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CSSForums>CSSOptionalsubjects>GroupV >Zoology
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Wednesday,May06,2009
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PhylumArthropoda
PhylumArthropoda
Arthropodsaremulticellular,triploblastic,bilaterallysymmetrical,metamericallysegmented,
schizocoelous,protostomousinvertebratemetazoans.
Cephalizationofsomeanteriorsegmentsofthearthropodsfromtheheadispresent.
Externallythebodyiscoveredwithathicktough,nonliving,chitinousandprotectivecuticle,forming
theexoskeleton.Exoskeletonisnonlivingandcannotgrow.Appendagesaresegmental,paired,
lateralandjointedandvariouslymodifiedasjaws,gillsandlegsetc.
Arthropodsaretriploblasticanimalshavetruecoelom.
Arthropodspossessseparatestriatedmuscles.Morethanonepairofjawispresent.
Circulatorysystemisopen,capillariesareabsentandarteriesopenintoirregularspacescalled
sinuses.Malpigiantubulesorcoelomoductsaretheexcretoryorgansthatexcreteammonia,urates,
aminesorguanine.Nervoussystemisofanneidiantype.Compoundeyewithmosaicvisioniswell
developed.Ciliaandflagellaareentirelyabsent.
Sexesareusuallyseparate(dioecious),butafewarehermaphrodite.Sexualdimorphismisusually
evident.Parthenogenesisiscommoninsomegroups.Gonadsandtheirductsusuallypaired.
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Fertilizationisinternalanddevelopmentincludecomplete,incompleteornometamorphosis.Parental
careoftenwellmarked.
thesearetwolinksofPPtpresentationaboutArthropods
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Arthropoda
PhylumArthropoda
ThefollowingisthelinktodetailedarticleonmouthpartsofinsectsonWikipedia
checkthislink
Thelinkmentionedbelowisacomprehensivepresentationonmouthpartsofinsectswithfullylabelled
diagrams.
clickhere
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dr.atifrana(Wednesday,May06,2009),Shali(Thursday,October08,2009)
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metamorphosis
PhylumArthropoda
InsectMetamorphosis
Introduction
Metamorphosisreferstoamajorchangeofformorstructureduringdevelopment.
InsectMetamorphosis
Oneofthemostdramaticformsofmetamorphosisisthechangefromtheimmatureinsectintothe
adultform.Mostofthemajorinsectordershaveatypicallifecyclewhichconsistsofanegg,which
hatchesintoalarvawhichfeeds,moultsandgrowslarger,pupates,thenemergesasanadultinsect
thatlooksverydifferentfromthelarva.Theseinsectsareoftencalled'Holometabolous',meaning
theyundergoacomplete(Holo=total)change(metabolous=metamorphosisorchange).Those
whichhaveimmaturestagessimilarinshapetotheadultminusthewingsarecalled
'Hemimetabolous',meaningtheyundergopartialorincomplete(Hemi=part)change.
Holometabolous(completemetamophosis)
TypicalholometabolousinsectgroupsaretheColeoptera(Beetles),Lepidoptera(moths,butterflies
andskippers),Hymenoptera(sawflies,wasps,antsandbees)andDiptera(flies).Allthesegroups
havealifecyclewheretheegghatchesintoalarva(egacaterpillar,grub,maggot)whichgoes
throughaninactive,pupastage(egwrappeduplikeacocoon)beforeemergingasanadult(ega
butterfly,beetle,wasp).
Hemimetabolous(incompletemetamorphosis)
TypicalhemimetabolousinsectsaretheHemiptera(Scales,Aphids,Whitefly,Cicadas,Leafhoppers
andTrueBugs),Orthoptera(GrasshoppersandCrickets),Mantodea(PrayingMantids),Blattodea
(Cockroaches),Dermaptera(Earwigs)andOdonata(DragonfliesandDamselflies).Thesegroupsgo
throughgradualchangesastheyturnintoadults.Immatureformsoftheseinsectsarecallednymphs
andthesegraduallyincreaseinsizeandchangeform.Astheinsectgrows,itshedsitsskin(called
moulting).Aftereachmoult,thenymphlooksabitdifferentorabitbigger.Afterafinalmoult,the
fulladultformemerges.
Asuccessfulstrategy
Metamorphosisisoneofthekeyelementsthatexplainswhyinsectsaresosuccessful.Manyinsects
haveimmaturestageswithcompletelydifferenthabitatsfromtheadults.Thismeansthatinsectscan
oftenexploitvaluablefoodresourceswhilestillbeingabletodisperseintonewhabitatsaswinged
adults.Thepotentialforadaptationandevolutionisgreatlyenhancedbymetamorphosis.
Growthandmaturity
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Thereisanimportantfeaturetonoteregardingmetamorphosis.Insectsarenotabletomateand
reproduceuntiltheyundergotheirfinalmoultoremergefromapupaasawingedadult.Wingsdonot
appearuntilthefinalmoult(theoneexceptiontothisistheEphemeroptera,orMayflies).Whenyou
seeaninsectwithwings,itisfullygrown.Thismeansthatsmallfliesdonotbecomelargerflies,they
areasbigastheywillget.
Caterpillars,GrubsandMaggotsHolometabolousLarvae
Holometabolouslarvaearelarvaethatpupatebeforeemergingasadultinsects,andincludemanyof
themostfamiliarinsects.
Holometabolouslarvaingeneralarelittlemorethantubular,efficienteatingmachines.Theydonot
havetolayeggs,orfindamate.Apartfromeating,theyaremainlyconcernedwithavoidingbeing
eatenthemselves.Thismeansthattheymayhavegoodcamouflage,orhideinsheltersorholes,or
theymaytastedreadfultoanyprospectivepredators.
Themajorinsectordershavelarvaewithdifferentcommonnames.Forinstance,moths,butterflies
andskippershavelarvaewhichareusuallycalledcaterpillars.Flylarvaearenearlyalwayscalled
maggots.Beetlelarvaeareoftenreferredtoasgrubs.
Caterpillars
Moth,butterflyandskipper(Lepidoptera)caterpillarshavepairsofprolegsontheirabdomenin
additiontothethreepairsofjointedwalkinglegsonthethorax.Prolegsdifferfromtheusualinsect
legsinthattheyarenotjointed.Eachproleghasasetoftinyhooks,whicharearrangedinringsor
seriesaroundthetipoftheproleg.Thesearecalledcrochets,andonlyoccurintheinsectorder
Lepidoptera.Althoughtherearesomecaterpillarlikelarvaefromotherinsectorders,suchassawfly
larvae(OrderHymenoptera,SuborderSymphyta)andleafbeetlelarvae(OrderColeoptera,Family
Chrysomelidae),theycanbedistinguishedfromlepidopteranlarvaebytheabsenceofprolegswith
crochets.Lepidopteranlarvaehavechewingmouthparts,andthemajorityofspeciesareadaptedto
eatingplantmaterial
Maggots
Flylarvae(Diptera)lackanysegmentedlegsonthethorax,andareoftenhighlyspecialisedforliving
inwetenvironments.Veryfewareadaptedtodryconditions.Quiteafewspeciesareinternal
parasitesofotheranimals,wherelegswouldbeofnouse.UnlikethelarvaeofLepidopterathereis
noonecharacterthatcanbeusedtoseparateflymaggotsfromotherlargeorderssuchasthe
Hymenoptera(Wasps,Bees,Ants,andSawflies),astheimmaturestagesofmanyspeciesinthese
ordersalsolacksegmentedlegs.Flymaggotsliveonahugerangeoffoodsfromhumanflesh
throughtokelpontheseashore
Grubs
Beetlelarvae(Coleoptera)arehighlydiverseintheirshapes.Themajorityliveinconcealedhabitats,
suchasunderground,orinsidetrees.Therearemanyaquaticspecies,andafewwhichresemble
caterpillarsandfeedopenlyonleaves.Manyretainsegmentedlegs,althoughweevilgrubsnearly
alwayslacklegs.Mostleglessbeetlegrubshaverobustchewingmouthpartsandcanbedistinguished
fromflymaggots,whichoftenhavemodifiedmouth'hooks'.
Thelarvaeofsawflies,wasps,beesandants(Hymenoptera)arediverseinform.Manysawflylarvae
aresimilartolepidopterancaterpillars,andfeedexternallyonplantmaterial.Thesocial
Hymenoptera,whichincludessomewasps,somebees,andallantshavelarvaewithveryfew
externalfeatures,astheydonothavetoforageforfood.Inthesespeciesfoodisbroughttothemby
theadultnestmates.TheparasiticHymenopteraaresimilarinthattheyspendtheirlarvalperiod
insidehostsorwellstockednests.Theydonotneedcamouflageorlegsinthesehabitats
Nymphs,hoppersandmudeyesHemimetabolousinsects
Hemimetabolousinsectsdonothaveapupalstage.Thegeneralappearanceoftheimmaturestagesis
somewhatsimilartothatofadults,althoughtheremaybesomedramaticdifferencesinlifestyle.Only
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adultinsectsareabletoreproduce,andonlyadultinsectshavefunctionalwings(inthosespeciesthat
havewings).
Theimmaturestagesoftheseinsectsaregenerallycallednymphsratherthanlarvae.Somehave
commonnamessuchas'hoppers'(immaturegrasshoppers,OrderOrthoptera),'crawlers'(immature
scaleinsects,OrderHemiptera)and'mudeyes'(immaturedragonflies,OrderOdonata).
Examplesofhemimetabolousinsectsincludecockroaches(OrderBlattodea),cricketsand
grasshoppers(OrderOrthoptera),stickinsects(OrderPhasmatodea),prayingmantids(Order
Mantodea),termites(OrderIsoptera),dragonfliesanddamselflies(OrderOdonata),earwigs(Order
Dermaptera),suckingbugs(OrderHemiptera),woodandbooklice(OrderPsocoptera),andparasitic
lice(OrderPhithaptera).
Thefeedinghabitsofhemimetabolousinsectscommonlymirrorthatoftheadults,butoftenwitha
significanttwist.Dragonflynymphsareaquaticpredators,buttheadultsareactiveflyinginsects,
whichhuntotherflyinginsects.Stickinsectnymphscanresembleants,whilelaterstagenymphs
blendwiththefoodplants.Allstagesofstickinsectsfeedonplantmaterial.Thefinalmoultbetween
maturenymphandadultisusuallyaccompaniedbychangesincolour,andinshapeofthebody,but
thereisneverthedramaticdifferencebetweenlarvaeandadultasobservedinholometabolous
insects.
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Insect
PhylumArthropoda
Theimportanceofinsects
Insectsrepresentanimalscommonlyfoundindifferenttypesoftheenvironment.Theyadaptedto
extremelyharshlivingconditionsbydevelopingmodified,andoftenquitecomplicatedmouthparts.
Thishelpsthemuseallkindsofavailablefood.Itisthereforenotsurprising,thatthesewidespread
andnumerousanimalssignificantlyaffecttheenvironmentinwhichtheylive.Insectsarealsoof
greatimportancefortheeconomy.Someofthemareourallieswhereasothersaregrimlyfought
enemies.
Oneofthemostimportantrolesinsectsplayinthenaturalwordisthepollinationofflowerplants.
Overmillionsofyears,theevolutionofflowerplantsandtherelatedinsectsproceededinparallel.As
aresult,varioustoolsforcollectingandtransportingpollenhavebeendeveloped,suchasventral
brushes,pollenbasketsonlegsortuftsofhaironotherpartsofthebody.Somespecies,forinstance,
haveunusuallylongtongueswhichhelpthemreachthebottomofelongatedflowertubesinsearchof
nectar.Someinsectspollinateflowersbloominginthedaytimewhileotherspreferflowersthatopen
attwilight.Themostimportantpollinatorsofflowerplantsarehymenopterans,especiallywildbees,
aswellaslepidopterans,dipteransandcoleopterans.
Numerousinsectspeciescompeteforfoodwithman,causingconsiderabledamagetocropsor
consumingwildplantswhicharealsoutilizedbypeople.Thechrysomelidbeetles(Chrysomelidae)
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feedongreenplanttissue.Thisleadstoasignificantdecreaseinthesizeofyieldwherethebeetles
occurinlargenumbers.ThemostfamousrepresentativeofthisfamilyistheColoradobeetle
(Leptinotarsadecemlineata).OtherspeciescommonlyfoundintheParkincludetheredpoplarleaf
beetle(Chrysomelapopuli),whichfeedsonpoplars,willowsandaspen,aswellasoneofthespotted
leafbeetles,Chrysomelaviginitipunctata.
Insectswhichexercisethegreatestinfluenceontreestandsarethebarkbeetles(Ipidae).These
miniaturebeetlescancausethewitheringoflargeforestareasalreadyweakenedbyairpollutionor
severeweatherconditionssuchaslonglastingdrought.Barkbeetleslivemainlyinwoodandunder
thebark,thetracesofboringofwhicharecharacteristicofindividualspecies.Mostchangesinthe
sprucestandsoftheWigryNationalParkhaveforyearsbeencausedbytheeightdentatedbark
beetle(Ipstypographus).
TreestandsaredestroyedalsobysomeHymenopteraspecies.Themassoccurrenceofphytophagus
hymenopterans(Symphyta)suchasthepinewebspinningsawfly(Acantholydaposticalis)orthepine
sawfly(Diprionpini),canseverelydamagetheassimilationorgansintrees(caterpillarsfeedon
needles)andsignificantlydecreasetheirimmunitytopossibleattacksofotherinsects(e.g.oneof
buprestidbeetles,Phaenopscyanes)orfungi,presentingastheydoaconsiderabledangertoentire
treestands.
Asmallgroupofinsectsfeedsonthebloodofwarmbloodedanimals.Thiswayofacquiringfoodis
characteristicofcertaindipteranssuchaskeds(Melophagus),fowlflies(Ornithomyia),horseflies
(Tabanus)anddeerflies(Chrysopus),aswellasvariousbugs(e.g.bedbug).Bloodsuckingdipterans
maytransmitmanydiseases.Horsefliesanddeerfliesmaycarryrabbitfeverandplaguegermsby
suckingthebloodoffarmanimals.
Inspiteoftheirarduousnessaswellasnegativeimpactontheenvironmentofman,insectsplayan
importantroleinthenaturalworld.Manyspeciesofpredatoryandparasiticinsectssignificantly
reducethenumberoforganismswhichareharmfultothehumaneconomy.Theseinsectsregulate
andmaintainthebiocoenoticbalanceandensureinthiswayaproperfunctioningofthenatural
environment.Thisinsectgroupincludes,amongothers,allcarabidspecies(Carabus).Thelarvaeof
mostladybirdspecies(Coccinellidae)(e.g.twospotladybird)playasimilarroleinnatureby
devouringenormousamountsofaphids,scaleinsectsandothertinyinsects.Somespeciesoftherove
beetlesfamily(Staphylinidae)penetratethecorridorsofbarkbeetlesinsearchoftheirlarvae.A
similarbehaviouristypicalofsomerepresentativesofthechequeredbeetlefamily(Cleridae),
includingtheantbeetle(Thanasismusformicarius)inhabitingthepark.
Anothergroupofinsectswhichplaysacrucialroleindifferenttypesofforestenvironmentisants
(Formicidae).LargemoundantsbelongingtotheFormicagenusactas"orderlies"byregulatingthe
numberofotherinsects.InthecaseofthemassappearanceofLepidopteraorDipteracaterpillars
feedingonplants,antsswitchtothesespeciestherebysignificantlyreducingtheirnumber.Bybuilding
theirnests,antsimprovethequalityofthesoil.Numerouschambersandcorridorsintheunderground
partofthenesthaveabeneficialimpactontheairandwaterregimeinthesoil.
Insectsactivelyacceleratethecirculationoftheorganicmatterintheenvironment.Thelarvaeof
manyDipteraspecies(e.g.bluebottlefliesCaliphoraandfleshfliesSarcophaga)feedondeadplants
andanimalsaswellasonanimaldung.Thissignificantcontributionleadstoafasterdecomposition.
Carrionisasourceofnourishmentfornumerousbeetlespecies(e.g.buryingbeetles(Necrophorus)
andcarrionbeetlesSilpha).Becauseeggsaredepositedinthecarrion,thelarvaefeedontheanimal
remains.Thedorbeetles(Geotrupes)removeimmensequantitiesofdungfromtheenvironment.
Theybuilddeepburrowsendingwithchambersunderanaccumulationofdungwherefemalesdeposit
theireggs.Thebeetlesthenfillthechamberswithlumpsofdungprovidingfoodreservesforthe
developinglarvae
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crustaceans
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PhylumArthropoda
GeneralfeaturesImportancetohumans
Thecrustaceansofmostobviousimportancetohumansarethelargerspecies,chieflydecapods.
Fisheriesinmanypartsoftheworldcaptureshrimps,prawns,spinylobsters,andthekingcrab
(Paralithodes)ofthenorthernPacificanditssoutherncounterpart,thecentolla,foundoffthecoastof
Chile.Manyspeciesoftruecrabssuchasthebluecrab,Dungenesscrab,andthestonecrab,allin
NorthAmerica,andtheediblecrabofEuropearevaluablesourcesoffood.Themosthighlyprized
decapodisprobablythetruelobster(Homarusspecies),althoughoverfishingsincetheearly20th
centuryhasgreatlydiminishedthecatchesofboththeNorthAmericanandtheEuropeanspecies.
Freshwatercrustaceansincludecrayfishandsomeriverprawnsandrivercrabs.Manyspecieshave
onlylocalmarketvalue.Itisprobablethatnocrustaceansarepoisonousunlesstheyhavebeen
feedingontheleavesorfruitsofpoisonousplants.
Anothercrustacean,thelargeacornshell(Balanuspsittacus),abarnacle(orderCirripedia)measuring
upto27centimetres(11inches)inlength,isregardedasadelicacyinSouthAmerica,andastalked
barnacle(Mitellapollicipes)iseateninpartsofFranceandSpain.InJapan,barnaclesareallowedto
settleandgrowonbamboostakes,latertobescrapedoffandcrushedforuseasfertilizer.
Copepodsandkrillareimportantcomponentsofmostmarinefoodwebs.Planktonic(i.e.,drifting)
copepods,suchasCalanus,andmembersoftheorderEuphausiacea(euphausiids),orkrill,maybe
presentinsuchgreatnumbersthattheydiscolourlargeareasoftheopensea,thusindicatingto
fishermenwhereshoalsofherringandmackerelarelikelytobefound.
Thewaterflea(Daphniamagna)andthebrineshrimp(Artemiasalina)areusedasfishfoodin
aquariumsandfishponds,andthelarvaeofthelatterarewidelyusedasfoodforthelarvaeoflarger
crustaceansrearedincaptivity.Ostracods,ofwhichnumerousfossilandsubfossilspeciesareknown,
areimportanttogeologistsandoilprospectors.
Muchdamagemaybedonetoricepaddiesbyburrowingcrabsofvariousspeciesandbythemud
eating,shrimplikeThalassinaofMalaya.Byunderminingpaddyembankments,theyallowwaterto
drainaway,thusexposingtherootsoftheplantstothesunifnearthecoast,saltwatermaythusbe
allowedtoseepintothepaddies.Tadpoleshrimps(Triops)areoftennumerousinricefields,where
theystirupthefinesiltinsearchoffood,killingmanyoftheplants.Landcrabsandcrayfishmay
damagetomatoandcottoncrops.
Reference:Britannica
dr.atifrana(Friday,May08,2009),Shali(Thursday,October08,2009)
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Respirationininsects
RespirationinInsects
Allinsectsareaerobicorganismstheymustobtainoxygen(O2)fromtheirenvironmentinorderto
survive.Theyusethesamemetabolicreactionsasotheranimals(glycolysis,Kreb'scycle,andthe
electrontransportsystem)toconvertnutrients(e.g.sugars)intothechemicalbondenergyofATP.
Duringthefinalstepofthisprocess,oxygenatomsreactwithhydrogenionstoproducewater,
releasingenergythatiscapturedinaphosphatebondofATP.
Therespiratorysystemisresponsiblefordeliveringsufficientoxygentoallcellsofthebodyandfor
removingcarbondioxide(CO2)thatisproducedasawasteproductofcellularrespiration.The
respiratorysystemofinsects(andmanyotherarthropods)isseparatefromthecirculatorysystem.It
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isacomplexnetworkoftubes(calledatrachealsystem)thatdeliversoxygencontainingairto
everycellofthebody.
Airenterstheinsect'sbodythroughvalvelikeopeningsintheexoskeleton.Theseopenings(called
spiracles)arelocatedlaterallyalongthethoraxandabdomenofmostinsectsusuallyonepairof
spiraclesperbodysegment.Airflowisregulatedbysmallmusclesthatoperateoneortwoflaplike
valveswithineachspiraclecontractingtoclosethespiracle,orrelaxingtoopenit.
Afterpassingthroughaspiracle,airentersalongitudinaltrachealtrunk,eventuallydiffusing
throughoutacomplex,branchingnetworkoftrachealtubesthatsubdividesintosmallerandsmaller
diametersandreacheseverypartofthebody.Attheendofeachtrachealbranch,aspecialcell(the
tracheole)providesathin,moistinterfacefortheexchangeofgassesbetweenatmosphericairanda
livingcell.Oxygeninthetrachealtubefirstdissolvesintheliquidofthetracheoleandthendiffuses
intothecytoplasmofanadjacentcell.Atthesametime,carbondioxide,producedasawasteproduct
ofcellularrespiration,diffusesoutofthecelland,eventually,outofthebodythroughthetracheal
system.
Eachtrachealtubedevelopsasaninvaginationoftheectodermduringembryonicdevelopment.To
preventitscollapseunderpressure,athin,reinforcing"wire"ofcuticle(thetaenidia)windsspirally
throughthemembranouswall.Thisdesign(similarinstructuretoaheaterhoseonanautomobileor
anexhaustductonaclothesdryer)givestrachealtubestheabilitytoflexandstretchwithout
developingkinksthatmightrestrictairflow.
Theabsenceoftaenidiaincertainpartsofthetrachealsystemallowstheformationofcollapsibleair
sacs,balloonlikestructuresthatmaystoreareserveofair.Indryterrestrialenvironments,this
temporaryairsupplyallowsaninsecttoconservewaterbyclosingitsspiraclesduringperiodsofhigh
evaporativestress.Aquaticinsectsconsumethestoredairwhileunderwateroruseittoregulate
buoyancy.Duringamolt,airsacsfillandenlargeastheinsectbreaksfreeoftheoldexoskeletonand
expandsanewone.Betweenmolts,theairsacsprovideroomfornewgrowthshrinkinginvolume
astheyarecompressedbyexpansionofinternalorgans.
Smallinsectsrelyalmostexclusivelyonpassivediffusionandphysicalactivityforthemovementof
gasseswithinthetrachealsystem.However,largerinsectsmayrequireactiveventilationofthe
trachealsystem(especiallywhenactiveorunderheatstress).Theyaccomplishthisbyopeningsome
spiraclesandclosingotherswhileusingabdominalmusclestoalternatelyexpandandcontractbody
volume.Althoughthesepulsatingmovementsflushairfromoneendofthebodytotheotherthrough
thelongitudinaltrachealtrunks,diffusionisstillimportantfordistributingoxygentoindividualcells
throughthenetworkofsmallertrachealtubes.Infact,therateofgasdiffusionisregardedasoneof
themainlimitingfactors(alongwithweightoftheexoskeleton)thatpreventsrealinsectsfrom
growingaslargeastheonesweseeinhorrormovies!
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Arthropodaappendages
Arthropodaappendages
Arthropodsareunusualamonginvertebratestheylacklocomotorycilia,evenaslarvae.Theproblem
thatarigidexternalcoveringimposesonmovementhasbeensolvedbyhavingtheexoskeletondivided
intoplatesoverthebodyandthroughaseriesofcylindersaroundtheappendages.Atthejunction,or
joints,betweentheplatesandcylinderstheexoskeletonisthinandflexiblebecauseitlacksthe
exocuticleandbecauseitisfolded.Thefoldsprovideadditionalsurfaceareaasthejointsarebent.The
arthropodsexoskeletonisthereforesomewhatanalogoustothearmourencasingamedievalknight.
Mostarthropodsmovebymeansoftheirsegmentalappendages,andtheexoskeletonandthemuscles,
whichattachtotheinsideoftheskeleton,acttogetherasaleversystem,asisalsotruein
vertebrates.Theexternalskeletonofarthropodsisahighlyefficientsystemforsmallanimals.The
exoskeletonprovidesalargesurfaceareafortheattachmentofmusclesand,inadditiontofunctioning
insupportandmovement,alsoprovidesprotectionfromtheexternalenvironment.Thecylindrical
designresistsbending,andonlyarelativelysmallamountofskeletalmaterialneedbeinvestedin
thicknesstopreventbuckling.Theexternalskeletonimposeslimitsonthemaximumsizeofan
arthropod,especiallyinthosethatliveonland.Thelargestarthropodsliveinthesea,wheretheygain
considerablesupportfromthebuoyanceofseawater.Onland,anexcessiveamountofskeletonwould
berequiredtosupportalargebulkand,inaddition,thenewsoftskeletonmightcollapsefollowinga
molt.
Appendagesofarthropodshavebeenadaptedforalltypesoflocomotionwalking,pushing,running,
swimming,andburrowing.Inmostarthropodsthelegsmovealternatelyonthetwosidesofthebody
i.e.,whenonelegisinapowerstroke,itsmateontheoppositesideofthebodyisintherecovery
stroke(thesameistrueofmammalswhenwalking).Thelegsinfrontorbackarealittleaheador
behindinthemovementsequence.Becauseofthelateralpositionofthelegs,thebodyofanarthropod
tendstohangbetweenthem.Leginterferenceandtrunkwobbletendtobeproblemsinananimalwith
alongtrunkandmanylegs,suchasamillipedeorcentipede.Mostarthropodshaveevolvedmore
compactbodiesandasmallernumberoflegs.Thenumberofpairsoflegsusedinwalkingisnotmore
thanseven(crustaceanpillbugs),fourorfive(shrimpsandcrabs),four(arachnids),andthree
(insects).Thisreducestheproblemofmechanicalinterference.Whenaghostcrab,forexample,is
runningrapidlyacrossabeachordune,onlythesecond,third,andfourthpairsofthefivepairsoflegs
(countingtheclaws)areemployed.Leginterferenceisfurtherreducedinmostarthropodsbyvarying
limblengthandplacement.Forexample,inScutigera,thecentipedecommonlyseeninhouses,the
legsincreaseinlengthfromfronttobackandthuspassoverorunderoneanotherinstepping.The
tendencyforthetrunktowobblehasbeenreducedinsomecentipedesbyhavingoverlappingdorsal
platesandinmillipedesbyhavingpairsofsegmentsfusedtoformdoublesegments.Manyarthropods
arecapableofwalkingonverticalsurfaces.Somesimplygripminutesurfaceirregularitieswiththe
clawsattheendofthelegs.Others,suchascertainspidersandflies,haveanarrayofspecialized
grippinghairsattheendsofthelegs.
Insectwingsarenotsegmentalappendagesasarethelegs.Thepairedwingsariseaslateralfoldsof
theintegument,onepairaboveeachofthelasttwopairsoflegs.Eachwingthusconsistsofanupper
andlowersheetofexoskeletoncloselyappliedtoeachother.Thetwoskeletalsheetsareseparatedat
variousplaces,formingtubularsupportingveins.Unlikethewingsofanairplane,thewingsofinsects
areflatplates,andliftisobtainedbychangingtheangleatwhichthefrontmarginofthewingmeets
theoncomingairstream.Theevolutionofflightisoneofseveraladaptationsthathaveenabledinsects
tobecomethemostdiverseandpopulousgroupofterrestrialanimals.
Aburrowinghabithasevolvedinsomeinsects,suchasmolecricketsandants,butthelargest
burrowersarecrustaceans.Molecrabsandboxcrabsarerapidburrowersinsoftmarinesands,and
variousspeciesofmantisshrimps,mudshrimps,andsnappingshrimpscreateelaborateburrowsbelow
thebottomsurface.Crustaceansalsoincludethelargestnumberofarthropodtubedwellers,surpassed
onlybycertainmarineworms(polychaetes).Mostofthetubedwellingcrustaceansareamphipods.
Theirtubesareusuallycomposedofsandormudparticlessecretedtogetherandattachedtobottom
objectsthereare,however,someamphipodsthatcarrytheirtubeswiththemlikeaportablehouse.
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Reference:Britannica.
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PhylumEchinodermata
PhylumEchinodermata
Introduction
Echinodermsformawelldefinedandhighlyderivedcladeofmetazoans.Theyhaveattractedmuch
attentionduetotheirextensivefossilrecord,ecologicalimportanceinthemarinerealm,intriguing
adultmorphology,unusualbiomechanicalproperties,andexperimentallymanipulableembryos.The
approximately7,000speciesofextantechinodermsfallintofivewelldefinedclades:Crinoidea(sea
liliesandfeatherstars),Ophiuroidea(basketstarsandbrittlestars),Asteroidea(starfishes),
Echinoidea(seaurchins,sanddollars,andseabiscuits),andHolothuroidea(seacucumbers).The
phylogeneticpositionoftheConcentricycloidea(seadaisies2species),remainscontroversial(Baker
etal.1986Smith1988bPearseandPearse1994Mooietal.1997).
Approximately13,000echinodermspeciesareknownfromthefossilrecord.AllMesozoicand
Cenozoicformsclearlyfallintothefiveextantclades,butthePaleozoicrecordcontainsnumerous
distinctandoftenbizarreformsthathavebeenplacedintoapproximately15additionalclasses.
Phylogeneticrelationships,andinsomecasesstatusasmonophyleticgroups,remainsunclearforthe
extinctclasses.UnquestionableechinodermsfirstappearinthefossilrecordduringthemidCambrian.
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Arkarua,apossibleechinoderm,hasbeendescribedfromtheVendian(latestProterozoic)(Gehling
1987).
Characteristics
SynapomorphiesoftheEchinodermata
Echinodermsareamongthemostdistinctiveofallanimalphyla.Inclusioninthephylumisreadily
diagnosableonbasisofthefoursynapomorphiesbelow.Mostofthesefeaturesarepresent,orcanbe
inferred,evenintheearliestfossils.Together,thesesynapomorphiesdefinemuchofwhatmakesthe
functionalbiologyofechinodermsdistinctivefromthatofothermetazoans.
Calciticskeletoncomposedofmanyossicles.
Thebiomineralmatrixofechinodermskeletonsiscomposedofcalciumcarbonateandseveral
proteins.Thecalciteisdepositedasnumeroustinycrystals,butallofthemlieonthesamecrystal
axiswithinanossicle.Forthisreason,ossiclesarebirefringentunderpolarizinglight.Ossiclesarenot
solid,buthaveaspongelikemicrostructurecalledstereomthatisuniquetothephylum.
Embryologically,echinodermossiclesareatrueendoskeleton,sincetheyareproducedby
mesenchymalcellsandareusuallycoveredbyepidermis.Functionally,however,themajorityof
ossiclesactmorelikeanexoskeleton,lyingjustundertheepidermisandenclosingmostothertissues
inaflexiblebuttoughcovering.
Watervascularsystem.
Thewatervascularsystemperformsmanyimportantfunctionsinechinoderms,includinglocomotion,
respiration,andfeedinginaddition,mostsensoryneuronsarelocatedattheterminiofpodia
(tubefeet)whicharepartofthisorgansystem.Thewatervascularsystemmayhaveevolvedfrom
simpletentacularsystemssimilartothoseinotherdeuterostomephyla,suchasthetentaclesof
pterobranchhemichordates.However,therearemanyderivedfeaturesofthewatervascularsystem
inechinoderms,including:anembryologicaloriginfromleftmesocoel,podiaarrangedalongbranches
(ambulacra),andacentralcircumesophagealring.
Mutablecollagenoustissue.
Theossiclesofechinodermsareconnectedbyligamentscomposedpredominantlyofcollagen.The
materialpropertiesofthisconnectivetissuearemutableonshorttimescales,underneuronalcontrol.
Ligamentsarenormally"locked"(rigid),butcanbetemporarily"unlocked"(loosened).Thisprovides
someinterestingmechanicaladvantages,includingtheabilitytomaintainavarietyofpostureswith
nomusculareffort.Inholothuroids,whichcontainonlymicroscopicossicles,theentirebodywall
containsmutablecollagenoustissue.
Pentaradialbodyorganizationinadults.
Theadultsofallextantechinodermsareradiallysymmetrical.Asuperficialbilateralorganizationhas
evolvedtwice,inirregularechinoidsandholothuroids,butisbasedonanunderlyingfivefold
organizationofskeletonandmostorgansystems,andisclearlysecondary.Higherorderradial
symmetry(e.g.,sevenfoldorninefold)hasevolvedonseveraloccasions,andisalsoclearlya
secondarymodification.Theevolutionaryoriginsoffivefoldsymmetryremainobscure.Someearly
Paleozoicechinodermsarenotradiallysymmetrical(e.g.,carpoidsandhelicoplacoids),whilea
possibleechinodermfromtheVendian(Arkarua)hasfivefoldradialbodyorganization.
Plesiomorphiesandotherfeatures
Marinehabit.
Allextantechinodermsliveintheocean,andthereisnofossilevidenceofanyexceptiontothis.
Withinthemarinerealm,echinodermsoccupynearlyallhabitats,wheretheyoftenconstituteamajor
proportionofthebiomass.
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Pelagobenthiclifecycle.
Withrareexception,echinodermsaregonochoric(separatesexes)withnoovertsexualdimorphism.
Fertilizationisalmostalwaysexternal.Ancestrally(andstill,typically),thelifecycleiscomplex,with
afreelivinglarvathatisplanktotrophic(grazesonunicellularalgae).Larvaeareplesiomorphically
bilaterallysymmetrical,havearecurvedgutandtransparentectoderm,andfeedbyupstreamparticle
captureusingtheciliatedband.Metamorphosisistypicallyradicalandoccursduringsettlementonto
thebenthos.
Coelomate.
Echinodermsformtheircoelomsasoutpocketingsfromthearchenteron(embryonicgut),aprocess
calledenterocoely.Inmostspecies,thecoelomsaretrimerous,andinitiallybilaterallysymmetrical.
Thefatesofthevariouscoelomiccompartmentsvaryamongechinoderms,butsomefeaturesseem
broadlysimilarandmayreflectacommonevolutionaryorigindeepwithinthephylum:leftmesocoel
givesrisetomostorallofthewatervascularsystem,andoneorbothsomatocoelsformtheliningof
thebodycavity.
Deuterostome.
Likesomerelatedphyla,theblastopore(sitewheregastrulationbegins)inechinodermembryos
becomesthelarvalanusthelarvalmouthisasecondaryopening.Insomeextantforms,thelarval
mouthispreservedastheadultmouth,whileinotherstheentiredigestivesystemisreplumbed
duringmetamorphosisandanewmouthandanusform.
Simplehemal/excretorysystem.
ThehemalandexcretorysystemsofechinodermsarelinkedintowhatNielsen(1996)callsthe"axial
complex".Thisorgansystemshowssimilarities,andmaybehomologous,tothoseofother
deuterostomephyla.Inechinoderms,itiscomposedof:athickenedvessel(the"heart")lackingan
endotheliumandsurroundedbyapericardiumaregionwhereultrafiltrationoccursviapodocytesa
closedcirculatorysystemandanopeningtotheexternalenvironmentcalledthemadreporite.
Decentralizednervoussystem.
Thearrangmentofthecentralnervoussytemofechinodermsisquitedifferentfromthatinother
deuterostomes.Radialnervesrunundereachoftheambulacra,andcontainthecellbodiesofalmost
allmotorneuronsandinterneurons.Acentralnerveringsurroundsthegut,andiscomposedprimarily
offibertracksconnectingtheradialnerves.Noknownechinodermcontainsanythingthatcouldbe
calledabrain,althoughgangliaarepresentalongtheradialnervesinsomeechinoderms.Unlikemost
bilaterianphyla,echinodermslackanytraceofcephalization,andhavenospecializedsenseorgans.
Sensoryneuronsarelocatedprimarilywithintheectodermofpodia,andsendaxonstotheradial
nerves.
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PhylumEchinodermata
PhylumEchinodermata
ThefollowinglinkisaboutEchinodermata,characters,classes,watervascularsystem.
ClickHere
AnotherlinktopptpresentationaboutEchinodermata.
Checkthis
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PhylumEchinodermata
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PhylumEchinodermata
Importance
Roleinnature
Echinodermsareefficientscavengersofdecayingmatterontheseafloor,andtheypreyuponavariety
ofsmallorganisms,therebyhelpingtoregulatetheirnumbers.Whenpresentinlargenumbers,sea
urchinscandevastateseagrassbedsinthetropics,adverselyaffectingtheorganismsdwelling
within.Seaurchinsthatburrowintorocksandalongashorecanacceleratetheerosionofshorelines.
Othertropicalspeciesofseaurchins,however,controlthegrowthofseaweedsincoralreefs,thereby
permittingthecoralstoflourish.Removaloftheseaurchinsresultsintheovergrowthofseaweeds
andthedevastationofthecoralreefhabitat.Echinodermscanalterthestructureofseafloor
sedimentsinavarietyofways.Manyseacucumbersfeedbyswallowinglargequantitiesofsediment,
extractingorganicmatterasthesedimentpassesthroughtheintestine,andejectingtheremainder.
Largepopulationsofseacucumbersinanareacanturnovervastquantitiesofsurfacesedimentsand
cangreatlyalterthephysicalandchemicalcompositionofthesediments.Burrowingstarfish,sand
dollars,andhearturchinsdisturbsurfaceandsubsurfacesediments,sometimestodepthsof30
centimetresormore.Inaddition,echinodermsproducevastnumbersoflarvaethatprovidefoodfor
otherplanktonicorganisms.
Relationtohumanlife
Someofthelargerspeciesoftropicalseacucumbers,knowncommerciallyastrepangorbchede
mer,aredriedandusedinsoups,particularlyinAsia.Raworcookedmaturesexorgans,orgonads,
ofseaurchinsareregardedasadelicacyinsomepartsoftheworld,includingpartsofEurope,the
Mediterraneanregion,Japan,andChile.Sometropicalholothuriansproduceatoxin,knownas
holothurin,whichislethaltomanykindsofanimalsPacificislanderskillfishbypoisoningwaters
withholothurianbodytissuesthatreleasethetoxin.Holothurindoesnotappeartoharmhuman
beingsinfact,thetoxinhasbeenfoundtoreducetherateofgrowthofcertaintypesoftumoursand
thusmayhavemedicalsignificance.Theeggsandspermatozoaofechinoderms,particularlythoseof
seaurchinsandstarfishes,areeasilyobtainedandhavebeenusedtoconductresearchin
developmentalbiology.Indeed,echinoidshavebeencollectedinsuchlargenumbersthattheyhave
becomerareorhavedisappearedaltogetherfromthevicinityofseveralmarinebiologiclaboratories.
Starfishesthatpreyuponcommerciallyusablemollusks,suchasoysters,havecausedextensive
destructionofoysterbeds.SeaurchinsalongtheCaliforniacoasthaveinterferedwiththeregrowthof
commercialspeciesofseaweedbyeatingtheyoungplantsbeforetheycouldbecomefirmly
established.Thecrownofthornsstarfish,whichfeedsonlivingpolypsofreefcorals,hascaused
extensiveshorttermdamagetocoralreefsinsomepartsofthePacificandIndianoceans.
Reference:Britannica
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