Professional Documents
Culture Documents
June 1, 2009
To Elizabeth
3
Preface
1 Basic Ideas 9
1.1 The nature of space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Electromagnetism compared with elastodynamics 13
1.3 Maxwell’s and The Navier-Cauchy Equations . . 19
1.4 Confined waves in the Spatial continuum . . . . . 24
1.5 The Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6 Waves in the spatial continuum . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.7 The photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.8 The electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.9 Systems of many particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.10 Atomic nuclei and the strong forces . . . . . . . . 62
1.11 Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 CONTENTS
Basic Ideas
I will take up the thread from the nineteenth century that space
has got to have mechanical properties, but it is almost cer-
The nature of space 11
However, the equations are not complete until it also can deal
with motion. Thus space has got to have some inertial prop-
erties, and a crucial question will be to figure out how inertia
enters the picture. This is not an entirely trivial question. In
Chapter 4 I have looked into two possibilities. First what I have
called the classical approach; that space has an intrinsic iner-
tia in its undeformed state that only changes as space is being
compressed or inflated; and second the spatial approach that
space initially has no inertia at all and only gets its inertia from
the deformation energy by being compressed or perhaps even
inflated. Note that the spatial approach actually is more in line
with how ordinary matter gets its inertia (m = e/c2 ).
i) div B = 0,
ρ
ii) div E = ,
ε0
∂B
iii) curl E = − ,
∂t
∂E
iv) curl B = µ0 ε0 + µ0 j.
∂t
We can add the field energy equation that follows naturally from the
above equations
ε0 2 1
v) u= E + B2 .
2 2µ0
λs + 2µs µs ρs 2
e= ( div u)2 + ( curl u)2 + u̇ .
2 2 2
1
b = j, u̇ = −E, curl u = B, ρs = ε0 , µs = ,
µ0
it transforms into
∂E
iv) curl B = ε0 µ0 + µ0 j.
∂t
i) div B = 0,
∂( curl u)
and by the identity ∂t
= curl ( ∂u
∂t
) we have
∂B
iii) = − curl E.
∂t
ε0 2 1
v) e= E + B2 .
2 2µ0
Let qτ be the sum of all sinks (sources are negative sinks) inside a
volume element τ , and let τ shrink towards a little volume ǫ that still
contains many sources. Then we can define a sink density given by
qτ 1
I
ρ = lim = −ε0 lim u̇ndf = −ε0 div u̇,
τ →ǫ τ τ →ǫ τ τ
ii) ρ = ε0 div E.
ε0 div Ė = ρ̇.
By subtracting the two equations from each other we obtain the conti-
nuity equation
vi) ρ̇ + div j = 0.
land]: Cambridge University Press : n.p. I quote: ”... if the internal forces
of a material system arise wholly from electromagnetic actions between the
system of electrons which constitute the atoms, then the effect of imparting
to a steady material system a uniform velocity of translation is to produce
a
puniform contraction of the system in the direction of motion, of amount
1 − v2 /c2 .”
24 Basic Ideas
d(mv) ds
Newton’s second law: F = , where v= .
dt dt
Einstein’s energy equation: E = mc .2
From these equations we have:
d(mv) d E 1
dE = ds = v ds = 2 v · dE + E · dv dv,
dt dt c2 c
dE 1 v · dv
= 2 ,
E c 1 − v2 /c2
1 C
ln E = ln p + ln C = ln p ,
1 − v2 /c2 1 − v2 /c2
E0
E= p ,
1 − v2 /c2
m0
m= p .
1 − v2 /c2
By first taking the divergence and then the curl of the Navier-Cauchy
equation we derive
ρs ∂ 2 ( div u)
∇2 ( div u) = ,
λs + 2µs ∂t2
ρs ∂ 2 ( curl u)
∇2 ( curl u) = .
µs ∂t2
1 ∂2Ψ
− + ∇2 Ψ = 0,
c12 ∂t2
1 ∂2B
− + ∇2 B = 0.
c02 ∂t2
respectively.
div u
u
A>0
A=0
0
A<0
r
0 h sin(pr) cos(pr) i R1
u(r, t) = A cos(c1 pt) · − r̂,
p3 r 2 p2 r
A
div u = cos(c1 pt) sin(pr)
pr
A
= sin(pr + c1 pt) + sin(pr − c1 pt) ,
2pr
I have not been able to prove that this may be a feasible situ-
ation, but all coupled oscillations seem to have such standard
modes where they oscillate in step with each other with the same
frequency. I assume that this is a possible situation. Now let us
try to expand the oscillation to higher harmonics with several
wavelength between the center node and the rigid sphere. First
I think the coupling outside the first node will be to feeble to
accomplish any exchange of energy. Therefore the next node in
the solenoidal field will not coincide with any node in the irro-
tational field, but perhaps that might be so in the third node.
We know that the wave speed in the irrotational field is about
the double of that in the solenoidal field, and the possibility is
surely present that the relation is exactly 2 to 1. If that is so,
the third node in the solenoidal field will exactly coincide with
the second node in the irrotational field, and a new pattern of
standing wave is realized. In this way we could expand the sys-
tem ad infinitum. I will stretch my imagination one step further
The Big Bang 33
f (c1 t − r) f (c1 t + r)
div u = + .
r r
leaving the area around the focal point as quiet as it was before,
but it is more probable that small irregularities will break down
the symmetry such that the implosion would end up not only in
one singularity, but in a plethora of singularities each of which
releasing their energy in tiny explosions. An ordinary earthly
explosion, especially that of an atomic bomb, sends particles
and gas molecules outwards with so great a speed that the site
of the explosion is evacuated. The same could happen to the
singularities resulting in evacuated bubbles in the spatial con-
tinuum. The bubbles, however, would not be stable, but would
immediately collapse and be filled up with the spatial mass from
a nearby still exploding singularity. In this way spatial mass can
come to oscillate between the nodes in a such way that the out-
flow from one node is taken up as an inflow to a couple of nearby
nodes leaving a residual of bubbles moving from one of the oscil-
lating nodes to the next. A ”bubble” in this context is taken to
mean a partly evacuated area with a singularity at its core. The
general idea is that a bubble that collapses can borrow spatial
mass from the next node in a long chain of oscillating nodes and
hence move over to this node and further to the next node and
so on in a never ending repetition. The energy that goes into
this combined oscillation and displacement makes up the total
amount of matter in the Universe, and the Universe itself will be
taken to mean the compressed space left over by the Big Bang.
side the compressed area approaches zero and the speed of any
wave movements will approach infinity. No waves can ever move
from an area with finite wave speed and into an area with infinite
wave speed, but will be reflected, so whatever waves there might
have been created by the explosion, are confined to the area and
have got to expand together with the expanding space. Matter
in the form of energetic bubbles may, however, move freely from
node to node within the space of the compressed volume, and
would probably distribute evenly throughout the allowed area
that henceforth will constitute the entire universe. I suspect
that this uniformity also will apply to the spatial mass itself,
and so we have a volume in space with relatively evenly dis-
tributed pressure surrounded by a zone of zero pressure, which
expands in all directions as the pressure makes space itself to ex-
pand. Along with this expansion all kinds of matter also expand
and loose energy, until matter in the form of leptons and hadrons
combine to form atoms, mainly hydrogen, helium and lithium.
At approximately the same time the universe gets transparent
to light, and the radiation takes form of thermal radiation at
about 3000 K. The universe, however, continue to expand, and
the temperature in the cosmic background radiation drops along
with the expansion until it today has reached a temperature of
ca 2.7 K, as was first observed by A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wil-
son in 1964. The dipole oscillations will also represent energy,
and like the microwave background they will also loose energy
as space expands. If they don’t decline in number, they will
have to decline in amplitude, so we must expect that all space
is filled with very faint oscillating dipoles or strings of oscillating
nodes.
Waves in the spatial continuum 41
front moves outwards like a solitary wave with some speed, but
any objects on the inside cannot feel this velocity because they
follow the outwards movement like drifting log in a river. If an
observer on one drifting object observes other drifting objects,
he will find that they move away from him and faster the longer
away they are. From his point of view he lives in an expanding
space.
9 Postamble is not a valid English word, but it suits the purpose, and I
Displacement
Flow
sin(ω(t − nπ/ω)
Dn (n, t) = h ,
t − nπ/ω
hω h sin(ωt − nπ) i
Fn (n, t) = cos(ωt − nπ) − .
t − nπ/ω ωt − nπ
X
Dn = hω.
n
guess and I cannot prove it, but I will try to see what implica-
tions it will have. The δ-function above is mathematically well
documented, and it shows out that the limit of the function as
t approaches zero, is like the angular velocity ω, or 2πf where
f is the frequency of the oscillation. A period, T = 1/f , is
taken to be the time it takes for a single node in the chain to
pass from neutral to fully compressed state, back to neutral and
further to fully inflated state, and back to neutral again. In
the course of that time the bubble has been fully inflated two
times. The positive and negative amplitude of the oscillation
multiplied with a suitable constant is then measures of respec-
tively displacement from the nodes and compression in them.
The displacement from all the nodes taken together will at any
time be proportional with the frequency, and if the energy in the
particle model is proportional with the displaced spatial mass,
the energy too will be proportional with the frequency. If we
call the proportionality constant h, we arrive at the equation
E = hf , and we notice that if h happens to be like Planck’s
constant of action, this formula is identical with the well known
formula for the energy of a photon. We notice, however, that
the electromagnetic property and the speed by which the bubble
is moving along the string cannot be read out of these formu-
las, but I will address those questions along with an attempt to
understand polarization and spin in the next section.
∞
X sin(ωt − nπ)
D(t) = hω , ωt − πn 6= 0.
n=−∞
ωt − nπ
∞
X (−1)n
D(t) = hω sin(ωt) . (1.1)
n=−∞
ωt − nπ
n
X (−1)k z
csc(z) == lim /; ∈
/ Z,
n→∞
k=−n
z − πk π
1
D(t) = hω sin(ωt) = hω. (1.2)
sin(ωt)
A strange coincident?
The energy in a rotational system is given by
E = 1/2 · Iω 2 ,
L = Iω.
2
1/2 · Iωrot = 1/2 · ~ωtrans ,
Iωrot = ~,
L = ~.
This is the correct value for the spin of a photon, but it is of course
no proof. At best it tells us that the spin is of the correct order of
magnitude.
gible property of the photon. It has got to move with the speed
of light to keep up with the associated electromagnetic wave,
it is polarized, it has spin directed along the movement axis,
it carries energy and momentum proportional to the displaced
spatial mass, and it has at the same time both particle and
wave nature. A single photon in this model is surrounded by a
transversal wave of considerable extension which will be subject
to ordinary interference laws, and since there is a mutual inter-
52 Basic Ideas
Model of two opposite charges moving in the right direction. Blue, thick
lines represent the displacements from each node, and red thick lines
represent rotation. Thin lines suggest the displacement and rotation at
the nodes in a photon. Black arrows illustrate the sink and a source
respectively.
But say that the preamble of the first of two particles is in dis-
placement enhanced mode that shifts over to rotation enhanced
mode in the postamble, and the preamble of the second particle
is in rotation enhanced mode that shifts over to displacement
enhanced mode in the postamble. Then the displacement in the
first particle is built up to a higher displacement in the preamble
than is built down in the postamble, and the displacement in
the preamble of the second particle is built up to a lower level
than is built down in the postamble. This discrepancy can only
be equalized by a constant flow of spatial mass from the second
to the first entity like the velocity field around a source-sink
pair (see Figure 1.14). We could call the first entity e+ and the
second e− and notice that e− acts like a source and e+ as a
sink (the choice of the signs is somewhat arbitrary). We also
notice that if the distance between the two entities is increased,
then more energy will go into the velocity field between them,
and hence it requires an application of force to bring them far-
ther apart like the force between two opposite electrical charges.
What actually happens in the bubble itself is in the first case
that the inflow to the bubble boosts the rotation up from its
dampened mode to enhanced mode, and in the second case that
rotation veritably blows spatial mass away from the node on ac-
count of its own rotation. Note that this shift corresponds with
the delay in phase caused by the building up and down of the
bubble in the course of two half cycles.
In the previous section I assumed that the nodes of the two parti-
cles oscillate with half the frequency of the original photon, but
the frequencies are interlocked like the teeth of a zipper such
that the net frequency of the system is the double of the indi-
vidual particles, like the density of teethes in a locked zipper is
the double of the density in each parts of the open zipper. I will
follow up this thought and assume that in a composite system
of many half spin particles like the quarks and electrons in an
atom, a similar mechanism is at work. Each particle creates its
own set of nodes in such a way that the oscillation of the nodes’
peaks are in between each other. In this way the entangled set
of nodes are interlocked like the teeth of a ”multidimensional”
Systems of many particles 59
where in the cloud of nodes and hence we know where the parti-
cle might be. Max Born interpreted this amplitude as the prob-
ability amplitude for the particle, which squared value gives the
probability where to find the particle in space at any time. Since
the particle has got to be somewhere in space, we can normalize
this property by setting the integral of the probability all over
space to unity. According to the Copenhagen interpretation the
only fact that can be said about the position of a particle is the
probability amplitude. There is no hidden variable that could
possibly tell where the particle is situated at a given time. In
this model, however, there surely has got to be a hidden variable
where the naked particle in the form of an evacuated bubble is
located. This view was discussed by David Böhm who found
that a hidden variable could give meaning to the abstract for-
mulas of physics, but John Stewart Bell showed that then one
has to accept the principle of nonlocality10 . This is of course
E
f= ,
h
where E is the energy of all particles in the system, and f is the fre-
quency of the oscillations in the entire cloud of nodes. The oscillation
can be described by
′ ′
t
Ψ(x′ , y ′ , z ′ , t′ ) =A(x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) · e−i2πf
E′ ′
=A(x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) · e−i ~ t .
x − vx t y − vy t z − vz t
x′ = p , y′ = p , z′ = p ,
1 − v2 /c2 1 − v2 /c2 1 − v2 /c2
t − (vx x + vy y + vz z)/c2
t′ = p .
1 − v2 /c2
From the observer’s point of view the oscillation takes the form
y−vy t
Ψ(x, y, z, t) =A √x−v2x t ,√ , √ z−v2z t
1−v /c2 1−v /c2
2 1−v /c2
√ −iE [t−(vx x+vy y+vz z)/c2 ]
1−v2 /c2
· e~ ,
1 ∂2Ψ −E 2
2 2
=Ψ 2 2 .
c ∂t c ~ (1 − v2 /c2 )
Accordingly
1 ∂2Ψ E 2 v2 E2
∇2 Ψ − =− 2 4 Ψ+ 2 2 Ψ
c2 ∂t2 ~ c (1 − v2 /c2 ) ~ c (1 − v2 /c2 )
E2
= Ψ.
~2 c2
1 ∂2Ψ m2 c2
∇2 Ψ − 2 2
= Ψ,
c ∂t ~2
are no real colors, but a kind of charge called color charge, which
distinguish them from each other. In a nucleon the quarks have
the colors red, blue, and green, which make the nucleon itself
white. The color of the quarks in a meson is always one of these
colors and its anti-color, also making the meson white. In fact,
to my knowledge, no one has ever seen a quark in isolation nor
a colored particle, which probably amounts to the same.
Consider a set of three strings, dubbed red, green, and blue, con-
fined in a closed area of the spatial continuum oscillating with
the same frequency and one sixth of a period out of phase with
each other. The net oscillating frequency of the entire group
68 Basic Ideas
1.11 Gravitation
Newton discovered the law that two heavenly bodies attract each
other with a force proportional to the product of their masses
divided by the distance between them squared. This is a force
that acts at a distance. A more modern view is to consider
gravitation as an effect of a gravitational potential, the gradi-
ent of which gives the gravitational acceleration at any point in
space. The potential is determined by an equation discovered by
the French mathematician Siméon-Denis Poisson (1781-1840):
∇2 Φ = −4πGρ where G is the gravitation constant and ρ the
mass density. Poisson’s equation can be solved under rather
general conditions yielding the gravitational potential all over
space. The tremendous advantage of this approach is that grav-
itation can be determined from any distribution of mass, and
not only from spherical bodies. A still more modern view is to
apply the General Theory of Relativity, GR, where bodies move
along geodesics in curved space-time.
It is almost obvious that the gravitational potential in this model
has got to be linked to a grad div u-field, i.e. a space with
varying density. However, from the Navier-Cauchy equation we
can immediately see that a static density gradient cannot exist
in the open spatial continuum, so we have got to seek a dynamic
solution. The key lies in the expansion of space in which a
body is represented by confined energy. Which effect it is that
keeps the energy confined is irrelevant in this connection, but it
is essential that the force needed to keep the energy at bay is
absorbed by the spatial continuum itself. Hence confined energy
70 Basic Ideas
Now, let our demon calculate the time a ray of light takes to
pass from point A to point B past a heavy object in space where
the speed of light is known to be slower. He moves one universal
length unit for every tick of his universal clock and finds that the
shortest time has passed when he chooses a path a little farther
out from the body than the straight line. Next, let us do the
same calculation with our local length and time units. Say first
that our length unit is unaffected by the position. Then, in
order to keep the measured speed of light constant, our clock
has got to go a bit slower near the object than farther out, and
we too will find that the time is shortest when we move along
the same path as the demon found. If on the other hand the
time unit is unaffected by the position, then, for the same reason
as above, the length unit has got to be a bit shorter near the
heavy object than farther out, and again we get a bit faster past
the object by choosing the same route because of the slightly
longer length unit covered by each tick of the clock along this
route than along a path closer to the heavy object. The route
we found in this way, by applying the calculus of variation, is
The General Theory of Relativity 75
8πG
R=− T[universal] ,
c4
1 8πG
R · g = − 4 T[loss] ,
2 c
1 8πG
R− R · g = − 4 T,
2 c
Einstein field equation. First we see that the Ricci tensor might
be associated with the real stress energy tensor measured in a
universal frame. The trace of that tensor produces the Ricci
scalar, which when corrected by the metric tensor should be a
measure of the loss of energy from the system.
According to my definition of the spatial continuum, there has
got to be a residual pressure leftover from the Big Bang. This
pressure is uniform throughout space – or perhaps only nearly
so – and will contribute to the stress energy tensor. Due to the
expansion of space, it will also loose energy and cause an effect,
Λ · gαβ , that may be significant over great distances in space. It
is of course an open question if the gαβ found here is the same
as the Riemannian metric cited above, but I will leave it at that.
In 1917 Willem de Sitter and Abbé George Lemaitre showed
on the basis of GR that the universe is expanding all the time.
The expansion, however, is by some believed to be on a cosmic
scale and does not apply to distances in the solar system or at
an atomic level. It has been likened with a balloon with coins
glued to it. If the balloon is inflated, the distances between the
coins increase, but the coins themselves are not changed (See
GRAVITATION by Misner, Thorn, and Wheeler (1973) p. 719)
[8]. In this model, however, all distances are increasing as the
universe expands. Without this expansion, however small and
undetectable on a local scale, there would be no gravitation, and
hence the expansion of the universe is not caused by gravitation,
but is the first principle from which gravitation has got to be
deduced. The most direct proof of the energy loss can be seen
in the background radiation discovered by A. A. Penzias and R.
78 Basic Ideas
We call
div u = tr ǫ,
tr ǫ ≡ 0, or equivalently, div u ≡ 0,
all over space. Then there exist a vector field Ψ such that
u = curl Ψ.
curl u ≡ 0,
82 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
all over the field. Then there exist a scalar field φ in space such
that
u = ∇φ.
simple form
σ = 2µs ǫ + λs (trǫ)I, (2.5)
σij = 2µs ǫij + λs ǫkk δij
= µs (u i, j + uj, i ) + λs uk, k δij ,
where µs and λs are Lamé’s elastic moduli 1 , which are constants
in a homogeneous elastic continuum, and δij is the Kronecker
delta
1 if i = j ,
δij =
0 if i 6= j .
[∇ · v]∞ = 0,
[∇ × v]∞ = 0,
v = −∇φ + ∇ × A,
where
∇·v
Z
φ=− d3 r′ ,
V 4π|r − r|
′
∇×v 3 ′
Z
A= d r,
V 4π|r − r|
′
(see http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HelmholtzsTheorem.html).
As the spatial continuum is of infinite extension, or nearly so,
any deformations have to be confined to a finite part of space,
so this theorem will be applicable on all deformations. Hence
the displacement field can be decomposed into two properties
u = u1 + u2 ,
88 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
where
u1 = −∇φ = − grad φ,
u2 = ∇ × Ψ = curl Ψ.
Since curl grad φ ≡ 0, and div curl Ψ ≡ 0, the Navier-Cauchy
equation (3.1) can be divided into two independent equations,
one for an irrotational field
ρs b1
∇divu1 = ü1 − , (2.8)
(λs + 2µs ) λs + 2µs
and the other for a solenoidal field
ρs b2
−curl curl u2 = ü2 − . (2.9)
µs µs
1 ∂ 2 (curl u) curl b
∇2 (curl u) − 2 2
=− (2.13)
c2 ∂t µs
such that it eradicates the entire field in B; i.e. u and all func-
tions of u become constant like zero all over B. In addition I
will assume that the entire field is confined inside B such that
u is zero on the surface of B and beyond. The energy released
by this operation, E, would then be like the total field energy
in B.
Z Z0
E=− dv bdu
B f (u)
Z f (u)
h Z i
= dv ρs ü − (λs + 2µ)grad divu + µcurl curlu du
B 0
Zu̇
du̇
Z
E1 = dv ρs du
dt
B 0
Z Zu̇
= dv ρs du̇ · u̇ ,
B 0
Z
1 2
E1 = 2 ρs u̇ dv.
B
Field energy and energy transport 91
Z div
Z u h i
E2 = (λs + 2µ) dv div u · div(du) − div(du · div u)
B 0
Z div
Z u
= (λs + 2µ) dv div u · d(divu) −
B 0
Z div
Z u
(λs + 2µ) dv · div du · divu .
B 0
The first part of the integral can readily be integrated, and the
last part can be transformed into a surface integral over ∂B by
the Divergence theorem2 and disappear because u is constant
like zero on the border of B and beyond. Thus
Z
1 2
E2 = 2 (λs + 2µ)(div u) dv.
B
Again the first part can be integrated and the last part disappear
by the same reason as above, and we get
Z
1 2
E3 = 2 µ(curl u) dv.
B
does not prove where in the field the energy is to be found; only
that there to a curl u and a div u always corresponds an energy
given by the equation above, and no other energy is present as
long as we deal with infinitesimal deformations restricted to a
limited area of a homogeneous and isotropic continuum covered
by the Linear Theory of Elasticity.3 With this restriction in
mind the local energy density, e, in the spatial continuum is
given by
e= 1
2 ρs u̇2 + 1
2 (λs + 2µs )( div u)2 + 1
2 µs ( curl u)2 (2.16)
∂e
= ρs u̇ü + (λs + 2µs ) div u div u̇ + µs curl u curl u̇.
∂t
netic field has the same limitation, but nonetheless it is usually interpreted
as the local energy density.
94 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
∂e
=u̇ (λs + 2µs ) grad div u − µs curl curl u + b
∂t
+ (λs + 2µs ) div u div u̇ + µs curl u curl u̇,
∂e
bu̇ = + µs curl ( curl u) · u̇ − curl u̇( curl u)
∂t
− (λs + 2µs ) ( div u) div u̇ + u̇ grad ( div u) .
Note that in this section all the defined properties refer exclu-
sively to elastic properties. The notations inside the square
brackets are the dimensions of the properties in front, but in
this context I have found it convenient to alternatively replace
mass with force as a fundamental unit. Hence the mass unit is
converted to the force unit by the relation
[F ] = [M LT −2].
By the identities curl (∂(·)/∂t) = ∂ curl (·)/∂t and div curl (·) =
0 we immediately get the relation between B and E
curl E + Ḃ = 0, (2.25)
Reformulation of the Navier-Cauchy’s Equation 97
and
div B = 0. (2.26)
1
curl B − Ė = µ0 j. (2.27)
c2
Now I will make the assumption that there may be real sinks
and sources in the spatial continuum. How this is possible will
be discussed elsewhere, but here I take entities like that for
granted. I will take sinks as positive entities and sources as
negative sinks, and assume that they can only be created by
pair production; one sink for for one equally strong source. If
there are more sinks than sources in an area, the sink density
is positive, and if there are more sources than sinks, then the
sink density is negative. The strength of a spatial sink, Qs , can
be defined as the inflow of spatial mass through a closed surface
around the sink
I
def
Q = −ρs u̇ndf, [F T L−1] = [M T −1 ],
V
sinks is given by
m
def 1 X
ρ = lim Qn
V →ǫ V
n=1
1
I
= −ρs lim u̇ndf
V →ǫ V V
= −ρs div u̇,
Ė
div curl B − div = div µ0 j,
c2
1
− div Ė = div j, (I)
ε0
(2.28):
∂ 1 ∂ρ
div E =
∂t ε0 ∂t
1 ∂ρ
div Ė = , (II)
ε0 ∂t
ρ̇ + div j = 0. (2.29)
ε0 2 1 2
e= E + B , [F L−2 ] = [M L−1 T −2 ]. (2.30)
2 2µ0
Since this field may contain energy, we must also expect that it
can move around in space as the field changes. To examine this
property we can start by deriving the field energy (2.30) with
100 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
∂e 1 1
= ε0 E · c2 curl B − j − B · curl E,
∂t ε0 µ0
∂e 1
= curl B · E − curl E · B − j · E,
∂t µ0
∂e 1
+ div E × B = −j · E, {= u̇ · b}. (2.31)
∂t µ0
The right side of this equation is the rate of work done by exter-
nal forces per unit volume on the continuum, and the left side
can be interpreted as the rate of increase in energy density plus
the rate at which the energy is leaving per unit volume. Thus
the energy flow vector is
def 1
S = (E × B), [F L−1 T −1 ] = [M T −3 ]. (2.32)
µ0
1 ∂e 1 1
+ div S = − j · E. (2.33)
c ∂t c c
The stress energy tensor 101
Ṡ 1
2
= −ε0 E × curl E + curl B × B + B × j.
c µ0
By applying the mathematical identity
grad (A · A) = 2[A × curl A + (A · ∇)A], (2.34)
we obtain
Ṡ ε0 1
2
+ grad E · E − ε0 (E · ∇)E + grad B·B
c 2 2µ0
1
− (B · ∇)B = (B × j).
µ0
(2.35)
We then write out the above equation in component form5 :
Ṡi ε0 1 1
+( E·E+ B · B),i − ε0 Ej Ei, j − Bj Bi, j
c2 2 2µ0 µ0
= ǫijk Bj jk ,
5 Note that Latin indices go from 1 to 3 while Greek indices go from 0
to 3.
102 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
Ṡi ε0 2 1 2
+ E + B , i − ε0 Ej Ei, j − ε0 Ej, j Ei + ε0 Ej, j Ei
c2 2 2µ0
1 1 1
− Bj Bi, j − Bj, j Bi + Bj, j Bi = ǫijk Bj jk .
µ0 µ0 µ0
∂Si
− + σij,j = ρEi − ǫijk Bj jk . (2.36)
c2 ∂t
where the new tensor σij is given by
def 1 1 1 2
σij = ε0 Ei Ej + Bi Bj − ε 0 E2 + B δij . (2.37)
µ0 2 µ0
Tαβ ,β = Fαβ Jβ ,
∇ · T = F · J.
Here the second order tensor T, the stress energy tensor, is given
by
e Sx /c Sy /c Sz /c
def S /c −σxx −σxy −σxz
Tαβ = x
, (2.39)
Sy /c −σyx −σyy −σyz
Sz /c −σzx −σzy −σzz
104 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
hence
Jα = (cρ, jx , jy , jz ).
Coordinates in 4-space:
xα =(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x, y, z),
xβ =xα ηαβ = (−ct, x, y, z),
The stress energy tensor 105
{e0 , e1 , e2 , e3 }.
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇α =, α = ∂α = α
= , , , ,
∂x c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇α =, α = ∂ α = = − , , , ,
∂xα c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 =, α, α = ∂ α ∂α = = − , , , .
∂xα ∂xα c2 ∂t2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
and
B = curl A, (2.42)
curl (E + A,t ) = 0.
E + A,t = −c grad φ,
hence
we obtain
1 1
A,tt − ∇2 A + grad ( div A + φ, t ) = µ0 j.
c2 c
Analogously by inserting the same properties into (2.28) we ob-
tain
ρ
−(c∇2 φ + div A,t ) = ,
ε0
or by adding and subtracting 1/cφ,tt we acquire
1 1 ρ
φ,tt − c∇2 φ − ( div A + φ, t ),t = ,
c c ε0
1 1 1 cρ
φ,tt − ∇2 φ − ( div A + φ, t ),t = µ0 · 2 .
c2 c c c ε0 µ0
By the Lorenz gauge and (2.24) the two potentials reduce to
1
− φ,tt + ∇2 φ = −µ0 · cρ, (2.47)
c2
1
− 2 A,tt + ∇2 A = −µ0 · j. (2.48)
c
∂ν ∂ ν Aα = −µ0 · Jα ,
Energy flow and momentum 109
where
Aα = (φ, Ax , Ay , Az ),
Jα = (cρ, jx , jy , jz ),
∇2 A = −µ0 · J. (2.49)
S = e · c,
|S|
e= .
c
Next if we only consider disturbance energy without the pres-
ence of any sinks or sources, Equation (2.36) reduces to
∂Si
= σij,j ,
c2 ∂t
∂ S
= ∇ · σ.
∂t c2
110 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
∂ S
= f,
∂t c2
and we can define a new vector
def
p = S/c2 , (2.50)
to obtain
∂p
= f.
∂t
def E
m = ,
c2
or
E = mc2 , (2.52)
and acquire
∂
(mv) = f . (2.53)
∂t
dE = f · ds,
= f ds,
d(mv)
dE = ds
dt
d E
= v ds
dt c2
1
= 2 v · dE + E · dv dv,
c
dE 1 v · dv
= 2 ,
E c 1 − v 2 /c2
6 The situation is considerably more complicated if the box and the ob-
server have an initial velocity, say v0 . To address that question, one first
has got to assume that the phenomenon is observed in a Lorentz frame
that makes the equations above invariant for the change of the observer’s
coordinate system, as Lorentz showed already in the fall of the nineteenth
century. That would make the observation fully relativistic, and v0 could
be set to zero from where the deduction could proceed as shown.
Summing up 113
2.11 Summing up
In this paper we have seen that the four equations (2.25) through
(2.28) correspond to James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831–1879) elec-
trodynamic equations. Provided that there are free moving sinks
and sources in the spatial continuum, Equation (2.29) demon-
strates that they will generate a ”drag” just like Lord Kelvin
postulated for moving electrons in 1890 [10, page 247]. The en-
ergy flow vector in Equation (2.32) is formally like Poynting’s
vector after John Henry Poynting (1852-1914). In a notation
introduced by Hermann Minkowski (1864–1909), the field ten-
sor Fαβ in Equation (2.40) is like the Electromagnetic tensor,
114 The Linear Theory of Elasticity
Standing Waves
between Singularities
[∇ · v]∞ = 0,
[∇ × v]∞ = 0,
The Navier-Cauchy Equation 117
v = −∇φ + ∇ × A,
where
∇·v
Z
φ=− d3 r′ ,
V 4π|r′ − r|
∇×v 3 ′
Z
A= d r,
V 4π|r′ − r|
(see http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HelmholtzsTheorem.html).
As the spatial continuum is of infinite extension, or nearly so,
any deformations have to be confined to a finite part of space,
so this theorem will be applicable on all deformations. Hence
the displacement field can be decomposed into two properties
u = u1 + u2 ,
where
u1 = −∇φ = − grad φ,
u2 = ∇ × Ψ = curl Ψ, div Ψ = 0.
1 ∂ 2 ( div u) div b
∇2 ( div u) − =− , (3.7)
c12 ∂t2 λs + 2µs
1 ∂ 2 ( curl u) curl b
∇2 ( curl u) − =− . (3.8)
c22 ∂t2 µs
With the outer force, b, set to zero we have two wave equations
where the dilatation, div u, satisfies a wave moving with the
speed c1 , while the rotational component curl u, satisfies a wave
moving with the speed c2 . In fact the Propagation theorem for
isotropic bodies states that if a body is isotropic, then a wave
The Navier-Cauchy Equation 119
netic field has the same limitation, but nonetheless it is usually interpreted
as the local energy density.
120 Standing Waves between Singularities
f (c1 t − r)
div u = . (3.13)
r
The other solution is for a spherical wave converging towards a
focal point in space:
g(c1 t + r)
div u = . (3.14)
r
d ∂
(·) = (·) + (v · ∇)(·), (3.15)
dt ∂t
e.g. ü = ∂ u̇/∂t + (u̇∇)u̇. Hence the result may at best be
suggestive.
First we write the Navier-Cauchy equation for an irrotational
field with no external forces (Eq. 3.3):
1
grad div u = ü,
c21
2f ′ 2f
grad div f = f ′′ + − 2 r̂. (3.18)
r r
2 The N-S equation a also incorporates viscosity, which is not present in
With these properties inserted, the N-C equation takes the form
u′ u ü
u′′ + 2 − 2 2 r̂ = 2 r̂. (3.19)
r r c1
By the product method, u(r, t) = F (r) · G(t) · r̂, we have
2 2 1
F ′′ G + F ′ G − 2 F G = 2 F G̈,
r r c1
F ′′ 2 F′ 2 1 G̈
+ − 2 = 2 .
F r F r c1 G
Since the left and right side of this expression only depend on
the arguments r and t respectively, they can both be set to the
same constant −p2 , and hence they can be separated into the
two equations:
2 (−2 + p2 r2 )
F ′′ + F ′ + F =0 (3.20)
r r2
G̈ + c21 p2 G = 0 (3.21)
where the functions b(x) and c(x) are analytic at x=0, has at
least one solution that can be represented in the form
∞
X
y ′′ (x) = am (m + r)(m + r − 1)xm+r−2 .
m=0
126 Standing Waves between Singularities
r(r − 1) + 2r − 2 = 0
r1 = 1, r2 = −2. (3.25)
a0 · 0(0 + 3) = 0,
a0 = a,
(−p2 ) (−p2 )
a2 = a0 =a ,
2·5 2·5
(−p2 ) (−p2 )2
a4 = a2 =a ,
4·7 2·5·4·7
2 2 3
(−p ) (−p )
a6 = a4 =a ,
6·9 2·5·4·7·6·9
·····················
m 3 · (m + 2)
am = a(−1) 2 · pm ,
(m + 3)!
m
h 3 3 i
= a(−1) 2 · pm − , m = 0, 2, 4, 6, · · · ,
(m + 2)! (m + 3)!
h 3 3 i
a2n = a(−1)n p2n − , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .
(2n + 2)! (2n + 3)!
(3.28)
a1 · 1(1 + 3) = 0,
a1 = 0,
(−p2 )
a3 = a1 = 0,
3·6
a5 = a7 = a9 = · · · = 0.
Irrotational standing waves 129
∞
X
y1 =xr1 a2n x2n
n=0
∞
X h 3 3 i
=x a0 (−1)n p2n − x2n
n=0
(2n + 2)! (2n + 3)!
x p2 x3 p4 x5 x p2 x3 p4 x5
=3a0 − + − ··· − + − + ···
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
3a0 h (px)2 (px)4 (px)6 i
= 2 1− 1− + − + ···
p x 2! 4! 6!
3a0 h (px)3 (px)5 (px)7 i
3 2
− px + px − + − + ··· ,
p x 3! 5! 7!
3a0 3a0
y1 = 3 2 sin (px) − 2 cos (px). (3.29)
p x p x
A0 (0 − 3)0 = 0,
A0 = A0 ,
(−p2 )
A2 = −A0 ,
2·1
−p2 (−p2 )2
A4 = −A2 = A0 ,
4·1 1·2·4
−p2 (−p2 )3
A6 = −A4 = A0 ,
3·6 1·2·3·4·6
······
n
n p (n − 1)
An = −A0 (−1) 2 , n = 0, 2, 4, · · · ,
n!
n n
n
h p p i
An = A0 (−1) 2 − , n = 2, 4, 6, · · · ,
n! (n − 1)!
h p2s p2s i
A2s = A0 (−1)s − , s = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
(2s)! (2s − 1)!
Irrotational standing waves 131
A1 (1 − 3)1 = 0,
A1 = 0,
A3 (3 − 3)3 = A1 (−p2 ) = 0,
A3 = A3 ,
(−p2 )
A5 = A3 ,
5·2
(−p2 ) (−p2 )2
A7 = A5 = A3 ,
7·4 2·4·5·7
······
n−3 pn−3 · 3 · (n − 1)
An = A3 (−1) 2 · , n = 3, 5, 7, · · · ,
n!
h p2s p2s i
A2s+3 = 3A3 (−1)s − , s = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
(2s + 2)! (2s + 3)!
We first seek the partial solution of (3.27) with the odd coeffi-
132 Standing Waves between Singularities
∞ p2s
h X p2s 2s i
y21 = x−2 A0 + A0 (−1)s − x
s=1
(2s)! (2s − 1)!
(px)2 (px)4 (px)6
= A0 x−2 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
(px)1 (px) 3
(px) 5
+ A0 px−1 − + − ··· ,
1! 3! 5!
A0 p A0
y21 = sin(px) + 2 cos(px).
x x
Next we seek the partial solution of (3.27) with the even coeffi-
Irrotational standing waves 133
∞
X
y22 =x−2 A2s+3 x2s+3
s=0
∞
X h 1 1 i
=x−2 3A3 (−1)s p2s − x2s+3
s=0
(2s + 2)! (2s + 3)!
x p2 x3 p4 x5
=3A3 − + − ···
2! 4! 6!
x p2 x3 p4 x5
···− + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
3A3 h (px)2 (px)4 (px)6 i
= 2 1− 1− + − + ···
p x 2! 4! 6!
3A3 h (px)3 (px)5 (px)7 i
− px + px − + − + · · · ,
p3 x2 3! 5! 7!
3A3 3A3
y22 = 3 2 sin (px) − 2 cos (px).
p x p x
2 1 1
x2 (y1′ − y1 2 ) + 2x(y1 )
x x x
=2xy1′ − y1 + 2y1
=2xy1′ + y1
2a 2a ap
=2x[− 3 sin(px) + 2 cos(px) + sin(px)]
px x x
a a
+ 2 sin(px) − cos(px)
px x
3a 3a
= cos(px) − 2 sin (px) + 2ap sin(px).
x px
by
1h 3A3 i
y= A0 p sin(px) − 2 cos(px)
x p
1 h 3A3 i
+ 2 sin(px) + A0 cos(px) ,
x p3
and by reentering F = y and r = x we finally acquire the
solution of Equation (3.20):
1h 3A3 i
F = A0 p sin(pr) − 2 cos(pr) (3.31)
r p
1 h 3A3 i
+ 2 sin(pr) + A0 cos(pr) .
r p3
By (3.22) and (3.31) the displacement vector, u(r, t) = F G · r̂,
becomes
div u
u
A>0
A=0
0
A<0
r
0 R1
c1 p 2πf
f= , and p = . (3.33)
2π c1
and
h sin(pr) cos(pr) i
ü(r, t) = −Ac1 2 cos(c1 pt) · − r̂. (3.37)
pr2 r
2u ∂u
div u = +
r ∂r
h 2 sin(pr) 2 cos(pr)
= A cos(c1 pt) −
p3 r 3 p2 r 2
2 sin(pr) cos(pr) cos(pr) p sin(pr) i
− + 2 2 + 2 2 +
p3 r 3 p r p r p2 r
sin(pr)
div u = A cos(c1 pt) , (3.39)
pr
Irrotational standing waves 139
h sin(pr) cos(pr) i
grad div u = −A cos(c1 pt) − r̂. (3.40)
pr2 r
π/p
sin(pr)
Z
D= A 4πr2 dr
0 pr
4πA h sin(pr) r cos(pr) iπ/p
= −
p p2 p 0
4π 2 A
= . (3.41)
p3
1
curl curl u = − ü. (3.42)
c2
g
curl [g(m̂ × r̂)] = curl [ (m̂ × r)]
r
g g
= curl (m̂ × r) + grad × (m̂ × r)
r r
2g g′ g
= m̂ + ( − 2 )r̂ × (m̂ × r)
r r r
2g ′ g
= m̂ + (g − )[(r̂ · r̂)m̂ − (r̂ · m̂)r̂
r r
g g′ g
= + g ′ m̂ − − 2 (r · m̂)r̂,
r r r
Solenoidal standing waves 141
and further
g g
curl curl [g(m̂ × r̂)] =( + g ′ ) curl m̂ + grad ( + g ′ ) × m̂
r r
g′ g g′ g
− − 2 (r · m̂) curl r̂ − grad [ − 2 (r · m̂)] × r̂
r r r r
g′ g ′′ g′ g ′
=( − 2 + g )(r̂ × m̂) − − 2 r̂(r · m̂)] × r̂
r r r r
g′ g
− − 2 grad (r · m̂) × r̂
r r
′
g g g′ g
=( − 2 + g ′′ )(r̂ × m̂) − − 2 (m̂ × r̂)
r r r r
2g ′ 2g
=(g ′′ + − 2 )(r̂ × m̂).
r r
2g ′ 2g 1
(g ′′ + − 2 )(r̂ × m̂) = 2 g̈(r̂ × m̂), (3.44)
r r c
2g ′ 2g 1
g ′′ + − 2 = 2 g̈, (3.45)
r r c
which is exactly like Equation (3.19) except for the value of c,
and it gives the same solution, hence
h sin(qr) cos(qr) i
u = M cos(cqt) − (r̂ × m̂), (3.46)
q 3 r2 q2 r
142 Standing Waves between Singularities
and
h sin(qr) cos(qr) i
ü = −M c2 cos(cpt) · − (m̂ × r̂).. (3.48)
qr2 r
2π(λ + 2µ)A2 Rn 2
Z
ERn = sin (pr)dr
p2 0
2π(λ + 2µ)A2 h Rn sin(2pRn ) i
= 2
− .
p 2 4p
This formula should be valid for all of space, but let us see what
div u amounts to strictly along the chain axis where r = 0.
∞
sin(πn − πz
d )
c1 X
(−1)n
div u = A cos(2π t) πz
2d n=−∞ πn − d
∞ πz n
n sin(− d )(−1)
c1 X
= A cos(2π t) (−1)
2d n=−∞ πn − πzd
∞
c1 πz X (−1)n
= A cos(2π t) sin ,
d d n=−∞ |nπ − zπ
d |
1 n π π o
div u = A(r, z) sin (c1 t + z) − sin (c1 t − z) ,
2 d d
150 Standing Waves between Singularities
1 n 2π 2π o
curl u = A(r, θ, z) sin (ct + z) − sin (ct − z) .
2 d d
The main difference between these two set of waves, is that the
latter moves with the velocity c, which is probably about half
of the velocity c1 , and the frequency
c
f2 = . (3.54)
2d
So far all the deductions are done on the basis of the Navier-
Cauchy equation, but in the N-C representation there is no cou-
pling between the two types of oscillations. Hence a chain with
both types of oscillation represented in the same set of nodes is
not feasible in the N-C representation, but that doesn’t mean
that a more thorough examination rules out this possibility.
The Navier-Stokes equation and Coupled oscillations 151
ρs
(λs + 2µs ) grad div u = grad (u̇12 + u̇22 ),
2
ρs
div u = (u̇ 2 + u̇22 ).
2(λs + 2µs ) 1
ρs nZ R 2
D= A1 sin(2πνt)f (r) 4πr2 dr
2(λ + 2µ) 0
Z RZ π o
2
+ A2 sin(2πνt + ψ)f (r) sin φ 2πr sin φ r dφ dr
0 0
R
ρs
Z
2 2
A sin (2πνt) + 23 A22 sin2 (2πνt + ψ) · f (r)2 4πr2 dr.
=
2(λ + 2µ) 1 0
or
E′
D= ,
λ + 2µ
Spatial Continuum
Mechanics
4.1 Strain
In this section I will introduce some necessary tensors in order
to describe the deformation of an initially homogeneous spatial
continuum.
In a true spatial continuum it will be possible to displace spa-
tial points away from their original positions. We consider the
configuration of spatial points B0 at time t0 in a 3D Euclidian
space E3. In B0 , space is undeformed and unstressed. The po-
sition vector of a point P0 of B0 relative to the origin O of an
orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system is denoted by
X = X i ii , where X i : X 1 , X 2 , X 3
x = xi ii , where xi : x1 , x2 , x3
xi = xi (X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t) → x = x(X, t),
Strain 161
which is reversible
and
∂Θi k
Gi = i ,
∂X k
and accordingly from (4.2) the base vectors related to P
∂x ∂xk
gi = x,i = i
= ik ,
∂Θ ∂Θi
∂Θi k
gi = i ,
∂xk
The position of point P relative to P0 is called the displacement
vector and denoted u. We introduce for u two sets of compo-
nents Ui and ui
u = u(Θi , t) = (x − X) = Ui Gi = ui gi .
Strain 163
∂x
dx = dΘi = gi dΘi .
∂Θi
F = gi ⊗ Gi , (4.3)
F−1 = Gi ⊗ gi . (4.4)
∂x ∂x ∂Θi j
grad x = j
⊗ ij = i
⊗ i = gi ⊗ Gi = F,
∂X ∂Θ ∂X j
(4.5)
∂X j ∂X ∂Θi j
grad X = ⊗ i = ⊗ i = Gi ⊗ gi = F−1 .
∂xj ∂Θi ∂xj
164 Spatial Continuum Mechanics
Hence
F = RU = vR (4.9)
(v − λi I)RNi = 0
by taking the orthogonality condition RRT = I and the identity
RI = IR into account. By inserting a new unit vector
ni = RNi , Ni = RT ni (4.11)
it becomes
(v − λi I)ni = 0.
Thus the spectral decomposition of v is given by
3
X
v= λi ni ⊗ ni
i=1
where the eigenvalues λi are the principal values and the or-
thogonal base vectors ni are the associated principal directions
of the stretch tensor v.
The spatial continuum is per definition homogeneous, isotropic,
and elastic. Hence a deformation as shown in Figure 4.1 will
be closely related to real internal stress that generally can be
expressed by the second order symmetric Cauchy stress tensor
σ = σ(F),
3
X
2µ ln λi · J β ni ⊗ ni .
σ= (4.14)
i=1
Generally
3
X
ln I = ln ni ⊗ ni ,
i=1
= I ln a, (4.15)
∂ ḟ
ḟ = + ( grad f )v.
∂t
The velocities, v, of spatial points are given by the intrinsic
function
∂u
v = u̇ = + ( grad u)v,
∂t
and the acceleration by
∂ u̇
a = ü = + ( grad u̇)u̇.
∂t
The strain-stress relation for small deformations 175
= 2µβ(ln λ1 + ln λ2 + ln λ3 )I
h i
+ 2µ 12 ln(I + grad u) + ln I + ( grad u)T .
By linearization of the tensor valued function of σ with respect
on u we get
Lσ(u, ∆u) = σ(u) + ∆σ(u, ∆u), (4.19)
176 Spatial Continuum Mechanics
where the second term on the right hand side is the Gateaux-
derivative defined by
d
∆σ(u, ∆u) = σ(u + ε∆u).
dε
Equation (4.19) can be developed into
∆λ1 ∆λ2 ∆λ3
Lσ(u, ∆u) = σ(u) + 2µβ( + + )I
λ1 λ2 λ3
1 h ( grad ∆u) ( grad ∆u)T i
+ 2µ + .
2 I + grad u I + ( grad u)T ε=0
By the identity (u = 0) ⇒ (λi = 1 ∧ grad u = 0) we have
Lσ(u = 0, ∆u) = 2µβ(∆λ1 + ∆λ2 + ∆λ3 )I
i
+ 2µ 12 ( grad ∆u) + ( grad ∆u)T .
(4.20)
We now introduce the linear tensor valued function at the point
where u = 0
1
grad ∆u + ( grad ∆u)T
ǫ= (4.21)
2
so
∂v
tr (∆v) = tr ∆( grad u)
∂( grad u)
T
= tr R grad (∆u) = tr grad (∆u)
= tr sym grad (∆u) = tr ǫ. (4.23)
σ = λ tr ǫ I + 2µǫ, (4.24)
where λ = 2µβ.
This is the same relation as we encounter in literature on the
strain stress-relation for small deformations in a homogeneous
and isotropic elastic continuum, and it follows that the elastic
potential is given by
λ
W = (tr ǫ)2 + µ tr ǫ2 ,
2
see e.g. [1, page 167].
As shown in Equation (3.1), (3.7), and (3.8), the strain-stress re-
lation (4.24) and the Cauchy equation of motion ρü = div σ+b
[1, page 126], where b is some hypothetical force per unit vol-
ume and ρ is the the inertial density to be discussed in the next
178 Spatial Continuum Mechanics
1 ∂ 2 (div u)
∇2 (div u) − = 0, (4.26)
c12 ∂t2
1 ∂ 2 (curl u)
∇2 (curl u) − = 0, (4.27)
c22 ∂t2
representing longitudinal waves moving with speed c1 and
transversal waves moving with speed c2 respectively. The ve-
locities are
s
λ + 2µ
c1 = ,
ρ
µ
r
c2 = . (4.28)
ρ
V0
D = J −1 = lim ,
V →0 V
Inertia and the speed of waves as a function of the compression of
space 181
so by (4.33)
∂D −V0 ∆V
∆D = ∆V = lim ∆V = −D lim
∂V V →0 V 2 V →0 V
= − D div (∆u), (4.34)
where
α = 12 . (4.37)
ρs = e/κ 2 ,
t = σn
dV
J= = λ3 where λ = λ1 = λ2 = λ3 .
dV0
32πµr3 h r 3i
= 3 ln r − 3 ln r0 + 1 − 03
9 r
8µ h r 3
0
r 3 i
0
= Vr 1 − − ln
3 r r
Er 8µ −1 −1
= J − 1 − ln J ], (4.39)
Vr 3
where Vr is the volume of the deformed sphere. If we define the
compression of space as D = J −1 = dV0 /dV we finally get for
the energy density of the compressed space measured by Euler
or spatial coordinates
8µ
es = (D − 1) − ln D . (4.40)
3
If we chose to postulate that ρ is a function of the energy density
of space, then it is given by
8µ
ρs = 2
(D − 1) − ln D . (4.41)
3κ
L c2 (D, ∆D) = c(D) + ∆c(D, ∆D) ,
c2 =c, D=D0
c ln D −1
c2 = c + 1− div u, (4.44)
2 D−1
and the gradient of c is given by
where
1 ln D −1
α= 1− , (4.46)
2 D−1
or by (4.40)
4(D − 1)µ
α= . (4.47)
3es
By the spatial approach the gradient of the wave speed is pro-
portional to grad div u as it was by the classical approach only
differing from that by a somewhat smaller constant depending
on the initial compression of space.
Chapter 5
in the Maxwell equations, the index s is used to indicate that the property
refers to the spatial continuum, i.e. ρs is defined as the mass density of the
spatial continuum, and λs and µs are Lamé’s elastic constants.
Confined energy in the spatial continuum 189
and
s
λs + 2µs
c1 = , (5.3)
ρs
E
D= , (5.11)
3(λs + 2µs )
or conversely
v(r) = Hr or u̇ = Hr (5.13)
Now, let us see what the space is looking like when considered
from another origin, O, that is drifting along with the space
around it at a distance a from the center of the sphere, S (see
Figure 5.1). An arbitrary point P is located at a distance r from
194 Confined Energy and Gravity
r = a + r′ .
Seen from S the point is moving with a speed Hr, and seen from
the new origin, O, it is moving with speed Hr minus the speed
with which the origin itself is moving, namely Ha, so
v′ = Hr − Ha
= H(r − a)
= Hr′ = ṙ′ . (5.14)
r′ = v ′ T, (5.15)
where T is the time elapsed since the two points were close to
each other. From (5.14) and (5.15) we can eliminate the distance
r′ between the points and the receding speed v ′ , and acquire
1
H= . (5.16)
T
Confined energy in expanding space 195
p = 13 e.
∂E
= − 13 e · 4πr2 · Hr
∂t
= − 43 πr3 e · H
= −E · H. (5.18)
∂2e
= 2eH 2 .
∂t2
Combined with (5.9) it yields
∂ 2 ( div u) ∂2 h e i
=
∂t2 ∂t2 3(λs + 2µs )
2
∂ ( div u) 2eH 2
= . (5.21)
∂t2 3(λs + 2µs )
∂ 2 ( div u)
(λs + 2µs ) div grad ( div u) − ρs = 0,
∂t2
and insert the result from (5.21) to acquire
2ρs eH 2
∇2 ( div u) = . (5.22)
3(λs + 2µs )2
198 Confined Energy and Gravity
̺(r′ )dv ′
Z
Φ(r) = G ,
|r − r′ |
GM
Φ= .
r
The gradient of Φ is given by
GM r
grad Φ = − , (5.27)
r2 |r|
1 GM r
grad div u = . (5.28)
a r2 |r|
200 Confined Energy and Gravity
S = e c.
S
p=
c2
produces a force
∂p
f= .
∂t
Hence p can be interpreted as the momentum of the energy flow.
In another paper Standing waves between singularities in an
elastic continuum of infinite extension I found that standing
waves may organize between singularities along strings in the
Movements of energy packets in a space with varying wave speeds
201
dpn d En En dcn ds
= cn = 2 .
dt dt c2 c ds dt
The term ds/dt is simply like c, and dcn /ds is the directional
derivative of cn in the direction of ĉn , so we obtain
dpn En En
= − 2 · (ĉn ∇)cn · c = − 2 · (cn ∇)cn .
dt c c
By the mathematical identity grad (A·B) = (A∇)B+(B∇)A+
202 Confined Energy and Gravity
S = En cn = ev.
S En cn e
pn = = = 2 v.
c2 c2 c
Movements of energy packets in a space with varying wave speeds
203
P = M v.
dP dv
=M = M g,
dt dt
where g is the acceleration of the body. If we compare this
expression with that in Equation (5.29) we see that the acceler-
ation of the body is given by
g = c grad c.
F = M g. (5.30)
204 Confined Energy and Gravity
ρs V0 = ρV,
1 1 V0 + ∆V
= ,
ρ ρs V0
µs µs ∆V
= 1+ .
ρ ρs V0
Newton’s Gravitational law 205
∆V
lim = div u,
V0 →0 V0
GM1 r
grad Φ = − .
r2 |r|
Note that the force is acting on M2 and the radius vector is from
M1 to M2 , hence the negative sign. From (5.31) we get c grad c,
and from (5.28) we get the value of grad div u, and with these
two properties inserted the mutual attraction between the two
bodies above becomes
α c02 GM1 M2
F =
a r2
α c02 H 2 µs
G= · . (5.32)
6π (λs + 2µs )2
c2 H 2
µs ≈ ,
192πG
and accordingly since c2 = µs /ρs
H2
ρs ≈ .
192πG
Wave equations, 28