CHAPTER 2

Elements, Compounds,
Chemical Equations and
Calculation

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles

called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.

ATOM
1.

The basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical

combination.

2.

Made up by three particles-electrons, protons, neutrons.

3.

(i) Electrons the negatively charged particles.

(ii) Protons the positively charged particles
(iii) Neutron electrically neutral particles having a mass
slightly
greater than that of protons
Proton + neutron
electron

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

electron

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

Atomic Number (Z) - No. of protons in nucleus
No. of atomic = No. of proton = No. of electron
Mass Number (A)
Mass number = No. of proton + No. of neutron
= Atomic number (z) + No. of neutron
Mass number

Atomic number

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are

14
in 6 C ?

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are

11
in 6 C ?

6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

Isotopes atom that have the same atomic number but

different mass
numbers.
Isotope
Same
1. No of proton
2. Chemical properties

Different
1. No of neutron
2. Physical properties

Example : isotopes of hydrogen

1
1
Hydrogen

2
1
Deuterium

3
1
Tritium

Atom

Molecule
2

Isotope

1
1
Hydrogen

2
1
Deuterium

3
1
Tritium

The Modern Periodic Table

Noble Gas
Halogen

Group

Alkali Metal

Alkali Earth Metal

Period

Molecules
1.
2.
3.

Molecules is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a

definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds.
A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms.
A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

H2

H2O

NH3

CH4

Ions

An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has

a net positive or negative charge.

Cation ion with a positive charge

If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

Na

11 protons
11 electrons

Na

11 protons
10 electrons

Anion ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it
becomes an anion.
17 protons

Cl

17 protons
17 electrons

Cl-

18 electrons

A monatomic ion contains only one atom

Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

Chemical Formulas
Chemists use chemical formulas to
express the composition of molecules
and ionic compounds in terms of
chemical symbols.
2 types of formulas:
Molecular formulas
Empirical formulas

MOLECULAR FORMULA
1. Molecular formula shows the exact no.
of atoms of each element in the smallest
unit of substance.
2. Allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of
an element.
Examples : allotropes of oxygen
O2 is oxygen
O3 is ozone
3.

Structural formula shows how atoms are

bonded to one another in a molecule.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
1.

Empirical formulas tell us which elements are

present and the simplest whole-number ratio of
their atoms.

2.

Empirical formulas are written by reducing the

subscripts in the molecular formulas to the
smallest possible whole numbers.
Molecular formula
H2O

Empirical formula
H2O

C6H12O6

CH2O

O3

O
NH2

N2H4

IONIC COMPOUNDS
Formula of ionic compounds :
(i) usually the same as their empirical formulas
(ii) example: sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of
equal no. of Na+ and Cl- ions.

Method of Writing Chemical Formula for Ionic

Compounds
Aluminium oxide (containing Al3+ and O2-)
Al3+
O23+
2Charge
Simplest ration
of ion combined

So, 2 cation Al3+ combined with 3 anion O2- to form

aluminium oxide
Sum of charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0
Formula: Al2O3

Write the formula of magnesium nitride, containing the Mg 2+ and N3- ions
Mg 2+

N 3-

Charge

2+

3-

Simplest ration
of ion combined

So, 3 cation Mg 2+ combined with 2 anion N 3- to

form magnesium nitride
Sum of charges is 3(+2) + 2(-3) = 0
Formula: Mg3N2

Naming Compounds

1. Elements:
Refer to the periodic table
Examples:
i) Na = sodium
ii) Si = silicon

2. Ionic Compounds
1. Often a metal + nonmetal
2. Binary compounds (formed from 2 elements),
the first element named is the metal cation,
followed by the nonmetallic anion.
3. Anion (nonmetal), add ide to element name

BaCl2

barium chloride

K2O

potassium oxide

Mg(OH)2

magnesium hydroxide

4.

Transition metals can form more than one type of cation.

Ending -ous to the cation with fewer +ve charges

Ending -ic to the cation with more +ve charges
Example: Fe2+ ferrous ion
Fe3+ ferric ion
So the names of the compounds that these iron ions form with
chlorine would thus be
FeCl2 Ferrous chloride
FeCl3 Ferric chloride

Some metallic elements can assume three or more different +ve

charges in compounds. So the charge on metal is indicate charge
by Roman numerals.
Example: Manganese (Mn) atoms

3. Molecular compounds
- place the name of the first element in the
formula first and second element is named by
adding -ide to the root of element name
- Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
- Common names: H2O, NH3, CH4
- Element furthest to the left in a period and
closest to the bottom of a group on periodic
table is placed first in formula
- If more than one compound can be formed
from the same elements, use prefixes to
indicate number of each kind of atom
- Last element name ends in -ide

Guidelines in naming compounds

with prefixes
The prefix mono- maybe omitted for the first
element.
For oxides, the ending a in the prefix is
sometimes omitted.
- for example: N2O4 maybe called dinitrogen
tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide.

Molecular Compounds
HI

hydrogen iodide

NF3

nitrogen trifluoride

SO2

sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4

dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2

nitrogen dioxide

N2O

dinitrogen monoxide

 Exceptions to the use of Greek

prefixes are molecular compounds
containing hydrogen.
Example :

B2H6 diborane
CH4
methane
SiH4
silane
NH3
ammonia

An acid can be defined as a substance that yields

hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water
Pure substance (gaseous or pure
liquid state), hydrogen chloride
Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl),
hydrochloric acid

 An oxoacid are acids that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and

another element the central element.
Examples:
i) HNO3

nitric acid

ii) H2CO3

carbonic acid

iii) H3PO4

phosphoric acid

iv) HCIO3

chloric acid

v) H2SO4

sulfuric acid

vi) HIO3

iodic acid

vii)HBrO3

bromic acid

Guidline in naming oxoacids

compounds

Rules to name the compound starting with the oxoacids whose names and
with -ic,
1.

Addition of one O atom: The acid is called per..-ic acid.

HClO3 (chloric acid)

HClO4 (perchloric acid)

2. Removal of one O atom: The acid is called -ous acid.

HNO3 (nitric acid)

HNO2 (nitrous acid)

3. Removal of two O atoms: The acid is called hypo-ous acid.

HBrO3 (bromic acid)

HBrO (hypobromous acid)

The rules for naming oxoanions (anions of

oxoacids) compounds
1. When all the H ions are removed from the -ic acid, the anions name ends
with -ate
H2CO3

anion CO32-(carbonate)

2. When all the H ions are removed from the -ous acid, the anions name
ends with -ite
HClO3

anion ClO2 (chlorite)

3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the hydrogen ions
have been removed must indicate the number of H ions present.
-

H2PO4

2-

HPO4
3-

PO

For example:
dihydrogen phosphate
hydrogen phosphate
phosphate

 A base can be defined as a substance that yields

hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
Examples:
NaOH

sodium hydroxide

KOH

potassium hydroxide

Ba(OH)2

barium hydroxide

5) Hydrates
Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of
water molecules attached to them.
Examples:
i) BaCl22H2O

barium chloride dihydrate

ii) LiClH2O

lithium chloride monohydrate

iii) MgSO47H2O

magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

iv) Sr(NO3)2 4H2O

strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO45H2O

CuSO4

ATOMIC MASS
Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu)
One atomic mass unit a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the
mass of one carbon-12 atom.
By definition:
1 atom 12C weighs 12 amu
On this scale:
H = 1.008 amu

16

O = 16.00 amu

 The average atomic mass is the weighted average of

all of the naturally occurring isotopes of the
element.

Average atomic mass of natural carbon

= (0.9890)(12.00000 amu)+(0.0110)(13.00335 amu)
= 12.01 amu

Example:
Naturally occurring
lithium is:
7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)
Average atomic mass of lithium:
(7.42 x 6.015) + (92.58 x 7.016)
= 6.941 amu
100

Average atomic mass (6.941)

AVOGADROS NUMBER AND THE

MOLAR MASS
The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles
Dozen = 12
Pair = 2
The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains
as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly
12.00 grams of 12C
1 mol = NA = 6.0221367 x 1023
Avogadros number (NA)

Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of atoms in grams

1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g
1 12C atom = 12.00 amu
1 mole 12C atoms = 12.00 g 12C
1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li
For any element
atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

 molar mass (g/mol)

Mass of
element (m)

x NA

No. of
atoms/molecules (N)

No. of
moles (n)

x molar mass (g/mol)

NA

NA = Avogadros number = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Example:
How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K) ?
1 mol K = 39.10 g K
1 mol K = 6.022 x 1023 atoms K

No. of moles = 0.551 g

39.10 g/mol
= 0.014 mol
No. of atoms = 0.014 mol x 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol
= 8.43 x 1021 atoms K

MOLECULAR MASS
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
1S

32.07 amu

2O
SO2

+ 2 x 16.00 amu
64.07 amu

SO2
For any molecule
molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu
1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2

Example:
How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of C3H8O ?

 Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses

(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.

NaCl

1Na
1Cl

22.99 amu
+ 35.45 amu

NaCl

58.44 amu

For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu
1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl

Example:
What is the formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 ?
1 formula unit of Ca3(PO4)2
3 Ca

3 x 40.08

2P
8O

2 x 30.97
+ 8 x 16.00
310.18 amu

Percent composition of an element in a compound =

n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of
the compound
2 x (12.01 g)
x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H =
x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O =
x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g
%C =

C2H6O

52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%

Determination of
empirical formula

Determine the empirical formula of a compound that has the following

percent composition by mass:
* Assume we have 100 g of the compound, then each percentage can be
converted directly to grams.
K: 24.75%, Mn: 34.77%, O: 40.51%

Element
s

Mn

Mass (g)

24.75

34.77

40.51

mol

24.75 g
39.10
g/mol
= 0.6330

34.77 g
54.94
g/mol
= 0.6329

40.51 g
16.00
g/mol
= 2.532

Simplest
ratio

0.6330
0.6329
1

0.6329
2.532
0.6329
0.6329
Empirical formula = KMnO4
=1
4

Determination of empirical
formula
Elements
C
Mass (g)
40.92

H
4.58

O
54.50

mol

40.92 g
12.01
g/mol
= 3.407

4.58 g
1.008
g/mol
= 4.54

54.50 g
16.00
g/mol
= 3.406

Simplest
ratio

3.407
3.406
1 x 3
=3

4.54
3.406
3.406
3.406
=1.33 x 3 =1 x 3
=4
=3

Empirical formula = C3H4O3

Determination of molecular formula

1) Empirical molar mass
= 14.01 g/mol + 2(16.0g/mol) = 46.01 g/ mol
molar mass compound between 90 g/mol-95 g/mol
2) Determine the ratio between the molar mass and
empirical formula
Molar mass
= 90 g/mol
2
Empirical molar mass 46.01 g/mol
Molecular formula = 2(NO2)
= N2O4
Actual molecular molar mass = 2(14.01 g/mol) + 4(16.00)
= 92.02 g/mol

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A process in which one or more substances is changed into one
or more new substances is a chemical reaction
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens
during a chemical reaction
reactants

products

3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O

How to Read Chemical Equations

2 Mg + O2

2 MgO

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 g MgO
NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO

Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left
side and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the
right side of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
C2H6 + O2

CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients)

to make the number of atoms of each element the same on
both sides of the equation. Do not change the subscripts.

2C2H6

NOT

C4H12

Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only
one reactant and one product.
C2H6 + O2
2 carbon
on left
C2H6 + O2
6 hydrogen
on left
C2H6 + O2

CO2 + H2O
1 carbon
on right

start with C or H but not O

multiply CO2 by 2

2CO2 + H2O
2 hydrogen
on right
2CO2 + 3H2O

multiply H2O by 3

Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more reactants
or products.
C2H6 + O2
2 oxygen
on left

2CO2 + 3H2O

multiply O2 by 72

4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

(3x1)
on right
(2x2)

C2H6 + 7 O2
2

2CO2 + 3H2O

2C2H6 + 7O2

4CO2 + 6H2O

remove fraction
multiply both sides
by 2

Balancing Chemical Equations

5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of
each type of atom on both sides of the equation.
2C2H6 + 7O2

4CO2 + 6H2O

4 C (2 x 2)

4C

12 H (2 x 6)

12 H (6 x 2)

14 O (7 x 2)

14 O (4 x 2 + 6)

Reactants
4C
12 H
14 O

Products
4C
12 H
14 O

AMOUNTS OF REACTANTS AND

PRODUCTS
Stoichiometry:
- comparison of coefficients in a balanced equation
- The quantitative study of reactants and products
in a chemical reaction

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the number
of moles of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units

Example:
Methanol burns in air according to the equation
2CH3OH + 3O2
2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what mass of
water is produced?
grams CH3OH

moles CH3OH

molar mass
CH3OH

moles H2O

grams H2O

molar mass
coefficients
H2O
chemical equation

1) Moles of CH3OH = 209 g

32 g/mol
= 6.53 mol

2CH3OH + 3O2

2CO2 + 4H2O

2) From the equation, 2 mol CH3OH is used to give 4 mol H2O, if

we have 6.53 mol CH3OH, how many mole that H2O will
produce?
2 mol CH3OH = 4 mol H2O
6.53 mol CH3OH = ? mol H2O
= 4 mol H2O x
2 mol CH3OH
= 13.06 mol H2O
3) Mass of H2O
= mol x molar mass H2O
= 13.06 mol x 18 g/mol

6.53 mol CH3OH

LIMITING
REAGENT
Reactant used up first in the reaction.
2NO + O2

2NO2

NO is the limiting reagent

O2 is the excess reagent
Excess reagents: the reactants
present in quantities greater than
necessary to react with the quantity
of the limiting reagent

LIMITING
REAGENT
In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3
2Al + Fe2O3

Al2O3 + 2Fe

Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

Determination of limiting reagent and excess reagent
1) Mole of Al

2) Mole of Fe2O3

= 124 g

= 601 g

27.0 g/mol
= 4.59 mol

160 g/mol
= 3.76 mol

3)

Divide moles of Al and Fe2O3 with their stoichiometric

coefficients

i)

Al
= 4.59 mol = 2.295 mol
2

ii) Fe2O3
= 3.76 mol = 3.76 mol
1

The reagent that show the smallest no. of mole is a limiting

reagent, while another reagent is a excess reagent.

So, Al is a limiting reagent, while Fe2O3 is a excess reagent.

4) From the equation, 2 mol Al is used to give 1 mol Al2O3 , if we

have 4.59 mol Al, how many mole that Al2O3 will produce?
2 mol Al produce 1 mol Al2O3
4.59 mol Al = 1mol Al2O3 x 4.59 mol Al
2 mol Al
= 2.295 mol Al2O3
5) Mass of Al2O3
= mol x molar mass Al2O3
= 2.295 mol x 102.0 g/mol
= 234 g

REACTION YIELD
Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would
result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained
from a reaction.

% Yield =

Actual Yield
Theoretical Yield

x 100%

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
moles of solute

M = molarity =

liters of solution

1) What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of a 2.80

M KI solution?
volume of KI solution
500. mL x

1L
1000 mL

M KI

moles KI

2.80 mol KI
1 L soln

M KI

166 g KI
1 mol KI

grams KI
= 232 g KI

Preparing a Solution of Known

Concentration

DILUTION OF
SOLUTIONS

Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution

from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute
before dilution (i)

Moles of solute
after dilution (f)

MiVi

MfVf

EXAMPLE:
1) How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.200 M HNO3
from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = 4.00 M

V1 =

M2V2
M2

M2 = 0.200 M
0.200 M x 0.0600 L
4.00 M

V2 = 0.0600 L

V1 = ? L

= 0.00300 L = 3.00 mL

Dilute 3.00 mL of acid with water to a total volume of 60.0 mL.

Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present
in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
Percent by Mass
% by mass =

mass of solute
mass of solute + mass of solvent
mass of solute
=
mass of solution

x 100%

Percent by Volume (%v/v)

Volume of solute x 100%
% by volume =
Volume of solution

x 100%

Molarity (M)
M =

moles of solute
liters of solution

Molality (m)
moles of solute
m =
mass of solvent (kg)

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS (VA)

Quantitative analytical process based on measuring
volumes.
The most common form of VA is the titration, a process
whereby a standard solution of known concentration is
chemically reacted with a solution of unknown
concentration in order to determine the concentration
of the unknown.

TITRATIONS
In a titration a solution of accurately known concentration
(standard solution) is added gradually added to another solution
of unknown concentration until the chemical reaction between
the two solutions is complete.
Equivalence point the point at which the reaction is complete
Indicator substance that changes color at (or near) the
equivalence point
Titrations can be used in the analysis of acid-base reactions
H2SO4 + 2NaOH

2H2O + Na2SO4

PROCEDURE FOR THE TITRATION

Slowly add base

to unknown acid
UNTIL
the indicator
changes color

EXAMPLE:
1) What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is required to titrate
25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4 solution?
WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!
H2SO4 + 2NaOH
MaVa

MbVb

(4.50 M) (25 mL)

(1.420 M) (Vb)

a
b

1
2

Vb = 158 mL

2H2O + Na2SO4
Ma = concentration of acid
Mb = concentration of base
Va = volume of acid
Vb = volume of base
a = coefficient of acid
b = coefficient of base