Nelson Thornes PT oe ? lhe } « aS ZL “ al =( inspire achieve eee OR ME eMC eer ey ee eid Neen ee ad 7 Q support and Extension eens Pe eee ee fear (Cea! Deena ree ans Maths skills eon hee une las ee ints Q Teacher support - including WebQuests Teacher and Technician Notes. MN a, DRS Bee eT ur scources available. Product content mayvary by subject in the resources exclusively endorsed by AQA, “This ic the ful selaction of onlin Please note only the content For more information visit and sign up for a FREE 30-day evaluation Ms Nelson Thornesin OVA: Biology Ann ‘Fullick Lawrie e Ryan a aa Nelson Thornes“Text @ Ann Flick 2044 Ciginalilutratione € Nelson Thornes Lis 2044 “The right of Ana Fulci tobe certified as author ofthis work hasbeen assetted by hrin accercance with te Copyright, Oaagne and Patents Act 1968, ‘Al ights reserved. No part ot tis putiication may be reproduced cr vansmtted inany tam or by ary heans electronic oF machancal, including pnesocopy, Fecoraing oF an nirnation storage and ravival syston, wou pormiscien in ‘erting fom fw publsher or under icance nom fe Cop yh eraing Agen {Umiou, of Sutton House, 6-10 Nirby Stat, Londen, El erson wno coms any unauorsed a:nrolton to this pubteation ay ‘elle te cnmina proseculon and evi came for damages. ° ‘AGA examination quostiors are reproduced by parmission of the Assassment ard (Gualifeations Alliance, Published in 2014 by: Nelson Thornes Lid Dela Place DP Bath Road CHeLTENHAM iss 7H Untied Kingcom igs) moe7654 ‘Acatslogue record forthe book ie svalabl rom the Brion Ubrayy 1eBN 072 1 soes ose @ Cover photograph: Bloam Worke ire.Alary lustations include artwork drawn by Weerset Lid and David Russe Page make-up by Wearset Lid, Boldon, Tyne and Wear Indox created by indexing Spectalsis{UK) Lis Prrteg h crinaBiology Payson Hi How does eolance werk? H2 Fundamental ideas about how sclence works H3 Starting an investigation Ha Planning an investigation HS Designing an investigation HE Making measurements H7 Presenting data HB Using data to draw conclusions H9 Scientific evidence and society Hio TheIsA ‘Summary questions ing healthy 14 Dietand exercise 1.2 Weight probleme 1.3. Inneriance, exercise and health 114 Pathogens and disease 4.5. Defence mechanisms 116 Using drugs to treat disease 1.7 Growing end investigating bacteria 4.8 Changing pathogens 1.9 Immunity 1.10 Hovr do we deal witn disease? ‘Summary questions Exemination-style questions 2 Coordination and control 24 Responding to change 2.2 Reflex actions 2.3 Hormones and the menstrual cycle 2.4 Thoartilal contol of forty 2.5 Gortroling conditions 2.6 Hormones end the central of plant growth 2.7 Using hormones ‘Summary questions Exernination-style questions 3 Medicine and drugs 3 Developing new medicines 3.2 How effoctive are medicines? 33 Drugs 3.4 Legal and ilegal drugs 3.5 Does cennebis lead to hard drugs? 36 Drugsin sport ‘Summary questions Exerination-style questions Contents 44 45 4 Adaptation for survival 76 4a 4a ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions ‘Adapt and survive Adaptation ih animals Adaptation i plants Compettion in animals Competition in plants How do you survive? Meesuring environmental change The impact of change es 6 Energy in blomass 94 8A 52 53 5a 85 Pyramics of blomass Energy transfers Decay processes The carhon cycle Recyaling organic waste ‘Summary questions 104 Examinaton-style questions 105 6 Var technology ea 62 63 64 65 6s 67 ton, reproduction and new 106 Inheritance Types of reproduction Genetic and environmental diferences toning AAduit eel coring Genetic engineering Making choices about technology ‘Summary questions 120 Examination-style questions 121 7 Evolution a 72 73 7A 122 Theories af evolution Accepting Darwins ideas Natural selection Classification and evolution ‘Summary questions 120 Examinaton-style questions 131 End of unit examination questions MM 12 13 14 15 18 132 Animal and plart cells Bacteria and yeast Specialised cells Diffusion Tiseues and organo: Organ systems ‘Summary questions 146 Examination-style questions 147 5?2 Organisms in the environment 24 Photosynthess 22 Limtingtectors 23 How plante use glucose 2.4 Making the most of phocosynthesis 2.5 Organisms in their environment 2.8 Measuring the distributlon of organisms 2.7 How valid isthe data? ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 3 Enzyme: 34 Protaine, catalysts and enzymes 32 Factors affecting enzyme action 33 Enzymes in digestion 3.4 Speeding up digestion 3.5 Making use of enzymes 16 High tech enzymes ‘Summary questions Exarination-style questions 4 Enorgy from respiration 44 Aerobic respiration 42. Theelfectof exercise on the body 42. Anacrobic reapkaton ‘Summary questions Examinaton-style questions 5 Simple Inheritance In animals and plants BA Collision and growth 52. CelldMsion in sevual reproduction 52 Stem cells 8.4 From Mendel io DNA 55 Inheritance in action 86 Inherited conditions in humans 57 Stem cells and embryos - science and ethics ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 6 Old and new species 61. Theorigine oflife on Earth 62. Exploring the fossil evidence 63. More atoutextinction 64 loolation and the evolution of new speoiee ‘Summary questions Examinaton-style questions End of unit examination questions 148 162 163 164 176 77 4178 te 135 186 200 201 210 an 212 Sas) 1 Exchange of mat 14 Osmosis 1.2. Active transport 1.3. Thesports crink dlemma 4.4 Exchanging materials —the lunge 1.5. Yenilating the lungs 1.8. Anifcial breathing aids 17 Exchange in the gut 1.8 Exchange in plants 1.9 Tranepiration Summary questions Examination-style questions 2 Transporting materials 24 The clroulatory system end the heart 2.2 Keeping the blood flowing 2.2 Tranoportin the blood 24 Anttclalor real? 2.5 Transport ayetame In plants Summary questions Examination-etyle queatione 3 Keeping internal conditions constant 24 Controlling internel conditions 3.2 The human kidney 2.3 Dialysis —an artificial Vicney 34 Kidney ransplants 3.5. Controlling body temperature 216 Treatmentanc temperature iesues 3.7 Controlling blood glucose 2.8 Treating dabetes Summary questions Examination-style questions 214 292 233 244 245: 262 269 4 How humans can affect the environment 264 44 The effects of the population explosion 4.2 Land and water pollution 43 Ait polution 44 Deforestation and peat destruction 45 Global warming 48 Biofuels 47 Biogas 418 Making food production effisient 49 Sustalnable food production 440 Environmental iseuee Summary questions Examination-style questions End of unit examination questions Glossary Index Acknowledgements 284 205 geePe ecu ers keubed eset od Pe te col cad Wet Hints from the examiners who will mark your exams, giving you important advice on things to remember and what to watch outfor. ‘There are lots of interesting, and often strango, facts about ‘science. This feature tells you about many of them. GD links Links wil tell you where you can find more information about what you are learning. Activity ‘An activity is linked to a main lesson and could be a discussion or task in pairs, groups or by yourself. This feature highlights the maths skills that you will need for your GCSE Biology exams with short, visual oxpianations. Welcome to AGA GCSE Biology! This book has been written for you by the people who will be marking your ‘exams, vary experienced teachers and subject experts. It covers everything you need to know for your exams and is packed full o! features to help you achiave the vary best that you can. Questions in yallow boxes check that you understand what you are learning ‘as you go along. The answers are all within the taxt so if you don’t know the answer, you can go back and reread the relevant section. igure 1 Many ciagrams are as important for you to leam as the fest, 30 make sure you vie them earetly. Key words are highlighted in the text. You can look them up in the glossary at the back of the book if you are not sure what they mean. ', Where you see this icon, you will know that this part of the topic ! involves How Science Werks — a really important part of your GCSE and an Interesting way to understand ‘how science works’ in real life. Whara you sae this icon, there are supporting electronic rascurcas in our Kerboodle online service. roe “This feature helps you become familiar with key practicals. it may be simple introduction, a reminder or the basis for a prectical in the classroom, Anything in the Higher Tior boxes must be learned by those «itt 1g the Higher Tier exam. If you'll be sitting the Foundation Tier, these boxes can be missed out. ‘The same is true for any other places which are marked Higher or [H. Enno a toe) “These questions give you the chance to test whether you have leamed and understood everything in the topic. If you get any wrong, go back and have another look ‘And atthe end of each chapter you will find Summary questions ‘These will st you on what you have leamed throughout the whole chapter, helping you to vork aut what you have understood and where you need to go back and revise, PTT) important points that you must remember. They can be used AQA/ Examination-style questions “These questions are examoles ofthe types of questions you will answer in your actual GCSE exam, s0 you can get lots of practice during your course to help with revision and Se erHow Science Works How does science work? {« Sees This frat chepter looks at ‘How Science Works. It's an important part of your CTEM SSO GCSE because the ideas introduced here wil crop up throughout your course. > What ls meant by How You will be expected to collect scientilic evidence and to understend how Pliner wo use evidence. These concepts will be assessed as the major part of your internal school assessment. Ge You will take one or more 45-minute tests. These tasts are based on data SOCIETY) you have collected previously plus data supplied for you in the test. They Sra haaentd are called investigative Skills Assignments (ISA). The ideas in ‘How Science ORE PO Works’ will also be assessed in your examinations. Pee How science works for us Science worke for us all day, every day. You do net need to know how a mobile phone works to enjoy sending text massages. But, think about how you startad to use your mobile phone or yaur television remote control. Did you work through pages of instructions? Probably not! ‘You knew that pressing the buttons would change something on the screen CO links (knowledge). You played around with the buttons, to sco what would happon You can find out more about your (observation). You had a guess based on your knowledge and observations ISA by looking at H'0 The ISA atthe at vhat you thought might be heppening (prediction) and then tested your end of this chapter. idea (experiment), Perhaps ‘How Science Works’ should really be called ‘How Scientisis Work’ ‘Science moves forward by slow, steady steps. When a genius such as Einstein comes along, it takes a giant leap, Those small steps build on knowledge and experience that wa already have. The steps dor't always lead in a straight line, starting with an observation and ending with a conclusion. More often than not you find yourself going round in circles, but each time you go around the loop you gain more knowledge and 980 can make better predictions. Observation KN [eta tr —— Each small step is important in its own way. It builds on the body of knowledgo: that we have, but obsarvation is usually the starting point. In 1796, Edward Jenner observed that people who worked with cows did net catch smallpox but did catch a very similar disease called cowpox. This observation led him ‘agenive, to develop a system of inoculating people with cowpox to prevent them from bathe wakedtioughacentie Catching amalipos. Jenner called tis prooeas vaccination, rom the Lath word w. GCSE for cow, vacea. Figure 1 Albert Einatoin wCoconut seeds Once you have got the idea of holidays out of your | photograph in Figure 2 with your scientific brain. Work in groups to observe the beach and the plants grawing on it. Then 10, look att the you can star! to think about why the plants can grow (knowledge) so close to the beach. One idea could be that the seeds can float for a long while in the sea, without taking in any water. You can use the fell ‘with the rast of your class. ing headings to discuss your investigation. One person should be writing your ideas down, so that you can discuss them © W/bat prediction can you make about the mass of the coconut seed and the time it eponds in the soa wator? © How could you test your prediction? © What would you have to cortrol? © Write 2 plan for your investi © How could you make sure your results ware repeatable? Figure 2 Tropical beach Emre ee 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: experiment knowledge conclusion prediction observation You have loamod bofore that a cup of toa loses onergy ifitis loft standing. This is a piece of... ‘some results, and from these you make a. You make an... coloured cups will cool faster. So you make a. a blaok cup, this will cool fastast of all. You carry aut an ....... to get that dark- that if you have ‘Tne Greeks were arguably the first rue scientists. They challenged traditional myths about life. They put forward ideas that they knew would be ‘challenged. They wore keen to argue the point and come toa reasoned conclusion. ‘Other cultures relied on long-established myths and argument was seen as heresy. Com rr oe ed the starting point for an ee cas Or tae intended to explain certain Cee ye eure eect) Cas Te cal Pec crocsH2 PR ead een chou ed eats hal ccc} Cd © What Is the Importance of Cee ecu) Ped Tou td evidence is valid? eit eed between a resutt being repeatable and a result being eee Read a newspaper article or watch the news on TV. Ask yourself whether any research presented is valid. Ask yourself whether you can trust that erson’s opinion and wry. Figure 1 Cress seedlings growing ina i dish How Science Works te UC emer ee- Lele ey re) Mau ude) Science is too important for us to get it wrong ‘Sometimes it is easy to spot whan people try to use science poorly. ‘Sometimes it can be funny. You might have sean adver's claiming to give your hhair ‘body’ or sprays that give your fost ‘ft On the other hand, poor scientific practice can cost lives. ‘Some years ago a company sold the drug thalidomide to people asa sleeping pill, Research was cavried out on animals to see ifit was safe. The research cid not include work on pregnant animals. The opinion of the peopla in charge was that the animal research showed the drug could be used safely with humans. ‘Then the crug was also found to help ease morning sickness in pregnant women. Unfortunately, doctors prescribed it to many women, resulting in ‘thousands of babies being born with deformad limbs. It was far fram safe, These are very difficult decisions to make. You need to be absolutely certain of what the science is telling you. ‘Why was the opinion of the people in charge of developing thalidomide based on poor science? Deciding on what to measure: variables Variables are physical, chemical or biological quantities or characteristics. In an investigation, you normally choose one thing to change or vary. This is called the independent variable, When you change the independent variable, it may cause something alse to change. This is called the dependent variable. Accontrol variable is one that is kept the same and is not changed during the investigation, You need to know about two different types of these variables: © Acategoric variable is one that is best described by a label (usually a word). The ‘colour of eyes! is a categoric variable, e.g. blue or brown eyes. © Acontinuous variable is one that we measure, 90 its value could be any number. Temperatura (as measured by a thermometer or tamperature sensor) is a continuous variable, 2.g. 97.8", 45.2°C. Continuous variables can have values (called quantities) that can be found by making measurements (¢.0. light intensity, flow rate, etc). 'b Imagine you were growing seedlings in different volumes of water. Would it be better to say that some were tall and some were short, or some were taller than others, or to measure the heights of all the seedlings?Making your evidence repeatable, reprodu: and valid ‘When you are designing an investigation you must make sure that other people can get the same results 2s you. This makes the evidence you collect reproducible. ‘A measurement is repeatable if the original experimenter repeats the investigation using the same method and equipment and obtains the same results, ‘A measurement is raproducibla if the investigation is repeated by anothar parson, or by using cifterent equipment or techniques, and the same results are obtained. ‘You must also make sure you are measuring the actual thing you want ‘to measure. If you don't, your data can't be used to answer your original question. This seems vary obvious but itis nat always quite so easy. You need to make sure that you have controlled as many other variables as you can, 80 that no one can say that your investigation is not valid, A measurement is valid if it measures what itis supposed to measure with an appropriate level of performance. © State one way in which you can show that your results are repeatable. How might an independent variable be Ii dependent variable? Looking for a link between your independent and dependent variables is very important. The patter o your graph or bar chart can often help you to see if there is a link. ked toa But bewarel There may not be a link! If your results seem to show that there is no link, don’t be afraid to say so. Look at Figure 2. ‘The points on the top graph show a clear pattern, but the bottom graph shows random scatter. Bina atone 1 Gopy and complete this paragraph using the following words: continuous independent categoric dependent Stefan wanted to find out which was the strongest supermarket piastic carrier bag. He tested five different bags by adding weight to them until they broke. The type of bag he used was the ......... variable and the ‘weight that it took to break it was the ........ variable. The ‘type of bag’ is called a......... variable and the ‘weight needed to break’ it was a. variable. A researcher claimed that the metal tungsten ‘alters the growth of leukaemia cells’ in leboratory tests. A newspaper wrote that they would ‘wait until other sciontists had reviewed the research before giving thair opinion’. Why is this a good idea? ACA Examiner's tip ‘When designing your investigation yu should always tty to measure continuous data whonever you can. This is not always possible, so then you have to use a label (categorie variable). You might still be able to put the variables in an order so that you can spot a pattern. For example, you could describe flow rate as ‘fast flowing’, ‘stead | ‘flow’ or ‘slow flowing’. Figure 2 Which graph chows that there rmightbe a ink between x end y? a era Te Lee Aristotlo, a brillant Grook scientist, once proclaimed that men had more teeth than women! Do you think that his data collection was, reproducible? © Continuous data give more Pua ake Cros et ool Skee hedLearning objectives eed scientific knowledge to he ect) po ed Cea Ly Dead eee dod ee eta Cet Figure 1 Plant showing postive photetropism | ree ‘Some biologists think that we stil have about one hundred niilions apecios of insects to discover - plenty te go for then! Of course, observing one is the easy part - knowing that itis undiscovered is the difficult bit How Science Works Starting an investigation Observation ‘As humans we are sensitive to the world around us. We can use our many senses to detect whit Is happening, As scientists we use observations 10 ask questions. We can only ask useful questions if we know something about the observed event. We will nat have all of the answers, but we know enough to slart asking relevant questions. It we observe that the weather has been hot today, we would not ask whether itwas due to global warming. If the weather was hotter than narmal for several yeers, we could ask that question. We know that glabal warming takes many years to show Its effect. ‘When you are dasigning an investigation you have to observa carefully which variables are likely to have an effect. ‘@ Would it be reasonable to ask whether the plant in Figure 1 is ‘growing towards the glass"? Explain your answer. ‘Marmor noticed that hor corn was much smaller at the edge of the field than, in the middle (observation). She noticed that the trees were quite large on that side of the field. She came up with the following ideas that might explain why this is happening: © Tha trees at the edge of the fiald were blocking out the light. © Tha trees ware taking too many nutriants out of the soil @ The leaves from the tree had covered the young com plants in the spring. © The trees had taken too much water out of the soll. fe The seeds at the edge cf the field were genetically small plants. © The dill had planted fewer seeds on that side of the field. © The fertiliser spray had not reached the side of the field. © The wind had been too strong over winter and had moved the roots of the plants. @ Tha plants at the edge of the field had a disease. 'b Discuss each of these ideas and use your knowledge of science to decide which four are the most lkely 10 have caused the poor growth ofthe corn, Observations, backed up by really creative thinking and good scientific knowledge, can lead to a hypothesis. Testing scientific ideas Sciontists always try to think of ways to explain how things work or why they bbahave in the way that they do. ‘Aitor their obsorvations, thoy uso their undorstanding of science to come up with an idea that could explain what is going on. This idea is sometimes called a hypothesis. They use this idea to make a prediction. A prediction is like a guess, but itis not just a wild guess — itis based on previous understanding,[ _Staringan investigation Accientist will say, ‘Ifit works the way I think it does, | should be able to change this (the independent variable) and that will happen (the dependent variable.” Pradictions are what make solence 60 powerful. They mean that we can work outrules that tall us what will happen in the future. For example, electricians can predict how much current will flow through a wire when an electric cooker is connacted. Knowing this, they can choose the right thicknass of cable to use. Knowledge of energy transfer could lead to an idea that the insides of chips cook by anergy baing conducted from the outside. You might predict that ‘small, thinly sliced chips will cook faster than large, fat chips. © Lock al the photograph of a frog in Figure 2. Note down anything you find interasting. Use your knowledge and somo oreative thought to suggest a hypothesis based on your observations. Not all predictions are correct. I scientists find that the prediction doesn’t work, i’s back to the drawing board! They either amend their original idea or think of a completely new one, Starting to design a valid investigation Figure 2 arog observation + knowledge —» hypothesis —»> prediction <=» investigation Wo can tost a prodistion by carrying out an investigation. You, as tho scientist, predict that there is a relationship between two variables. ‘The independent variable is one that is selected and changed by you, the investigator. The dependent variable is measured for each change in your dependent variable, Then all other variables become control variables, kept constant so that your invastigation is a fair test. Hryour measurements are going to be accepted by other people, they must ba valid. Part of this is making sure that you ara really measuring the effect of changing your chosen variable. For example, if other variaoles aren't controlled properly, they might be affecting the data collec‘ed. Look at Figure 3. When investigating his heart rate before and ater Figure 3 Measuring a puso exercise, Darren got his ginriend to measure his puise. Would Darren's investigation be valid? Explain your answer. Aimee one Copy and complata this paragraph using the following words: ec: controlled dependent independent knowledge prediction hypothesis ea ‘An observation linked with scientific... an be used to make a Ck eens AoccliMkS AM sn VAMHRBIC to a... Variable. All other Crs variables needito be... '* Tosting prodictions can What is the difference between a prediction and a guess? ees Imagine you were testing how an enzyme affects the rate of reaction. Cee ‘The reaction might cause the solution to get hat. ee a ‘a. How could you monitor the temperature? Ce eae td b What other contol variables can you think ofthat might affect the valid results if you are to be results? neHow Science Works Planning an investigation Fair testing Afair testis one in which only the roto independent vasiabie affects the Lai dapendent variable. All ther variables SEE aca) (called contro! variables) should be kept the same. Ifthe testis no fair, the results of your invastigation will not be valid. DIU Sometimes itis very dificult to heap MEE OTE Control variables the same. However, at least you can monitor thom, so that you know whether they have changed or not. PR ead seh heal Poker seed FAQQA Examiner's tip Ityou are asked about why it i important to keep control variables constant, you need to give a delalled explanation. Don't just answar, ‘To make it a Figure 1 Com being examined fair test! When you are asked to write ‘@ Imagine you were testing how close together you could piant com to get a plen for your investigation, the most cobs. You would plant five different plots, with different make sure that you give all the numbers of plants in each plot. List some of the variables that you could eialls. Ask yourself, ‘Would not control someone alse be abla tofollow my written plan and use it to co the investigation?” ‘Surveys Not all sciontifio invostigations involve deliberately changing the indopendent variable. Imagine you were investigating tho affect of diet on diabetes. You might conduct a survey. You would have to choose people of the same age and ‘same family history to test. The larger the sample size you test, the better your results will be Control group Control groups are used in investigations ta try to make sura that you are ‘measuring the variable that you intend to measure. Wnen investigating the effects of a new drug, the control group will be given a placebo. This isa ‘pretend’ drug that actually has no effect on the patient at all. The control group think thay are taking a drug but the placebo does not contain the crug, This way you can contro! the variable of ‘thinking that the drug is werking’ and separate our the effect of the actual drug. Usually neither tho pationt nor the dostor knows until after the trials have been completed which of the patients were given the placebo. This is known as a double-blind trial,Le Risks and hazards (One of the first things you must do is to think about any potential hazards and then assass the risk. Everything you do in lifa presents a hazard. What you have to do is to identify the hazard and then decide the dearee of risk that it cives. Ifthe risk is very high, you must de something to reduce it. For example, if you decide to go out in the pouring rain, lightning Is a possible hazard. However, you decide that the risk is 0 small that you will ignore it and go out anyway, Ifyou decide to cross @ busy road, the cars travelling along it at high speed represent a hazard. You decide to reduce the risk by crossing at a pedestrian crossing. Burning foods Imagine you were testing crisps to seo how much onergy they give out when burned. © What are the hazards that are present? © What could you do to reduce the risk from these hazards? Ameen 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: investigation hazards assessment risks Before you carry out any practical... you need to carry out a risk -You can do this by looking for any potential ...... and making sure that the are as small as possible. 2 Explain the difference between a control group and a control variable. 8. Briefly describe how you would go about setting up a fair test in a laboratory investigation. Give your answer as general acvice. Figure 2 The hazard is the busy road, We reduce the risk by using a pedestian crossing, Before you start your practical work you must make sure that itis safe. What are the likely hazards? How could you reduce the risk causad by these hazards? This is known as arisk assessment. You ‘may well be asked questions like this on your ISA papor. eet fair tosting - as far as is fs eek Feu investigation. Oe ey eck hea) Fey independent variable is Cre a eee i! Ges ear Ce ua ua Rete reePR ead Sr shat Peete epic ece ee sek un Cea i koe eu suitable interval? © How do you ensure accuracy and precision? How Science Works Designing an investigation Choosing values of a variable Trial runs will tell you a lot about how your early thoughts are going to work out, Do you have the correct conditions? A photosynthes's investigation that produces tiny amounts of oxygen might, not have enough light, pondweed or carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the ‘temperature might nat be high enough. Have you chosen a sensible range? Range means the maximum and minimum values of the independent or dependent variables. Itis important to choose a suitable range for the independent variable, otherwise you may not be able to see any change in the dapendent variable. For example, ifthe results aro all very similar, you might not have chosen a wide enough range of light intensities. Have you got enough readings that are close together? “The gap batwaen the readings is known as the interval. For example, you might altr the ight intensity by moving @ lamp to different distances from the pondweed, A set of 11 readings equally spacad over a distance of 1 metie would give an interval of 10 centimeties. Ifthe results are vary different from each other, you might not see a pattem if you have large gaps between readings over the important par! of the range. Accuracy Accurate measurements are very close to the true value. ‘Your investigation should provide data tha is accurate enough to answer your original question. However ite not aways possible to know what that the tro valuo i. How do you get accurate data? @ You can repeat your measurements and your mean is more likely to be accurate, © Try repeating your measurements with a differen whether you get tha same readings. ¢ Use high-quality instruments that measure accurately €¢ The more carefully you use the measuring instruments, the more accuracy you will get. rument and seePrecision, resolution, repeatability and reproducibility A precise measurement is one in which thara is very little spread about the ‘mean value. Ifyour repeated measurements are closely grouped together, you have precision. Your measurements must be made with an instrument trat has a suitable resolution, Resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) thet gives a perceptible change the reading. It's no use measuring the time for a fast reaotion to finish using the seconds hand on a clock! If there are big differences within sets of repeat readings, you will not be able to make a valid conclusion. You won't be able to trust your datal How do you get precise data? @ You have to use measuring instruments with sufficiently small scale divisions. © You have to repeat your tesis as often as necessary. © You have to repeat your tesis in exactly the same way each time. It you repeat your investigation using the same method and equipment anc. ‘obtain the same results, your results are seid to be repeatable. Itsomeone else repeats your investigation in the same way, ori you repeat it by using different equipment or techriques, and the same results are obtained, tis s2id to be reproducible You may be asked to compare your results with those of others in your group, or with data from other scientists. Research like this is a good way of checking your results. A word of caution! Precision depends only on the extent of random errors - it gives no indication of how close resuits are to the true value. Just because your results show precision does not mean they are accurate, a Drawa thermometer scale reading 49.5" both accurata and precise. ‘showing four results that are Rte e teen 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: range repeat conditions readings runs give you a good idea of whether you have the correct. to collect any data; whether you have chosen the correct forthe independent variable, whether you have enought ......., and whether you noad to do. readings. 2 Use an example to explain how a set of repeat measurements could be accurate, but not precise. 3. Explain the difference bstween a set of results that are reproducible and 4 set of results that are repeatable. LL ACA Examiner's tip ‘You must know the difference between accurate and precise results, Imagine measuring the ‘temperature after a set time when a fuel is used to heat a fixed volume of water. “Two students repeated this, exporimont, four times each. “Their resuits are marked on the ‘thermometer scales below: © A precise set of repeat readings will be grouped closely together. © An accurate set of repeat readings will have a mean (average) close to the true value. sec 4erc (but not acuratey ut ratprecise) Como eo ad Dey Cheeni Res eee Dee ar Rees Setter between the values of a Pe Ree okie? Pe aueete wl aad accuracy and precision. '* You should try to reproduce Pete eanPR ead BAe SC Sead Cee ea Eee eT eka eee uke Me eed Feu eu il and a random error? © How does human error affect eat sci) Send Figura 1 Student tating the rate at “which oxygen is produced using an enzyme How Science Works Making measurements Using instruments ‘Try measuring the temperature of a beaker of water using a digital thermometer. Do you always get the same result? Probably nol! So can we say ‘that any measurements absolutely correct? In any experiment there wil be doubts about actual measurements, a Lock at Figure 1. Suppose, like this student, you tested the rete at which ‘oxygen was producad using an enzyme. Itis unlikaly that you would get two readings exactly the same. Discuss all the possible reasons why. ‘When you choose an instrument you need to know that it wil give you the accuracy that you want. You need to be confident that itis giving a true reading. Ifyou have used an electric water bath, would you trust the temperature (on the dial? How do you know its the true temperature? You could use a very expensive tharmomater to calibrate your water bath. The expensive thermometer is more likely to show the true temperature. But can you really be suro it is accurate? ‘You also need to be able to use an instiument properly. 1b In Figure 1 the student is reading the amount cf gas in the measuring cylinder. Why is the student unlikaly to get a true measurement? Instruments that measure the same thing can hava different sensitivities. Tha resolution of an instrument refers 10 the smallest change in a value that can be dltected, This is one factor that determines the precision of your measurements. Choosing the wrong scale can cause you to miss important data or make silly conclusions. We would nat measure the weight of a pras kilograms, we would use miligrams. ion drug in © Match the following scales to thelr best use: Used to measure Resolution of scale ‘Se cla cel rilimetres Human height metres. Length ofa running rao to test iness | micrometres Growth of seedlings centimetres Errors Even whan an instrument is used correctly, the results can still show differences. Results may differ because of random error. This is most likely to be due to @ poor measurement being made. It could be due to not carrying out the method consistently. Ifyou repeat your measurements several timas and thon caleulato a mean, you will reduce the effect of random errors.Pwaxingmeasuenscts ‘The error might be a systematic error. This means that the method was TTT carried out consistently but an error was being rapeatad. A systematic error will make your readings be spread about some value other than the tue valu. [Ifyou are asked whal may have This is bocause your results will differ from tho tua value by a consistant caused an error, never answer amount each time a measurement is made. simply ‘human error’ - you won't get any marks for this. No number of repeats can do anything about systematic errors. t you think that you have a systernatic error, you need fo repeat using a different set of equipment | You need to say what the ra diferenttechnique. Then compare your results and spot the aiferencel experimenter may have dena ‘Azeto error is one kind of systematic error. Suppose that you were trying to _| 10 Cause the erro, or give more measure the lerath of your desk with ametre rule, but youhacn*t noticed thet | etal, og, ‘Human reaction someone hed sawn off hal a centimetre from the end of the ruler. twouldn't |e might have caused an cerrorin the timing when using a ‘ter how many tir jeated the measurement, ld never get matter! iny times you reps ‘measurement, you would never g stopwatch: any nearer to the true value, Look at the table, Itshows the two seis of data that were taken from the investigation that Sara did. Sho tostod five differont volumes of enzyme. Sars’ ivetiglion into the volumes at enzymes Amount of enzyme used (mm?) 1[2[,3,4][5 ir Alecander Fleming had ‘Oxygen produced ( 32 | 80 | 05 127 | 750 | ownbacteria on agar plates. Ga) He noticed an anomaly. There Volume ot oxygen expectea em) | 31 | 04 | 97 | 125 | 71 was somemoudgrowngon Caled onvoenroducon ms) [a> | aa [0s [vee | 207 | oneeftoplaes and ecund en) itthere were no bacteria, He = = decided to investigate further 4. Discuss whether there fs any evidence of random errorinthese suits. | Ses aw meet te mou! © Discuss whether theres any evidence of systematic erorin these sults. Oniy begause Femring owcked cout his anomaly didi load to Anomalies the discovery of penicillin. Anomalous results are cleerly out of line. They are not these that are due to ‘the natural variation you get from any measurement. These should be locked at carefully. There might be a very interasting reason why they are so different. ‘You should always look for anomalous results and discard them before you Doar caloulete a mean, if necessary. © If anomalies can be identified while you ara doing an investigation, itis bast [Paina d Anil ha ‘to repeat that part of the investigation. @ Ifyou find anomalies efter you have finished collecting data for an oe investigation, they must be discarded. Pec ts Bina eee © The resolution of an Peete) 41 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: preety accurate discarded random resolution systematic detect. Coe maratC De UT Thoro will aways be some in rosults. You should always choose random and/or systematic the best instruments that you can in order to get the most... fesults. Co You must know how to ...... the instrument properly. The... of an . re Puce Cae Interesting ideas, If they are Ce cay Whet kind of error will most likely occur in the following situations? eek nett 2 Asking everyone in the class fo measur the length of the bench Cue Using @ ruler that has a piece missing from the zaro end. Petr cue instrument refers to the smallast change that can be detacted. There are two types of error— and ‘Anomalies due to random error should be...PR ead eHow do you calculate the facut etc eT Cd Se Bias Ce i Lf Figure 1 Petr cish witn discs showing grown inhibition of bacteria How Science Works Presenting data For this section you will be working with data from this investigation: Mel spread some bacteria onto a dish containing nutrient jelly. She also placed some dises onto the jolly. The discs contained differant concentrations of an antibiotic. The dish was sealed and then left for a couple of days. Then she measured the diameter of the clear part around each disc. The clear part is where the bacteria have not been able to grow. The bacteria grew all over the rest of the dish. Tables Tables are really good for getting your results down quickly and clearly. You should design your table before you start your investigation. Your table should be constructed to fit in all the data to be collected. It should ba fully labelled, including units. You may want to have extra columns for repeats, calculations of means or calouleted values. Checking for anomalies While filing in your table of results you should be constantly looking for anomalies, © Check to see whether any reading in a set of repeat readings is significantly iferent from the others. © Check to see whether the pattern you are getting as you change the jependant variable is what you expected. Remember, a result thet looks anomalous should be checked out to see iit really is a poor reading. Planning your table Mel had deciced on the values for her independant variable. We always put ‘these In the first column ofa table. The dependent varlable goes in the second column. Mol will fin its values as cho carriae out tho investigation. So she could plan a table like this Concentration of antibiotic Gugimi) ‘Size of clear zone (mm 4 @ 16 2 4 Or like this: Concentration of antibiotic (ugimi) + [8 [wl |e Size of clear zone (mm) Al she had to do in the investigation was to write the correct numbers in the second column to complete the top table,[Presenting deta Mel's results are shown in the alternative format in the table below. QU TITTIT Concentration af antibiotle (g/m!) @ [8 [6 | 2 | 6 | Pimenyoumekea table for your Size of clear zone (mm) a [16 | 2 | 26 | 28 results, remember to include: headings, inclucing the units The range of the data eatite, Pick out the maximum and the minimum values and you have the range of a When you draw a line graph or vvar'able. You should always qucte these two numbers when asked fora range. | bar chart, romomisor to: For example, the range of the dependent variable is between 4mm (the lowest | @ uso sensible scale thet is vvalue) and 28mm (the highest value) - and con't forget to include the units! easy to work out @ use as much of the graph peper es possible; your data should occupy at least a third of each axis @ label both axes of best fit ‘a Whatis the range for the independent variable and for the dependent variable in Mel's cat of date? The mean of the data Cfton you have to find tho moan of oach repoated sot of measurements. ‘The first thing you should do is to look for any anomalous resuits. If you find any, miss these out of the calculation. Then add together the remaining measurements and divide by how many there are, For example: © Mel takes four readings, 15mm, 18mm, 29mm, 15mm © 29mm is an anomalous result and so is missed out. So 15 +18 + 15 = 48 © 48 divided by thrae ithe number of valid results) = 16mm ‘The repeat values and mean can be recorded as shown below: © draw lina graph @ label each bar ifitis a bar chart. ACA Examiner’s tip ‘Marks are often dropped in the ISA by candidates plotting Concentration of antibietio ‘Size of clear zone (rm) points incorrectly Also use Wain) pceroar| casey Tala (rasa aline of best fit where ee res appropriate — don't just join the points ‘dot-to-dot! a 15 18 6 16 Displaying your results Bar charts Ione of your variables is categorie, you should use a bar chart, LOTS ee Line graphs ert Ifyou have a continuous independent and a continuous dependent variable, a Ve fe graph should be used, Plot the points as small ‘plus’ signs (+. Aurea eed De aoe Res 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following worde: categorio continuous mean range ‘The maximum and minimum values show the ofthe data. The Sr EES ‘sum of he values in a set of rapeat readings divided by the ‘otal number Lasts of these repeat values gives the... Bar char's are used when «© Bar charts are used when ee Same oem eee variable. Line graphs are used when you have... independent and a dependent variables. to dloplay data thet are 2 Draw a graph of Mat's resulis from the top of this page. Ces reHow Science Works Using data to draw conclusions Identifying patterns and relationships Now that you have a bar chart or a line graph of your results you can begin to PR ead EE cok for pattems. You must have an open mind at this point. ond pattorns? First, there could stl be some anomalous results. You might not have picked! ‘these out earlier. How do you spot an anomaly? It must bea significant ee distance away from the pattern, not just within normal variation, If you do have Leibalablipbiehenlsediintly any anomalous results plotted on your graph, circle these and ignore them CEG SCIGE when drawing the line of best fit. rata Now look at your graph. Is there a pattern that you can see? When you have Conclusions trom decided, draw a line of best fit that shows this patter. een id Aline of best fits a kind of visual averaging process. You should draw the LOU NIST ine so that it leaves es many points slightly above the line as there are points Rd balow. In other words itis a line that steers a middle course through the fiald of points. ‘The vast majority of rasuits that you get from continuous data require a line of best iit Remember, a line of best ft can be a straight line oritcan be a curve - you have to decide from your results. ‘You nead to consider whether your graph shows a linear relationship. This simply means, can you be confident about drawing a straight line of best fit on your graph? Ifthe answer is yes —is this lina positive or nagative? ‘a Say whether graphs i and iin Figure 1 show a positive or a negative linear relationship. Look at the graph in Figure 2. It shows a positive linear relationship. Italso goes through the origin (0,0). We all this a directly proportional relationship. A\4 ‘Your results might also show a curved line of best fit. These can be predictable, complex or very complex! Look at Figure 3 below. a b Figure 1 e relationships z bs s 3 8 Tine “Temperature Alrtemperaure © ° o Time Figure 2 Graph showing a directy Figure 3 a Grach showing predictable resuts b Graah showing complex results ¢ Graph a relationship showing very complex oaultsSr Drawing conclusions If there is @ pattern to be seen (for example as one variable gets bigger the other also gets bigges), it may be that: © changing one has caused the other to change © the two are related, but one Is not necessarlly the cause of the other. Your conclusion must go no further than the evidence that you have. Looking at relationships ‘Some people think that watching too much television can cause an increase in violence. The table shows the number of talavision sets in the UK for faur different years, and the number of murders committad in those years. ‘Year| Numberof televisions (nillions) | Number of murders 1970 6 310 1980 25 500 80 2 350 ‘When you read scientific you read scier 2000 £0 750 claims, think carefully about the Plot 2 graph to show tha relationship. Do you think this proves that evidence that should be there watching television causes violence? Explain your answer. to back up the claim. Poor science can often happen if a wrong decision is made here. Newapapers have said that living near electricity substations can cause cancer. Allthat sclentists would say is that there is possibly an association. Evaluation ‘You will often be asked to evaluate eithar the method of the investigation or the conclusion that has been reached, Ask yourself: Could the method have been c 4 © Drawing lines of best fit helps improved? Is the ccnolusion that has been made a valid one? P netusion a * ee Smee eee peut 1 Gopy and complete this paragraph using the following words: Weta Sane anomalous complex directly negate positive Clg, Lines of best fit can be used to identity results. Linear eer mle uel reletonsbips oan be nf nnn fa ereight lino goes through the ee origin of a graph, the relationship is proportional. Often a line of best fit is a curve which can be predictable or Creu eee cy Nasma knew about the possiple link between cancer and living near es to electricity substations. She found a quote from a National Grid Company survey af substations: ‘The reproducibility of data, . Cope) ‘Measurements of the magnetic field were taken at 0.5 metres above prprenshernmnn nest ground ‘evel within 7 metre of fences and revealed 1.9 miorotesas. After by othere, perhape onthe 5 metres this dropped to the normal levels measured in any house. nan pepe ers Discuss the type of experiment and the data you would expect to see to CL eae ‘support a conclusion that itis safe to build houses over 5 mates from Dea helo) an electricity substation. RotaPR ead Sera Poveda te aac aed uated ed Oe eid Re eet See Ly Pea eT CCL ‘Asscientist who rejected the idea of a causal link between smoking and lung cancer was lator found to be being paid by a tobacco company. KO Ifyou are asked about bias in scientific evidence, there are ‘two types: ‘© the measuring instruments may have introduced a bias because they were not calibrated correctly «the scientists themselves may have @ biased opinion (e9 ifthey are paid by a company to promote their produc). How Science Works Seu Ur RUL Reeling Now you have reached a conclusion about a piece of scientific research. So ‘what is next? If itis pure research, your fellow scientists will want to look at it very carefully. fit affects the lives of ordinary people, society will also want to examine it closely, ‘You can help your cause by giving a balanced account of what you have found out. Itis much the same 2s any argument you might have. If you make ridiculous claims, nobody will beliave anything you have to say. Be open and honest. Ifyou only tell part ofthe story, sameone will want to know why! Equally, it somebody is only telling you part of the truth, you cannot bbe confident about anything they aay. @ Adisinfectant claims thatit kills 99.99% of germs on surfaces that you come in contact with every day. What is missing? Is itimportant? ‘You must be cn the lockout for people who might be biased when presenting scientific evidence. Some scientists are paid by companies to do research. ‘When you are told that a cartain product is harmless, just chack out who is telling you. 'b Bottles of perfume spray contain this advice: This finished product has not been tested on animals.’ Why might you mistrust this statoment? ‘Suppose you wanted to know about how to slim. Who would you be more likely to believe? Would it be a scientist working for ‘Stim Kwi independent scientist? Sometimes the differences are not quite so obvious. We also hava to he very careful in reaching judgaments according to who is presenting scientific evidence to us. For example, ifthe evidence might provoke public or political problems, it might be played down. Equally, otners might want to exaggerate the findings. They might make more of the resulta than the evidence suggests. Take as an example the data available on animal research. Animal liberation followers may well present the same evidence completely differently to pharmaceutical companies wishing to dovolop now drugs. © Check out some websites on smoking and lung cancer. Do a balanced review looking at tobacco manufacturers as well as anti-smoking lobbies such as ASH. You might also check out government websites.‘The status of the experimenter may place more weight on evidence. Suppose a lawyer wants to convince a jury enquiry that a particular piace of scientific evidence is valid. The lawyer wil choose the most erninent scientist in that eld who is likaly to support them. Cot deaths are a particularly difficult problem ‘for the police. Ifthe medical evidence suggests that the baby might have been murdered, the prosecution and the defence get the most eminent scientists to argue the validity of the evidanca. Who does the jury believe? EXPERT WITNESS IN COT DEATH COURT CASE MISLED THE JURY ‘or ghirg seriously o'a woven bong id abuco expert was ack of a5 doctor ‘Atoaingesdchce na cnr camp The po cese Tray banc of murdering Fer wo cre. The limitations of science Science can help us in many ways but it cannot supply all the answers. We aro still finding out about things and developing our scientific knowledge. For example, the Hubble telescope has helped us to revise our ideas about the beginnings of the universe, ‘There are some questions that we cannot answer, maybe because we do not have enough reproducible, repeatable and valid evidence. For example, resaarch into the causes of cancer still needs much work to be done to provide data, There are some questions that science cannot answer at all. Thesa tend to be questions where beliefs, opinions anc ethics are important. For example, science can suggest what tho universe was like when it was first formod, but cannot answer the question of why it was formed. Ane 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: status balanced bias political Evidence from sciontific investigations should be given in a... Way. lt must be checked for any __... from the experimenter. Evidence ‘can be given too little or too much weight iit is of........ significance. The of the experimanter is likely to influence people in their judgement of the evidence. 2 Collect some nawspaper articles to show how scientific evidence is used. Discuss in groups whether these articles are honest and fair representations of the science. Consider whethar they carry any bias. This is the opening paragraph from a review of GM foods. The UK government has been promoting ... a review of the science of GM, led by Sir David King (the Government's Chief Scientific Adviser) working witi Protessor Howard Dalton (the Chief Scientific Adviser 10 the Secretary of State for the Environment, Food and Rural Aifairs), with independent advice from the Food Standards Agency. Discuss this paragraph and decide vihich parts of it make you want to belleve the evidence they might give, Next, consider which parts make you mistrust any conclusions they might reach. [ Scientitc evidenceand soctety Science can often lead to the development of naw matarials or techniques. Sometimes. these cause a problem for society where hard cnoices ave to be made. Scientists can give us the anewors to many questions, but not to every question. Scientists have a cortribution to make to a debate, but sodo others such as environmentalists, economists and politicians. Figure 1 The Hubble epace faloscope can look deop into space ard tll us ‘ings aoour the Universe's begioning ‘rom the formations of eerly galaxies ene Such that points out clearly how Peta Sect) contain any bias from the edad sets checked to appreciate Neder Poe Deas eae er Cea the weight placed on the CeeRu eae rsa ened Cece Pie eects © How do you arrive at a ere ca ‘When you are making a blank table or drawing a graph or bar chart, make sure that you use full heacings, eg, @ the length of the lea’, not just ‘length’ © the time taken for the reaction’, not just ‘time’ @ the height from which the ball was dropped’, not just ‘height’ and don't forget to include any units. How Science Works There are several different stages to the ISA (Investigate Skills Assignmant) ‘that you will complete for your Controlled Assessment. This will make up 25% of your GCSE marks. Stage 1 Your teacher will tall you the problem that you are going to investigate, and you will have to develop your own hypothesis. They will also set the problem in a context - in other words, where In real fe your investigation could bbe useful. You should have & discussion about it, and talk about different ways in which you might solve the problem. Your teachar should show you the equipment ‘that you can use, and you should resaarch one or two possible ‘methods for carrying out an ‘exporiment to test the hypothesis. ‘You should also research the context and do a risk assessment for your practical wor. You will be allowed to make one side of notes on this research, which you can take into the written part of the ISA Figure 1 Doing practical work allows you to develop bre skils needed to do wall the ISA You should be ellovred to handle the equipment and you may be allowed to carry out a preliminary experiment. ‘Make sure that you understand what you have to do - nowis the time to ask questions if you are not sure, Section 1 of the ISA ‘At the ond of this stage, you will anewor Section 1 of the ISA. You will need to: © develop a hypothesis © identity one or more variables that you nead to control © describe how you would carry out the main experiment © Identify possible hazards and say what you would do to reduce any risk © make a blank table ready for your results. What features should you include in your written plan? What should you include in your blank tablo? ooStage 2 AC QA Examiner's tip ‘This is whore you carry out the experiment and get some rasuts. Dor'twory — P'when you are comparing your too much about soending a long time getting fantastically accurate results -it | conclusion with the Fypethesis, ie more important to get some results that you can analyee. make sure that you also tak about tho oxtent to which your results support the hypothasis. Which of these answers do ‘© How do you decide whather you should draw a bar chart or a lino graph? you think would score the most After you have got results, you will have to compare your results with those of others. You will also have to draw a graph or a bar chart. marks? ‘© My results suppor the Stage 3 hypothosie. ‘This ie whero you answor Section 2 of the ISA. Section 2of the ISA isall about | @ Inmy results, asx got your own results, so make sure that you look at your table and graph when bigger, y gotbigger, as you are answering this section. To get the best marks you will need to quote stated in the hypothesis. some data from your results. © Inmy results, ao x got oo bigger. y got bigger. as, stated in the hypothesis, but unlike the hypothesis, y stopped increasing after a while, Section 2 of the ISA In this section you will need to: © say what you were trying to find out © compare your results with those of others, eaying whether you think they are similar or different analyse data that is given in the paper. This data will be in the same topic area as your investigation ideas from your own investigation to answer questions about this © write a conclusion © compare your conclusion with tha hypothesis you have tested. ‘You may neod to change or oven reject your hypothesis in response to vyour findings. Poh ha) Pi ee eri ee ca kd Pues) a hot! Behe ed Tue yee say how you are going to Eine eter 1 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: cet ab ay ial control independent dependent Stet ‘When writing a plan, you need to state the varieble thet you are Secpheto hii daliberetely going to change, called the variable. You also need het eatin to say what you expect will change because of this; this is called the ‘Always refer back to the ~~ Variable. You must also say what......... variables you will keep hypothesis when you aro constant in order to make ita fair test. Seas tos Aire ceeGCM) Summary questions a Put these words into order. They should be in the order that you might use them in an investigation. design; prediction; conclusion; method; sepeat; controls; graph; results; table; improve; safety; ‘hypothesis 2) a How would you tell the differance between an opinion that was scientific anc a biased or prejudiced opinion? b Suppose you were describing tha height of piants ‘or some fieldwork. What type of variable would you choose and why? You might havo observed that lichons do not grow whore there is air pollution. You ask the question why. You use ‘some theory to answer the question. a Explain what you understand by the term ‘hypothesis’ Sulfur cioxide in the air forms acids that attack the lichens. This is a hypothesis. Develop this into a radiation © Explain why a prediction is more useful than a hypothesis, Suppose you have tasted your prediction and have some data. What might this do for your hypothesis? Suppose the data does not support the hypothesis. ‘What should you do to the theory that gave you the hypothesis? @ a Whatdo you understand by a ‘fair test"? b Explain why setting up a fair test in fieldwork is, difficult, ¢ Describe how you can make your results valid in fieldwork. d Suppose you were carrying out an investigation into how pulse rates vary with exeroise. You would noed to carry out a trial. Describe what a trial would tell you about how to plan your method. 5 Suppose you were watching a friend carry out an’ investigation measuring the carbon dioxide produced by yeast cells. You have to mark your friend on how: accurately she is making her measurements. Make a list of points that you would be leaking for. How do you decide on the range ofa set of data? How do you calculate the mean? When should you use a bar chart? When should you use a lina graph? aoce 1% a What should happon to anomalous results? b What does a line of best ft allow you to do? ¢ When making a conclusion, what must you take into consideration? d_How can you check on the repeatability and reproducitilty of your results?@ a Why is it important when reporting science to ‘tell he truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth’? b Why might some poople be tempted not to bo ‘completely fair when reporting their opinions on scientific data? @ a ‘Science can advance tachnology and tachnology can advance science.’ What do you think is meant by this statment? b Who should answor the questions that start vit ‘Should we... 10 Look at the electron micrograoh image below. Stomata are very small holes in the leaves of plants. They allow carbon dioxide to diffusa into the leaf cells for photosynthesis. The size of the hole is controlled by guard cells. It was suggested that the size of the hole might affect the rata at which carbon dioxide diffused through the hole. End of chapter questions Stomata are very small holes (when fully open they are 40-20 ym in diamatar). The question was: Aro small holes better than large holes? This would seem reasonable as plants have very small stomata, The hypothesis was that small holes would allow more carhon dioxide to pass through than large holes. Itwas decided to use much largar holes than the stomata because it would be easier to get accurate measurements. The investigation was carried out and the results ware as follows. Diameter ot hole | Volume of CO, diffusing per hour (eum (eon) 227 oz 124 10 60 006 82 os 20 002 a What was the observation on which this investigation was based? b What was the original hypothesis? © What was the likely prediction? d What was the independent variable? What was the dependent variable? What is the range for the diameter of the hole? g Why was the temperature kept the same during the investigation? h Was this @ sensible range of size of holes to use? Explain your answer. How could the investigation be made more repeatable and reproducible? | Was the sensitivity of the instrument measuring volumes of CO, satisfactory? Provide come evidence for your answar from the data in the table. k Draw a graph of the results in the table above, 1 Describe the pattem in these results, m What conclusion can you inake? 1 Does your conclusion support the prediotion?Learning objectives errors Corea cud aruda lots of food without getting a tri Cert ‘Whether you prafar sushi, dahl, Cor roast chicken, you need to cat a varied diet that includes everything you need to keep your body healthy. Figure 2 Athletes have 2 great deal cf rmuscie tissue so they have to eat alot of Keeping healthy Diet and exercise What makes a healthy diet? (9 A balanced diet contains the correct amounts of © carbohydrates proteins fats @ vitamins © minerals © fibre © water. ‘Your body uses carbohydrates, proteins and fats to release the energy you need to live and to build new cells. You need mall amounts of vitamins and minerals for your body to work healthily. Without them ‘you will suffor doficioncy Figure 1 Abalanced ct provides everything you diseases. it youdon'thave a need 10 surwwve, cluding plenty of energy balanced diet then you will end Fortunately, in countries like the UK, most of us take in all the minerals and vitarrins we need from the food wa eat. Howaver, our diet can easily be unbalanced in terms of the amount of energy we take in. if we take in too much energy we put on weight. If we don't take in enough we become underweight. Itisn't always easy to get it right because cifferent people need different amounts of energy. Even if you eat a lot, you can still lack vitamine and minerals if you don't eat the right food. ‘@ Why de you need to eat food? How much energy do you need? The amount of energy you naed to live depends on lots of diferent things. ‘Some of these things you can change and some you cart. Males need to take in more energy than a famale of the same aga — unless she is pregnant Ifyou are a teenager, you will need more energy than if you are in your 708, b Why does a pregnant woman need more energy than a woman who isn't pregnant? Your food supplies anergy to your muscles as they work. So the amount of exercise you co affects the amount of enargy you need. If you do very litte exercize, then you don't need as much food. The more you exeraige the more food you nead to take in. sod to supply the energy hey need ©ee People who exercise regularly are usually much fitter than people who take litle exercise. They make bigger muscles — up to 40% of thai body mass. ‘Muscle tissue transfers much more energy than fet. Bul exercise doasn't always mean time epont training or ‘working out' in the gym. Walking to school, running around the house looking after small children or Going a physically active job all count as exercise too. © Why do athletes need to eat more food than the average person? ‘The temperature where you live affects how much energy you need as well In warmer countrias you need to eat less food. This is because you use less energy keeping your body temperature at a steady level. The metabolic rate Think ofa friend who is very sirilar in age, gender and size to you. Despite these similarities, you may need cuite different amounts of energy in your diet. This 's because the rate of chemical reactions in your cells (the metabolic rate) varies irom person to porson. Men generally have a higher metabolic rate than vomen, The proportion of, muscle to fat in your body affects your motabelic rate, Men cftan have 2 higher Proportion of muscie to fat than women. You can change the proportion of muscle to fat in your body by exercising. This will build up more muscle, ‘Your metabolic rate is also affected by the amount of activity you do. Exercise ‘creases your metabolic rate for a time even after you stop exercising. ‘Scientists think that your basie metabolic rate may be affected by genetic facto’s you inherit from your parents. This is an example of how inherited factors can affect our health. Figure 2 If you wark somewhere realy cold your metabolic rate wil coup to Freep you warm. You wil raed o's of fat ia your dietto supaly the energy you need, Glunre a tore 11 What is ‘a balanced diet’? 2 a Why do you need more energy in your diet when you are 18 than when you are 807 b Why does a top athiete need more energy in their diet than you do? Where does the energy in the dist come from? 8 a Whatis the 'matabolic rate’? 'b Explain why some people put on weight more easily than others, ear Between 60-75% of your daily energy neads are used up in the basic reactions needed to koop you alive. About 10% is neaded to digest your food and only the final 15-30% is affected by your physical oe “Metabolic rate’ refers to the chemical reactions which take place in cells. Otoko Pee ere aL ee ee ed ee Cee eee eek ead Seco Pe hieKeeping healthy Weight problems Obesity Learning objectives Ifyou take in more energy than you use, the excess is stored as fat. You SR reulcatend need some body fat to cushion your internal organs. Your fat also acts as an DS EISELE energy store for when you don't feel like eating. But if someone eats 2 lot more BT icnn — f00d than they need, this is a form of malnourishment. Over time they could Ci become or even obese. rrr Carrying too much weight is often inconvenient and uncomfortable. Obesity per rer can also lead to serious health problems such as arthritis, type 2 diabetes Peer one eee (high bicod sugar levals which are hard to contral), high blood pressure and heart clsease. Obese people are more likely to dle at an earlier age than non-obese people. ‘a What health problems are linked to obesity? Losing weight ‘Many people want to be thinner. This might be for their health or just to look otter. You gain fat by taking in more energy than you need. You lose when the energy content at your food is less than the energy you use in your Figure 1 inspite of some of the media daily life. There are three main ways you can lose mass, hype, most people ae not obese — but theamcunt ofwaight people cary vaies © YOucan reduce the amount of energy you take in by cutting back the agrest deal ‘amount of food you eat. In particular, you can cut down on energy-rich foods like biscuits, crisps and chips. You can increase the amount of energy you use by doing more exercise. © The best way to lose weights to do both - reduce your energy intake and exercise morel Scientists talk about ‘mass’, but most people talk about losing weight. Many poople find it easior to lose weight by attending slimming groups. At these ‘weekly meetings thay get lots of advice and supgort from other slimmers. Al slimming programmes invclve eating fewer energy-rich foods and/or taking Exercise can make you healthier by helping to control your weight. It increases the amount of energy used by your body and increases the proportion of muscle to fat. it can make your heart healthier too. However, you need to take care. if you auddenly start taking vigorous exerciae, you can cause cther health problems. Fitness inetructore can measure the proportion of your body that is made up of fat. They can advise on the right food to eat and the exercise you need to become thinner, ter, or both. Different slimming programmes approach weight loss in different ways. Many simply give acvice on healthy living. They advise lots of fruit and vegetables, avoiding too much fat or too many calorias and plenty of exercise. Soma are more extreme and suggest that you cut out almost all ot ihe fat or the carbohydrates from your diet. Figure 2 Fitness instructors car help ith improving health and ftness, What must you do to lose weight?Ee ‘You can find lots of slimming products in the supermarket. Used in the right way, they can help you to lose weight. Some people claim that ‘slimming teas’ or ‘herbal pilis’ will enable you to eat what you like and still lose weight. © What cert of evidence would you look for to decide which approaches to losing weight work best? Figure 3 Slimming producis can help you lose weight, bt onl if you control the total ‘amount of energy you takin Lack of food In some parts of the world many poople are underweight and malncurishad bacause there is not enough food to eat. Civil wars, droughts and pests can all destroy local crops. Deficiency diseases, due to lack of mineral ions and vitamins, are common in both children and acults when they never have enough food. Deficiency diseases can also occur if you do nat have a balanced diet Aine cee 1 Copy and complete using the words bal energy fat less more obese lf you take in more.........than you use, the excess is stored as... If Yyou eat too much ovar a long period of time, you will eventually become -To lose weight you need 10 @at ANG EREICISE on. 2 Why co paople who are vary thin, and some people who are obese, suffer from deficiency diseases? 3 One slimming programme controls your food intake. Another controls your focd intake but also has an exercise programme. Which do you think would be the most effective? Explain your answer. ‘The number of obese and ‘overweight people is growing. ‘The WHO (World Health Orgerisation) says over 1 billion adults worldwide are now overweight or obese. Emo ‘The word ‘malnourished’ can be used to describe people who do nat have a balanced Giet. They may have too little food or too much food, er take in the wrong combination of foods. Oe ua than you use, you will store Cees ‘© Obese people have more Pell ieee u Reon Bihan) Cee) Pee cscs Dae eel Ce usLeaming objectives Oecd affect your health? ou ccd ee ceed D links For information on metabolic rato, look back at B1 1.4 Diot and exercise. The maximum healthy blood cholesterol is given as 6mmot/, Smmol/i and 4mmolfl on different medical websites. Scientists dort always agree! Figure 2 Next time you eat a burger and ‘es, think ebout all the fat you ave taking in. Wil your Body be able @ deal with (oF are your blood cholestero levels about Keeping healthy Inheritance, exercise and health Inheriting health Inhecited factors from your parents affect your appearance, such s the colour ef your eyes. They also have a big effect on your heaith. They atfect your metabolic rate, which affects how easily you lose and gain mass. Being overweight has a bad effect on your health, Inherited factors affect ‘the proportion of muscle to fat in your body. They also affect your risk of heart disease, partly because they influence ts the lovels of cholesteralin your blood. Figure 1 Loisofthings fect your health your diet, how much sxarcse you tke ard whet you inher from your perents BPS IN EON Controlling cholesterol Tho way your body balances cholestoral is an example of how an inherited factor can affect your health. You need cholesterol for your cell membranes, and to make vital hormones. There are two forms of cholesterol carried around your kody in your blood. One form is healthy but the other can cause health problems. If the balance of your cholesterol levels is wrong, your risk of getting heart disease increases, ‘@ Why do you need cholesterol in your body? The way your liver deale with the fat in your diet and makes the different ‘types of cholasterolis inharited from your parents. For most people, eating a balanced diet means your liver can keep the balance of cholesterol right. Eating lots of high-fat food means you are likely to have raised levels of harmful cholesterol and an increased risk of heart disease. But 1 in every 600 people inhart factors which mean they will have high levols of harmful cholesterol and an increased risk of heart disease whatever they eat. This is an example of how an inherited factor can affect your health eoe e and health Scientists have collected lots of evidence about exercise and health. It shows that people who exercise regularly are generally healthier than people who don’t do much exarcise. The graph in Figure $ shows the results of an ‘American study published in tha journal Circulation. 6213 man were studied, ‘The least active men were 4.5 times more likely to die early than the ‘test, most active mon. Exe! Feat oko dat beast Increased levels of acivty ~ awe Figure 9 The ofect of exercise on rick of death (Source: Jonathan Myere, Circulation, 2003) ‘These are some of the scientific explan: healthy. @ You are lass likely to be overweight if you exercise regularly. This is parily because you will be using more energy. © You will have more muscle tissue, which will Increase your metabolic rate. It you can control your weight, you aro loss likely to be afooted by problems: such as arthritis, diabetes and high blood pressure. © Your cholesterol levels are atfected by exercise. Regular exercise lowers your blood cholesteral levels. It also helps the balance of the cifierent types of cholesteral. When you exercise, your good cholesterol level goes up and the harmful cholesterol level goes down. This lowers your risk of heart disease and other health problems. ns why exercise helps to keep you b How could you change your cholesterol levels? Eten toy Copy and complete using the words below: heart metabolic inherited cholesterol balance Key points There are... factors such as your rate that can affect your ne health. The way your liver makes is inherited and ifthe... of pierre iit inn cholesterol is wrong it can increase your risk cf... disease. our metabolic rate and Why are people who exercise regularly usually healthier than people Canela who take litle exercise? CEC Using the data in Figure 3, which group of people do you think ere most Fete ae cod at risk of death? Why do you think this might bo? What could they do to Dora reduce the risk? cesKeeping healthy = Pathogens and disease Infectious 1e8 are found all LanMi RODS over tha warld, in every country. Soma ee ey diseases are falily mild ones, such as the common cold and ‘onsilitis. Other Sane diseases are known killers, such as Cd tetanus, influenza and HIV/Aids. OTE TT) © Aninfectious disease is caused by a chango the way we look at microorganism entering and attacking creer your body. People can pass these microorganisms from one person Figure 1 Mary bacteria are very useful to.anothor. This iewhat we mean by __‘BLSome keh co, can cause infectious. Microorganisms which cause disease are called pathogens. Common pathogens are bacteria and viruses. ‘a What causas infectious diseasas? The differences between bacteria and viruses Bacteria are single-celled and plant cells. \g organisms thet are much smaller than animal ‘Although some bacteria cause disease, many are harmless and some are really useful to us. We use them to make food like yoghurt and cheese, to treat sewage and to make medicines, Viruses are even smaller than bacter'a. Thay usually have regular shapas. Viruses cause diseases in every type of living organism from people to bactoria. Figure 2 These tobacco mosaic vinses _b_ How do viruses differ from bacteria? alse clsease in plants, How pathogens cause disease (Once bacteria and viruses are inside your body they reproduce rapidly. This is how thoy make you ill Bacteria simply split in two - they ofton produce toxins (poisons) which affect your body. Sometimes they diractly damage your cells. Viruses take over the cells of your body as they reproduce, damaging and dastroying the calls. They very rarely producs toxins. Common disease symptoms are a high temperature, headaches and rashes. ‘These are caused by the damage and toxins produced by tha pathogens. ‘The symptoms also appear as a result of the way your body responds to the damage and toxins, CO links ‘You catch an infectious disease when you pick up a pathogen from someone For more information on bacteria _olsa who is infootod with tho cisoaso. that are resistart io antibiotics, se= B1 1.8 Changing pathogens. ‘© How do pathogens make you feel il?Le The work of Ignaz Semmelweis Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis was a doctor in the mid-1850s. Atthe time, many women in hospital died from childbed fever a few days after giving birth. However, no one knew what caused it. ‘Semmelweis noticed something about his medical students. Tey went straight from dissecting a dead bocy to delivering a baby without washing their hands. He wondered if hey were carrying the cause of disease from ‘tho corpses to their patients. Then another doctor cut himself while working en a body. He died from symptoms which were identical to childbad faver. Semmelweis was sure that the fever was caused by something that could be passed on - some kind of infectious agent. He insisted that his medical students wash their hands before delivering babies. Immediately, fewer mothers died from the fever. jeas accepted talked to other doctors. He thought his evidence would prove ‘to them that childbed fever was spread by doctors. But his ideas were mocked. ‘Many doctors thought that chided fever was God's punishment to womon, No one had ever sean bacteria or viruses. So it was hard to believe that disease was caused by something invisible passed from person to person, Doctors didn’t like the idea that they might have been spreading disease. They were baing told that their actions had killed patients instead of curing them. In hospitals today, bacteria such as MASA, which are resistant to antibiotics, are causing lots of problems. Getting doctors, nurses and visitors to wash their hands more often is part of the answer - just as it was in Semmelwais's timel Copy and complete using the words below: toxins viruses microorganisms reproduce pathogens damage symptoms bacteria ‘The ........ which cause infectious diseases are known as... eeeein BND one Q6t INSIde your body they rapidly. They . your tissues and may produce ........ which cause the Give five examples of things we now know we can do to reduce the spread of pathogens to lower the risk of disease, @.g, hand-washing in hospitals. White a letter by Ignaz Sammelweis to a friend explaining how he formed his ideas and the struggle to get them accepted. Ce ‘Semmelweis couldn't bear to think of the thousands of women wha died because thor dectors ignored findings. By the 1860s he suffered a mejor broakdown and in 1865, aged only 47, he ied — from an infection picked up froma patient during an operation. Figure 8 Ignaz Semmeheis—his batloto get medical laf to wach thei hands to prevent infections is sill going on today Pen eet Cor ae od Co dip etree! bacteria and viruses, Teen eee eda dace a emer uae ty Poe es eu eat Se kd Cd tes eee kad Pe ede) ea tae Cette CeLearning objectives ‘@ How does your body stop Pathogens getting In? cd bol Peet utr Figure 2 When you get a cut, the Platelets in your blood set up a chain of ‘vonts to fotm a cat that cies toa acab. ‘Tis stops pathogens trom geting int your body It also stops you bleeding to th =| Keeping healthy Defence mechanism There are a number of ways in which pathogens spread ftom one person 1o another. The more pathogens that gat into your body, the more likely itis that you will get an infectious disease. Droplet infection: When you cough, sneeze or talk you expel tiny droplets full Giia\\ of pathogens from your Figure 1 Droplets carrying rrilions of pathogens fy fut of your mouts and nese at up to 100 miles an breathing system. Other hour uhen you sneeze people breathe in the droplets, along with the pathogens they contain. So they pick up the infection, o.g. flu (influenza), tuberculosis or the common cole. Direct contact: Some diseases are spread by direct contact of the skin, e.g, impetigo and some sexually transmitted diseases like genital herpes. Contaminated food and drink: Eating raw or undercooked food, or drinking water containing sewage can spread disease, e.g. diarthoea er salmonellosis. ‘You get these by taking large numbers of microorganisms straight into your gut ‘Through a breakin your skin: Pathagons oan enter your body through cuts, scratches and needle punctures, 2.9. HIV/Aids or hepatitis. ‘When people live in crowded conditions, with no sewage treatment, infer diseases can spread very rapidly. ‘a Whatare the four main ways in which infectious diseases are spread? Preventing microbes getting into your body Each day you come across millions of disease-causing rnicroarganisins. Fortunately your bady has several ways of stopping these pathogors gatting inside. Your skin covers your body and acts as a barrier. It prevents bacteria and viruses from reaching the tissues beneath that can be infected, Ityou damage or out your skin you bleed. Your blood quickly forms a clot which dries into a scab. The scab forms a seal over the cut, stopping pathogens getting in through the wound, ‘Your breathing systom could be a woak link in your body dafonces. Every time you breathe you draw air full of pathogens inside your body. However, your breathing system produces sticky liquid, called mucus. This mucus covers ‘the lining of your lungs and tubes. I traps the pathogens. Tha mucus is then moved out of your body or swallowed down into your gut. Then the acid in your atomach destroys the microorganiams. In the same way, the stomach acid destroys most of the pathogens you take in through your mouth. b What are the three main ways in which your body prevents pathogens from getting in?[_Detonce mechanisms | How white blood cells protect you from disease In spite of your body's dafance mechanisms, some pathogens still got inside your body. Once there, they will meet your second line of defence - the white blood cells of your immune system. ‘The white biood cells help to defend your body against pathogens in several ways. ‘Table 1 Ways in which your white blood ceils destray pathogens and protect you against sense Role of white blood cell Ingesting microorgarieme 22 pot.oe erzonss Y iain Ors = Whit blood cll =. attached to antigen Producing antitoxine ‘Antioxin molecule Toxin ane mann Oy terenee Coa motu ‘pactetum How it protects you against dl Some white blood oelle ingest (take in) pathogens, cestroying them so they cant make youll, ‘Some white blood cells produce special ‘chemicals called antibodies These target particular bacterla or viruses and destray ther. ‘You nead @ unique antbocy for each type ot pathogen. Once your white bleed elle have produced antibodies once against a particular pathogen, they can be made very qulckly that pathogen geis into the body again. ‘Some white blood cells produce antitaxins, ‘These counteract (cancel out) the toxine (poisons) released by pathogens. Bie to Explain how diseases are spread by: a droplet infection bb direct contact © contaminated food and drink d entry through a cut in the skin Cortain dissases moan you cannot fight infoctions vary wall. Explain why the following symptoms would make you less able to cope with pathogens. ‘a Your blood wor't clot properly. b The number of white cal’s in your blood falls. Here are three common things we do. Explain carefully how each one helps to prevent the spread of disease. ‘a Washing your hands betore preparing a salad. b Throwing away tissues after you have blown your nose. ¢ Making sure that sewage does not get into drinking water. Explain in detall how the waite blood cells in your body work. terre ae) Mucus predced from your nose turns gfesn wen you have a cold Mishappors bocauvo some while Bood calls contain green coloured enzymon,Thove white blood calls destroy the cold viruses dd any bacteria nthe mucus Sryourone when yeu have cold Te dead white bood calle slong with the dead bacteria and vruses are removes in tho muove, making it look green. DO links For more information about the biood, see B3 2.3 Transport inthe blood, Pome odd tan De kak aera) Di ni Loacod pathogens using the skin, St yar) system and the clotting of CO Sao help to defend you against Sad thom, making antibodios and DeeKeeping healthy Using drugs to treat disease ‘Whon you have an injeotious disease, you generally take medicines which contain Ru Kec T=pq 7 useful drugs. Often the medicine doesn't whl Min aifect the pathogen that is causing the eeu cence problems. It just eases the symptoms and ere | (Takes you feel better eet eet To is) Drugs lke aspirin and paracetamol are viruses? vory useful 8 painkillers. When you have a cold thay will help ralieve your headache and sore throat. On the other hand, they will have no offect on the ‘viruses which have entered your tissues and made you feel ill. Many of the medicines you can buy at ta chert’ or supermarket are Ho th : Figure 1 Teking paracetamol wil make “They reliave your symptoms but do not kil tne ext fol beter but ah wl nok the pathogens. They do not cure you any actually getwellany fester as e result faster. You have to wait for your immune system to overcome tha pathogens. ‘@ Why don't medicines like aspirin actually cure your ilness? Antibiotics @ Drugs that make us feel bettar are useful but what we really need are drugs ‘that can cure us. We use antiseptics and disintectants to kill bacteria outside the body. But they are far too poisonous to use inside your body. They would kil you and your pathogens at the sama time! ‘The drugs that have really changed the way we treat infectious diseases are antibiotics. These are madicines that can work inside your body to kill ha bacteria that cause diseases. bb Whatis an antibiotic? How antibiotics work (3 Antibiotics like penicillin work by killing the bacteria that cause disease while they are inside your body. They damage the bacterial cells without harming your own colls. They havo had an enormous effect on our socioly. We can now cure bacterial diseases that killed millions of people in the past. Unfortunately antibiotics are not the complate answer to the problem of infectious diseases. They have no effect on diseases causec by viruses. Figure? Peniili was the istantbiose, _TR® Problem with viral pathogens is that thay reproduce inside the calls of Now we have mary diferent ones whch YOUr body. Itis extremely difficult to develop drugs that kil the viruses without kil diferent types of bectorum. Scientists damaging the cells and tissues of your body at the same time. ave alvays on the look out for row antbiotcs to keep us ehead ithe battle How do antibiotics work? inst pathogens. 8[Using drugs to treat cisease ee Discovering penicillin Remember: ‘Alexander Fleming was a scientist ‘© Antibiotics are drugs which who studied bacteria and wanted kill bacteria. to find ways of killing them. In 1928, @ Antinodies are produced he was growing lots of bacteria on by white blood celis to kill agar platos. Alexander was rathor bacteria. careless, and his lab was quite untidy. He often left the lids off his plates for a long time and forgot ‘about experiments he had set up! ‘After one holiday, Fleming saw that lots of his culture plates had mould growing on tham. He noticed a clear ring in the jelly around some of the spots of mould, Something yure 8 Alexander Flaming wae on hhad killed the bacteria covering the te lockout for semering tat woule jell kill bacteria, As a result of hranaticing jelly. the effect of thie mould an his cultures, Fleming saw how important millions of ivaa have beon caved ercund ‘this was. He called the mould the world. ‘penicillin’. He worked hard to extract a juice from the mould. But he couldn't gst much pericilin and he couldn't make it survive, even in a fridge. So Fleming couldn't prove it would actually kill bacteria and make people better. By 1984 he gave up on penicilin and went on to do different work. ‘About 10 years after penicillin was frst discovered, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey set about trying to use it on people. They gave some. penicilin they extracted to Albert Alexander, who was dying of a blood infection. The effect was amazing and Albert recovered. But then tha penicilin ran out. Florey and Chain even tried to collect unused penicilin from Albert's urine, but it was no good. The infection came back and sedly Albert died. “They kept working and eventually they managed to make penicilin on an industrial scale. The process was able to produce enough penicilin ‘to supply the demands of the Second World War. We have used itas a COT medicine evar since. eee symptoms of disease but do @_ Who was the first person to discover penicilin? eee ctl Crs QW A AS od Neo diseases by killing the bacteria inside your body. ea Sie tier! Se ey ee’ that can destroy viruses 3 Explain why its so much more ciffcult io develop medicines against Re nto viruses than it has been to develop antibacterial drugs. co 4 What is tho main difference botwoon drugs such as paracetamol and drugs such as penicillin? 2 a How did Alexander Flaming discover penicillin? b Why wasitso difficult to make a medicine out of penicilin? ‘© Who dovaloped the industrial process which made it possible to mass-produce p ?Ru Kec re Pe ud Peek in Pe kets eas Coe ea eee Reed “i ee Te You are surrounded by disease-causing bacteria all the time. you cultured bacteria at $7°C - human body ‘temperature - there would be a very high risk of growing some dangerous pathogens. Figure 2 When working withthe most dangerous pathogens, asientoteneod to be very careful. Sensible safety precautions are needed when working Keeping healthy Growing and investigating bacteria To ‘ind out more about microorganisms we need to culture them. This means ‘we grow very large numbers of tham so that wa can sze all of the bacteria (the colony) as a whole. Many microorganisms can be grown in the laboratory. This hholps us to learn moro about thom. Wo can find out what nutionts they need to grow and investigate which chemicals are best at killing them, Bacteria are the most commonly cultured microorganisms. Growing microorganisms in the lab @ To culture (crow) micrcoraanisms you must provide them with everything they need. This means giving them a liquid or gel containing nutrients ~ a culture medium. It contains carbohydrate as an eneray source along with various minerals and sometimes other chemicals. Most microorganisms also need warmth and oxygen to grow. ‘You usually provide the nutrients in agar jelly. Hot agar containing all the utionts your bacteria will noed is poured into a Petri dich. Itis then loft to cool and sat betore you add the microorganisms. ‘You must take great care when you aro culturing microorganisms. The bacteria you went to grow may be harmless. However, thera is always the risk that ‘a mutation (@ change in the DNA) will take place and produce a new and dangerous pathogen. You also wantto keop tho puro strains of bacteria you are culturing {ree from any other microorganisms. ‘Such contamination might come Figure 1 Culturing microcrgaris lice bacteria makes # possibie for us ‘rom your skin, the ait, the soil or tke bacteria makes posaibe for us the water around you. Investigations ee sect hos aed uncontaminated cultures of microorganism. Whenever you are culturing microorganisms you must carry out strict health and safety Proceciures to protect yourself and others. ‘@ Whatis agar jelly? Growing useful organisms You can propare an uncontaminated culture of microorganisms in the laboratory by following a number of steps. ‘The Petri dishes on which you will grow your microorganisms must be sterilised before using them. The nutrient agar, which will provide their food, must also be sterlised. This kills off any unwanted microorganisms. You can use heat to sterilse glass dishas. A special cven called an autoclave is often used. It sterlises by using steam at high pressure. Plastic Petri dishes are often bought ready sterilised. UV light or gamma radiation ie used to kill the bacteria. eob_ Why must everything be sterilised before you start a culture? ‘The next step is to inoculate the sterile agar with the microorganisms you vant to grow. ‘Strlise the inaouiating loop Dip thestorisedlonpina__Saalthe id of the Pati dish Used t transfer micro- suspansin of tho bacteria you wth adhesive tape to provent ogenismstothe agaray ——wantto gow anduse itto—microorgarisms tram the ar heating unt tisred net in emake Z0zag streaks across the cantariatng the cutura—or flame ofa Bunsen andthen surface o' the agar. Feplace —rricroorgrisms from the letingitocol Do not putthe Me lidonthe cst as quckly culture escapng. Do not seal loop dav orblow on tasit as possible to avait al the way around the adge so cad. contarination ‘xygen car gatinia ihe ish and harmful anaerobic bectra do rat grow. Figure 3 Culturng microorgarisins satel in the laboratory ‘Once you have inoculated your plates, the sealed Petri dishes need to be incubeted (kept warm) for several days so the microorganisms can grow. In school and college laboratories the maximum temperature at which cultures are incubated is 25°C. This greatly reduces the likelihood that you will grow pathogens that might be harmful to people. In industrial conditions, bacterial cultures are often grown at higher temparatures, which allow the oorganisms to grow more rapidly. ecu Investigating the action of disinfectants and antibiotics (3) ‘You can use cultures you set up yourself or pre-inoculated agarto co on the growth of bacteria. An area of clear jelly incicates thatthe bacteria have been killed oF cannot grow. ‘© What are the safety issues in this investigation and how will you manage ary risks? Gtk ten 41 Why do we culture microorganisms in the laboratory? 2 Why don't we culture bacteria at 87°C in the school lab? 3 When you set up a culture of bacteria in a Petri dish (sea Figure 3) you give the bacteria everything thay need 10 grow as fast as possible. However these ideal conditions do not last forevor. What might limit tho growth of the bacteria in a culture on a Pett dish? Growing and investigating bacter QA Examiner's tip ‘Make sure you understand why we starilise. We boil solutions and heat-teat aoparatus in an autoclave to kill bacteria already in them. This is sterilising, Oe) Create eu) Pett dishes and agar. You Cees ay before use and seal the lid of the Petri dish to prevent Pc nce ed Pe Erie eerie Pe reer Ceo of chemicals such as disinfectants and antibiotics on microorganisms. Cultures should be incubated eter Ped td to reduce the likelihood of Dr egKeeping healthy Changing pathogens a sas If you are given an antibiotic and use it properly, the bacteria that have made Leaming objectives you ill are killed off. However some bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics. ‘They have a natural mulation (change in the genetic material) that means they BS are net affected by the antibiotic. Thase mutations happen oy chance and they Naked asaaed produce new strains of bacteria by natural selection. Died . ww developing? More types of bactoria are becoming resistant to moro antibiotics. Disoasos caused by bacteria are becoming more difficult to treat. Over the years Why is mutation in bactoria antibiotics have been overused and used when they are not really needed. CTT) This incceases the rate at which antibiotic-racistant strains have developed. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria 95% of bate ited Normally an antibiotic kills the bacteria of a non-resistant strain. However individual resistant bacteria survive and reproduce, so the population of resistant bacteria ee increases. Antibiotios are no longer used to treat non-serious _ infections such as mild throat infections, which are often, 9 of cond caused by viruses. Hopefully this ere of devalonment of resistant strains. asin ae makes them restart Colony of bacteria payee toartbioic 2s well antbiti 1 Figure 1 Bacieta can develop ressstance to many diferent antibiotics in 2 process of natural selection as this simple model ‘Colony of bacteria shows resstant to ante and 2. To prevent more resistant strains of bacteria appearing itis important not to overuse antibiotics. It's best to only use them when you really need them, Antibiotics don't affect viruses so people should not demand antibiotics to ‘reat an illness which the doctor thinks is viral. Some antibiotics treat very spectic bacteria. Others treat many different types cof bacteria. The right type of antibiotic must be used to treat each bacterial infection to prevent further antibiotic resistance developing. Itis also important ‘that people finish their course of madicine every time. ‘a Why is itimportant not to use antibiotics too frequently? SOR TIT The MRSA story Washing hands removes the Hospitals use a lot of antibiotics to troat infections. As a result of natural pathogens on them, butit may | — selecton, some of the bacteria in hospitals are resistant to many antibiotics. not kill the pathogens. This is whai has happened with MRSA {the bacterium methicilir-resistant Staphylococcus aureus).ee ‘As doctors and nurses move from patient to patient, these antibiotic-resistant 1800. bacteria are spread easily. MRSA alone now contributes to around 1000 deaths every year in UK hospitals, ‘There are a number of simole steps which can reduce the spread of microorganisms such as MRSA. We have known some of them singe the tine of Sammolwois, but they sometimes get forgotten! ‘© Antibiotics should only be used when they are really needed. © Specific bacteria should be treated with specific antibiotics. © Medical staff should wash their hands with soap and water or alcohol gel between patients. They should wear disposable clothing or clothing that Is rogularly storlisod. Visitors should wash their hands as they enter and leave the hospital Patients infected with antibiotic-resistant bacteria should be looked after in Isolation from ather patients. © Hospitals should be kept clean — there should be high standards of hygiene. g g g g "Number of death inke to MRSA 26 2 8 b IsMRSAa bacterium ora is? Mutation and pandemics "3 Bee5225 Another problem caused by the mutation of pathogens is that new forms: of diseases con appear. These new srains can spread quickly and cause, widespread ness because no one Immune to them an there f= m0 Fae 2 Datat tehon tere: effective teatmert. For example the fu virus mutates easly. Every yearthere fom ss oes Nahoh tece are new strains of the virus that your immune system doesn't recognise. There O'fce) ino effective taatmeetagainat vruany at al. The existing Mu vasene rot etfecdvo agalns: now sralns of he vu, and takes time to develop a new acon. CD links For more Information on the work of Sommoiwais, look back at B1 1.4 Pathogens and disease. “There may bea flu epidemic (In one country) or even a pandemic (across several counties) In 1918-19, a new strain of flu virus killed over 40 millon people arcund the world With moder international travel, a new strain of pathogen can spread very Quickly. In 2009 there was a pandemic of a new strain of fu, known as swine flu, which spread very fast. Internationally, countiies worked to stop it spreading and the death toll was kept relatively low. be A ror have developed antibiotic 1 Copy and complete using the words below: ccabedorl kal antibiotics bacterium (virus) better dseese mutation mutate (epee, rosistant virus (bactorium) Petes Btu aoe Itbacteria change or... they may become . Cees means the medicine no longer makes you new strains of the pathogen or... canalso lead toa new form of Cie ees Perot a spread rapidly can cause Use Figure 2 to help you answer these questions. Cees a How could you expiain the increase in deaths linked to MRSA? ee hea) b How couid you expiain the fall in deaths linked to MRSA, which stil may not be effective against continues? Perc Maka a flow chart io show how bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics.Keeping healthy Immunity Every cell has unique proteins on its surface called antigens. The antigens on the microorganisms that gat into your body are different to the ones on your Ru Kec OPED own cells. Your Immune system recognises they are different, Sunes Your white blood cells then make antibodies which join up with the antigens. Sey ns destroys the pathogens. Pid ‘Your white blood cells temember' the right antibody needed to tackle a particular pathogen. If you meet that pathogen again, they can make the same antibody vary quickly. So you become immune to that disease. ‘The first time you meet a new pathogen you get il. That's because there is a lay while your body sorts out the right antioody needed. The next time, you completely destroy the invaders before they hava time to make you feal unwell. ‘@ Whatis an antigan? Vaccination (9 ‘Some pathogens can make you seriously il very quickly. In fact you can die before your body manages to make the right antibodies. Fortunately, you can bo protected against many of those saricus diseases by immunisation (also known as vaccination). Immunisation involves giving you a vaccine. A vaccins is usually made of a dead or weakened form of the disease-causing microorganism. It works by ‘triggering your body's natural immune response to invading pathogens, ‘Asmall amount of dead or inactive pathogen is introduced into your body. This gives your white blood cells the chance to develop the right antibodies Figure 1 No one ikeshaving @ against the pathogen without you getting il. wacsinaen vary raich but hey save Then, if you meet the live pathogens, your white blood celle can respond rapidly, Thay can make the right antibodies just as i you had already had the disease, so you are protected against it b Whatis en antibody? Pathogen ws vn % fen L mot = en, TO tony 10. * 2 Q ‘Winle blood colt “ inte olood cell Salamosis of cadena pctngyn -—Twwartgrs int ace muss yur_—_Yuroimuro tou hectony th oauyourtooy ofr ci Mio boc Ploraurgatthodt, The paheg Ta’ because yu tn) cat mods estoy we agers wincutary”_fespen apy ent mate cone ano0) fakelyugetig Ws dss selva egy ate dose fecious ciseases jure 2 This is how vaccines protect you against dargerau =|We use vaccines to protect us against bath bacterial diseases (e.g. tetanus and diphtheria) and viral diseasas (e.g. polio, measlas and mumps). Far example, the MMR vaccine protects against measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccines have caved milions of lives around the world. Ifa large proportion of the population is immune to a disease, the spread of the pathogen is very much reduced. One disease — smallpox ~ has been completely wiped out by vaccinations. Doctors hope polio will also disappear in the next few years. © Give an example of one bacterial and one viral disease which you can be immunised against. “oe No modicine is completely risk freo. Vory rarely, a child will react badly e with tragic results. Making the dacision to have your baby immunised can be difficult. Society needs as many people as possible to be immunised against as many diseases as possible. This keeps the pool of infection in the population very low. On the ather hand, you know there is a remote chance that something may go wrong with a vaccination. Because vaecinas are so successful, we rarely see the terrible diseases they protect us against. A hundred years ago nearly 50% of all deaths of children and young people were caused by infectious diseases, The development of antibiotics and vaccines means that now only 0.5% of all deaths in the same age group are due 10 Infectious disease. Many children wore also lott permanently damaged by serious infaotions. Parents today are often aware of the very small risks from vaccination — but sometimes forget about the terrible dangers of the diseases we vaccinate against. Ifyou are a parent it can be difficult to find unbiased advice to help you make a decision. The media highlight scare stories which make good headlines. Tae pharmaceutical eompanias wantto sell vaccines. Doctors and health visitors can weigh up all the information, bul they have vaccination targets set by the govemmont. Btn e toe 4 Copy and complete using the words bal antibodies pathogen immunised dead immune inactive white People can be ....... against a disease by introducing small quantities of or.........forms of a into your body. They stimulate the ......... blood cells to produce. to destroy the pathogen. This makes you to the cisease in future. 2 Explain carefully, using diagrams if they help you how the immune system of your body works b how vaccines use your natural immune system to protect you against serious diseases. Explain why vaccines can be used against both bactorial and viral diseases but antibiotics only work against bacteria. QW igh levels of antibodies do rot stay in your blood forever = immunity is the ability of your white blood calls to produce the night antibodies quickly ifyou are reinfected by a disease. CO links For more Information on antibiotics, Took back at BY 1.8 Changing pathogens. ott produce antibodies to destroy the pathogens. Se Rd eee od Cito) Beet Sete Ly co ‘You can be immunised etd eeu bua ad Cee endear Reheat eee euieculc) eidcL B1 1.10 Ru Kec err So) See Pet kee tan Se ek Activity Design a webpage for parents that answers the sort of questions they might ask about their child having tho normal vaccines. Make it user-friendly, i.e. the sort of thing ¢ health ‘worker could use to help reassure worried parents. oR Produce a PowerPoint presentation on the importance of responsible media reporting of science and medicine, using ‘the whooping cough case as one of your main examples. Cores oy How do we deal with disease? The whooping cough story In the 1970s, Dr John Wilson, a UK specialist in treating children, published a report suggesting that the pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine might cause brain damage in some children. The report was based on his study ofa small Group of 36 patients. ‘The media publicised the story and parents began to panic. The number of children being vaccinated against whooping cough fell from over 80% to around ‘80%. This was too low to protect the populaticn from the disease. People were so worried about the vaccine that they forgot that whooping cough itself can cause brain damage and death. In Scctland about 100000 cen suffered from whooping cough between 1877 and 1991. About 75 of them died. A similar pattern was seen across the whole of the UK. An investigation into the original rasearch discovered that it had serious flaws. Identical twin girls who were included in the study, and later died of a rare gonotic disorder, had never actually had the whooping cough vaccine. it was a ‘small study and only 12 of the children investigated had shown any symptoms close to the time of their whooping cough vaccination. Their parents were involved in claims for compensation from the vaccine manufacturers. 200- ea aon Reported cases (thousands) 0. in 1950=—=«96D~=~SC«GTO.SC*«sSSS«T OO Year Figure 1 Graph showing the effect ofthe whooping cough scare on both uptake ofthe vaccine and the number of cases ofthe disease (Source: Open Universty) 'No medical treatment (Including vaccinations) is completely sfe, but when the claims for compensation came to court, the whole study was quastioned. After hearing all the evidence, the judge decided that the risks of whooping cough were far worse than any possible damage caused by the vaccine itself. However, this judgement on the study got much less media coverage than the original scare story. Parents siill felt there was ‘no smoke without fre Itwas 20 years before vaccination levels, and the levels of whooping cough, returned to the levels before the scare. The number of people having vaccinations now is over 90%, and deaths from whooping cough are almost unknown in the UK.De etd Medicines for the future COveruse of antibiotics has lead to spreading antibiotic resistance in mary cifferent bactena. In recent years doctors have found strains of bacteria that are recistant to even the strongest antibiotics. When that happens, there is nothing more that antibioties can do for a patient and he ar she may wall di. ‘The development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria means scientitsts are constantly looking for new antibiotics. Itisn't easy to find chemicals which Kill bacteria without damaging hurnan cells. Penicilin and several other antibiotics ara made by Fish such as this plaice are moulds. Scientists are collecting soil samples fromall_ | covered with a slime which ‘over tha world te try and find another mould to produce | helps to protact them from anew antibiotc that wil kill antibiotic-resistant bacteria | damage and infection. such as MRSA, Scientists have analysed Crocodiles have teeth full of rotting meat. They live in this slime and found it ty water and ight alt Butaciensts nticed that | Comins prosens which though cecodies oon give eachother trrbiobtes, | Neve abiateprepertos tre tes do nat become infected, Tey have exacted | Theproteinshave boon chemical Known aa ‘erocodilin from crocodile blood ‘ ‘thoy still ill bastoria. So and it seams to be a powerful antibiotic. rave fich wl provide ss Now the % F race is on to than antbiose forthe try and turn tu these amazing chemicals into antibiotics we can use. Honey has been used since the time of the Ancient Egyptians to halp heal wounds. Scientists in Germany and Australia have found that certain types of honey have antibiotic properties. Thay kill many bacteria, including MRSA. Doctors are using manuka honey dressings more and more to teat infected wounds. Figure 2 Where willthe next antiootc be found? Produce 4 poster on antibiotic resistance in bacteria and the search for new antibiotics. Make sure you explain how antibiotic resistance has developed and why we need more antibiotics. Use the ideas given here and, if possible, look for more examples of possible sources of new antibiotics. Rule De bee aca) ees Etniee to Soot Ce tang understanding of how antibiotics and immunity has ere) 1 Give one advantage and one disadvantage of being vaccinated. 2 List three examples of bad science from the story o! the whooping ‘cough vaccine and explain why the story should never have been published.Keeping healthy: B1 1.1-B1 1.10 Summary questions @ a Define the term ‘balanced diet. b Atop athlete needs to eat a lot af food each day. This Includes protein and carbohydrate. Explain how they can eat so much without putting on weight. 12 Two young people have written toa lifestyle magazine problem page for advice about their diet and lifestyle Produce an ‘answer page’ for the next edition of the magazino. ‘8 Molanie: 'm 16 end! worry about my weight a fot I'm not really overweight but | want to be thinner. I've tied {0 dllet but | just fee! so tired when { do — and then | buy ‘chocolate bere on the way home from schol when my ‘riends can't see mel What can | do? b Jaz: Im nearly 17 and I've grown so fast in tho last year that 00k tke a stick! So my clothes fook pretty sil. 1'm also really good at football, but | dor'tasem as strong as Iwas and my lags get really tired by the end ofa match. I want to build up a bit more muscle and stamina — but | don’t just want to eat so much Iond up getting really heavy. What can | do about it? 3a What factors affect the cholestero! lavels in your blooa? b What can you do to help reduce your blood cholesterol levele? © Cholesterol is one inherited factor which affects your health. Give one cther example of an inherited factor ‘which affects your health and explain how it does this. @ How do tiny organisms such as bacteria and viruses make a person Ill? There is going to be a campaign io ty and stop the ‘spread of colds in Year 7 of your school. There is going to bea poster and a simple PovierPoint presentation. Make @ list ofall the important things that the Year 7 cchildron need to know about how disaasas are spread, ‘A\so cover how the spread cf infectious diseases from cone person to another can be recused {® a Vancomycin is an antibiotic which doctors used for patients infected with MRSA and other antibiotio- resistant bacteria. Now they are finding some infections are resistant to vancomycin. Explain how ‘this may have happened. [H] b What can wo do to provont the problem of antibiotic resistance getting worse? (HI ‘a. How would you set up a culture of bacteria ina schoo! lab? b Describe now you would testto find out the right strongth of disinfoctant to use to wash the school floors.1 AQ#/Examination-style questions @ Itis possible to grow microorganisms in the laboratory. List A shows some temperatures. ist B shows situations for which these temperatures ht be suitable, Match each temperature to the correct situation. Lista List B 25°C Used by industrial laborateries to grow microorganisms quickly 36°C Used bn echoel laboratory te grow microorganisms safely 00"6 Used to stop microorganisms growing withaut kiling them Used to Kil microorganisms @ In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. We need a balanced diet to keep us healthy. Explain the ways in which an unbalanced diet can affect the body. (6) A person's metabolic rate varies with the amount of activity they do. a Metabolic rate is Choose ona answer, the breathing rate tho rate of chemical reactions in cells the heart rate b Suggest one other factor which can change a person's motabolic raio. a) Polio is a disease caused oy a virus. In the UK, children are given polio vaccine to protect them against the cisease, ‘@ Choose the co-rect words from each list to complete the sentences below. 1 tis difficult to kill the polio virus inside the body bocause the virus ...... a isnot affected by drugs. lives insidle cells: produces antitoxins The vaccine contains an form of the polio virus. a) active infective inactive The vacoine stimulates the white blood celle to produce which dastray the virus. w antibiotics antibodies drugs End of chapter questions b The graph shows the number of cases of p« UK between 1948 and 1968, aco. inthe 7000 coco so 4000 000 2a00 1000 umber of cases of polio ° Teas 19S 1955153 You 1 In.which yeer was the number of cases of polio highest? 0 i Polo vaccination was frst used in the UK in 1965. How many years did it take for the number of cases 6f polio to fall to 2010? «) Thore have been no cases of polio intho UK for many years. But chidren are sill vaccinated against the disease. ‘Suggest one reason for this. 0 AQA, 2006 ‘5 Controlling infections in hospitals has become much more difficult in recent years. ‘a Suggest two reasons why MRSA is causing problems In many hospitals. @ b The pioneer in methods of treating infections in hospitals was Ignaz Semmelweis. He observed that ‘worren whose babies were delivered by doctors in hospital had a death rate of 18% from infections caught in the hospital. Women whose babies were dalivared by midwives in the hospital had a death rate of 2%. He observed that doctors often came straight from examining dead bodies to the delivery ward. i Inacontrolled experiment, Semmeiwais made doctors wash their hands in chloride of ime solution before delivering the babies. The death rate fell to about 2% - down to the same level as the death rate in mothers whose babies were dhliverad by midwives. Explain why the death rate fell, 0 Explain how Semmolwois'e results could be used to reduce the spraad of MRSA ina modern hospital. @ |AQA, 2005Ru Koad tote system? rid Sere) to changes in your Prin Figure 1 Yeur bocy is made up of rillons of cals which have to wark together Whatever you co with your body whether its walking t2 school - playing conhe computer ~ your meverrents nee to be ceordinated, ‘Some male moths have receptors so sensitive they can tect the scent of a female several kilometres away and follow the scent tall to find her! Coordination and control Responding to change ‘You need to know what is going on in the werld around you. Your makes this possible. It enables you to react to your surroundings and coordinate your behaviour, Your nervous system carries electrical signals ( ) that travel fast ~ from 1 to 120 metres per second. This means you can react 10 changes in your surroundings very quickly. ‘Whats the main job of the nervous system? The nervous system Like all living things, you need to avoid danger, find food and, eventually, find ‘a matel This is where your narvous system comes into its own. Your body Is particularly sensitive to changes in the world around you. Any changes (known as ) are picked up by calls called Receptor cells (e.g. the light receptor cells in your eyes) are Ike most animal calls. They have a nuslous, cytoplasm and a call membrane. Those receptors are usually found clustered together in special » such as your eyes and your skin. You have many different types of sensory eceplor (see Figure 2) b Where would you find receptors that respond to: i a loud noise touching a hot oven a strong perfume? Figure 2 This cat rales onits sersory receptors to detect changes inthe environmentee How your nervous system works (3 @Qwitmm) Conce a sensory recepter detects astimuius, he infermation (sents an electrical [/ifake sue you ar clear that impuise) passes along spacial cels called neurons. Thes9 are usually found in ‘motor means movement bunds of hundreds or oven thousands of nourons known as nerves. “Motor neurons’ stimulate the ‘The imoulse travels along the neuron unti it reaches the central nervous: ‘muscles to contract. system or CNS. Tho CNS ic mado up of the brain and tho spinal cord. Tho cealls which carry impulses from your sense organs to your central nervous, system are called sensory neurons. ‘© Whatis the difference between a neuron and a nerve? Your brain gets huge amounts of information from all tha sensory receptors in your body, It coordinates tha information and sends impulses out along special cells. These cells carry information from the CNS to the rest of your body. The cells are called motor neurons. They carry impulses to make the @iWwrtmnnL right bits of your body - the effector organs ~ respond. roe carol to use the tere Effector organs are muscles or glands, Your muscles respond to the artval rrouron and nerve correctly. of impulses by contracting, Your glands respond by releasing (secreting) chemical substances. “The way your nervous system works can be summed up as: receptor — sensory neuron — coordinator (CNS) -> motor neuron — effector Talk about impulses (not messages) travaling along 2 rouron. Whats the difference between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron? Youreyes Sensory rervescatry impulses to the > respord ‘ONS. The information f processec tt ‘nn impulses are sent out along motor » nerves to produca an action Naveendnos'n |) cor neuon Nave andi ) gsi Sorogry neuron ceria ervus “A | cody amsceoroand ETS celbody system Nerve fore , of \ » Neve abce Cee es ea) \ SS: penreeeyten reste sry ‘thos af irgels \ 1) Biren emp Ge eae Sensory Direction af impulse i *© recon of impulse whe a coordinate rao2pior | | zi Sensory neuran ! "Motor neuron eer Figure 3 The rapid responses of our nervous system allow us to respond to our ‘stimuli (changes in the ‘surroundings quickly ~andin the right way! Cec Etre aon Uke all animal cells ight , See aod 1 Copy and complete using the words bal pee neurons receptors electrical CNS environment nervous Peretenapeepey Your... system carries fast... impulses. Changes in the ed are picked up by your........and impulses travel along your eae pears pass along sensory neurons 2 Make a table to show the different types of sense receptor. For each Pyar ket) ona, giva an exampla of the sort of things it responds to, e.g. touch Oy recepto's respond to an insect crawling on your skin. Dineen cl 3 Explain what happens in your nervous system when you see a piace of ce chocolate, pick it up and eat it. CeesRu Kec rir Sct Pd rol The stick-drop test ‘You can investigate how quickly nerve impulses travel in your bocy using metre rules, and elther stop clocks or ICT to measure how quickly you catch the ruler OR by standing ina circle holding hands with your oyas closed and measuring how long it takes a hand squeeze to pass around the circle. Impulse aves Sacs conning inneuron chemicas as ses: Ss ~ ‘Chemicals are” _ raease he ‘gapbetwoon (Chemicals attach tothe surface ofthonext neuron ard sel yp a ‘ne electrical impulse Figure 1. When an impulse arives atthe junction batween tio neurons, chemizels ‘70 reloaead which eroas the synapae and arrive al receptor sites on the next neuron. This sta’s up an electrical ule in tha next neuron aC} Coordination and control Reflex actions Your nervous aystom lets you take in information from your surroundings and respond in the right way. However, some of your responses are so fast that they happen without giving you time to think, ‘When you touch something hot, or sharp, you pull your hand back before you fool tho pain. If something comes near your face, you blink. Automatic responses like these are known as reflexes. What are reflexes for? Reflexes are very important both for human belngs and for other animals. They hlp you to avoid dangor or harm bacause they happan eo fast. There are also lots of reflexes that take care of your basic bocy functions. These ‘unctions include breathing and moving food through your gut. Itwould make lite very dificult if you had to think consciously about those ‘things all the time — and would be fatal if you forget to breathal a Why are reflexes important? How do reflexes work? (3 Reflex actions involve just three types of neuron. Thase are: @ sensory neurons © motor neurons @ relay neurons - these connect a sensory neuron and a motor neuron. Your rolay nourons are in the CNS. An electrical impulse passes from the sensory receptor along the sensory nouron to tha CNS. Itthon passes along a rolay nouron (usually in the spinal cord) and straight back along a motor neuron. From there the impulse arrives a the effector organ. The effector organ will be a muscle or a gland. We call this a reflex are. ‘The key point in a reflex aro is that the impulse bypasses the conscious areas ‘of your brain. The result is that the time between the stimulus and the reflex action is.as short as possible. 'b Why is itimportant that the impulses in a reflex arc co not go te the conscious brain? How synapses work @ Your nerves are not joined up directly o each other. There arejunctons between them called aynepses, The electrical impulses traveling along your neurons have to cross these synapses. They cannot leap the gap. Look at Figure 1 to see what happens next. The reflex arc in detail Look at Figure 2. It shows what would happen Ifyou touched a hot object. ‘When you touch it, a receptor in your skin is stimulated. An electrical impulse passes along a sensory neuron to the central nervous system - in this cage the spinal cord.Sensory receptor in ‘kn of nger Simus— Sansa noon ‘orexanpie, > ‘ousting a > abby of hotplate al body Sg Sensory neuron Bicags muscle contacts and ‘wittorans nana Motor neuron Figure 2 The reflex action which moves your hand away from something het can save you from being bummed Reflex acions are quiek and auterratc; yu da net think abcast them When an impulse from the sensory neuron arrives in the synapse with a relay neuron, a chemical messenger Is released. This chemical crosses the synapse to the rolay neuron. Thora it sets off an electrical impulse that travels along the relay neuron. When the impulse reaches the synapse betwean the relay neuron and a motor neuron retuming ‘0 the arm, another chemical is releasad. is chemical crosses the synapse and starts an electrical impulse travelling down the motor neuron. When the impulse reaches the effector organ, itis stimulated to respond. In this example the impulses arrive in the muscles of the arm, causing them to contract. This action moves the hand rapidly away from the source of pain. If the effector organ is a gland, it will respond by releasing (secreting) chemicals. Most reflex actions can be shown as follows: stimulus — receptor > coordinator —> effector —> response This is not very different from a normal conscious action. However, ina reflex action the coordinator is a relay neuron either in the spinal cord or in the unconscious areas of the brain. The whole roflax is very fast indeod. An impuise also tavels up the spinal cord to the conscious areas of your brain. You know bout the roflox action, but only after it has happened. ‘Summary questions 1 Gopy and complete using the words balow: conscious motor reflex relay response sensory stimulus Ina... aro the electrical impulse bypasses tha areas of your brain. The time between the....and the... is as short as Possible. Only neurons, neurons and neurons are involved. Explain why some actions, such as breathing and swallowing, are reflex actions, while others such as speaking and eating are under your conscious control. Draw a flow chart to explain what happens when you step on a pin. Make sure you include an explanation of how a synapse works. ee oo Synapse We mater F\(QA Examiner’s tip ‘Make sure you know the correct sequence of links from the receptor to the affactor. Figure 3 Newborn tables heve a number of soecial reflexes which disappear as they grow Th pin rec one of eee an Bea tech tae NEL Peace Sa PidRu Kec eT oe controlled? ees Puc Pritary gard _ JES = U ‘Thyrold gard t Aronal gard Pancras Ovary (tema) Tests (rate) Figure 1 Hormones act as chemical messages. They are mace in glands ‘re part ofthe Body but have en eflect somewhere else ost Eee ‘A baby girl is born with ovaries {ullof immature eggs, but ‘they do nothing until she has gone through the changes of puberty. Coordination and control Hormones and the menstrual cycle Hormones are chemical substances that coordinate many processes wit your body. Special glands make and release (secrete) thase hormones into your body. Then the hormones are carried around your body to thelr targat organs in the bloodstream. Hormones regulate the functions of mary organs and cells. They can act very quickly, but often their effects are quite slow and long lasting. Awoman's menstrual cycle is a good example of control by hormones. Hormones are made in a woman's pituitary gland and her ovaries cortrol her menstrual cycle. The levels of the differant hormones rise and fall in a regular pattern. This effects the way her body works, What Is the menstrual cycle? ‘The avarage length of the manstrual cycle is about 28 days. Each month the lining of the womb thickens ready to support a developing baby. At tha same timo an ogg starts maturing in tho ovary. About 14 days after the egy starts maturing itis released from the ovary. This is known as ovulation, Tho lining of the womb stays thick for several days atter the egg has been released. Ifthe egg is fertilised by a sperm, than pregnancy may take place. The lining of ‘the womo provides protection and food for the developing embryo. If the egg is not fertilised, the lining of the womb and the dead egg are shed from the. body. This is the monthly bleed or period. All of these changes are brought about by hormones. These are made and released by the pituitary gland (2 pea-sized gland in the brain) andthe ovaries. a What controls the menstrual cycle? 'b Why does the lining of the womb build up each month? How the menstrual cycle works @ Once 2 month, a surge of hermones trom the ptutry gland in the brain starts leags maturing n he ovaries. The hormones also stimulate the ovaries 19 produce the female sex hormone oestrogen. «Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secrated by the pituitary gland. It makes eggs mature in the ovaries. FSH also stimulates the ovaries to produce oastrogen. # Oceirogen is made and secreted by the ovaries. It stimulates the ining of the womb to build up ready for pregnancy. Itinhibts (slows down) the production of more FSH, «Other hormones involved inthe menstrual oyle ere luteinising hormone (LH) and progesterone, ‘The hormones produced by the pituitary gland and the ovary act together to control what happens in the menstrual cyole. As the oestragen lavels rise they inhibit the production of FSH and encourage the production of LH by the pituitary glanc. When LH levels reach a peak in the middle of the cycle, they stimulate the release of a mature egg,