CHAPTER IV

ISLANDING PROCESS
4.1
Introduction
Traditionally, utility electric power systems (EPS) were not designed to accommodate
active generation and storage at the distribution level. The technologies and the
operational concepts to properly integrate distribution resources (DR) into existing EPS
continue to be further developed to completely realize benefits and to avoid negative
impacts on system reliability and safety. According to IEEE standards for interconnecting
distributed resources with EPS (1547 TM ), resources of electric power which are not
directly connected to a bulk power system are referred as distribution resources (DR).

These sources include both generators as well as energy storage technologies. All the
generation facilities connected to an area EPS through a point of common coupling
(PCC) are known as distributed generation (DG) [67].

Islanded portion of the network

STS
Utility main grid

Fault

Sensitive
Load

Fig 4.1 Islanding (Micro-grid) formation during the fault on utility main grid
Islanding can be defined as the condition in which portion of utility system that contains
both electric loads and distributed resources remains energized while isolated from the
remainder of the utility system. It is one of the important issues for distribution system
having DG(s) due to human as well as system safety [68]. When fault occurs on utility
main grid, the operation of Static transfer switch (STS) isolate the distribution resource
from it along with sensitive load, forming micro-grid as expressed in Fig.4.1. In the
deregulated and competitive environment, the demand for secure and optimized electric
generation is increasing rapidly. Under such circumstances, the utilization of DG

76

is considered to be the best alternative. Practically it has been observed that the power
plants situated in the distribution system which are closer to the customers, minimize the
voltage drop and power losses [69]. These changes in the electrical parameters of DGs
are much smaller when they are connected with utility grid. The availability of latest
technologies has made the utilization of DG(s) more convenient to distribution engineers
[70].
A number of techniques have been presented in literature to monitor the islanding
condition [68, 71, 72, 73, and 74]. Most direct method is to supervise the auxiliary
contacts of all circuit breakers on the utility system between its main source of generation
and the DG units. When switching operation or any short circuit fault causes the loss of
utility network, a protective scheme can be employed to open the inter-tie links subsystem. The concept of this direct method is easy to grasp, but difficult to implement due
to comprehensive monitoring system. Techniques utilizing measurements of dispersed
generating units to detect the loss of utility supply have been also proposed. These
techniques can be classified in to three categories: active methods, passive methods and
other methods. By a designated control circuit, a central concept of active method is to
breed small variations in the outputs of dispersed generators. When the utilitys main
source remains connected with the load, this deviation is relatively insufficient to trip the
protective relays. However, once the loss of grid occurs, this designated deviation will
expend to activate the relays, which signals the occurrence of islanding.
The passive methods are based upon the measurements of power system parameters, such
as voltage, frequency, current and phase displacement. The idea of this technique lies in
the facts that the loss of main will result in the variations of the system parameters.
Therefore, by monitoring variations of these parameters, it can sense abnormal operations
of dispersed generating units [75]. The variation in the magnitude of three phase average
rms line to line voltage is expressed as;
V

avg , t

1 N 1
t i t i t i
t i t 1 t 1
[
{Max (v a , vb , vc ) Min (v a , vb , vc )}]
N 3 2 i0

(4.1)

Where,
N = Sampling number of one cycle
v a , vb , vc = Instantaneous voltages of phase A, B, and C respectively

t = Monitoring time
Other methods employ different techniques used for islanding detection other than active
and passive methods. These techniques include reactance insertion, power line carrier
communication (PLCC) [76] and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA).

77

The literature research of the past indicates the different control techniques used to detect
the phenomena of islanding. Majority of these techniques are based upon the assumptions
of unity power factor and uniformly distributed loads. The types of loads and their
distribution (uniform/non uniform) in the distribution networks greatly determine the
behavior of the distribution system. H.H.Zeineldin, E.F.EI Saadany and M.M.A. Salama
have presented the active islanding detection technique in which power factor can be
improved by providing active and reactive power from DG to electric loads [77]. It is
difficult to implement this technique for the system having power factor other than unity
because the design of interface control is more complicated. Furthermore, the technique
presented is only applicable to resistive, inductive and capacitive (RLC) loads.
H.H.Zeineldin, Ehab F Saadany and M.M.A. Salama have suggested a new interface
control strategy in which the impacts of DG on islanding detection are examined
[78].Vivk Menon and M.Hashem Nehrir have introduced a hybrid islanding detection
[79]. The technique presented is based on the principles of power factor, voltage
unbalance and total harmonic distortion. This technique is suitable for synchronously
rotating DGs only. M A Redfern and J I Barrett have proposed a microprocessor-based
algorithm for islanding protection, which may fail during the severe load variations [80].
Sung II Jang and Kwang -Ho KIm have implemented the islanding detection method
based on voltage unbalance and total harmonic distortion of current [81]. During the
simulation it has been observed that mostly the variations in these parameters are too
small to detect the phenomena of islanding. Due to one or other reason when there is
sudden collapse on utility grid, system restoration takes considerable time. However,
even if a part of distribution system remains in service along with DG, supplying a
portion of distribution network is termed as micro grid. Formation of micro grid due to
islanding process can be due to disturbances, such as fault and its subsequent switching
[82].The detailed review of literature reflects that in majority of cases some unrealistic
assumptions are usually adopted to make the models more manageable. However, much
computational work is to be faced in the real world of electric power distribution system
challenges.
In this research work, review of different islanding detection techniques has been carried
out. Conventional approaches have many difficulties to detect the islanding operation.
The non-uniform distribution of electric loads, unity power factor, complexities during
the design of interface control and functioning of the system in multiDG scenarios are
the most common obstacles, seriously faced by the distribution engineers during the
implementation of existing islanding detection techniques.
4.2

Significance of Islanding Detection

If a part of power system forms an uncontrolled island, there is a risk that personnel sent
out for maintenance work in the island system get in contact with the live parts of the
equipments. This can cause severe injuries and death. In the event of unintentional
islanding, utility network should be design in such a way that it must be able to detect the
phenomena and isolate it from remainder of the grid immediately. Normally,

78

unintentional islanding occurs because of natural disaster or abrupt system fault by

switching operation of protective devices as illustrated in the Fig. 4.2 [83].

STS
Load

Utility main grid

Islanded portion of the network

Natural fault

Fig 4.2 Formation of unintentional islanding on utility main grid

To avoid the over voltage and damages from inrush currents, it is important to disconnect
DG units before automatic re-closing is adopted [84]. An islanding detection system has
to be discriminative between islanding and other events in the electric power distribution
system. The detection system has to be reliable and quick in operation.
4.3

Effects of Islanding Phenomena

The non detection of islanding phenomena may adversely affect the utility networks. It is
not only harmful to the life of operating staff but also uneconomical to electric power
distribution system. It reduces the useful life of system to considerable extent. The
quality of power is deteriorated and failure of customers electric appliances enhanced.
The different effects [71, 72, and 85] of the islanding phenomena can be enumerated as:
1) Maintenance personnel may be harmed when arriving to service the energized
isolated feeder.
2) Utility customer equipments may be damaged due to uncontrolled voltage and
frequency excursion.
3) Switching, measuring devices and other costly electrical equipments may be
damaged due to unsynchronized re-closure.
4) Automatic re-closing devices may malfunction.

79

5) The overall parameters of electric utilities including voltage, current, frequency

and power factor may change seriously.
6) The voltage drop and power loss may increase considerably.
7) The overall performance and power quality of the system can be reduced.
8) The utility has no control over the voltage and frequency in the Island.
9) Islanding may interfere with restoration of normal services by the utility.
10) The reliability of the system decreases, mostly due to increase in the non detection
zone (NDZ).
Non detection zone is a region of measurements where an islanding event can occur but
the detection of the said event goes unnoticed. It can be presented in the form of power
mismatch or in terms of R, L and C of load. In case of constant current controlled inverter
DG, any change in power or load resistance causes variation in the voltage at point of
common coupling (PCC). It is expressed as;

V IR or V IR

(4.2)

Where,
V = voltage at PCC

V = Change in voltage at PCC

R = Resistance at PCC
R = Change in resistance at PCC

I = Current at PCC

Most of DGs operates at unity power factor, therefore reactive power is fixed at zero.
Under such circumstances, frequency variations can be expressed as;

r
fr

1
LC
1

or
(4.3)

2 LC

Where,

f r = Resonance frequency
For RLC load, R

3V 2
P

(4.4)

80

Where, power (P) is constant and any partial change in resistance result the change in
voltage as;
V

P R
6V

(4.5)

It is important to mention that for any change in resistance, the change in voltage is
different for different type of interface for same initial loading, causing variation in NDZ
[86]. The current wave form can be expressed as;

i(t ) i1 (t ) i1 (t T ) u (t T ) i1 (t 2T )u (t 2T )

(4.6)

Where,
i1 (t ) Sin2f i t Sin2f i (t Ti )u (t Ti )
Applying Laplace transform

I ( s)

1 exp

T
is

i
I (s)
1
2
2

Ts
T
1 exp
1 exp s s i

(4.7)

The impedance of RLC load in frequency domain is depicted as;

Z ( s)

R 0
1

1
1
Qf
sC R sL

s
(s

0
2Q f

) ( 0
2

1 2
1
)
4Q 2f

(4.8)

Voltage for parallel RLC circuit can be expressed as;

V ( s) I ( s) Z ( s)

1 exp

T
is

s
0

Ts
s

2
s 2 Qf
1 exp
0 ) 2 ( 1 1 ) 2
(
i
0
2Q
4Q 2
f
f
i

(4.9)

The expression for steady state voltage waveform can be obtained by the application of
inverse Laplace transform

81


v(t ) K
1
n0

sin[b(t-nT) ]u(t nT) sin[b(t-nT-Ti ) ]u(t-nT-Ti )}

K

- (t-nT-T )c
i sin[a(t-nT-T ) ]u(t-nT-T )}
i
i

{ exp (t nT)c sin[a(t-nT) ]u(t-nT) - exp

n0

(4.10) Where,

a 0 1

1
,
4Q 2f

b i ,
c

0
2Q f

tan 1 [Q f (

0 i
)] ,
i 0

tan 1 [ 4Q 2f 1

K1

02 i2
],
02 i2

1 Q ( 0 i )2
i 0

2
f

Q 2f (
K2 R

Qf
0 i 2

)
( 0 i )2
2
i 0
4Q f 1 i 0

1 Q 2f ( 0 i )
i 0

In order to achieve upper limit of NDZ in the quality factor ( Q f ) verses resonant
frequency

( f 0 ),

first

select

value

for

Q f and 0 2f 0 .

i 2 ( f max f ), the value of v from equation (4.9) when, t T

Q f and f 0 are the boundary of the NDZ when v (T ) 0

82

1
f max

Then

for

, the value of

The importance of islanding operation originates from security factor. Having a feeder
energized when utility operators are carrying out repairing work may be hazardous [69].
Many utility networks utilize automatic circuit re-closing. When a short-circuit fault
occurs, the utility is disconnected after a specific time the switching device interrupts the
current again. If the distribution network remains energized and a re-closing of the
switching between utility network and low voltage distribution network occurs, power
system equipments may get damage partially or completely because of frequency phase
and magnitude variations between utility and the island.
4.4

Causes of Islanding Processes

Among the causes of system islanding, malfunctions of protective equipments and

multiple tripping of distribution lines triggered by natural disasters are the most common.
From operational point of view, islanding may be intentional and unintentional A standalone application is an intentional case, where island is desired and planned. An
unintentional island occurs when switching device between the distributed energy
resources (DER) and the rest of utility grid is opened and DER continues to feed the
distribution system.

DG

Grid

Fault

Load
Islanded portion of the network

Fig 4.3 Formation of intentional islanding on distribution network

Intentional islanding is the planned outage on the system. Usually, it is required during
the period of repair and maintenance, extension in the distribution system, power
management and the replacement of distribution system equipment as depicted in the Fig.
4.3. It has been estimated that 80% of the supply interruptions faced by consumers are
because of failures that occur in the distribution network [87].

83

4.5

Impacts on Power Quality

Passive islanding detection devices measures, while active islanding detection both
perturbs the output as well as measures it. Any sort of perturbation in the output is closely
related to power quality. Therefore, small variation in the output parameters causes the
degradation in the power quality for which the implementation of additional function is
needed. Large active power variation causes poor power quality such as voltage flicker
and grid instability. Intentional islanding can improve the quality of supply indices and
reliability. Furthermore, additional revenue to DG owners can be achieved due to
increased power supply during network outage (islanding), and customer satisfaction due
to reduction of frequency and duration of interruptions from outages in the distribution
network [88]. Intentional islanding is possible without causing difficulties, if Power
Island contains at least one generating unit that controls the voltage of energized grid
section, thus maintaining the power quality of electric supply at the customers terminals.
The most prominent advantage of passive islanding detection is that it does not influence
the power quality of electric power distribution system [78]. The passive methods do not
affect the waveform of the high voltage. Power quality issues like voltage dip, spikes,
electrical noise and other associated problems do not exist during its implementation.
4.6

Islanding Detection Techniques

From operational point of view, islanding may be intentional and unintentional.

Unintentional Islanding is, either caused by switching operation of protective devices or
tripping of distribution lines triggered by natural disasters [79].
In majority of the cases, the intentional Islanding has been planned in advanced by the
distribution engineers. Extension in the distribution system, repair and maintenance,
power management and the replacement of distribution system equipments are among the
main causes of intentional islanding. Distribution system equipments have been designed
to cope with the situation and DG(s) are well suited to control voltage, frequency and
power in the islanded grid. Intentional islands are usually designed for industrial plants,
for example steel mills, paper mills and sugar mills are mostly capable of producing a
large part of their electricity and need internally. During thunderstorms or in bad weather
conditions these plants can switch to internal electricity production and isolate
themselves from utility main grid forming an electric island (micro grid). By doing so the
risk of disturbances due to sever weather conditions affecting the vulnerable processes
are reduced.
The best example of intentional islanding is emergency backup powering the hospitals
where a blackout can cause a significant amount of damage particularly in the events of
open-heart surgery. In order to ensure continuous electricity supply, most hospitals have
emergency generators and uninterruptible power supply with battery storage.

84

Fig 4.4 illustrates the detailed classification of islanding. Intentional Islanding can also be
classified in to following three main types [81, 89, 73-74, 90].
1. Passive Islanding Detection techniques.
2. Active Islanding Detection techniques.
3. Other Islanding Detection techniques.

Fig.4.4 Islanding detection techniques

4.7

Passive Islanding Detection Techniques

The principle of passive Islanding detection methods is to monitor the selected system
variables such as the voltage at DG terminals, frequency of DG terminal voltage, phase
displacement, impedance and other characteristics [77]. In passive schemes, the system
85

parameters are measured, compared logically with preset values and is determined
whether the utility section has been islanded or not. These methods are simplest and most
direct to implement in a utility system, but have security and sensitivity problems and
inherently create non detection zones (a region of measurements where an islanding event
can occur but the detection of said event goes unnoticed).
The most significant advantage of passive islanding detection is that it does not influence
the power quality of electric power distribution system [78]. The use of DG(s) to supply a
portion of distribution network could bring many benefits to DG owner, distribution
network operator (DNO) and customers. Intentional islanding can improve the quality of
supply indices and reliability. Additional revenue to DG owners can be achieved due to
increased power supplied during network outage, and customer satisfaction due to
reduction of frequency and duration of interruptions from outages in the distribution
network. The passive methods do not affect the waveform of the high voltage. Power
quality issues like voltage dip, spikes, electrical noise and other associated problems do
not exist during its implementation.
Some of the passive Islanding detection methods are briefly discussed below.
4.7.1

Voltage Based Islanding Detection Techniques

The voltage relay measures the magnitude at DG unit and trips the generator if the
voltage has been abnormal during certain time. The relay can respond to both under and
over voltage situations. However, normally the method relies on an unbalance between
reactive power production and consumption after the loss of mains. This unbalance leads
to a change in voltage level, which can be measured locally [75]. During the islanding
condition (micro grid) voltage at PCC becomes unbalanced which is detected. If the value
of this unbalance is beyond a specified value, occurrence of islanding is detected. Voltage
imbalance is expressed as;

VI

Vn
*100%
Vp

(4.11)

Where,
VI = %age voltage imbalance

V p = Magnitude of positive sequence voltage

Vn = Magnitude of negative sequence voltage

It is worth mentioning that voltage relays do not violate the ride-through demands of the
applicable grid code. Therefore, setting has to be chosen such that the level and time
delay do not trip the generating unit unless the voltage has excursed outside the limit.
Sometimes the change in voltage alone can not detect the islanding effectively.
86

Particularly when local load closely matches the DG output power and voltage and
frequency shift is not sufficient to exceed the DG voltage and frequency limits [91].
4.7.2

Frequency Based Islanding Detection Techniques

In the steady state, the frequency is the same in the entire electric power distribution
system. A frequency relay takes its decision based on the frequency of the voltage at DG
Plant. If frequency rises above or drops below predetermined limits for a certain time
then the plant is tripped from the utility main supply. Mostly, DGs are connected in
parallel with utility main grid through tie lines. During the occurrence of fault if tie lines
are disconnected then utility main and DG become two independent systems. If, P is
the change in power due to increase of load PL , the total change in power PT can be
presented as;

PT PL P

(4.12)

The frequency characteristics of utility main system and DG system can be expressed as;

KU

f U
,
PU

(4.13)

f DG
PDG

(4.14)

K DG
Where,

PU = The out of balance power of utility main system

PDG = The out of balance power of DG system,
f U = The frequency of utility main grid
f DG = The frequency of DG
The values of K U and K DG are inversely proportional to the DG capacity connected to
the network. Any expansion in the system, minimizes the values of K U and K DG . At the
occurrence of islanding, if it is assumed that the net power change shifted from utility
main to DG system is PS for an extra load variation of PL in DG system, then

PDG
PS
PL

f DG
f DG f DG

(4.15)

87

PU
P
S
f U
f U

(4.16)

Incase, when electric utility and DG system are connected, then

f U f DG

(4.17)

Substituting and rearranging above equations

P
PDG
PL
)
( U
f DG f DG
f DG

(4.18)

f DG K U K DG

PL
K U K DG

(4.19)

Above equation describes the frequency variation with respect to load changes when DG
system is connected to utility main grid. Incase of islanding, change of load in DG
system,
PDG PL

(4.20)

f DG
K DG
PL

(4.21)

The above mentioned equations, it is concluded that with similar load changes in DG
f DG
system, the measured values of
under different conditions can be vary different.
PL
Under such situations, this value can be used as an effective islanding detector.
The under frequency occurs when the connection to utility main is lost at a situation
where the value of local load exceeds the generation of DG. Under such circumstances
the frequency is slowed down by the excessive load. Another contingency that can cause
the under frequency is the loss of bulk power production unit. The over frequency
scenario can occur when the power production is more than consumption at the time
when islanding begins.
In majority of the cases, DGs are designed to operate at unity power factor. Practically it
has been noticed that the islanding detection techniques which are frequency based, may
not be affective for DGs functioning at unity power factor [77].

88

4.7.3

Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF)

Rate of change of frequency implies to use such a relay which uses the time derivative of
frequency to detect the phenomena of islanding [78]. The difference between the load and
production affects the speed derivative. The rate of change of frequency is illustrated as;
ROCOF

P
df

f
2 HPDG
dt

(4.22)

Where,
P = Power mismatch at DG side

PDG = Rated generation capacity of DG

H = Moment of inertia for DG

During the operation, ROCFOF relay constantly monitors the system voltage waveform
and only operates when ROCFOF is greater than predetermined interval of time. The
relay should be able to distinguish between islanding condition and others. The
implementation of this method is much effective for greater power mismatch. On
contrary, it fails to perform its function when DG capacity matches the local loads [92].
Furthermore, if production and load are in perfect balance just after a switch to an
operation has occurred, the speed derivative will be small and difficult to detect. The
utility main frequency will not be affected significantly. Hence the ROCOF relay will not
be able to detect islanding.
4.7.4

Vector Shift

During the occurrence of islanding, the current from utility main is lost and the DG takes
the whole load. The increase in total current causes to change the DG terminals voltage
which in turn increases the load angle. The increased load angle corresponds to a time
lagged zero crossing of the voltage. The vector shift relay utilizes this by comparing the
number of cycle. The sudden change in time implies the change in load angle. In a 50Hz
system the nominal period time is 20ms. It is worth mentioning that there are so many
other events which are responsible for change in load angle other than the islanding
processes. Such events could be short-circuits or sudden changes in the impedance of
utility main.
In order to differentiate between the short circuits and generator startup, an under-voltage
relay is normally used to block the vector shift relay. Much computational work is
involved in the implementation of this technique which may increase the chances of
errors in the results, hence rendering this method impractical.

89

4.7.5

Phase Jump Detection (PJD)

The principle of phase jump detection is to monitor the phase difference (sudden phase
jump) between phase of the utility voltage and DG current [89]. In the presence of grid,
the utility can be assumed as a stiff voltage source providing sinusoidal voltage at system
voltage and frequency. While operating as a power conditioner, DG regulates sinusoidal
waveform current impressed into utility main. Phase of DG current is synchronized with
the phase of utility voltage through phase lock loop (PLL) circuit [81]. However at the
instance of the main grid failure, if active and reactive mismatch is large, phase of the
voltage at DG terminal is instantaneously shifted so as to balance the active and reactive
power between DG and the load. This causes the phase error due to the presence of an
inductive load after the utility is disconnected.
When this phase error exceeds the phase threshold value (err >Th) islanding is
confirmed. The size of non detection zone (NDZ) can be reduced by setting small phase
threshold (Th). The phase criterion for PJD is illustrated as;
tan 1 [R( 0 C

0 L

)] th

(4.23)

Where,
R = Load resistance ( )

C = Load capacitance ( F )
L = Load inductance ( H )

0 = Utility voltage frequency (rad/sec)

However, too small phase threshold (Th) can result in nuisance tripping during the
startup of large inductive loads (Induction motors) or switching of power factor
correction capacitor. Therefore, it becomes hard to select the appropriate value of
threshold that can provide reliable islanding detection [77]. Furthermore, this method
fails when power factor of load is near to unity.
4.7.6

Voltage Harmonic Detection

The working principle of voltage harmonic distortion is to detect total harmonic

distortion (THD) of the voltage at DG terminals [79]. In the presence of utility, utility can
be considered as a stiff voltage source providing essentially a sinusoidal waveform
voltage. However, after utility disconnected, voltage harmonic distortion at the point of
common coupling (PCC) becomes significant due to interaction between high impedance
of islanding loads and harmonic currents from sources such as DG itself, nonlinear power
electronic loads and non linear excitation current of distribution power transformer. If the
total harmonic distortion (THD) is higher than the threshold, an occurrence of islanding
90

can be confirmed [81].This method of detection is effective to detect islanding because it

does not rely on active and reactive power mismatch at the instance of utility
disconnection. However, in this method more computational work is involved than any
C
) serve as low pass filter having very
other method. High quality load factor ( q R
L
low impedance for wide range of frequency. It results in low total harmonic distortation
(THD <5%) to appear and it possibly lead to failure of detection. Furthermore,
appropriate harmonic threshold is difficult to find hence rendering this method as
impractical.
4.8

Active Islanding Detection Techniques

The principle of active islanding method is to slightly perturb the system variables such
as voltage and frequency at DG terminals and simultaneously observe their impacts.
Islanding is detected in the electric power distribution system when the observed
variables are forced out of thresholds [65]. The injected disturbance enhances the
dependability and the non detection zone (NDZ) can be reduced significantly. The
islanding can be made faster than in the case of passive detection. The issues with
implementing an active detection scheme are not only the fact that the scheme has to be
incorporated into the control without varying the functionality of the original control but
also because of the way these schemes are designed. These schemes manipulate
continuously the output states of the system in such a fashion that the disturbances could
be monitored affectively during any abnormal conditions. The active techniques work
very well, but the drawbacks are that the outputs of distribution system are varied
continuously which are being absorbed by the utility main as well as by DG and loads.
This can lead to system wide complications because if the DG is perturbing, for example
5% of its out put current, and when DG system starts to reach output power levels of
hundreds of kilowatts and even into megawatts range, then 5% perturbation is no longer
trivial. On the other hand, if the output of DG(s) is kept to low tens of kilowatts, when a
multitude of DG(s) are integrated into utility, the effects of these perturbations can
become cumulative. Generally these methods have better reliability but they are difficult
to implement and are costly. Few of these methods are briefly mentioned below.
4.8.1

Output Power Variation

The principle of out put variation method is to periodically vary real power output
supplied by DG to utility. Islanding is detected, if a change in the voltage at DG terminals
escapes threshold value [77]. Let the real output be expressed in average real power Pav
and real power variation P as
P Pav P

(4.24)

Voltage variation,
(4.25)

V ( P / PL 1) 1

91

Real power variation P must be set at least 0.2pu so that change in voltage at DG
terminal is out of the threshold after disconnection of utility, hence confirming the
occurrence of islanding. This method of islanding detection is robust and capable of
reducing the size of NDZ to zero when single DG is connected to utility. However, it fails
to detect the islanding when multiple DGs are connected to utility main and are operating
independently. In addition, large real power variation P causes poor power quality such
as voltage flicker and grid instability.
4.8.2

Impedance Measurement

In this method the real power output is periodically varied while simultaneously
determining the grid impedance by calculating a rate of change of the voltage at DG
terminal with respect to DG current. Islanding is confirmed, if a significant increase in
grid impedance above the predetermined threshold is recorded.
The implementation of this method needs a precise value of grid impedance which may
not be known, hence causing this method as impractical.
4.8.3

Sliding Mode Frequency Shift (SMFS)

In sliding mode frequency shift method, the frequency of DG output is forced to move up
or down by controlling the phase angle of the DG current. Islanding can be identified, if
the frequency is out of the predetermined threshold [89].
In this method, phase angle of current is controlled as a function of frequency deviation
of the last cycle ( f vk 1 ) from rated frequency of utility main grid f g . Hence,

ik 2 I sin[2 (f vk-1 SMFS )]t

(4.26)

Where,

SMFS

sin(

f f

g
)
2 f f
m
g

(4.27)

Where,
f m = Frequency at which maximum phase shift m occurs. During the occurrence of fault
on utility main, the frequency of micro grid will shift from rated value f g when
d

load |
<
f f
df
g

SMFS |
f f
df
g

(4.28)

92

Therefore,
12Q f
m

fm fg
2

(4.29)

Where,
Q f = Maximum value of frequency at which islanding has to be detected. Using phase

criteria, NDZ can be detected,

tan 1 [ Q f (

f 0 f is
f is f g
)] = m sin(
)
f is
f0
2 fm f g

(4.30)

Thus,

f 02

f is tan[ SMFS ( f is )]
f 0 f is2 0
Qf

(4.31)

This method has the capability to reduce the NDZ almost to zero and can be implemented
effectively [93]. It provides excellent compromise between effectiveness and output
power quality. However, it possibly fails to detect islanding, if starting phase angle
matches with the load phase angle at a frequency located within the threshold. It also
fails, if a rate of change of the starting phase angle with respect to the frequency is less
than that of the load line.
4.8.4

Active Frequency Drifts (AFD)

The principle of active frequency drift method is to force the frequency of DG output up
or down by using positive feed back to accelerate the frequency of the DG current.
Islanding can be confirmed, if the frequency is out of the threshold [62]. In AFD method,
the current frequency f is increased above the voltage frequency in the previous
cycle ( f ik f vk 1 f ) , maintaining the inverter current to zero from the end of its
negative semi-cycle until the positive zero crossing of the voltage. The current in each
cycle is presented as;

ik 2 I sin[2 (f vk-1 f )]t

(4.32)

During the occurrence of islanding and steady state condition, the inverter phase angle
can be expressed as;

t z / 2 AFD

Tv
2

(4.33)

93

Where,
tz (

f
1
1
1
1
)( ) ( )(
) (
)
fv
fi
f
f f
f ( f f )

AFD ft z

f
f f

Where,

AFD Inverter angle

With the implementation of phase criteria ( LOAD AFD )

tan 1 [ Q f (

f 0 f is
f
)]
f is
f0
f is f

(4.34)

Thus,
f 02

f is tan[ AFD ( f is )]
f 0 f is2 0
Qf

(4.35)

It is very effective method and can eliminate a NDZ near to zero [82]. However, method
fails to detect the islanding, if phase offset generated by perturbing the frequency matches
with the load phase angle at frequency within the threshold.
4.9

Other Methods

In these methods, the techniques employed are different than those used for active and
passive methods. Communication has been considered to be most expensive [79].
Traditionally only utility owned wires and channels subscribed from telephone
companies have been considered. Today radio transmission (FM or AM) and optic fibers
can be added to the list. Internet has made it possible to communicate the same
information to a wide range of equipments. These methods include reactance insertion,
power line carrier communication (PLCC), supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA), Phase measurement units, comparison of rate of change of frequency
(COROCOF) and Transfer Tripping Scheme. Generally, these methods are costly to
implement.

94

4.9. 1 Reactance Insertion

In this method, low value impedance (such as a capacitor bank) is connected to a

distribution feeder within a short delay time after a utility is disconnected. The capacitor
bank supplies additional reactive power to the load and unbalance reactive power
between the DG and the load. On the other hand, if the frequency is below the threshold,
an occurrence of islanding is confirmed.
Other types of impedances such as a low value resistance can be used to unbalance real
power between the DG and the load during the occurrence of islanding. If the drop in
voltage occurred is below the threshold, Islanding is confirmed.
This method is highly effective for islanding. A NDZ can be eliminated, if a capacitor
bank is properly installed and coordinated. But it has slow response compared to active
method. Further more, cost of implementation is excessive because every disconnection
switch must be equipped with a switchable capacitor bank.
4.9. 2 Power line Carrier Communication (PLCC)

The principle of power line carrier communication is to use a low energy communication
signal sent by a transmitter at utility side throughout power distribution network. Line
discontinuity is acknowledged and an occurrence of islanding can be confirmed.
The use of continuous communication signal is preferred since it is more reliable and
simpler than an intermittent signal for continuity test. With an intermittent signal, loss of
signal due to discontinuity or cessation of the transmission can not be distinguished
without encoding and decoding a signal. In addition, the signal should be of low
frequency so that it can propagate well in the power line without having troubles with
line inductance.

Receiver

Transmitter
STS

DG

Transformer

Utility

Local load

Fig.4.5 Typical power line carrier communication circuit used for islanding detection
95

A sub-harmonic signal is also preferable because it can not be mistakenly produced by

customer loads. Power line carrier communication circuit sends low energy signals
continuously along the power line through transmitter on grid side and the receiver at DG
side can detect the islanding condition by sensing the presence or absence of signals. A
typical circuit used to detect the islanding condition, using PLCC technique is presented
in Fig. 4.5.
Use of power line carrier communication has several advantages. It does not degrade the
power quality. The NDZ can be eliminated. However, such a system is expensive. It is
economical only in high density distributed generation areas.
4.9.3 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

The principle of the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is to monitor
states of entire distribution system such as voltage, frequency and other characteristics
and enable rapid response to eliminate islanding. When DG is installed, a voltage sensing
device must be installed in the local part of the utility. Voltage information is sent
through communication links to the central station. After utility is disconnected, if the
voltage can be detected from the disconnected area, the occurrence of the islanding is
confirmed. Corrective measures must be arranged to eliminate islanding so that utility
personnel are not injured while serving isolated feeders and out of phase re-closure can
be avoided.
This method is highly effective to detect the islanding and a NDZ is eliminated, if the
system is properly instrumented and controlled [72]. However, cost of implementation is
very high expensive because each DG installed needs separate instrumentation and
communication to send necessary information to the central station.
4.9. 4 Phase Measurement Units

The system consists of two units, one at utility substation and the other at DG plant. At
substation voltage angles are measured and time stamped before being sent to the
receiver at DG plant. It can easily be determined then if DG plant is synchronized with
grid or not, confirming the islanding detection. However, a load with a zero phase angle
at utility frequency will not produce a reasonable phase error when utility is
disconnected, thus the method will fail to detect the occurrence of islanding.
4.9. 5 Comparison of Rate of Change of Frequency (COROCOF)

Comparison of Rate of Change of Frequency (COROCOF) changes at two locations in

the grid. At the substation the rate of change of frequency is measured and a block signal
sent to the DG plant if the value has exceeded a limit. At DG plant the rate of change of
frequency is also determined. If no block signal has been received when frequency
change has been discovered, the DG plant is tripped. The practical implementation of

96

technique is difficult as much computational work is involved in the design of the

interface control.
4.9. 6 Transfer Tripping Scheme

Transfer Tripping Scheme can be considered as a decentralized version of SCADA

system. Logic circuits use information of circuit breaker states to determine if a part of
the grid has been islanded. The result is then transmitted to DG plant. The practical
implementation of this method is uneconomical due to the involvement of costly
equipments.
4.10

Review of existing Islanding Detection Techniques

The detailed review of literature reflects that many algorithms have been developed for
islanding detection of distribution feeders. Jun Yin, Chris Peter Diduch and Liucheng
Chang have expressed the islanding detection algorithm, based on the proportional power
spectral density [68]. Algorithm is robust, against the load variations and has fast
response during the occurrence of islanding process. However, due to mass load
switching and fault, frequency variations may occur. This inevitably will cause large
proportional power spectral density in low frequency band of grid periods, leading to a
nuisance trip for islanding. A voltage based active islanding detection method for
distributed power generation system has been examined and explained by Wen-jung
Chiang, Hurng-Liahng Jou, Jinn- ChangWu and Ya-Tsung Feng [71]. The moment the
interruption occurs on utility main, power is supplied by DG to the local load connected.
At that instant, the change in the amplitude of voltage initiates the operation of proposed
islanding detection method. The authors have observed the voltage variations by
connecting different type of loads including resistive(R), resistive-inductive (RL),
resistive-capacitive (RC) and resistive, inductive and capacitive (RLC) respectively. But
the effect of inductive and capacitive loads separately connected with DG at the instance
of grid failure, have not been analyzed. Furthermore, under load varying conditions, the
output current of DG cannot be controlled to a predetermined value which may cause
power quality problems.
Shyh-Jier Huang and Fu-Sheng Pai have developed an algorithm, based on the selfcommutated static power converters [75]. The computational procedure involves the
sampling of input data including the input voltage and current for each branch and
variations in the frequency and power. During the occurrence of the islanding, the
changes in the frequency and power are compared with their predetermined threshold
values. The incorrect selection of threshold values may prolong the computational time,
causing an adverse effect on the results. Thorough investigation of the algorithm further
delineates the difficulties faced during its implementation for distribution system having
more than one DG.
In majority of cases, DG(s) are designed to operate at unity power factor. It has been
observed practically that the islanding detection techniques which are frequency
dependent may not be operated affectively when DG is designed with unity power factor
97

[77]. Unfortunately these methods suffer from two main drawbacks of the choice of
suitable threshold and a large non detection zone (NDZ). An active islanding detection
for an inverter-based DG is presented by H.HZeineldin, E.F.EI-Saadany and M.M A
Salama in which an effort has been made to explore the effects of using DGs to improve
the local load power factor, through reactive power injection, on the NDZ of over and
under voltage protection and over and under frequency protection for islanding detection
method [77]. Although the proposed islanding detection technique is robust and has
negligible NDZ but still it faces serious complexities during both the interface control
design as well as parameters selection. As much computational work is involved in
determining the parameters, the algorithm may fails to provide the accurate results in case
of wrong parameters selection. A hybrid islanding detection technique has been
developed by Vivek.Menon and M.Hashem Nehrir in which power flow and voltage
unbalance detection techniques are combined to detect the islanding phenomena [79].
The disadvantage of this method lies in the inaccurate selection of frequency set point for
power flow in the system. No proper criterion has been developed to select the frequency
set point.
The wrong restoration of frequency set point during the islanding detection may
adversely affect the system. Other important issue relating to frequency set point is the
selection of unity power factor for DG. Frequency based islanding detection techniques
may not operate affectively at unity power factor. A new digital protection algorithm for
islanding detection has been elaborated by M.A Redfern, J I Barret and Ousta [80]. The
algorithm detects the islanding by monitoring the fluctuations in the DG output power
caused by disturbances and differentiating between the response experienced when the
main source is connected with DG and that when DG is operating in isolation (Microgrid). During the operation of the algorithm, the operation time may increase if the trip
setting (Ks) is wrongly selected. The results may also change drastically under the
varying load conditions. Sung II Jang and Kwang-Ho Kim have presented an islanding
detection method for DG using voltage unbalance method and total harmonic distortion
of current [81]. The proposed algorithm is applicable only for single DG case. F.Katiraei,
M.R.Iravani and P.W.Lehn have framed micro-grid autonomous operation during and
subsequent to islanding process in which appropriate control strategy for power
electronically interfaced DG unit can ensure stability of the micro-grid and maintained
voltage quality at designated buses [84]. The suggested method is applicable only for
balanced load. Furthermore, it can not be implemented for a case where we have more
than one DG. A new control strategy was implemented for intentional islanding of DG by
H.Zeineldin and E.F.EI-Saadany [88]. The method delineates the hybrid passive islanding
for DG. The simulation results show that the interface control is not capable of operating
in islanding condition despite the fact that the DG capacity is enough to supply the load.
At the moment the islanding mode is operated, the spikes occur in the active and reactive
power, frequency and voltage. If duration of spikes is more than pre-determined value, it
will affect the operation of islanding detection algorithm and will also deteriorate the
power quality of DG.
Guiliang Yin has developed a distributed generation islanding detection method, based on
artificial immune system. In this research paper two modules (T and B) have been

98

constructed on the functions of T and B cells of immune system [91]. Based upon these
values, digital signal processing system has been established. The algorithm is difficult to
implement particularly because of much computational complexity involved. Sung II
Jang and K.H Kim have designed a new islanding detection algorithm for DGs
interconnected with utility networks based upon the voltage unbalance and voltage
magnitude [94].The test results were shown for IEEE 34 bus model in which DG was
installed at bus number 840 and circuit breaker was opened between bus number 834 and
860, forming an island with single DG. Similar islanding was achieved by the installation
of single DG at bus number 832 and 858, separately. The results are valid only for single
DG scenario. No test cases were performed for islanding having more than one DG.
Khalil EI-Arroudi, Geza Joos, Innocent Kamwa and Donald T Mc Gills have developed
an intelligent based approach to islanding detection in DG [94]. The technique presented
can be implemented successfully with high degree of accuracy for multi-DG system and
has the ability to optimize the threshold values for various system parameters. However,
much computational work is involved in the implementation of technique which may
prolong the operating time and adversely affect the results. The data mining approach for
setting the threshold of protective relays during the islanding detection of DG was
suggested by Khalil EI-Arroudi and Geza Joos [95]. The technique can be applied to
optimize threshold values of the four parameters including frequency, voltage, rate of
change of frequency and rate of change of power for different protective devices.
Although the data mining approach is very flexible in selecting the type and number of
the system parameters, however, the extraction of setting rules from constructed model is
too difficult. A relay trip signal is issued only when the measured values exceed the
threshold and holds for a preset time-delay. The inaccurate adjustment of preset timedelay may also affect the optimal threshold values for various system parameters. Morris
Brenna, George C. Lazaroiu, Gabrio Superti-Furga, and Enrico Tironi have explained the
utilization of new control strategy for bidirectional front end converter for grid-connected
DG units. The technique based on the evaluation of inductor-flux error trajectory which
allows predicting the next commutation instance for islanding detection [96]. The control
is fast and its feasibility and applicability has been confirmed by utilizing electronically
interfaced DG(s). During the implementation of this technique, two drawbacks have been
noticed. Firstly, the technique is frequency dependent which can not be utilized
effectively for DG(s) having non unity power factor. Secondly, the interfaced control
design is much complicated and difficult to implement under load varying conditions.
Luiz A.C.Lopes and Yongzheng Zhang discussed the degradation of the performance of
active frequency drifting islanding detection methods in multi-inverter system [97]. The
cost and the complexity of such islanding detection methods are low but they present
significant NDZs where they fail to detect the islanding. The analyses carried out are
based solely on RLC load and the technique is designed for unity power factor only.LI
Yongli,LI Shengwei, BAI Shibin and NIU Chongxuan have solicited an algorithm for
islanding detection based on reactive power compensation for micro-grid.
The algorithm works effectively with small NDZ and has faster operation time [98]. The
complete investigation of simulation result enumerates that the proposed algorithm is
designed for RLC type loads only. No test cases have been performed for non linear

99

loads. The implementation of algorithm also based on constant value of load parameters.
The algorithm also fails to detect the islanding phenomena when difference between the
load power and inverter based DG power is small. It has been observed that for effective
islanding, the frequency must be within the allowable range otherwise, the algorithm fails
to perform its functions during micro-grid. HOU Meiyi, GAO Houlei, LIU Bingxu and
ZOU Guibin have developed vector shift method for islanding detection in which the
impacts of both the active power imbalance and load variation on vector shift method are
evaluated [99].
During the occurrence of islanding, the instantaneous values of the terminal voltage jump
to other values and the phase position is changed. As a result, the cycle is either shorter or
longer depending on whether there is an excess or deficit of active power in the islanded
system. Such variation of the cycle duration results in a proportional variation of the
terminal voltage phase angle . This behavior of terminal voltage is called vector shift.
During simulation, it has been noticed that at the time of utility main failure if the load
remaining on the island is equal to the output of the DG, the frequency variation and
vector shift may not be sufficient to operate the protective system. Furthermore, it is
unable to differentiate between false loss of main and other types of intentional or
unintentional system disturbances. If the value of vector shifts angle and the active power
imbalance changes behind their threshold values than this method of islanding detection
will either take longer time to detect the occurrence of islanding or it will fail completely.
The method is also unable to function in case of varying load conditions. It has also been
observed that voltage at point of common coupling is different from sinusoidal voltage
due to the presence of non-linear loads [100].
If after islanding detection, destabilization, and elimination the system performance still
suffers, what active control devices can be added or switched as pointed out by Dr.
Mohamed A.Zodhy, professor Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Oakland
University. The application of newly designed algorithms (IDG and NIDA) stabilizes the
overall operation of distribution system as; DG(s) are implemented in either heavily
overload conditions or micro-grid formation during the occurrence of fault. If there is any
power quality problem, the tool incorporates another DG until and unless all the
parameters are brought within the international standard limits. In case of control
equipments, the utility has the provision of sophisticated electronic devices, like static
transfer switches (STS) and dynamic voltage restorers (DVRs).
Keeping in view all the above mentioned problems, a new islanding detection algorithm
(NIDA) has to be designed for radial distribution feeder of electric power distribution
system, which can be implemented for islanding detection under uniform and non
uniform loads and with power factor other than the unity, operating in multi-DG scenario.
The algorithm should be incorporated with distribution feeder whose performance has to
be enhanced by the implementation of DG(s) having optimal sizes and locations.
According to IEEE standards, the voltage magnitude of all nodes of distribution feeder
must not exceed the rated value that is 5%.

100

Table No 4.1
Merits and demerits of existing islanding detection techniques
No

Technique

Merits

Demerits

Islanding detection algorithm based on

proportional power spectral density

Robust, fast response, can

be applied for variable load

Unable to function under fast frequency

variation

Voltage based islanding detection method

Effective only for specific

loads only

Cause power quality problems

Algorithm based on self commutated static

power convertor

Fast response

Difficult to select the threshold value

Hybrid islanding detection technique

Small NDZ

Difficult to select frequency set point,

cannot work on non-unity power factor

Active islanding detection method for

inverter based DG

Improve power factor,

robust, small NDZ

Complex interface control, difficult

parameter selection

New digital protection algorithm

Simple, easy to apply on

utility and micro-grid

Difficult to select trip setting, work only for

variable load

Islanding detection method based on

voltage unbalance and THD

Easy to implement

Effective for single DG

Micro grid autonomous operation

Economical

Applicable for balance load

New control strategy

Fast operation

power quality problems

10

Islanding detection based on artificial

immune system

Accurate

Complicated, much computational work

11

New islanding detection algorithm

Effective for single DG

Failed under DG scenario

12

Intelligent based islanding detection

Accurate, optimize threshold

values effectively

Greater operating time, much computational

work

13

Active frequency drift islanding detection

in multi-inverter system

Economical, easy to
implement

Significant N D Z

14

Reactive power compensation based

islanding detection algorithm

Fast operation, small N D Z

Cannot be used for non linear loads

15

Vector shift method for islanding detection

Easy to implement

Unable to detect false loss of main, prolong

time, unable under load varying condition

4.11

Summery

Many techniques have been presented to monitor the phenomena of islanding. These
techniques can be classified into three categories: active methods, passive methods and
other methods. From operational point of view, Islanding may be intentional and
unintentional. Unintentional Islanding is, either caused by switching operation of
protective devices or tripping of distribution lines triggered by natural disasters.
However, the intentional islanding is planned, in advanced by the distribution engineers.
Extension in the distribution system, repair and maintenance, power management and the
101

replacement of distribution system equipments are among the main causes of intentional
islanding.
The non-uniform distribution of electric loads, unity power factor, complexities during
the design of interface control and the functioning of the system in multiDG scenarios
are the most common obstacles, seriously faced by the distribution engineers, during the
implementation of existing islanding detection techniques.
The importance of islanding detection originates from security reasons. Having a feeder
energized when utility operators carrying out repairing work may be hazardous. If the
distribution network remains energized and a re-closing of the switching between utility
network and low voltage distribution network occurs, power system equipments may get
damage partially or completely because of frequency phase and magnitude variations
between utility and the island.
Among the causes of system islanding, malfunctions of protective equipments and
multiple tripping of distribution lines triggered by natural disasters are the most common.
Passive islanding detection devices measures, while active islanding detection both
perturbs the output as well as measure it. Any sort of perturbation in the output is closely
related to power quality. Therefore, small variation in the output parameters causes the
degradation in the power quality for which the implementation of additional function is
needed. The most prominent advantage of passive islanding detection is that it does not
influence the power quality of electric power distribution system. The passive methods
do not affect the waveform of the high voltage. Power quality issues like voltage dip,
spikes, electrical noise and other associated problems do not exist during its
implementation.
The detailed review of literature reflects that many algorithms have been developed for
islanding detection of distribution feeders. Majority of them can not be implemented
practically due to many problems. Keeping in view all the above mentioned problems, a
new islanding detection algorithm has to be designed for radial distribution feeder of
electric power distribution system, which can be implemented for islanding detection
under uniform and non uniform loads and with power factor other than the unity,
operating in multi-DG scenario. The algorithm should be incorporated with distribution
feeder whose performance has to be enhanced by the implementation of DG(s) having
optimal sizes and locations. In stringent environmental and deregulated conditions, the
desired goal can be achieved by enumerating the passive islanding detection techniques
in the presence of DG(s) which can not only enhance the reliability but also improve the
power quality.

102