Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Foreword
It is my pleasure and honor to present the HPCR Manual on
International Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare. This
Manual provides the most up-to-date restatement of existing international law applicable to air and missile warfare,
as elaborated by an international Group of Experts. As an
authoritative restatement, the HPCR Manual contributes to the
practical understanding of this important international legal
framework.
The HPCR Manual is the result of a six-year long endeavor led
by the Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research
at Harvard University (HPCR), during which it convened an
international Group of Experts to reflect on existing rules of
international law applicable to air and missile warfare. This
Group of Experts, under the guidance of HPCR Senior Academic Advisor, Professor Dr. Yoram Dinstein, has conducted,
since 2004, a methodical and comprehensive reflection on
international legal rules applicable to air and missile warfare, drawing from various sources of international law. The
enclosed Black-letter Rules of the HPCR Manual were adopted
by consensus by the Group of Experts in Bern, Switzerland on
15 May 2009. A separate Commentary on the Black-letter Rules
was drafted by selected experts from the original Group, under
the supervision of Professor Dinstein and HPCR Project Coordinator, Bruno Demeyere. While the HPCR Manual restates
current applicable law, the Commentary clarifies the prominent legal interpretations and indicates diering perspectives.
The HPCR Manual is the product of a collective eort. We
would like, first and foremost, to acknowledge the remarkable
role of Professor Yoram Dinstein throughout this process. His
internationally recognized expertise and analytical engagement have been instrumental in maintaining the momentum
and authority of this initiative over the years. Members of the
Group of Experts (please see Appendix I in the Introduction
to the Commentary for the full list) have individually made
important contributions to each step of the process by studying
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Table of Contents
Section A: Definitions .............................................................. 1
Rule 1
Section C: Weapons..................................................................... 7
Rules 59
9
11
12
13
16
17
18
20
21
21
21
23
24
25
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32
32
33
35
35
36
36
37
37
38
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39
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42
42
43
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Section A:
Definitions
1.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
1|
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(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(m) Computer network attack means operations to manipulate, disrupt, deny, degrade, or
destroy information resident in computers and
computer networks, or the computer network
itself, or to gain control over the computer or
computer network.
(n)
Contraband means goods which are ultimately destined for territory under the control of an enemy Belligerent Party and which
are susceptible for use in international armed
conflict.
(o)
(ii)
Buildings whose main and eective purpose is to preserve or exhibit the movable
cultural property defined in sub-paragraph (i) such as museums, large libraries
and depositories of archives, and refuges
intended to shelter, in the event of armed
conflict, the movable cultural property
defined in sub-paragraph (i);
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(p)
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(y)
Military objectives, as far as objects are concerned, are those objects which by their nature,
location, purpose or use, make an eective contribution to military action and whose total or
partial destruction, capture or neutralization,
in the circumstances ruling at the time, oers a
definite military advantage.
(z)
Section B:
General Framework
2.
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(a)
3.
4.
(b)
Nothing in this Manual aects existing obligations of States under treaties to which they are
Contracting Parties.
(c)
(a)
(b)
Section C:
Weapons
5.
(a)
(b)
6.
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(b)
Chemical weapons.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
7.
8.
9.
Section D:
Attacks
I. General rules
10.
(a)
In accordance with the basic principle of distinction, attacks must be confined to lawful
targets.
(b)
Combatants;
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(ii)
12.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
13.
14.
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16.
(a)
(b)
(a)
At all times, and particularly after an engagement, Belligerent Parties must, without delay,
take all possible measures to search for and
collect the wounded, sick and shipwrecked,
to protect them against pillage and ill-treatment, and to search for the dead and prevent
their being despoiled.
(b)
18.
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
20.
Air or missile attacks must be conducted in accordance with those feasible precautions required under
Section G of this Manual designed to avoidor, in
any event, minimizecollateral damage.
21.
Section E:
Military Objectives
I. General rules
22.
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(a)
The nature of an object symbolizes its fundamental character. Examples of military objectives by nature include military aircraft (including military UAV/UCAVs); military vehicles
(other than medical transport); missiles and
other weapons; military equipment; military
fortifications, facilities and depots; warships;
ministries of defence and armaments factories.
(b)
(c)
(d)
23.
24.
Aircraft may be the object of attack only if they constitute military objectives.
26.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Section F:
Direct Participation in Hostilities
28.
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29.
(ii)
Section G:
Precautions in Attacks
I. General rules
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30.
31.
32.
(b)
(c)
33.
35.
36.
(a)
(b)
That the target is and remains entitled to specific protection in accordance with Sections K,
L, M and N of this Manual; or
(c)
That the expected collateral damage is excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.
38.
39.
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Visual identification.
(b)
(c)
Infrared signature.
(d)
Radar signature.
(e)
Electronic signature.
41.
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Pre-flight and in-flight air trac control information regarding possible flights.
Belligerent Parties and Neutrals providing air traffic control service ought to establish procedures
whereby military commandersincluding commanders of military aircraftare informed on a
continuous basis of designated routes assigned to,
and flight plans filed by, civilian aircraft in the area
of hostilities (including information on communication channels, identification modes and codes,
destination, passengers and cargo).
Section H:
Precautions by the Belligerent Party
Subject to Attack
42.
44.
45.
46.
Both the Belligerent Party launching an air or missile attack and the Belligerent Party subject to such
an attack have obligations to take precautions.
Nevertheless, the latters failure to take precautionary measures does not relieve the Belligerent Party
launching an air or missile attack of its obligation to
take feasible precautions.
Section I:
Protection of Civilian Aircraft
I. General rules
47.
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(a)
(b)
48.
(a)
(b)
50.
52.
(a)
(b)
Civilian aircraft ought to avoid areas of potentially hazardous military operations. In the vicinity of hostilities, civilian aircraft must comply with
instructions from the military forces regarding their
heading and altitude.
55.
56.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
57.
Section J:
Protection of Particular
Types of Aircraft
I. Civilian airliners
58.
Civilian airliners are civilian objects which are entitled to particular care in terms of precautions.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
Subject to Rule 68, activities such as any of the following may render a civilian airliner a military
objective:
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
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64.
65.
(a)
Aircraft granted safe conduct lose their specific protection from attack in any one of the
following instances:
(b)
(i)
(ii)
66.
67.
Aircraft granted safe conduct are exempt from capture as prize, provided that they:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
The circumstances leading to the loss of protection are suciently grave to justify an
attack; and
(d)
69.
Any decision to attack a civilian airliner or an aircraft granted safe conduct pursuant to Rule 68 ought
to be taken by an appropriate level of command.
70.
In case of loss of protection pursuant to this Section, a warning must be issuedwhenever circumstances permitto the civilian airliner or the
aircraft granted safe conduct in flight before any
action is taken against it.
Section K:
Specific Protection of Medical
and Religious Personnel, Medical
Units and Transports
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71.
72.
(a)
(c)
(d)
73.
74.
(a)
(b)
For medical units or medical transports, protection may cease only after a warning has
been given setting a reasonable time-limit, and
after such warning has remained unheeded.
(c)
(i)
(ii)
Section L:
Specific Protection of
Medical Aircraft
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75.
76.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
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79.
80.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
81.
A medical aircraft must not possess or employ equipment to collect or transmit intelligence harmful to the
enemy. It may, however, be equipped with encrypted
communications equipment intended solely for navigation, identification and communication consistent
with the execution of its humanitarian mission.
82.
84.
Except by prior agreement with a Neutral, a belligerent medical aircraft must not fly over or land in
the territory of that Neutral, unless it is exercising
the right of transit passage through straits used for
international navigation or the right of archipelagic
sea lanes passage.
85.
(a)
(b)
(a)
Search-and-rescue aircraft used to recover military personnel, even if they are not military
aircraft, are not entitled to protection.
86.
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(b)
87.
Section M:
Specific Protection of the
Natural Environment
I. General rule
88.
When planning and conducting air or missile operations, due regard ought to be given to the natural
environment.
Section N:
Specific Protection of Other
Persons and Objects
I. Civil defence
90.
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(a)
91.
92.
(a)
(b)
94.
Cultural property or its immediate surroundings may only be used for military purposes
in cases where military necessity imperatively
so requires. Such decision can only be implemented after the emblems identifying the
object in question as cultural property have
been removed.
Belligerent Parties ought to facilitate the identification and protection of cultural property under their
control, by marking it with the internationally recognized emblem and by providing the enemy with
timely and adequate information about its location.
However, the absence of such measures does not
deprive cultural property of its protection under the
law of international armed conflict.
96.
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(a)
Subject to paragraph (b) and to Rule 96, Belligerent Parties must refrain from any act of
hostility directed against cultural property.
(b)
Cultural property, or its immediate surroundings, may only be attacked in cases where military necessity imperatively so requires.
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(ii)
IV. UN personnel
98.
(a)
(b)
Directing attacks against UN personnel is prohibited, as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians.
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(c)
Directing attacks against material, installations, units and vehicles of the UN is prohibited, unless they constitute military objectives.
Section O:
Humanitarian Aid
I. General rules
100. (a)
(b)
must be respected and protected. The protection extends to humanitarian transports, installations and goods.
(b)
Each Belligerent Party in receipt of relief consignments must, to the fullest extent practicable, assist the relief personnel referred to
in paragraph (a) in carrying out their relief
mission. Only in case of imperative military
necessity may the activities of the relief personnel be limited or their movements temporarily restricted.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Section P:
Exclusion Zones and No-Fly Zones
I. General rules
105. (a)
A Belligerent Party is not absolved of its obligations under the law of international armed
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(b)
to take appropriate measures of force protection in the form of, e.g., the establishment of
warning zones.
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(a)
(b)
The extent, location and duration of the exclusion zone and the measures imposed must not
exceed what is reasonably required by military
necessity.
(c)
(d)
(e)
Section Q:
Deception, Ruses of War and Perfidy
I. General rules
111. (a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Use by a Belligerent Party of the flags or military emblems, insignia or uniforms of Neutrals.
(e)
Use by a Belligerent Party of the distinctive emblem of the United Nations, except as
authorized by that Organization.
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The feigning of the status of a protected medical aircraft, in particular by the use of the distinctive emblem or other means of identification reserved for medical aircraft.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(b)
Mock operations.
(b)
Disinformation.
(c)
(d)
(e)
Use of camouflage.
Section R:
Espionage
I. General rules
118. Espionage consists of activities by spies. A spy is
any person who, acting clandestinely or on false
pretences, obtains or endeavours to obtain information of military value in territory controlled by the
enemy, with the intention of communicating it to
the opposing Party.
119. Acts of espionage are not prohibited under the law
of international armed conflict.
120. A member of the armed forces of a Belligerent Party
who gathers or attempts to gather information in a
territory controlled by the enemy is not considered
a spy if, while so acting, he is in the uniform of his
armed forces.
121. A member of the armed forces of a Belligerent Party
who falls into the power of the enemy while engaging in espionage does not have the right to prisoner
of war status and may be prosecuted for his acts
before domestic courts.
122. A member of the armed forces of a Belligerent Party
who, having been engaged in espionage rejoins his
own forces but is subsequently captured by the
enemy, may no longer be prosecuted for his previous acts of espionage.
Section S:
Surrender
I. General rules
125. Enemy personnel may oer to surrender themselves
(and the military equipment under their control) to
a Belligerent Party.
126. It is prohibited to deny quarter to those manifesting
the intent to surrender.
127. Surrender is contingent on three cumulative
conditions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Section T:
Parachutists from an
Aircraft in Distress
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132. (a)
(b)
Section U:
Contraband, Interception,
Inspection and Capture
I. Enemy aircraft and goods on board such aircraft
134. Enemy civilian aircraft and goods on board may be
captured as prize on the ground orwhen flying
outside neutral airspacebe intercepted and
ordered to proceed to a reasonably accessible belligerent airfield that is safe for the type of aircraft
involved. Prior exercise of inspection is not required.
135. As an exceptional measure, captured enemy civilian
aircraft and goods on board may be destroyed when
military circumstances preclude taking the aircraft
for prize adjudication, provided that all persons on
board have first been placed in safety and documents relating to the prize have been preserved.
136. (a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(c)
138. In order to avoid the need for interception, Belligerent Parties are allowed to establish reasonable measures for the inspection of the cargo of neutral civilian aircraft and the certification that an aircraft is not
carrying contraband.
139. The fact that a neutral civilian aircraft has submitted to such measures of supervision as the inspection of its cargo and grant of certificates of noncontraband cargo by one Belligerent Party is not an
act of unneutral service with regard to the opposing Belligerent Party.
140. Neutral civilian aircraft are subject to capture as
prize outside neutral airspace, if it is determined as
a result of inspection or by other means that any one
of the following conditions is fulfilled:
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(a)
(b)
(c)
They are operating directly under enemy control, orders, charter, employment or direction.
(d)
(e)
(f)
They are engaged in breach of an aerial blockade (see Section V of this Manual).
(b)
The neutral civilian aircraft is engaged in activities rendering it a military objective under
Rule 174.
III. Safeguards
143. In all circumstances of capture of a civilian aircraftwhether neutral or enemythe safety of
passengers and crew on board must be provided
for. Documents and papers relating to the aircraft
must be safeguarded.
of its enemy character. Enemy character of a civilian aircraft can also be determined by registration,
ownership, charter or other appropriate criteria.
145. For the purposes of capture and prize, a civilian
aircraft bearing no marks is presumed to have
enemy character.
146. (a)
If the commander of a military aircraft suspects that a civilian aircraft with neutral marks
in fact has enemy character, the commander
is entitled to exercise the right of interception and, if circumstances require, the right to
divert for the purpose of inspection.
(b)
Section V:
Aerial Blockade
147. An aerial blockade is a belligerent operation to prevent aircraft (including UAVs/UCAVs) from entering or exiting specified airfields or coastal areas
belonging to, occupied by, or under the control of
the enemy.
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148. (a)
An aerial blockade must be declared by a Belligerent Party and notified to all States.
(b)
The declaration must specify the commencement, duration, location, and extent of the
aerial blockade and the period in which neutral aircraft may leave the blockaded area.
(c)
(b)
150. An aerial blockade must not bar access to the airspace of Neutrals.
151. An aerial blockade must be eective. The question
whether such a blockade is eective is a question
of fact.
152. The force maintaining the aerial blockade may
be deployed at a distance determined by military
requirements.
153. (a)
(b)
(b)
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(a)
The Blockading Party retains the right to prescribe the technical arrangements, including inspection, under which such passage is
permitted.
(b)
Section W:
Combined Operations
160. A combined operation is an operation in which two
or more States participate on the same side of an
international armed conflict, either as members of a
permanent alliance or an ad hoc coalition.
161. A State may not invoke its participation in combined operations as justification for its failure to
perform its obligations under the law of international armed conflict.
162. The legal obligations of a State participating in combined operations do not change when its armed
forces are operating in a multinational force under
the command or control of a military commander of
a dierent nationality.
163. A States obligations under the law of international
armed conflict do not change when its air or missile forces are operating from the territory of a cobelligerent, including when its air or missile forces
are operating from the territory of a co-belligerent
that has dierent obligations under the law of
international armed conflict.
164. A State may participate in combined operations
with States that do not share its obligations under
the law of international armed conflict although
those other States might engage in activities prohibited for the first State.
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Section X:
Neutrality
I. Scope of application
165. Where the Security Council takes binding preventive or enforcement measures under Chapter VII
of the Charter of the United Nationsincluding
the authorization of the use of force by a particular State or group of Statesno State may rely
upon the law of neutrality to justify conduct which
would be incompatible with its obligations under
the Charter of the United Nations.
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167. (a)
Belligerent Parties are prohibited in neutral territory to conduct any hostile actions,
establish bases of operations or use such territory as a sanctuary. Furthermore, neutral
territory must not be used by Belligerent Parties for the movement of troops or supplies,
including overflights by military aircraft or
missiles, or for operation of military communication systems.
(b)
168. (a)
(b)
Any incursion or transit by a belligerent military aircraft (including a UAV/UCAV) or missile into or through neutral airspace is prohibited. This is without prejudice to the right
of transit passage through straits used for
international navigation or archipelagic sea
lanes passage.
(b)
(c)
171. Belligerent Parties must not commit any of the following acts:
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Any other activity involving the use of military force or contributing to the war-fighting eort, including transmission of data or
combat search-and-rescue operations in neutral territory.
172. (a)
(ii)
The airspace above neutral international straits and archipelagic sea lanes
remains open at all times to belligerent
aircraft, including armed military aircraft engaged in transit or archipelagic
sea lanes passage.
(b)
(b)
To prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of the crews of military aircraft, as well
as passengers and crews of civilian aircraft,
who are members of the armed forces of a
Belligerent Party.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
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