanup usually range from approximately 500 psi to over 4000 psi and have been established by trial and error in many
Published studies of the flow rate necessary to remove damage observed that serious perforation
plugging occurred whenever the pressure was higher in the wellbore than in the f ~ r m a t i o n . The
~~-~~
plugs consisted of crushed formation, liner particles, case material from the charges, and mud. It was
significant that the plugs that formed when perforating was performed in heavy mud were almost
impossible to remove by reversing pressure. Underbalance perforating followed by flow has been
shown to be the best method for cleaning perforations and establishing high flow capacity from natural
completions in moderate to high permeability ~ o r e . * Even
~ * ~when
~
compared to surging and washing,
underbalance perforating followed by flow was s~perior.~
Underbalance studies of over 100 wells that were underbalance perforated, tested, acidized, and
retested are shown in Figures 9.1 9 and 9.20.18The data in the figures can be successfully approximated by:

AP-

3000
-

3Ji(
This study compared creation of damage free perforations by selection of underbalance pressures
based on permeability. The original ranges for this work were advanced by Bell, who theorized that
the underbalance necessary for cleaning should be related to permeability.7*18In formations of very
high permeability, such as the Berea core used for most test targets, underbalance pressures on the
order of a few hundred psi are quite adequate to generate sufficient flow for cleaning the perforation.
In formations of lower permeability, however, higher pressure differentials are needed. In unconsoli-

9-17

dated or poorly consolidated formations, the mechanical strength of the formation must be considered,
and the lowest useful underbalance pressure are suggested. The scatter of the crossover points (in
Figures 9.1 9 and 9.20) on each side of the line in both figures is an indication that other conditions
may be affecting the performance of the perforations. These conditions may represent a myriad of factors including inaccuracies in estimating pressure and permeability, extensive damage from drilling,
and fluid viscosity differences. In almost all of the test cases, the guns were pulled and inspected after
the initial flow test. Wells in which guns did not completely fire or in which charges malfunctioned were
not included in the test.

100

..........-....'.......
.. ........

(.

.. . . . .. . . .

.......I.........

.. ..,.......
.. .. ......
.......,.....
......... ..'......... .

-.....
......_

I.

'
.
.
.
I
I..
.
.
.

0.1

(King, et al., JPT, 1986)

Figure 9.19: Underbalance used on tubing conveyed perforating completions

in oil zones in sandstone.

ACID DID NOT IMPROVE PROD

ACID DID IMPROVE PROD
0.01

100

.i

. .

:. : :

1000

.
;

.. . . . . .
i
: rw UJZlli
10000

TOTAL UNDERBALANCE PSI

(King, et al., JPT, 1986)

Figure 9.20: Underbalance used on tubing conveyed perforating completions in gas zones in sandstone.

9-18

Although underbalance pressure is seen to be of critical importance in generating clean perforations,

it is the flow rate created by the underbalance that is responsible for cleaning the perforation. The
importance of flow after even underbalance perforating cannot be overemphasized. The volume of
flow needed from a single perforation to clean debris is estimated at a minimum of 4 gallons.30 If the
permeability is too low to achieve significant flow rate (cl md), underbalance perforating may not be
effective. The underbalance technique may also be used with the through tubing gun, provided the
gun is run through a lubricator into the well. The tree is OR the well before the run and well control is
established since the tubing, packer, and tree are all set before the tool is detonated.
The most frequent causes of failure for underbalance perforating are low formation permeability and
lack of flow immediately after the perforating gun fires. Candidate formations are best based on permeabilities of I md, although sandstones are usually much better candidates.
Extreme Overbalance Perforating

Extreme Overbalance Perforating, EOP, is a micro fracture initiating process that is applied at the moment
of initial perforating or as a surge process to existing perforations. The technique uses stored gas energy
in the tubing to break down the zone. Bottomhole pressure equivalents to 1.4 psi/ft and higher are instantaneously applied through use of a nitrogen gas supercharge contained in the tubing. The energy is isolated in the tubulars of an unperforated well and behind a shear disk or other device in the tubing on a well
that has already been perforated. The energy is isolated in the tubulars of an unperforatedwell and behind
a shear disk or other device in the tubing on a well that has already been perforated.
The energy imparted is more sudden than a traditional hydraulic fracturing process and more sustained
than an explosive or propellant treatment.
The fracture created by the EOP surge is more likely to fracture all exposed zones than a traditional fracture process applied as an all liquid hydraulic fracturing process. Work with production logs and radioactive
isotope tagged sand after EOP jobs indicate that multiple zones do tend to be broken down more evenly
when EOP is used.
Although a fracture is created during extreme overbalance perforating or surging, its growth does not
appear to be controlled initially by formation stresses or traditional rock mechanics forces. Because of the
very high pressure of the initial surge, the pressure behind the surge is probably greater than the fields of
maximum and minimum principle stresses in the formation. As a result, the initial direction of the fracture is
in the plane of greatest mechanical near-wellbore weakness; the perforations. After the six second life of
the pulse (Arco estimate), the fracture direction probably is controlled by the traditional stress forces and
subsequent fracture growth goes perpendicular to plane of least principle stress.
The EOP process appears ideally suited for:
1. Acid breakdown of perforations in carbonates where the traditional stimulation is an acid/ballout job.
2. Creating initial fracture breakdown in wells with linked, multiple zones.
3. Low permeability formations (below about 1 md) where a production test is needed prior to stimulating the well.
4. Where breakdown pressures are too high for economic fracture treatment (this conclusion is not well
supported by available data).
Although the designs of treatments are still being refined, the initial successes have focused on maximizing the kinetic energy in the job. This is accomplished by minimizing the liquid in the tubing to eliminate friction pressure of liquid movement in the tubing during the surge. Most job designs are focusing on filling the
tubing with nitrogen and filling the casing below the packer with liquid.

Tubing Conveyed Perforating

The tubing conveyed perforating, TCP, system utilizes a casing gun run on a tubing string with a
packer above the gun. The casing guns are run as tail pipe below the packer thus allowing the packer
to be set before perforating. The system achieves large entrance hole size, longer penetration than
through tubing guns, and offers the options of phased orientation of charges while perforating in

9-19

underbalanced or overbalanced conditions. Because the guns are tubing-conveyed, zones of over
1000 ft in some areas have been successfully perforated in one run. A typical installation is shown in
Figure 9.21.
tovrrEnONS
WITH P E W E M
PAClERSLn
ON WRELINE

AND U S I N G

OUWI RUW IN
ON TWINOAND

THROWWME
PACK#

SYmU FOR

DITLOMTORY.
TESflNG.AND
*ullponMEW
WOCIDUREt
PRDvtDB roll
U R B E FLOW
ARWWE
WITHDMWAL
OF WE, AND
IUI REURIIY.

(Vann Tool Company)

Figure 9.21: Examples of tubing conveyed equipment for various conditions.

The equipment involved in tubing conveyed perforating is varied since several suppliers offer the service. The technique may also be adapted for special completions involving artificial lift methods or
multiple completion^.^'-^ Basic equipment involved in underbalance perforating includes the packer,
the guns, initiation or firing systems, and specialty items for particular applications.
The packer may be a retrievable or permanent model or the guns may be run with a seal assembly
and stung through a seal bore permanent packer previously set in the well. After the guns have been
run and the wellbore is isolated, the underbalance is set by swabbing the tubing, nitrogen jetting, circulating through a vent assembly or other method.
Firing the guns is done by a drop bar, battery pack, slick line, electric line, or by pressure level. The
drop bar, a solid steel bar that sets off an impact detonator, is the most common current method. The
initiator or firing head is usually set above the packer in the tubing and a detonating cord leads to the
guns. A rupture disk or mechanical valve above the firing head separates the pressure in the tubing
from the fluids below the packer. With the firing of the guns, the well fluids surge through the vent
above the guns or through the guns themselves and flow into the tubing.
Specialized equipment includes: disconnecting subs that can drop the guns after firing, shock absorbers to prevent tubing or packer damage when firing hundreds of charges at once, multiple firing initiators for multiple completions, and backup firing systems to avoid pulling a gun.

9-20

A major drawback to tubing conveyed perforating is that there is no way of knowing, except by pulling
the guns, how many charges were fired. A signal charge device that either fires a small explosive
charge or trips a hammer device a few seconds after the primer cord detonation reaches the bottom of
the gun can be used (in conjunction with a sensitive sound recording device) to determine that the detonation cord was ignited to the bottom of the gun. Although the detonation of the signal charge will not
tell how many charges were fired, it does signify that the primer cord has burned past all the charges.
Since the major mechanical problems of the TCP systems have been in two areas: (1) failure to initiate the guns at the firing head, and (2) failure to initiate the next gun at the gun junctions, the use of
a bottom shot detector is very advantageous. The reports of early use of this system indicates it has
been very successful on land based wells but has given problems on offshore well due to the high
noise levels associated with platforms.
The frequency of misfires depends upon both equipment and personnel. A worldwide study generated
a failure-to-fire rate of about 6% for tubing conveyed perforating. However, some locations with experienced crews reported almost no failures, while areas with less experienced operators reported a
higher failure rate. Failure rates with wireline conveyed perforating guns are harder to obtain but are
usually stated at 2 to 3%. New systems or new crews may generate early failure rates of 50%.
Wireline Perforating

When a well is perforated with a wireline gun with the differential pressure into the well, the flowing
fluid tries to pull the cable up the hole because of the lift effect produced by fluid drag and the effect of
differential pressure on the area of the gun or able.^^^^ In normal operations, this drag is minimal
and will probably not be noticed unless the well produces several thousand barrels per day.
The magnitude of the drag on the cable, Figure 9-22, depends upon the flow regime illustrated in
Figure 9.22a. Following perforating, the liquid column used to control the amount of underbalance
pressure is lightened by gas production from the formation. The liquid in the tubing also starts to flow
upward due to fluid influx from the formation. As more gas enters the casing there is a period of time
where slugs of water are rapidly lifted by the gas. The velocity increase as the slugs rise is due to the
expansion of the gas. After all the liquid has been produced from the tubing, the gas flow can be
described as auasi steadv state. The maximum lift on the cable will occur during flow of slugs of water
and gas when velocities of the liquid slugs are high?5

Figure 9.22: An idealized schematic of the flow regimes of wellbore fluid and the
types of lift (drag) produced on a wireline suspended in the middle of
the tubulars. In actual operations, the cable is always lying against
the side of the tubing because of wellbore inclination. Drag is minimized when the wireline is near the boundary.

9-21

If possible after firing underbalance with a wireline gun, the gun should be lowered beneath the perforated zone to minimize the lift force on the gun body. If it is necessary to flow the well as the gun is run
through the tubing, sinker bars will be needed on the gun and the well should be choked back. Very
close clearances between the gun and tubing will result in very high lift forces if the well is flowing.

Highly Deviated Wells

Highly deviated wells may create problems for wireline guns. The wireline gun problems have essentially been with placement of any tool due to friction of the assembly in the high angle holes overcoming the gravitational effect. Flexible tools and roller units have been used to improve success but
operations are still limited in holes with deviations of more than 45.*O
Tubing conveyed completions in holes of up to 75 or more are common.21The higher angle holes
make the use of J set packer difficult, thus most packers in the high angle wells are set by pressuring
up on the tubing. When the guns are run on the drillstring, pressuring up to set a packer often allows a
large amount of dried debris such as cuttings and mud to fall out of the tubing and cover the firing
head. The circulating vent for debris removal which is commonly run above the firing head cannot be
used in these cases since the firing head is below the pressure set packer. When perforating under
these conditions, the guns should be run only on a new or clean workstring or on the new or clean production tubing.
Depth Control

The most critical field parameter of a perforating treatment is depth control. Drillers measurements of
depth are based on pipe tally and are not usually corrected for stretch under load or effects of temperature. Wireline measurements, even if corrected for stretch may still be in error. The wheels in the
depth measurement device on logging trucks are calibrated for new cable. Wear in the cable, cable
stretch, and wear of the measurement wheels can all cause inaccuracy. Magnetic marks or depth flags
on the cable are helpful but can be thrown off by cable stretch. The only reliable method for spotting
the perforating gun is to use the openhole gamma ray log as a base and to run a confirmation section
of gamma ray log. Some companies offer a gamma ray tool that is fitted in the head of the perforating
gun; these devices should be used wherever possible. On tubing conveyed guns, the confirmation GR
is run with the tubing in the hole before the packer is set. For guns run on wireline, the GR should be
run immediately before the perforating job preferably on the same cable to be used to carry the gun.
The gamma ray log is matched with the openhole gamma ray log, Figure 9.23, and the casing collar
locations correlated with the log. Remember to subtract or add the distance from the RA detector to
the CCL to get the depths exactly on target. To account for creep in the wireline and to very accurately
zero in on the depth, the collar locator should be raised very slowly into the collar above the pay and
stopped when the signal for the peak (collar location) is only half formed. This indicates the tool is
exactly in the center of the collar. To find the spot where the tool is centered on the collar and remains
without changing may take several very slow passes. Once located, the wireline depth of the collar
above the pay can be correlated to the openhole gamma ray log. If the casing (or the tubing in a tubing
conveyed operation) is run with a short joint or pup joint near the pay, it will be much easier to correlate tool depth on repeat runs.
Openhole and cased hole gamma ray logs rarely agree exactly on depth due to differences in cable
and chart paper. The depth correlation is to be made to the openhole log. If two sections are to be perforated and a single shift will not align the cased hole log to the openhole log, each section should be
aligned independently to the openhole log.
If a short joint is not run with the casing, the collars should be counted to assure depth control agreement with the wireline measurement. The most common depth control problem with perforations is
shooting them one joint off; a complete miss for most zones. Radioactive PIP tags on the casing are
also helpful in determining depth. The wells plug-back-depth (or float collar) can also be tagged up
with the bottom of the gun to check depth. If the float collar has been drilled out, it can also be used as
a short joint for identification.

9-22

Figure 9.23: An example of overlaying the cased hole gamma-ray log

strip over the original open hole gamma-ray log to tie in the
collar depth for depth control on the perforating run.

After running the perforating gun and locating the collar above the pay, note the distance from the collar locator to the first shot (to the first shot of the appropriate section if a selective fire tool is used) and
position the first shot at the top of the zone to be perforated. With this method, the tool can be positioned within a few inches of the desired spot.
A stepwise sequence of the depth control procedure is shown below:
1. Correct cased hole log to openhole log, overlay and record interval on cased hole log.

2. Determine distance of CCL to top shot.

3. Run CCL and perforating gun and correlate collars to openhole log depths, record on cased hole
log.
4. Perforate.

5. Log a few collars up to confirm depth or rerun gamma ray if a tracer was used in the upper and
lower port plugs.

Cement Damage
Contrary to some existing opinions, there is little shattering or cracking damage to cement from perforating. Tests have been conducted on over 50 targets with unconfined compressive strength from
1500 psi to over 9000 psi. When the perforation is more than about four inches from a free face there
was almost no instance of cement shattering noted after firing. Splitting (longitudinal) along the perf
planes may be seen in some targets but is usually reduced when the targets are bounded by steel
retaining forms that limit compressional wave rebound from free surfaces. In short, cracking following
perforating is the result of the test method, not the perforating process.

Casing Damage
The shock of firing the charges must be absorbed by either the casing or the carrier. The air filled hollow carrier gun absorbs the detonation pressure hence there is less possibility of casing splits due to

9-23

rupture. This becomes very important when shooting a large number of holes or whenever casing
strength is important. As shown in Figure 9.24, the collapse resistance of the casing (and resistance
to splits) depends upon the number of holes in the pipe and their alignment (shot phasing).lOtll A new
generation of casing guns with staggered phasing (i.e., 37.5") has improved the casing collapse resistance loss. These guns, even using big hole charge, often result in less than 10% loss (the typical
variance of casing strength) of crush strength at shot densities of 16 or more shots per foot.

(King, SPE 18843)

Figure 9.24: Casing crush resistance tests on tubes. The tubes
model a 7" casing perforated with 0 to 36 spf.

Perforating with the hollow carrier causes only slight reduction in yield or collapse strength of the casing. The expendables cause substantially more damage since the casing must stand the shock of detonation. Research by Godfrey and Methven4on casing damage at downhole conditions determined
that expendable jets (limited to six shots per foot) do not cause significant damage to (1) high strength
casing without flaws even when unsupported, or (2) high-strength casing with flaws (laps and seams)
that is well supported by cement. Casing of low or unknown strength, corroded, old, with flaws, or
poorly supported casing should definitely be shot with a hollow carrier gun.

Reperforating Considerations
Reperforating can often be beneficial to repair problems such as scale or paraffin plugged perforations, unknown shallow formation damage or questionable perforations. If the buildup test shows very
high skin even after a properly designed acid treatment, then the problem may be poor perforations.
As shown previously in Figure 9.24, pipe in good condition can tolerate many phased shots per foot
without being seriously weakened. When reperforating, at least two shots per foot are recommended
and three or four may provide the best treatment. Ifthe pipe strength is critical, phasing of 0" should
not be used in reperforating especially where 0" phasing was used initially. If two sets of 0" phased
shots are used in the same interval, the chance for casing splits is greatly increased. Since the Oo
phased guns are usually magnetically positioned and ride the low side of the pipe, the possibility of lining up new and old shots is too great to use the 0" phasing. If it is necessary to reperforate under
these conditions, the magnetic positioner on the gun should be offset 15" to reduce the possibility of
the new perforations lining up with the old ones.

9-24

Stimulation Considerations

The type of stimulation or ultimate well completion should influence the perforation design.
The damage to a cement sheath from jet perforating should be slight if the cement is continuous and
not heavily ~ontaminated.~'Even the light weight cements have been shown to be significantly
undamaged by p e r f ~ r a t i n g . ~ ~
In gravel packing operations, a large number of big holes are usually desired to reduce the velocity of
fluids coming into the wellbore. The decreased fluid velocity will carry less formation sand grains and
will result in less fines movement and plugging in the pack. Since the perforations may be filled with
sand, more perforations are required to generate the same productivity as open perforations.
Fracturing stimulations require sufficient perforations to avoid detrimentally shearing the fluid (lowering the viscosity by degrading the polymer or crosslinked system) and to avoid needlessly high purnping costs. The viscosity of a fracturing fluid is a designed part of the stimulation treatment, and if
altered, the treatment may not meet expectations of sand carrying capacity. If this carrying capacity is
destroyed by high shear, the sand may fall out of the fluid too soon causing a blockage of the perforations or fracture by injected sand (a screenout). The friction resistance offered by a perforation during
pumping is approximated with the following equation:40

Fp = 0 . 2 3 7 ~( Q~ / ( P f c N ( d 2 ) 2 ) ) 2
where
FP
P1

= friction resistance, psi

= density of the liquid in Ib/gal

= flow rate in BPM

Q
=
a flow coefficient, usually between 0.65 and 0.87
Pfc
N
= number of perforations open to flow
d
= diameter of perforation, in.
Another problem encountered in fracturing, which may be eliminated by having the perforating treatment designed for the stimulation, is a flow restriction from the fracture to the wellbore caused by 0"
phased perforations. When all the perforations are in one vertical line, the sand packed crack leading
to the fracture can be a source of restricted production since the line of perforations may be up to 180"
away from one of the fracture wings. This means that for both fracture wings to be productive, the
sand packed crack must wrap around the pipe. The fracture direction will be in the direction of least
principle stress in the formation and is not influenced by the direction of the perforations.

Deviated wells pose a problem of tool movement and depth measurement due to the high degree of
friction or drag between the cable or the tool and the wall of the pipe. Subs and tools with small wheels
plus weights on the tool make movement easier, Figure 9.25. Tubing conveyed operations usually
work better in deviated wells than wireline conveyed systems. Firing systems are often more troublesome in deviated wells when using tubing conveyed guns.
Concentric strings of casing will reduce the penetration of any perforating ~ h a r g eThe
. ~ thickness
~ ~ ~ ~
of the string of casing, as well as the thickness of the two sheaths of cement which must be penetrated can reduce the length of perforation penetration in where an effective perforation may not be
created in a well unless the deepest penetrating charge is used. The use of through tubing perforators
for shooting concentric strings is not recommended, since both hole size and penetration are reduced
with small charges.

9-25

In deviated wells were concentric strings are to be perforated, the perforating gun will ride the low side
of a pipe. When a casing gun is used for this operation, shot phasing of 60, 90" or 120" should be
used to obtain the best chances of making perforations by the charges with the least standoff. Use of
centralization techniques (if possible) on the guns run in deviated wells are recommended if hydraulic
fracturing is to be used. This will allow perforations to be placed near both fracture wings. Centralization will also improve the roundness of the holes since the gun clearance will be near ideal. If inadequate perforations are a problem in wells with concentric strings, the innermost casing can be milled
out and the completion made through the outer casing.
When casing is run and cemented through washed out sections, the cement sheath can be sufficiently
thick to deny access to the formation with any perforator. When drilling a well into an easily washable
pay zone, care must be taken to obtain a gauge or near gauge hole so that the perforations will reach
into the pay.
Perforating charges are subject to high temperature degradation by sublimation of the powder or by
auto detonation.
Critical gun components should be analyzed to determine stability at temperature. Charges, detonating cord, detonator, port plugs and seals must all be considered.

Stimulations in Deviated Wells Effect of Perfs

The perforating design needed for a cased and cemented deviated well may be different than for a
vertical well, even in a similar formation. The main factors are cost of perforating in very long sections
and need for focusing injected fluid into a single fracture when fracturing.
The number of perforations needed for any well, deviated or vertical, depends on the inflow potential.
While perforating costs can indeed increase as pay contact increases, a better method of cost control
is to use logging methods to identify zones of best porosity, oil saturation and pressure (or flow where
PLT data is usable, and concentrate perforations in those areas. The estimates on numbers of open
perforations runs from 30% to 80%, with the authors view at 50% (from examination of downhole TV
tapes in dozens of wells).
In the case of fracture stimulating in highly deviated wells, there is little to prevent multiple fractures
from initiatings along the wellbore. Since fracture growth is driven by the amount of fluid entering the
fracture, increasing the number offracture sites will decrease growth.

To achieve better fracture growth potential, single fracture sites are needed. In field application of multiple fractures in deviated wells, perforating one meter of the wellbore prior to a fracture job has produced good results. Although this approach is effective in providing sufficient width in a main fracture
to prevent early screenout, it does not address potential inflow from the matrix into the cased and
cemented wellbore. Adding perforations along the length after all fracturing is one option, but obtaining any type of cleanup or breakdown of these added perfs can only be accomplished with a straddle
packer.
AbrasivelErosive Perforating

Perforations may also be cut through the casing and rock with abrasive laden f l ~ i d sor~ fluid
' ~ ~alone
~
under very high press~re.4~
The abrasive laden fluids abrade a hole through the pipe and into the formation. The slurry is pumped
down the tubing and turned at the bottom of the tubing by a deflector and nozzle arrangement that
allows the stream to impinge directly on the casing. Holes, slots or pipe cutoff may be accomplished
with the tool by slowly moving the tubing while cutting. The size hole produced is a function of pumping time, slurry velocity (nozzle design), and pipe movement. Depth of penetration is determined by
the pressure drop across the nozzle, the size of sand grains, the hardness of the target material and

9-26

the pumping time. There is a point of diminishing returns in penetration where penetration is not
extended for a longer pumping time. Time to form a perforation is on the order of 20 minutes.
Water jet penetration of rocks has been used for several years as a drilling assistance tool, but has
also recently been used for perforating. In one such device, water at several thousand psi is channeled through a flexible steel tube which is fed out of a tool in the wellbore. The casing exit hole is
drilled by a fluid-powered downhole motor.

Pipe Cutoff Methods

There are at least five methods of cutting off either tubing or casings. These cutoff methods may be
used for pipe recovery prior to sidetracking operations or as explosive detonation to cut and shape
exit points for milling windows.
The most common pipe cutoff methods involve either explosive or chemical cutters. Explosive cutters
utilize the same explosive technology used in perforating charges. Instead of a cylindrical cone, however, the explosive and the liner is arranged in a wedge so that the explosive front of the device will
push out on all sides and sever the pipe. Although the technique is effective in most cases, the external part of the pipe is left with a flare that is often difficult to wash over during pipe recovery operations.
Chemical cutting has become one of the most common pipe cutoff methods, especially for tubing. The
special acid reacts extremely quickly and generates intense heat. It is sprayed through a nozzle
assembly at the walls of the tubing all around the cutoff tool. As the fluid contacts the steel wall, a vigorous reaction occurs and the pipe is separated smoothly without leaving an external flare.
Problems with both explosive system and chemical system are typically that only one side of the tubing is cut. Often it is necessary to pull the tubing into after the cut. In most instances, the pipe should
be held in tension during the cutting operation. Cutting on either explosive or chemical tools can be
improved by using the correct sizing of the tool and also centralizing the tool in the tubing. A further
important point on the chemical cutter is to use a tool with nozzles that have not been worn by
repeated use. When chemical cutter nozzles are new, the fluid is sprayed out in a tight regular jet
which impacts a small circular section of the inside pipe wall. As the nozzles become enlarged with
constant use, the tight stream becomes a wide spray and the fluid contact area is spread out over a
larger section of the pipe. As this section is spread, the fluids may not cut as quickly as with a new
tool.
Abrasive and mechanical tools have also been used for tubing cutoffs. The abrasive tool uses a mixture of sand and liquid jetted against the side of the pipe while the nozzle that sprays the fluids is
located. Cutting times are typically 5 to 20 minutes depending on available pump rate, nozzle size,
clearance distance and pipe size grade and thickness.
Cutting tubing with mechanical methods has seen several new tools come to the market in the last
several years. One tool which can rotate two or three blade cutters against the side of the tubing has
been shown to smoothly cut tubing into two to four minutes without having to pull tension in the string.
The last tool is a temperature or thermite tool which is relatively new on the market. Insufficient data
on field performance is available at the present time.
Questions
1. What is the difference in productivity ratio (ratio of production from a unfractured perforated completion to an unfractured open hole completion) by completing a well with 8 shots/ft with 6" penetration as compared to 4 shots per foot with 15"penetration (give both productivity ratio's).
Assume 0" phasing and no damage.

9-27

2. What is the actual production difference in question # 1 if zone height is 50 ft, open hole PI is 20
barrels/day/psi, maximum drawdown is 500 psi and the API oil gravity is 29.
3. For a gas well with an average core permeability of 30 md, what underbalance pressure is necessary during perforating to create clean perforations during underbalance perforating?

Q = 12000 MCFld
re= 1320 ft
r,= 3 in.
T = 200 F
pr = 11400 psig
fb= 0.9 ft
Z = 1.3
kd= 15 md
kd,, = 20 md
h=50ft
k,, = 300 md
rdp = 0.5 ft
G = 0.63
j~ = 0.40 CP
N = 50
4. For the following conditions, what is the skin associated with perforating? (from McLeods equations)
5. What are two well completion problems associated with expendable through tubing perforators?

6. What amount of casing collapse resistance can be expected to be lost from perforating N-80
casing at 16 spf with DP charges. Assume 60 phasing of the charges.
7. Specify the gun size and charge type for perforating through an overlap section having 5-1/2
(17 ppf, N-80), cemented in 7(32 Ib/ft, P-110) cemented in a 10-3/4 open hole in a hard sandstone. The well will be stimulated with a proppant frac after perforating.
8. Specify the gun size, phasing, and charge type for a completion in an unconsolidated sand with
9-518 casing.

References Perforating
1. Technology Review, (Schlumberger)
2. Cook, M. A.: The Science of High Explosives, Krieger Publishing, American Chemical Society,
1958.
3. Aseltine, C. L.: Flash X-Ray Analysis of the Interaction of Perforators with Different Target Materials, SPE 14322, 60th Annual Tech. Mtg., Las Vegas, Sept. 22-25, 1985.
4. Godfrey, W. K., Methven, N. E.: Casing Damage Caused by Jet Perforating, SPE 3043, Annual
Fall Meeting, Houston, October 4-7, 1970.

9-28

5. Bell, W. T., Shore, J. B.: Casing Damage from Gun Perforators, Bell, W. T., Bell, R. M.: The
Paradox of Gun Power vs. Completion Efficiency, paper presented at the 1981 Explosive Conference of IADC, June 9-11, 1981.

6. Locke, S.: An Advanced Method For Predicting the Productivity of A Perforated Well. J. Petrol.
Technol., December 1981, pp. 2481-2488.
7. Saucier, R. J., Lands, J. F.: A Laboratory Study in Stressed Formation Rocks, J. Petrol. Technot., September 1978, pp. 1347-1353.
8. McLeod, H. 0.: The Effect of Perforating Conditions on Well Performance, SPE 10649, Presented at the SPE Formation Damage Symposium, Lafayette, Louisiana, March 24-25, 1982.
9. Hong, K. C.: Productivity of Perforated Completions in Formations With or Without Damage,
J.P.T., (Aug. 1975), pp. 1027-1038.
10. King, G. E.: The Effect of High Density Perforating on the Mechanical Crush Resistance of Casing, SPE 18843, Prod. Operat. Sym., Okla. City, March 13-14, 1989.
11, King, G. E.: Casing Crush Resistance Loss to High-Density Perforating: Casing Tests, SPE
20634, 65th Annual Tech. Conf., September 23-26, 1990.

12. Cheng, A. M.: How Perforation Shot Density Affects Gas Well Performance, World Oil (March
1988), pp. 39-42.
13. Klotz, J. A., Kruger, R. F., and Pye, D. S.: Maximum Well Productivity in Damaged Formation
Requires Deep, Clean Perforations. SPE 4792 presented at Symposium on Formation Damage,
New Orleans, Louisiana, February 7-8, 1974.
14. Bundy, T. E., Elmer, M. J.: Perforating a High Pressure Gas Well Overbalanced in Mud: Is It
Really That Bad, SPE 16894, 62nd Ann. Tech. Conf., Dallas, Sept. 27-30, 1987.
15. Bihn, G. C., Brown, S. A.: Perforation Performance in the Kuparuk River Field, SPE 14323,
60th Ann. Tech. Conf., Las Vegas, Sept. 22-25, 1985.

16. Harris, M. H.: The Effects of Perforating on Well Productivity, J. Petrol. Technol., April 1966,
pp. 518-528.
17. Bell, W. T.: Perforating Techniques for Maximizing Well Productivity, SPE 10033, Int. Mtg. Pet.
Eng., Beijing, March 18-26, 1982.
18. Bell, W. T.: Perforating Underbalanced-Evolving Techniques, JPT (Oct. 1984), pp. 1653-1662.
19. King, G. E., Anderson, A. R., Bingham, M. D.: A Field Study of Underbalance Pressures Necessary to Obtain Clean Perforations Using Tubing Conveyed Perforating, J. Pet. Eng. (June
1986), pp. 662-664.
20. Colle, E.: Increase Production with Underbalance Perforation, Pet. Eng. Int. (July 1988),
pp. 39-42.
21. Young, W. S., Zaleski, T. E.: Procedural Design Considerations Associated with Tubina-Conveyed Underbalanced Perforating, SPE 13646, 1985 Calif. Reg. Mtg., Bakersfield, Makh 2729, 1985.

9-29

22. Allan, J. C., Moore, P. C., Weighill, G. T.: Experience of Perforation Under Drawdown Using
Tubing Conveyed Guns on the Beatrice Field, SPE 14012.
23. Barnes, J. A., Swafford, C. V., Snider, P. M.,: Single-Trip Tubing-Conveyed-Perforating, Production Testing, and Pressure Buildup Testing in Nonflowing Wells, SPE 18841, Prod. Oper. Symposium, Okla. City, March 13-14, 1989.
24. Kruger, R. F.: Joint Bullet and Jet Perforation Tests, API, 1956.
25. Alien, T. 0.and Warzel, H. C.: Productivity Method of Evaluating Gun Perforating, Drilling and
Production Practice API (1956), 112-125.
26. Bell, W. T., Brieger, E. F., Harrigan, J. W., Jr.: Laboratory Flow Characteristics of Gun Perforations, 4. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1972), 1095-1103.
27. Halleck, P. M.,Deo, M.: T h e Effects of Underbalance on Perforation Flow, SPE 16895, 62nd
Annual Tech. Conf., Dallas, Sept. 27-30, 1987.
28. Regalbuto, J. A., Riggs, R. S.: High Differential Pressure, Radial Flow Characteristics of Gun
Perforations, SPE 14319, 60th Annual Tech. Conf., Las Vegas, Sept. 22-25, 1985.
29. Bonomo, J. M., Young, W. S.: Analysis and Evaluation of Perforating and Perforation Cleanup
Methods, J. Pet. Tech. (March 1985), 505-510.
30. Stracke, M. L.: Success in Offshore Gravel Pack Methods, SPE 16212, Prod. Oper. Sym., Ok.
City, March 8-10, 1987.
31. Robson, M. K.: Introduction to and Benefits of Tubing Conveyed Perforating, J.P.T., February
1990, pp. 134-136.
32. Dudley, R. W.: Reperforation of North Sea Electric Submersible Pump Wells using an ESP/YTool/TCP System, SPE 16534.
33. Holloway, M. L., Wesson, D. S.: Tubing Conveyed Perforating Sucker Rod Pumping Wells,
SPE 18839, Prod. Oper. Sympos., Okla. City, March 13-14, 1989.
34. Manohar, M. M., Morris, C. W., Hill, D. D., Brunner, S.R.: Evaluating Underbalanced Perforating
Conditions, World Oil, November 1990, pp. 47-60.
35. Garcia, D. J., Paslay, P. R.: Prediction of Gun Cable Behavior, when Perforating Gas Zones
under High Reverse Pressures, Explosives Conf. of the IADC, Houston, June 9-11, 1981.
36. King, G.E.: Perforating Multiple Strings of Casing: Getting Through the Overlap Zone,
SWPSC, Lubbock, April 1989.
37. Regalbuto, J. A., Leidel, D. J., Sumner, C. R.: Perforator Performance in High Strength Casing
and Multiple Strings of Casing, API 1983 Pacific Coast Mtg., Bakersfield, Nov. 8-10.
38. Godfrey, W. K.: Effect of Jet Perforating on Bond Strength of Cement, JPT, (Nov. 1968),
pp. 1301-1306.
39. Crump, J. B., Sabins, F. L.: Guidelines for Selecting Cement that will be Perforated, SWPSC,
Lubbock, April 1989.
40. Halliburton Fracbook.

9-30

41. Pittman, F. C., Harriman, D. C., St. John, J. C.: Investigation of Abrasive-Laden-Fluid Method
For Perforation and Fracture Initiation, JPT, (May 1961), pp. 489-495.
42. McCauley, T. V.: Backsurging and Abrasive Perforating to Improve Perforation Performance,
JPT, (Oct. 1972), pp. 1207-1212.
43. The Lance Formation Penetrator Tool, a technical report of Penetrators Inc., Oct 15, 1985.

9-3 1

Chapter 10: Formation Damage Causes and

Preventions
There is an old adage that you cannot hurt a good well. It is wrong.
Formation damage is a term that may be applied many well productivity impairments, many of which
have nothing to do with a problem in the formation.p2The goal of this chapter is to explain, identify and
suggest removal methods for formation damage.
There are four questions that must be considered in formation damage investigation.
1. What is the damage?

2. Where is the damage located?

3. How much damage is present?

4. How is it affecting the productivity of the well?

The study of damage is necessarily linked to diagnostics of the damage, the topic of the next chapter.
As causes of damage are discussed, some mention will be made of ways to identify and quantify the
damage. These brief comments will be explained further in Chapter 12 the Diagnostics Chapter.
Many of the most common damage mechanisms are described in Table 10.1. This data also gives
diagnostic clues and treatment suggestions that will be advanced in the chapter on Chemical Stimulation. For purposes of description, the causes of damage are often divided into natural and completions
damage. Natural damage includes those factors that will primarily occur as a result of producing the
oil or gas. Completions damage is something that happens as a result of a completions, repair or stimulation operation. Unfortunately, some completion operations can trigger natural damage mechanisms. Eliminating or reducing the effect of natural damage is part of the completions design step.
Naturally occurring damage includes clay problems, hydrates, water formed scale, tar deposition, relative permeability problems, some emulsion formation, paraffin, asphaltenes and other hydrocarbon
deposits which impede flow. Completion oriented damage includes particle plugging by entrained particles in the injected fluids, some emulsions, wettability changes, acid reaction, acid by-products, iron
precipitation, iron triggered sludges and numerous other factors. Each of these will be addressed.

Table 10.1 : Common Damage Types

Condition or Type of Damage
hydrates (ice)

migrating fines

Diagnostic Clues
gas well, interrnttent flow, near total
shutoff, followed by returnto flow in a few
minutes; produces a small amount of
water
oil well, usually only forms near mud line
in arctic regions; may also form in drilling
mud
kaolinite or fibrous illite clay or some feldspars (non clays): brine salinity changes
may trigger fines movement; sporadic
reductions in flow rate, variable production rate tests; fines in prod, emulsions
rare but possible

10-1

Remedial
glycol or alcohol in1 below hydrate forrnacon point. Insulated risers or tubing.

insulated risers

clay control for prevention; retarded acid

for removal: may need to limit rate in
extreme case

Table 10.1: Common Damage Types

Condition or Type of Damage
swelling clay

Diagnostic Clues
smectlte clay, sometimes iwte and smectite interbedded clay; permeability is sew
sitive to change in water salinity or brine

Remedial
a c m e With H C ~itIdamage
ISshallow
Frac if damage is deeper than 12"

type
water blocks

poor load fluid rec.

fill in perfs

fill in casing

particle damage

usually gas well, small pore throats,

untreated water, low pressure formation;
if very low pressure (cabout 0.2 psilft),
pore throat size doesn't matter
usually formation dependent; may
decrease production rate in severe
cases or cause long cleanup time. Most
common in formations with small pores
and microporous clays.
high skin, can inject into well at very low
rates; reperforating may show sharp
increases
high skin, difficult or impossible to inject
into well; partial fill will show skin on a
build up but injection possible at a
reduced rate; confirm with a sinker bar
on wireline
skin on buildup test, difficult to inject;
sometimes shows emulsions in oil wells;
poor mud condktioning before cement;
frequently encountered in open hole
completions and horizontalwells
may also be encountered following acid
or frac stimulations or workover fluids
where a dirty water was used or the
water was hauled or stored in a dirty tank
can reduce injection in flood projects
backflow shows particles and oil carryover return
large whole mud losses in naturally fractured formations; intermittentproduction
at low and moderate rates; infrequent
recovery of whole mud and mud fines.
Some emulsions, especially after acid
treatments; may also occur if hole is
poorly cleaned during drilling
onset of water productionafter extended
production; formation has no vertical permeability barriers and sufficient vertical
perm to allow water to move toward
drawdown
initial production of water with oil in primary, with breakthrough in flood; water
cut increases in flood
examine produced water analysis and
compare with flood water

fracture plugging

coning of water

commingled water production

waterflood breakthrough through

high permeabilityzone

micro porosity
emulsion

caused by some forms of clay; may bind

water and make high Sw readings on log
unstable emulsions, breaks on standing;
created in tubing at pressuredrop points
in piping system from pumps to choke

10-2

matrix treat with alcohol or surface tension

lowering surfactant; inject gas in gas reservoir to distance of 10 ft.

Prevention avoid or minimize water contact and lower surface tension of water.
Removal - alcohols and some surfactants

cleanout or reperf

reverse circulation or regular circulation.

HCI or HCWHF acid in matrix acid job solvent wash follow with acid in wells with oil
base mud; foam or jetting cleanups are
often useful

filter treatment fluids - use clean tanks

better cleaning of water

acid useful if damage is shallow; frac if

deep; to prevent, improve solids recovery

limit rate, some treatments may temporarily be useful; most water control products are not useful without natural
reservoir baniers
no treatment or temporary at best

high permeability zones should be

plugged deep (&loo') from producer and
injector when oil recovery from zone is
complete
no treatment necessary
no down hole treatment suggested; treat
on surface if string redesign is impractical

Table 10.1 : Common Damage Types

Condition or Type of Damage
silt stabilized emulsion

oil base mud emulsion damage

waterflood breakthroughthrough
high permeability zone

surfactant stabilized emulsion

sludge

paraffin in tubulars

paraffin in formation

paraffin after stimulation

paraffin in flow lines

Diagnostic Clues
very stable emulsion. Dartta\lvwetted
fines at interface; common aher drilling
mud dispersement or cleanup of mud or
cement fines by acid; may also occur on
polymer cleanup; common in production
form unconsolidated formations, espe
cially after acid or gravel packing operations
very common in wells drilled with oil base
mud; if treated with acid or brine before
the sulfonate emulsifiers are washed off
the cuttings by production or solvent
treatments, an emulsion from that can
lock up the well; the first one or two treatments may be short lived as more mud
and mud filtrate moves back toward the
wellbore, this is often the case in naturally fractured formations
examine produced water analysis and
compare with flood water

stable to very stable emulsion; common

to severe after acid treatment; may be
able to see the stabilized skin at the drop
interface
sludge is an emulsion that is nearly solid;
it may be triggered by acid, oil based
mud, asphaltenes, or iron compounds;
disperse the sludge in xylene and anal y e for components, particularly iron
pressure restriction in tubulars; soft to
hard mass found at press drops: color
reddish brown to black; even white or
gray possible; also frequently occurs in
tubing near surface as oil cools and
cloud point is reached; may become
increasinglya problem as field ages;
most paraffin deposits melt at c15OoF
seen as skin on test, may or may not disappear if well is shutin for several days;
cloud point of oil is near the reservoir
temperature; pressure drop may trigger
paraffin drop out
injection of a cool stimulationfluid may
precipitate paraffin in reservoir on contact; well may be clean up slowly (1 to 4
weeks) after stimulation even though
load fluid is recovered more quickly; may
see a decreasing skin if multiple buildup
tests are run
soft to hard deposits (not scale) in surface flow lines and equipment; paraftin
will mett when exposed to enough heat
(usuallv. about 15OoFis sufficient)

10-3

Remedial
downhole source of solids if possible

wash with aromatic solvent followed by

mutual solvent and acid; may require several treatments; cuttings removal is important

high permeabilityzones should be

plugged deep (&-loo') from producer and
injector when oil recovery from zone is
complete
treat on surface if temporary; use mutual
solvent or surfactantto prevent emulsion
with next acid job
prevention is best cure; use non sludging
acid systems, test with iron content
expected in well

scraping, cutting for mechanical removal;

hot oil useful if deposit is c100 ft from surface; solvent soaks on deeper deposits;
some inhibitors available for pipelines and
few problem wells; some wells require
continuous downhole treatment through
macaroni string; special bacteria are useful
treat with downhole heat generating processes if well is good producer; solvent
soaks also used; some inhibitorsavailable
to be used with a frac treatment
allow the well to clean up on its own; use
xylene preflush ahead of acid when the
problem is known to occur

mechanical or solvent removal or pigging;

inhibitors can be used

Table 10.1: Common Damage Types

Condition or Type of Damage
asphaltenes

tar

calcium carbonate scale

calcium sulfate scale

barium sulfate scale

wettability problems

relative perm problem

Diagnostic Clues
soft to hard black mass that may occur
as flakes, sludge, marblesize balls and
as a stick buildup often occurs with paraffin; precipitationis triggered by destabilization of maltene resins caused by acid
contact, outgassing, shear in pumps,
electrically charged metal surfaces, tern
perature reduction, and CO2; asphaltenes soften with increasingtemperature
(t>150F) but do not melt.
flows very slowly into perfs during prcduction of oil; usually associatedwith the
presence of a tar deposit near pay, frequently highly asphaltic; may contain
some water that is tied up as droplets or
"pockets" in the high viscosity mass
may form at any pressure drop, either in
the formation or in the tubulars; may form
very fast and can sharply limit production
especially at gravel pack interfaces or
near perfs in wells with high draw down
across the perforations; may occur more
frequently in earlier stages in some fields
when pressure drop is more severe:
there is usually no crystal pattern
usually forms at pressure drop where
induced by turbulence; more frequent
where high sulfate waters contact high
calcium waters and in COp floods; scale
is not acid soluble; may be found on outside of pumps and at intakes and gas
expulsion ports and valves in downhole;
crystals are characteristic for this scale
non reactive scale that forms at pressure
drawdowns or where outgassing occurs;
no readily apparent crystal pattem in
many deposits; may occur as radioactive
NORM scale in some areas where radicactive isotopes form in the lattice. NORM
scales are detectable with gamma ray
logging tools
frequently occurs after an acid job where
the corrosion inhibitor was not mixed in
the acid just before injection; emulsions
and reducedflow are common, particularly after inhibitor loss or oil base mud
contact; may be temporary or permanent
but most clean up slowly with time and
flow; attempts to reverse natural wettability usually are short lived; natural wettability is determined by the natural
surfactants in the produced fields
may occur when oil is injected into a gas
zone or gas is injected into an oil zone
that is above the bubble point

10-4

Remedial
treatment with aromatic (cyclic nng) solvents such as xylene or toluene; some
surfactants are also useful for dispersion
of asphaltic mass; use anti-sludge additive or xylene with acid in reservoirs with
more than 0.5% asphalt to prevent sludges

solvent soak as needed; test solvent with

sample of tar before job; heat often helps

HCI to remove and inhibitor to prevent;

inhibitor may be squeezed into the formation for longer lived protection; some HCI
jobs may trigger calcium carbonate scale
in rare cases; inhibit acid or treat with
EDTA if this is a problem

chemical converter or dissolver followed

by acid; (do not contact converter or dissolver with acid): acid is not useful by
itself; inhibitors placed by squeeze treatments are useful to prevent

scraping, water blasting or other rnechanical removal; chemical treatment is usually

not possible if scale occurs as nearly pure
(>go%) deposit or as thick (>1/4", 6 rnm)
deposits in pipes. Can be prevented by
inhibitors

treat with mutual solvent wash over the

pay, displace and soak

treat with high API gravity solvent such as

condensate or xylene (low flash point);
squeeze and produce back

Table 10.1: Common Damage Types

Condition or Type of Damage
retrograde condensate

tubing problem

~~

salt

bacterial infestation

poor perforations

unstable formation

~~

Diagnostic Clues
a Special case of relative Permeability
effect; a condensate (liquid phase) that
forms from a rich gas; if the condensate
forms in the tubing or casing, heading
may occur; if condensate forms in the
formation -creation of another phase will
reduce permeability to gas; usually
occurs near wellbore as pressure drops
near the wellbore
well refuses to flow although pressure is
sufficient with the expected assistance
from dissolved gas; well may head and
die or liquid slugs may be produced if
string is too large; rate is restricted by
friction back pressure if tubing is too
small
salt precipitatesas a white mass in the
tubulars or in the formation; usually associated with a cooling of super saturated
water but may also be triggered by a
pressuredrop: may be seen early in the
lives of some wells and becomes less of
a problem as water cut increases; look
for problems in formations with produced
water salinity that is near saturation
a difficult problem to predict; it is more
common in injection wells where surface
or produced water is injected, if the colony is established in the water handling
system, it can occur with injection of any
waters; when tubing is pulled, brown to
black slimy masses or an H2S odor are
indications; bacteria may cause slow
reductions in the injectivity of a whole
field; complete removal of the bacteria is
rarely possible-treatment is usually on a
remedial basis; untreated water in treatments; drillingfluid or injection water can
sour reservoirs with SRB bacteria
shows up as damage on a build up test
but cannot be cured with acid or
mechanical changes in the well; prob
lems such as screenouts of frac jobs,
high injection pressures, sand production, downhole scale occurrence, unstable emulsions, and downhole paraffin
and asphaltene deposits are common;
problems with a well that cannot be broken down or even pumped into should
always be approached by reperforating
the well
may occur in any formation that is poorly
consolidatedor that will fail under pressure; may occur with onset of water production or loss of pressure from
depletion; problems include embedment
of proppant, closing of acidizedchannels
in acid fractures, spalling of formation
into perfs or wellbore or production of
solids

10-5

Remedial
control draWdOWnS and repressure reservoir; redesign tubing if forming in tubulars

redesign string; a velocity string that will fit

inside existing tubing may help if tubing is
too large

fresh water or weak brine wash

treat with bleach followed by HCI (do not

allow contact of bleach and HCI);more
than one treatment may be necessary;
alternative treatments are chlorine dioxide
and bactericide slugs

reperf

gravel packing, plastic consolidation, or

rate limits

Table 10.1:Common Damage Types

Condition or Type of Damage
collapsed pipe

leaks

Diagnostic Clues

Remedial

may show UP as reduced rate or destruction of lift equipment. Check with a gauge
ring on wireline or tubing. Has a variety
of causes including severe corrosion,
malfunctioning perforating guns, pipe
flaws and wear of tubulars from drilling or
lift system. Most common causes are
earth shift loads caused by subsidence
of producing formations with fluid and
sand withdrawals, active faults, and formation movements near salt zones.
sudden changes in GOR, WOR, pressure, or chemical analysis of water

If caused by earth Shin torces, use heavier

pipe or multiple strings. Liners, cement,

and patches used for repair.

repair;consider corrosion control program

Clays
Clay primarily occurs in sandstones. Although some exceptions are known, most carbonates do not
have reactive clay in significant amounts.
The materials classified as clays have a common size range, normally less than five microns, but may
have various chemical compositions, different reactivity to pore fluids and many physical arrangements. The presence of clay does not necessarily mean that there will be a problem with clay during
production or treating of the well. To be a problem, the clay must be in the larger pores of the reservoir
in large quantity and react in a detrimental manner with the fluid flowing through the pores. If the clay
occurs only in the smallest pores or a part of the matrix, it will not be a problem, regardless of its reactivity.
Table 10.2 shows approximate major component analysis as well as surface area exposed per unit
weight of quartz and common authigenic clays3 It is this vast surface area-to-mass ratio that makes
the clays so important; they may be involved in literally hundreds of adsorptions, absorptions and
chemical reactions. Adsorption describes a process that is a coating on a surface that does not penetrate, like paint on a non porous wall. The paint does not significantly increase the volume of the wall,
although it bonds very tightly to the wall. Absorption is filling the pores without adhering to the surface,
like water in a sponge. Just like wetting a dry sponge, as water is admitted into the sponge, the
sponge swells. An illustration of surface area is needed to understand its overwhelming effect on a
chemical reaction. The weight of a 2"x 4" wood block is roughly similar to the same basic cellulose in
a typical big city Sunday newspaper. The surface area of the wood block may be about 1 square foot
and the surface area of the Sunday paper may be over 1000 square feet. Now, touch a lighted match
to each and see the difference in reactivity! Although the reaction of water on clays is indeed different
from the pyroactivity of paper, any reaction of the water and the clay will proceed much faster on clay
with a very large surface area.

Table 10.2

Particle

Quartz
Kaolinite
Chlorite
lllite
(Smectite or Montmorillonite)

Major Components
SI, 0
AI, Si, 0, H

Common Surface Area

0.00001 5 m2/gm

22 m2/gm
Mg, Fe, AI, Si, 0, H
60 m2/gm
K, AI, Si, 0, H
113m2/gm
Na, Mg, Ca, AI, Si, 0, H 82 m2/gm

10-6

The distinction between types of clays is more of arrangements of the atoms in a crystalline structure
than a major difference in chemical formula. The location of the clay is critical to its reactivity; if the
clay is in a pore throat as fill or as a lining; it is authigenic, that is, grown in the pore from minerals in
the connate water.4 Authigenic clays have a large amount of surface area exposed in the pore and
can be reactive. If the clay is part of the building material in the original matrix, it is detrital. Detrital
clays are usually less reactive that authigenic clays because they have less surface area in contact
with the fluids in the pore. Clay may also be a cement that holds the matrix grains together. As a
cement, it may react with some fluids such as acid and water to disaggregate the formation. If the clay
cement is shielded by a quartz overgrowth, as is common in many sandstones, the clay will not be
reactive. Only the authigenic clays, the unprotected clay cements and the few detrital clays on the
pore boundary are worth concern as potential damage mechanisms. The vast majority of detrital clays
are just not contacted by sufficient volumes of fluids. Remember, just because clay is present in the
formation, does not mean that a clay reaction will occur.
Authigenic clay minerals orient themselves as they are formed from the formation water and often create one or two favored physical forms that may be recognized from scanning electron photographs,
Figures 10.1 and 10.2. Recognition of the type of clay should not be staked entirely on an SEM analysis. Focused dispersive X-Ray analysis is much more accurate. Even after identification of the clay,
laboratory core tests are often required to see if the core is reactive with a given fluid. Just because
the clay is in the rock does not mean that it is reactive.

(Amoco Production Co.)

Figure 10.1

10-7

(Amoco Production Co.)

Figure 10.2

Common Types of Clay

The four common clays that account for most of the real and perceived clay problems are kaolinite,
smectite (formerly called montmorillonite), illite, and chlorite.

Kaolinite Kaolinite is chemically stable and will not react appreciably with HCI acid. However, it is
soluble in HCI/HF acid. Kaolinite poses potential production problems for two reasons: some forms
have been noted to have a loose attachment to the host grain and its large individual particle size can
cause blocking of pores.
Smectite (Montmorillonite)- Smectite refers to a group of clays which are water sensitive to varying
degrees. The extent of water sensitivity of these swelling clays is determined by the amount of
sodium in the composition.* Production problems with smectite may rise in two areas; water sensitivity
that may swell the clay and/or give off pieces of the clay (clay fines) and high microporosity.

10-8

Mite - lllite clays may form in several shapes and may often be found associated with the smectites in
mixed layer clay. Problems posed by the illites include high microporosity and a tendency for some
forms of the illite to break and move as particles or act as traps for other particles.

The high microporosity in the illites, like that in smectite, offers a trap for migrating particles as well as
binding water to the host.
The fibrous form of illite resembles fine hair or spider web fibers. Thick accumulation of these filaments are effective snares for micron size debris and may break and migrate. They are among the
most difficult forms of the clays to stabilize. Fortunately, illite in the fibrous form is less common than
the mixed layer occurrences of illite/mica and illite/smectite.
Chlorite - Chlorite usually has a strong attachment to the host grain and is not commonly associated
with migrating clays although it can serve as a collection point for migrating debris. Chlorite is slowly
soluble in HCI acid, but may cause problems due to high iron content if the acid does not contain a
suitable chelating or sequestering agent. If the unsequestered acid spends completely, iron can precipitate as iron hydroxide and block pores.
Water lmbibition of Clays

Clays may change volume as a fresher or more saline fluid flows through the formation. Several
authors have contributed work on clay swelling in sandstones showing either cation exchange, movement, or critical salt concentration that triggers clay dispersement."1 The changes in formation permeability due to alteration of clay are due to the amount, location, and type of clay minerals within the
formation. The total quantity of clay inside the formation is a misleading indication of potential
changes to permeability. It is the arrangement of the clay, its chemical state at the moment of contact,
and the location of the clay with respect to the flowing fluids that are responsible for the changes. Predicting the response of a clay to water flow is almost impossible without testing. However, smectite is
reactive a majority of the time when it occurs as an authigenic clay. When smectite is known to exist in
a formation, a 3 to 5% KCI (potassium chloride brine) is usually a good choice for a completion or kill
fluid until the reactivity of the core can be tested. The large pores are not important since they dominate the flow contribution to the permeability.
Clay Swelling

Clays swell by two established mechanisms: crystal adsorption of water and osmotic swelling. In crystal adsorption, all clays absorb some water, including illite and kaolinite. However, this highly ordered
crystalline water is held tightly to the clay surface, like adsorption. Osmotic swelling occurs as a result
of a concentration imbalance between ions held at the exchange sites on the clays and the ions of the
contacting water. When the ionic concentration of the interlayer region between the clay platelets is
greater than the ionic concentration in the contacting fluid, water will be drawn into the interlayer
region and the clay is swelled. The amount of swelling can be six fold in severe cases. The amount of
permeability reduction will depend on the arrangement and amount of the reactive clay in the largest
pores. Figures 10.3 and 10.4 are typical core test responses for water influenced reactions of salinity
shock (temporary change in permeability and clay swelling respectively).
Clay Dispersion

Clay is not the only material that can move in a rock. Feldspar, silt and even small grains can be rearranged by physical flow forces or by chemical or physical reactions as water or organic liquids move
through the reservoir. Groups of clay platelets can be dispersed by contact with water that has a different ionic concentration or type than the connate water if the clay is reactive. Dispersion may also be
caused by a physical reaction in which the clay surface wetting is changed by a mutual solvent or
alcohol. Dispersion is the separation of the clay platelets from each other and from the pore wall. This
can create a considerable amount of migratable fines. How much damage it does depends on whether
the fines are created and whether they can block enough large pore throats to have an effect on permeability.

10-9

i
.......i. .................................................

60

100

........................

130

-..--

6% NACI.

....

200

TOPAL FLUID FLOWED CC

Figure 10.3: Salinity shock showing no permanent formation

damage when switching brine salinity level and type.

ID0

200

aon

I00

6000

BOO

TOTAL VOLlihlE OF WATICll FWWEL) CC

Figure 10.4: Water sensitivity test on a core that is sensitive to

both brine type and brine concentration.

Producing the injected (foreign) water from the formation and reestablishing contact with connate fluids moving through the rock can help return at least some of the initial permeability of the formation.
This happens when the clay can adjust to the connate water by giving up some of its recently bound
water and shrinking. Flow of a brine through a core sometimes results in a greater stable permeability
than the initial permeability. This can be caused by dissolution of a salt in the pore or by shrinking of a
clay in the large pores. Some moving clays can even be redeposited on contact with a stable fluid.5
Use of KCI and NH CI (ammonium chloride) brines, or oil based fluids may help avoid the swelling
influenced dispersion tendencies of most clays. Dispersion caused by physical fluid movement may
not be avoided unless the fluid flow velocity is below the critical level for fines movement.
Other Clay Problems

High microporosity or a dense growth of the clay in the pore throats produces ultra small pore throats
that plug off quickly when exposed to fine solids and can sharply reduce permeability. This
microporosity is much like a second matrix forming in the larger matrix of the formation; this action
reduces the pore throat size to a fraction of original and reduces permeability. High microporosity also
readily traps water and can result in high water saturation calculations from resistivity logs. The bound

10-10

water influences the water saturation calculation without actually being able to move. Thus, some formations with a high water saturation value can actually produce water free. SEM photomicrographs of
the high microporosity created by smectite are shown in Figure 10.5. Once again, it is the large surface area of the clay that plays a deciding role.

(Courtesy of Amoco Production)

Figure 10.5: SEM view of high microporosity Smectite clay in a

pore from an Alaska core.

Paraffins and Asphaltenes

Paraffins (wax) and asphaltenes are organic solids that may deposit from a crude oil during production. Pure paraffin is white and pure asphaltenes are black. Both materials may occur mixed in the
same deposit. When asphaltene is absent, the precipitated paraffin may be straw colored, red, green,
gray or brown. When asphaltene is present, the mixture is usually black.
When a deposit is recovered from a well, it is imperative that the identity of the deposit be obtained.
The treatments for removal of paraffin and asphaltene are different, and many of the common paraffin
removing materials are not effective in removal of the asphaltene. Designing a completion for control
of asphaltene is different from that for paraffin since the deposition of asphaltene can often be prevented by avoiding fluid shear, outgassing, chemical upsets and mixing of incompatible fluid streams.
Paraffin control is based on temperature and pressure preservation, avoiding of sharp pressure drops,
and injection of inhibitors.
The quickest method of determining whether a deposit is asphalt or paraffin is to apply a small amount
of heat. Paraffin will melt, asphaltenes will soften slightly but will not melt completely. Asphaltenes
also usually sink in fresh water while paraffin flakes float (mixtures may do either!).
Paraffins are the simplest of the hydrocarbons. They are composed of only carbon and hydrogen
atoms and the carbons occur as an unbranched chain. Paraffin chain length associated with formation
of solid wax deposits begin at 16 or 18 carbons per molecule and may have 60 or more carbons. The
precipitation of paraffins is triggered by the loss of pressure, loss of temperature, and/or loss of short
chain hydrocarbon compounds (light ends). The temperature at which the first solid paraffin crystal
forms from an all liquid solution is called the cloud point. Designing a completion to produce to the surface above the cloud point or modifying the cloud point through chemical methods are accepted practices to prevent paraffin deposition in the tubing.

10-11

Melting points increase as the length of the paraffin chain increases. The hardness of the solid paraffin structure also increases with molecular size. The following table lists several paraffin chain lengths
and their melting points. Impurities may cause the melting point of field samples to vary slightly.

Table 10.3

Number of
Carbon Atoms

Melting Point
F

16
17

64

18
20

72
82
00

25
32
42
49
60

129
158
181
196
211

Paraffins may form anywhere in the producing system when the conditions became favorable for precipitation.12-16Paraffins are normally found in the tubing near the surface where the temperature and
pressure drops are highest. In cases such as nearly pressure-depleted reservoirs or in formations
which have experienced dry gas cycling (which removes the light hydrocarbon ends), the paraffins can
form at the perforations or in the formation. Paraffin may also be precipitated by injection of a cool
fluid. Although not generally considered, this cause may be the reason for slow cleanup of many
wells after a stimulation.
Paraffins normally form by nucleation. A seed crystal of paraffin or other solid material in the produced fluid offers a nucleus or site for rapid growth of paraffin. The longer chain molecules attach to
the nucleation sites and the crystal grows large enough to drop from the produced fluid stream. If the
crystal attaches to the tubing, further growth occurs from the paraffin in the produced crude and a
blockage will eventually occur. Most prevention techniques work on blocking the nucleation sites.
Rates of deposition of paraffin are variable. Problems with entire fields are common, but paraffin deposition of only one or two wells in a unit is also known. Individual well variances in pressure drawdown, flow rate, temperature loss and mechanical equipment may be significant enough to lead to a
problem in a borderline paraffin deposition area. The most common depositional sites for paraffin are
in the upper section of the tubing. This site is favored since pressure and temperature are both lowered as the produced fluid nears the surface. Other high incidence areas are downstream of pressure
drops such as perforations, downhole restrictions, tubing and pump intakes and wherever fluids
(especially cooler fluids) are commingled.
Asphaltenes are organic materials consisting of condensed aromatic and naphthenic ring compounds
(Figure 10.6) with molecular weights of several hundred to several thousand.1s25 They are characterized by the nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen molecules they contain and are defined as the organic part of
the oil that is not soluble in a straight chain solvent such as pentane or heptane. Asphaltenes are generally found in one of three distinctive forms: (1) a hard coal-like substance and (2) a blackened
sludge or rigid film emulsions (often triggered by iron in solution), and (3) in combination with paraffin.
In solution, they usually exist as a colloidal suspension, stabilized maltene by resins within the oil.
The colloidal particles are 30 to 65A in diameter. The volume of these resins (also called maltene resins) is the first key to the stability of the asphaltene in suspension. The actual quantity of asphaltenes
in the oil is much less important. The stability of asphaltic dispersions depends on the ratio of the
quantity of resins to the quantity of asphaltic materials. Ratios larger than 1:1 (resins to asphaltenes)
are stable, while ratios less than 1:1 are unstable and may precipitate during production. Ratios of

10-12

10+:1 are known, and no asphaltic problems are usually reported with these oils. Although asphaltene
contents of up to 60% are known, the major problems occur with oils in the about the 1% to 3%
asphaltene range.

(Stout)

Figure 10.6: Structure of the basic asphaltene building block.

Variations are the rule. Common components are N,
S, HI C and OH, among others. Bonding varies.

Asphaltene precipitation can be influenced by pressure drops, shear (turbulence), acids, solution CO2
(lowers the pH), outgassing of CO2 and other gasses (turbulence), injected condensate, gas, cornmingling with other (incompatible) oils, and charged metal surfaces.2G32Anything that takes away the
resins or breaks the stability of the micelle will lead to a precipitation of asphaltene.

Emulsions
Emulsions are combinations of two or more immiscible fluids (including gas) that will not molecularly
disperse into each other.3s44 Emulsions are composed of an outside phase (also called nondispersed
or continuous) and an inside phase (also called dispersed or discontinuous). The inside phase are
droplets suspended in the outer phase, Figure 10.7. Almost all emulsions found in the field are produced by addition of some form of energy that produces mixing. Most emulsions break rapidly when
the source of energy is removed. The breaking mechanism of these unstable emulsions is by droplet
contact and growth, and then by fluid density separation. As the droplets draw near and touch, the
surface film around the drop may thin and rupture, forming large drops in a process called coalescence. The larger droplets settle rapidly due to density differences between the liquids forming separate layers. Only a portion of the drops that touch will coalesce. When only a few droplet contacts lead
to coalescence, the emulsion is stable.

oil-in-wa ter

water-in-oil

Figure 10.7: Representation of the two types of all liquid emulsions: water-in-oil (oil external) and oil-in-water (water external). Volumes of the inner or the dispersed
phase may vary from 0 to over 70%. Emulsions are stabilized by presence of
solids at the interface.

10-13

The shared surface of two immiscible substances is the interface. Emulsification, wetting and foaming
are affected by what goes on at this interface. The interface is characterized by a film that is the true
boundary between the inner part of the emulsion, the droplet, and the outer or continuous phase. The
film (Figure 10.8) surrounding each droplet of the internal dispersed phase, especially in the bubble
interference region of from 50% to 74% internal phase volume is probably the most important reason
for stability of oil field emulsions. The toughness of this film keeps the droplets from directly touching
and coalescing into larger drops. The film is the interface boundary and may have an electrical charge
on each side (charge double layer). Emulsion properties are affected by the type of film.
Schematic of the surface surrounding a droplet of dispersed f l u i d i n a
continuous f l u i d .

continuous f l u i d or outter f l u i d
rounded surface i s the smallest
\area
minimizes energy.

inner f l u i d

Figure 10.8: Schematic of the surface surrounding a droplet of dispersed

fluid in a continuous phase fluid. The surface of the film is a
high energy environment where natural surfactants congregate. The droplets will be rounded as the drop forms the lowest
energy shape. Small areas between fluids may be filled by a
third phase such as oil in a water-gas foam.

The ratio of the total volume of the droplets of the dispersed phase to the external or continuous
phase is known as the phase ratio. This ratio influences the behavior and properties of the emulsion to
a very significant extent. Alteration of the phase ratio can lead to making the emulsion more stable or
breaking the emulsion. When the internal phase is less than about 30% by volume, Figure 10.9, (low
phase ratio), the drops do not interfere with each other and the properties of the whole system (including the apparent viscosity) are determined by the continuous phase. As the amount of dispersed
phase is increased, the droplets begin to collide more frequently, and droplet interference begins. This
causes an increase in the viscosity of the emulsion. This viscosity increase continues until the dispersed phase volume is about 52% (the volume ratio of uniform spheres packed in a cubic array). At a
dispersed phase volume of 74%, the droplets are so closely packed (Figure 10.9) that they can no
longer be spheres unless they are multisized (polydispersed). Viscosity of the emulsion increases rapidly at this point because of the energy required to overcome the resistance of the droplets moving
past each other when the liquid must flow.

Most emulsions will separate quickly due to fluid density difference when the energy source that
caused mixing is removed. If separation does not occur, there is a stabilizing force acting to keep the
fluids emulsified. The most common stabilizing forces are modification of the surface film strength at
the interface by chemical reaction, precipitation or addition of partially wetted fine particles, by electric
charge or by high viscosity of the components or the resultant viscosity. They may act singly or in
combination. Natural surfactants help stabilize emulsions by stiffening the film around the droplet or
by partially wetting very small solid particles. The natural surfactants are present in many waters and
most crude oils. They may be of several chemical formulas and may be bacterially created or occur as
part of the oil generation process. Like other surfactants, they have an oil soluble end and a water soluble end (usually possessing a small electric charge) and congregate at the interface of the water and
oil. Micron size solids in the liquid may stabilize the emulsion by increasing the toughness of the film
or acting as the emulsifier by binding droplets of the dispersed liquid with electrical charge. Almost
any solid can be a stabilizing agent if it is small enough. For a solid to be effective in stabilizing an
emulsion, it must be present at the interface of the drop and the continuous phase.
The more common solid materials found stabilizing emulsions are:

10-14

dispersed

interference

deformation

unstable
region

viscosity

dispersed fluid saturation X

Figure 10.9: Emulsion behavior as a function of the percentage of dispersed fluid

in the emulsion. Viscosity Increases dramatically in the deformation
region since the droplets must be deformed to pass by each other.
The region above 96% is unstable and the emulsion will commonly
break or "invert" with the outer and inner fluids changing places. The
region boundaries are only valid for all droplets of the same size. A
variation in droplet size will increase stability.

Iron Sulfide

Paraffins

Sand

Silt

Salt

Shale

Clay

Asphalts

Scale

Bentonite

Resins

Metal Flakes (from pipe dope)

Cuttings

Corrosion Products

Iron Colloids

The pH is a measure of the acidity of a fluid. The pH may have an effect on ionization of compound, it
may affect valence state, or it may change how a surfactant works. pH changes can alter a demulsifier
surfactant to an emulsifier or change a scale inhibitor to an inert chemical. pH is a very important factor in treater upsets following acid backflow. Most free water knockouts and treaters will operate well
at a pH of 6 to 7, depending on individual well conditions. Following an acid treatment, the pH may
drop below 4 and emulsions may be created. Emulsions created in this manner continue until the pH
rises above 6 or 7. When a well must be acid treated and the crude is an emulsifier or a sludge former,
the wellhead may be equipped with a chemical injection port just upstream of the choke or a chemical
injection valve may be placed in a gas list mandrel at some point in the treatment string.

Dispersions
Dispersions (also called suspensions) are mixtures of a fluid, solid or gas entrained in a fluid. In some
cases, dispersions such as water in oil are emulsions. Other dispersions, including air in water are
foams. One of the most common solid-in-liquid dispersions is drilling mud. Generally speaking, dispersions are only semi-stable and will separate into phases when the energy is removed. The separation
time is, like emulsions, affected by density difference, viscosity, droplet and particle size, and presence of other stabilizing forces. When the solids are very finely divided, they tend to agglomerate or

10-15

stick together to reduce excess surface free energy. The basic difference in emulsions and dispersions is that dispersions are rapidly separated by filtering.

Foams
Foams are gas-in-liquid dispersions that can become emulsions if they are stabilized. Their behavior
is described by the same theory as emulsions with typical internal phase volumes of over 52% (the
bubble interference region). The stability of a foam is dominated by viscosity and film strength. Polymers and some soap-like surfactants stabilize foam, while some other surfactants and alcohols break
the foam. Foams that occur in diesel based solvents are caused by short chain carboxylic acids &
phenols (acidic components). Removal of the acid materials or neutralization usually stops the foaming of the oil. Foams in gas processing are usually linked to the glycol based materials and are controlled by defoamers such as TCP (tricretial phosphate), etc. Breaking crude oil foams often requires
high surface area components (physical break) that promote coalescence. Defoamer use on crude oil
foams are often unsuccessful in full scale equipment. Successful treatment of oil foam is usually
achieved by flowing the foam through a fibrous filter such as hay or cellulose. Water based foams are
usually the result of a soap like surfactant. Foams can be stabilized by polymers, viscosity, solids or
other surfactants.

Froth
A froth is a special type of emulsion which may include water, oil, gas, and solids in one mixture.
Froths are the result of very high energy mixing such as found in electric submersible pumps. The volume of gas in a froth is usually near the border of the mist region (about 95% gas). The solids in the
froth act to stabilize the froth and electrical charges are common. A forced breakdown of a stable froth
collected from an ESP pumped well in the North Sea showed 95% gas, 4% water, 1% solids and a
trace of oil. The froth survived two weeks shipping without much loss of volume. The froth was recovered after the ESP burned out from lack of fluid movement through the pump. Viscosity of froth can be
so high that the material may appear to be a very low density solid.

Wettability Problems
If a drop of a liquid is placed on the surface of another immiscible liquid, or on the surface of a solid
which it cannot dissolve, it may spread out into a thin film or it may remain in the form of a drop or a
thick lens.38 If the drop of liquid spreads out, it wets the surface. If the drop of liquid does not spread
out, it doesnt wet the surface. The surface free energy of the two phases and the interfacial tension
between them determines whether the liquid will spread or remain in a deformed drop. Wettability is
measured by the contact angle that a droplet of fluid forms on a particular surface. Examples of the
contact angle are shown in Figure 10.10. If the angle of contact, 8,is less than 90, the drop spreads
out from the initial ball shape and the surface is said to be wetted by the liquid. The smaller the angle,
the higher the wettability. If the angle is more than 90, the surface is not wetted by the liquid. Wettability can be measured with a liquid surrounded by gas or a liquid surrounded by an immiscible liquid.
Simple wetting means very little, it is the resultant effect of wetting on fluid flow that is important.

3
Water

Figure 10.10: Contact angle sketch. If the drop spreads on the surface (0
less than goo), the liquid is said to wet the surface.

10-16

In the natural state, formations may be water-wet, oil-wet, or neutral, depending both on the surface
exposed to the fluid and the natural surfactants in the fluid itself. There are some instances, such as
the Cardium reservoir in Alberta, Canada, where both oil and water wetting behavior have been
reported in different sections of the reservoir.
When a surface of a pore passage is oil wet, more of the passage is occupied by the bound oil (thicker
monomolecular layer) and less of the pore is open to flow than in a water wet pore. Naturally, in a
desire to get as much flow capacity as possible in a formation, it is desirable to change the wettability
to water wet (in most cases). Unfortunately, it is impossible to change most naturally oil wet surfaces
for very long. Wettability may be modified by preflushing the formation with a wetting surfactant or a
solvent that establishes a new coating on the face of the formation or cleans the current coating from
the formation. Regardless of the altered condition of a surface, however, the wettability will eventually
be decided by the surfactants in the produced fluid. Thus, the water wet condition of a formation following an acid job can revert to an oil wet condition after a sufficient volume of strongly oil wetting
crude is produced.
The effect of wettability on relative permeability may be seen in Figure 10.1 1. In an oil-wet formation,
for example, some connate water can be produced even at low water saturations, whereas in a waterwet formation, only very small amounts of water may flow even at saturations as high as 50-60%. This
is the cause of some cases of high water production in areas with low water saturation.

(Craig, SPE)

Figure 10.11: Water and oil wet formations and how relative
permeability is affected in each case.

Hydrates
Hydrates are mixtures of ice and other elements, principally natural gas, that may resemble a dirty ice
deposit. Unlike ice, they can form at temperatures in excess of 32F (OOC). The formation of hydrates
is normally associated with a drop in temperature or a reduction in pressure which may accompany
the production of fluids. Gas hydrates are most often found in wells that produce gas and a small
amount of water. Hydrates may also form in gas cut drilling mud, particularly when the mud is circulated near the seafloor in cold locations. Hydrate plugging of chokes and valves can be a serious
problem. Hydrate particle abrasion of equipment is also possible.
Hydrates are part of a group of substances labelled clathrates because they consist of a host molecule that forms a lattice structure to entrap a gas molecule. The host structure is water, and the gas
structure may include one or more of a number of hydrocarbon or nonhydrocarbon gases. The most
prevalent type of hydrocarbon gas associated with hydrates are C,, C2, Cs, or C4 carbon-chain components. Other materials which may form hydrates are hydrogen sulfide, H2S,and carbon dioxide,
CO2. Hydrocarbons with carbon chain links larger than C5 cannot form hydrates because of a limitation on the cage size produced by the water molecule. The amount of gas trapped in a hydrate can be
quite high. One cubic foot of hydrate may contain as much as 170 standard cubic feet (4.8 standard
cubic meters) of gas. When a hydrate melts or decomposes because of increasing temperature, a
large volume of gas is normally produced. If this occurs in a limited volume or sealed container, pres-

10-17

sures can develop that are capable of rupturing lines. A major factor that affects the hydrate formation
is the gas composition as shown in Figure 10.12. In this data, temperature and pressure regimes to
the left of the line for any particular gas can result in hydrate formation where the regime to the right
part of the line is usually safe.

Katz, mod. by Baker & Gomez)

Figure 10.12: Hydrate formation conditions for gas

containing water.

Hydrates are most common in gas wells with a small amount of water production. The quantity of
water relative to the quantity of gas production is critical. As water cut increases, many hydrate problems will disappear. Hydrates are prevented by adding a freezing point depressant such as alcohol or
glycol below the hydrate formation point. They may also be controlled by temperature preservation in
the produced fluid or elimination of severe pressure drops.

Scales
Water formed scale deposits are among the most troublesome damage problems in the oil industry.47
Scale in the oil industry is usually considered a precipitate formed from mixing incompatible waters or
upsetting the solution equilibrium of produced waters. A water that may be stable under reservoir conditions may become super saturated with an ion when the pressure is decreased (allowing CO2 outgassing) or the temperature changed. The super saturated solutions react by precipitating a
compound from solution. The deposition of scale is influenced by pressure drop, temperature, dissolved gases, flow viscosity, nucleation sites, metal type: in short, anything that upsets the solution
equilibrium.
The following scales are among the most troublesome.
Calcite

Calcite or calcium carbonate, CaC03 (Figure 10.13) is usually formed when the pressure is reduced
on waters that are rich in calcium and bicarbonate ion. The deposition can be affected by outgassing
of CO2, which raises the pH and makes the high concentrations of calcium unstable.
Although most carbonate scale will precipitate on a surface, high energy environments such as flowing water or gas evolution in water may lead to free formed granules of scale in pellet form,
Figure 10.1 4. These pellets of carbonate usually form around a nuclei of matter and grow through

10-18

(Courtesy Arnoco UK)

Figure 10.13: Layered calcium carbonate scale removed from a

sub surface safety valve in a North Sea field.

addition of layers on the outer surface. Such occurrences are usually size limited by the lifting energy
in the system; when the pellet becomes too heavy to be refluxed in the flowing fluids, it sinks to the
bottom.

Figure 10.14: Pellets of calcium carbonate scale from a high

energy, refluxing environment (flowing oil well in
East Texas Field). The pellets formed by carbonate
layering around a particle of silt.

All carbonate minerals dissolve in HCI acid, releasing carbon dioxide gas as a product. The acid reactions with some of the noncalcium carbonate scales (e.g., strontionite, SrC03, and witherite, BaC03
and the iron carbonate scales) are usually much slower than the HCI/CaC03 reaction.
Calcium Sulfate
Gypsum or Gyp may be the most frequently found sulfate scale in the oil industry.47 With a chemical
structure of CaS042H20, it shares a similar composition to a hemi-hydrate, CaS041/2H20 commonly
called Plaster of Paris or by its mineral name, Bassonite. It is also similar in formula to the evaporite
mineral anhydrite, CaS04. Calcium sulfate is often mistaken for calcium carbonate scale and an acid
test may be usually required to establish identity if a crystalline pattern is not apparent. Calcium sulfate does have a characteristic crystalline form, monoclinic prismatic, Figure 10.1 5. It may be of various colors depending on impurities and may occur as soft crystals or hard, layered deposits. Very
slow deposition may produce large crystals as shown in the example in Figure 10.16, while chemical

10-19

upsets caused by mixing of formation water with incompatible workover fluids can cause very rapid
precipitation of a mass without significant crystal structure, Figure 10.17.

(Cowan & Weintritt)

Figure 10.15: A gypsum crystal from S. Dakota. Note the
linear growth surfaces.

Figure 10.16: Slowly grown calcium sulfate crystals from a

horizontal surface line in West Texas. The
crystals formed over a ten year period.

Figure 10.17: Rapidly formed calcium sulfate from a chemical upset of

super saturated water may form a precipitate without recognlzabie crystal structure. This piece was removed from a
tubing coupling joint following an acid job that contacted a
sulfate saturated solution (a scale removal chemical).

Although downhole mixing of commingled water production (from formations or casing leaks) are often
cited as a reason for gyp formation, mixing of connate water with incompatible injection water can also
be a factor. One of the most common sources of sulfate ions is sea water used for injection or as
makeup water for stimulations or workovers. The cause of slowly developed, layered gyp scale depos-

10-20

its in tubulars and downhole equipment can be from intermittent application of sea water in formation
water that are calcium ion-rich.
Gyp has almost no solubility in water and only very minor solubility in acids. Chemicals such as caustics may convert the gyp to an acid-soluble form while tetra sodium EDTA (ethylene glycol monobutyl
ether) will dissolve it. Water-blasting tools may also be used in gyp removal, especially in thicklyencrusted deposits in the tubing.
Barium Sulfate

Barium sulfate, BaS04, Figure 10.1 8 , is a less common form of sulfate deposit, but causes extensive
problems almost any combination of barium and sulfate ions causes precipitation. It also has no significant reaction to normal solvents unless it is finely ground or the structure is interrupted with impurities. Like calcium sulfate, barium sulfate is usually thought to be a product of mixing incompatible
waters, with precipitation accelerated by pressure drop, outgassing or turbulence.

Figure 10.18: Unlike the long, regular sulfate crystals,

the barium sulfate deposit shown above
(from the North Sea) is a dense, layered
mass.

Some barium sulfate are radioactive; these are NORM (naturally occurring radioactive material)
scales. The radioactivity results from a concentration of uranium in the lattice of the scale. Buildup of
radioactive scale can be monitored by use of a gamma ray logging tool. Barium sulfate removal methods are usually mechanical. Most chemical removers have only slight reactions, especially in thick
deposits.
Care must be exercised when analyzing well debris to avoid mislabeling barite, BaS04, from drilling
mud residue as barium sulfate scale.
Strontium Sulfate

Strontium sulfate, SrS04, is a common substitute in the barium sulfate crystal lattice. Strontium scale
can be associated with radioactive scale (NORM scale). It may be more soluble than barium sulfate in
chemical remover systems.

10-21

Other Scales
Silica, iron, and other deposits may also create problems in producing or injection wells. These deposits are less common than the previously mentioned scales but can cause serious problems. The silica
scales are more frequently found in the steam injection processes. These scales are usually deposited at points of reduced pressures or temperatures where the loss of pressure leads to a cooler fluid
that may be supersaturated with silica. The chemistry of iron scaling compounds is more complex than
most of the other scales since two forms of iron, ferrous and ferric exist in the formation and, in solution, the ferrous form may be oxidized to ferric iron by contact with sufficient oxygen. Most formation
waters contain less than 100 ppm iron but this concentration may be raised substantially by corrosion
or contact of magnetite, Fe304, or hematite, Fe203, forms depending on depositional environment.
Common iron scales include iron oxides, iron sulfides and iron carbonates. These scales are slowly
soluble in HCI.

Particulate Damage
Most damage following drilling, completion workovers, or stimulation are associated with one or both
of two mechanisms: (1) fines blocking of pore throatshatural fractures or (2) clay/mineral swelling or
dispersement (migrating fines production). Fines blocking of pores is the major culprit in most cases.
The fines come from a variety of sources, most caused by poor handling, transport and storage.
Drilling Mud
Drilling muds are liquid with a large percentage of polymers, clays and other solids to add viscosity
and weight. After mud flows through the bit, it carries cuttings up the annulus. The solids in the mud
form the mud cake on the wall of a permeable formation. Mud cake damage is very shallow, except in
fractured formations. Mud filtrate damage may be shallow or deep depending on the permeability of
the formation, the efficiency of the mud in forming a tight filter cake and the reactivity of the filtrate with
minerals or clays in the pores of the formation.
Cements
Cements also have a large concentration of solid particles. The particles are stopped, like those in
mud, at the wall face, but the cement filtrate can cause clay or mineral damage in the formation due to
its high pH (e.g., pH = approximately 10-12). The best control is to use fluid loss additives.
Kill Fluids
Well control may have suspended solids. These solids block the permeability much the same as the
solids in cement or mud. Clay reactions may also be possible.
Dirty Water
Dirty water is one of the worst sources of plugging damage. The care taken to formulate a fluid that
does not damage the clays or minerals is wasted if the finished brine contains suspended solids. Filtering is required for most applications. The volume of solids required to severely reduce productivity
and permeability in an unfractured well is very small. Debris masses on the order of a few pounds are
fully capable of limiting injection into a formation with permeability of several hundred md. More
detailed information is available in the chapter on filtration.
Bacteria Problems
There are five common classes of micro organisms:
Bacteria - one cell organisms, over 1800 species identified
Algae simple plants with chlorophyll
Protozoa - single celled animals
Fungi-yeast - simple plants devoid of chlorophyll

10-22

Viruses - intercellular parasites

Although many microorganisms may be present in the unsterile world of the oilfield, there are only a
handful which produce widespread problem^.^"^^ Bacteria can be a serious problem in several operations because of what they eat and their by-products. Different types of bacteria can grow in environments of 12F to >250F, pH of 1 to 11, salinities up to 30%, and pressures to 25000 psi.
Certain strains of bacteria grow without oxygen. The most common method of general classification of
bacteria is whether they need oxygen to survive:
Aerobic bacteria - require oxygen to survive
Anaerobic bacteria - grow best in absence of oxygen (growth is inhibited by oxygen)
Facultative bacteria - can grow either way, switches metabolism to suit the environment. They
usually grow about 5 times faster in oxygen than without it.
The bacteria most troublesome to the oilfield are sulfate reducing bacteria (SRBs), slime formers, iron
bacteria, and the several aerobic forms that attack polymer in fracture fluids and secondary recovery
fluids. SRBs cause the most problems from a reservoir point of view. SRBs reduce the sulfate or
sulfite in the water to sulfide and produce hydrogen sulfide, H2S, as a byproduct. SRB biomass accumulation can lead to pitting of the steel under the colony. The hydrogen sulfide increases the corrosivity of the water and creates the possibility of blistering of carbon steels and sulfide cracking. The
byproduct of the H2S attack on steel is iron sulfide (general form is FeS). SRBs are anaerobic bacteria
with very slow growth rates where oxygen is present. SRBs occur naturally in surface waters, including sea water. Growth of the SRBs are controlled by the nutrients and temperature. Primary nutrients
are carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and dissolved iron.
Iron bacteria produce gelatinous ferric hydroxide. They obtain the iron from dissolved iron in the water.
Iron bacteria produce some corrosion, but they often cover SRB colonies and protect them from
attack. Iron bacteria are listed as aerobic bacteria, but can live in systems with only a trace of oxygen.
Slime forming bacteria are facultative and produce dense mats of high density slime that covers surfaces. Their primary detriments are protection of SRBs and pore plugging.
The bacteria that attack polymers may be a variety of the aerobic and a few of the anaerobic bacteria.
Polymer is an excellent simple carbon food that can be consumed readily and contribute to enormous
growth rates of bacteria. Prevention of polymer destruction is normally handled with biocides and tank
monitoring. Control of bacteria downhole is more difficult and involves scraping or treatments with
bleach or other oxidizer followed by acidizing, and then treatment with an effective biocide at a level at
least 1.2 times minimum kill level. Frequent rotation of biocide type is also necessary to prevent the
development of biocide resistant strains of bacteria.

Effects of Formation Damage on Production

Rate and Skin

Formation permeability damage reduces the ability of the fluids to flow through the formation toward
the wellbore. Removal of this damage requires a knowledge of what the damage is as well as where
the damage is located. The identity of this damage is required to select an acid or a solvent, and the
location is necessary for proper placement of the treatment and picking an adequate volume of the
treatment fluid. The following example problem highlights the general techniques used for damage
consideration.
Example 10.1

A well is currently producing 120 bfpd (barrels fluid per day). An examination of the well file records
shows that after the initial perforating, the well was killed with a brine that has recently shown to be
damaging to the clays in the pay zone. During the completion, 50 bbls of the brine was lost to the
150 ft perforated interval. The initial undamaged averaged permeability was 500 md, and the perme-

10-23

ability is homogeneous throughout the zone. The well is not fractured. The porosity is 25% and the
wellbore diameter is 8-112 in. The permeability now is estimated at 50 md from rate and pressured
data.
The volume of fluid lost will fill how much of the pore space?
V O ~=

(25 bbl) (5.61 ft3/bbl)

28 ft3

The volume of the fluid occupied (damaged) pore space surrounding the unfractured 8" wellbore is
described by:

where:
rd

= radius of damaged zone, ft

r,

= radius of wellbore, ft
= height of the pay, ft

h
= porosity of the pay
I$
rearranging and solving for r,

r;

r2
rd

28 ft3
(3.14) (150) (0.25)

0.59 ft

+ (4/12)2 = 0.35 ft2

7 inches

There is often confusion between depth of damage and damage radius. A damage radius, uncorrected
for wellbore, is the distance out from the centerline of the wellbore. The depth of damage, a better
term for practical calculations, is the depth of damage beyond the wellbore. The two values are different.
The 7 in. of damaging fluid penetration in this case is a depth of damage since the wellbore has been
taken into the equation.
An assumption is made in this case that the fluid leaked off evenly into the zone. By use of the damage graph in Figure 10.1 9 (from McLeod), an estimate can be obtained of the productivity of the damaged well, 0, as compared to the undamaged or ideal productivity, 0,.
From the permeability ratio of k&, = 50/500 = 0.1 and the calculated depth of damage of 1.6, the
graph yields a Q d / 0,of about 0.48. The well has about 48% of the productivity of an undamaged
completion. If the damage were removed from this well, the productivity would be:

120/0.48 = 250 bfpd

10-24

DEPTH OF

0IvIM;EO ZONE,

INCHES
(McLeod)

Figure 10.19: Effect of Damage on Well Productivity

The damage in a formation is often expressed as skin factor, S. A positive skin denotes damage and a
negative skin means that the well has been stimulated and has better productivity than a natural completion with initial reservoir permeability. The producing efficiency (mod. from McLeod) is expressed

is:
- =

Q,

In r&0.75 z- 7
In rJrW- 0.75 + S 7 + S

where:

Qo

= production rate with well damaged

= production rate from undamaged well

re

= well drainage radius

rW

= radius of wellbore

Qd

Although it may seem inaccurate to use the shortened approximation 747 + S) instead of the more
precise formula, it should be remembered that the skin value S is a fairly rough approximation itself,
generated from an interpreted plot of pressure versus time.
In the previous example of & = 250, the skin would be S =3.6.

10-25

When selecting the 0, damaged production rate, to use in the calculation, the best rate to use is a
stable rate measured at about the same time period as when the skin was measured. Two very common mistakes are typical when productivity and skin are discussed:
1 Skin damage is often rate sensitive in formations with moveable fines, moveable grains, retrograde condensate or with some deposit forming conditions that respond to flow rate and accompanying pressure drop.
~

2. Skin damage may change with time, either improving during cleanup or worsening during chemical imbalances or upsets.
When the volume of the pore space surrounding the wellbore can be described by a right cylinder,
Figure 10.20, that has been modified to account for the porosity, the following equation is used to calculate the skin factor for drilling and cement damage.

(McLeod, JPT, Jan. 1983)

Figure 10.20: A cylinder of damage surrounding a perforation.

s=

In

fd/f,(

(kdk,)

- 1)

where:
k,
kd

= undamaged permeability

rd

= outside radius of zone of permeability damage

r,

= radius of wellbore

= damaged permeability

In a perforated completion, the damage from small volumes of damaging fluids may extend only a
fraction of an inch to a few inches into the formation. This damage will surround the perforations as
illustrated in the data of Figure 10.21. In this case, the damage equation can be modified to:

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Llnrrr Dirtonce, Incher

(Saucier & Lands, JPT, SPE 6758)

Figure 10.21: Results of testing of perforators with confining

pressure showed that perforations are surrounded
with damaged rock.

= height of perforated interval, ft

= number of perforations in entire interval
= length of perf tunnel, ft
= radius of damage around perf, ft
= radius of perf tunnel, ft

= undamaged permeability, md
= perm of damaged zone around perf, md

The problem with both of the proceeding equations is in accurately determining the radius of damage
and the permeability of the damaged zones. Typical damage depths on zones may range from a fraction of an inch (face damage) to several feet in the case of filtrate/clay interactions. Face damage is
usually caused by particles in the fluid that plug the entry area of port throats. Clay damage from filtrates is usually the result of using a fresh water (no KCI or NH&I salts). The level of damage may be
minor to moderate (10% to 70% reduction) in the case of most filtrate damage; to severe (80% to
99+% reductions) in the cases of particles or a few filtrate interactions involving formations with large
amounts of smectite clay lining in the large pores. indeed, one of the biggest problems associated
with calculating the factors causing or affected by damage is the natural inhomogenieties of most formations.
Example 10.2
A pressure buildup test has provided an estimate of a skin of +15 in an oil well currently flowing at the
rate of 250 BPD.The perforations are adequate and undamaged. Estimate the undamaged production

from the well.

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Q,

( Qd ( QdQ,) )

25010.32 = 780 bpd

Example 10.3
When the productivity is known from experience with the well, the skin factor can be calculated. Using
the first problem data (Example 10.1):

S
As a check on the Q d / Q,

/n(7/4) (500/50-1)= 5

aDDroximation offered earlier and using the data from Example 10.1:
-' d= -

Q,

7
7+5

0.58

From the rates in the example (originally from Figure 10.1):

'Q',

120
250

- = - I

0.48

Using Production History Curves to Assess Damage

The production history curve is one of the most common tools that can be used to assess damage.
When a workover or some other occurrence changes the production of a well, the productivity and
skins can be estimated from the charts.
Example 10.4
In the curve of Figure 10.22, calculate the productivity at 250 days and estimate the skin factor.
By extrapolating the undamaged curve to 250 days, a value of about 220 bopd is obtained vs. a current production of 160 bopd. The productivity is then:

and skin is:

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8
c

8( v ( v ~
c v c u c8v

Producing Time (Days)

Figure 10.22: Production History of a Damaged Well

Qd
-

0.73

QO

7
7+s

7
0.73

S = --7~2.6
Workover Candidate Selection
Selectina a workover candidate based on skin damage can be a bit misleading. Remember, the best
candida6 is not the well with the highest skin, it is the well that can deliver the most improvement in
hydrocarbon rate when (and if) the damage is removed.
Example 10.5
Select the best workover candidate from two wells: well A with a skin of 100 and a damaged production of 20 BOPD, and well B with a skin of 5 and a damaged production of 400 BOPD.

Well A:

0.065

Q,

20/0.065

308 BOPD

Well B:

7
7+5

- = -

Q,

Q,

0.58

400/0.58

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690 BOPD

Well B is a better candidate, even with a much lower skin. The best wells may often be the best workover candidates.

Formation Damage Questions

1. List the most probable formation damage condition or cause for low flow for each well behavior

description.
a. An oil well on rod pump lift is pulled after the rods seize. A soft black mass (not acid soluble)
is found sticking to the rods in the top 1000 ft of tubing. Below 1000 ft, the tubing and rods
are clean. The deposit quickly melts when heated but rehardens after cooling.
b. A new gas well that produces a trace of water stops flowing when the drawdown is
increased. When the well dies, surface tubing pressure drops to zero. If the well is left alone,
it comes back to initial flows within one hour. The cyclic behavior is repeated unless drawdown is reduced. A well test shows the well is undamaged.
c. A new, rich gas reservoir that has an initial reservoir pressure just over the bubble point is
tested for the first time. A step rate test shows that skin damage occurs at moderate drawdown. When pressure is reduced, the well remains damaged. The reservoir is a clean sandstone with no migrating particles.
d. A new well near the edge of a gas field shows very poor productivity on the first test. A
buildup test shows normal reservoir pressure but no skin damage.
e. An oil field on CO2 flood develops pump sticking problems as the first traces of CO2 break
through at the production wells. The cause of the sticking is a black, hard deposit. The material is not soluble in kerosene but is quickly soluble in xylene. It does not melt when heated.
f. A well is consistently producing 1500 barrels of fluid per day with a 5% water cut from a reservoir with a dissolved gas depletion mechanism. On the next daily test, the well produces
1700 barrels of fluid with a 16% water cut. The salinity of the produced water has changed
from 5000 ppm to 75,000 ppm.

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