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Summary: The ketogenic diet (KD) is a broadly effective treatment for medically refractory epilepsy. Despite nearly a century
of use, the mechanisms underlying its clinical efficacy remain
unknown. In this review, we present one intersecting view of how
the KD may exert its anticonvulsant activity against the backdrop
of several seemingly disparate mechanistic theories. We summarize key insights gleaned from experimental and clinical studies
of the KD, and focus particular attention on the role that ketone
bodies, fatty acids, and limited glucose may play in seizure control. Chronic ketosis is anticipated to modify the tricarboxcylic
acid cycle to increase GABA synthesis in brain, limit reactive
oxygen species (ROS) generation, and boost energy production
in brain tissue. Among several direct neuro-inhibitory actions,
polyunsaturated fatty acids increased after KD induce the expression of neuronal uncoupling proteins (UCPs), a collective
up-regulation of numerous energy metabolism genes, and mitochondrial biogenesis. These effects further limit ROS generation
and increase energy production. As a result of limited glucose
and enhanced oxidative phosphorylation, reduced glycolytic flux
is hypothesized to activate metabolic KATP channels and hyperpolarize neurons and/or glia. Although it is unlikely that a single
mechanism, however well substantiated, will explain all of the
diets clinical benefits, these diverse, coordinated changes seem
poised to stabilize synaptic function and increase the resistance
to seizures throughout the brain. Key Words: Ketogenic diet
EpilepsyMetabolismPolyunsaturated fatty acids.
The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high-fat, low-protein, lowcarbohydrate diet that has been employed as a treatment
for medically refractory epilepsy for 86 years. The classic KD is based upon consumption of long-chain saturated triglycerides (LCTs) in a 3:14:1 ketogenic diet ratio
(KD ratio) of fats to carbohydrates + protein (by weight).
The vast majority of calories (>90%) are derived from fat.
While clinical implementation of the KD has varied from
center to center (Kossoff and McGrogan, 2005), diet treatment generally begins with a period of fasting followed by
gradual increase in calories to a target KD ratio of 3:14:1.
This is conducted in the inpatient setting over the course
of several days, where blood glucose, urine ketones, and
several other metabolic variables are closely monitored.
The hallmark feature of KD treatment is the production of
ketone bodies by the liver. Ketone bodies provide an alternative substrate to glucose for energy utilization, and in
developing brain, also constitute essential building blocks
for biosynthesis of cell membranes and lipids.
While the clinical effectiveness of the KD is widely
accepted, surprisingly little is understood about its under-
lying mechanisms of action. Although some studies suggest that dietary constituents or metabolites have direct
anticonvulsant effects, emerging evidence indicates that
adaptations to chronic administration of the KD result in
improved seizure control. These data suggest that the KD
activates several endogenous metabolic and genetic programs to stabilize and/or enhance cellular metabolism,
and that these fundamental changes help counter neuronal
dysfunction associated with seizure activity.
MECHANISTIC INSIGHTS FROM STUDIES
OF KD EFFICACY
The anticonvulsant efficacy of the KD has been examined in various acute and chronic animal models of
epilepsy over the years (Stafstrom, 1999). Clinical and
experimental studies have provided key insights into important treatment-related variables and, when considered
together, these studies have helped direct mechanistic research. Commonalities between clinical and experimental studies of efficacy are summarized in Table 1 (adapted
from Stafstrom, 2004).
Based on vast clinical experience, almost any diet that
produces ketonemia and/or diminished blood glucose levels can induce an anticonvulsant effect. Ketogenic diets
comprised of either LCTs (Freeman et al., 1998; Vining et al., 1998) or medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs;
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44
Variable
Experimental findings
Clinical findings
References
Age
Seizure type
Dietary composition
KD ratio
Calorie restriction
CR is anticonvulsant
CR enhances KD anticonvulsant effect
NAL < NCR < KAL < KCR
Growth rate
Latency to KD effect
12 weeks
Reversal of KD effect
Gender
Males = females
Abbreviations: P40 age, postnatal day 40; LCT, long-chain triglycerides; MCT, medium-chain triglycerides; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; Atkins
diet, diet high in fats + protein, low in carbohydrates; CR, calorie-restriction; NAL, normal, ad libitum rodent diet; NCR, normal, calorie-restricted
(by 15%) rodent diet; KAL, ketogenic, ad libitum diet; KCR, ketogenic, calorie-restricted diet; KD ratio, ratio of [fats / (carbohydrates + proteins)];
KAP, ketogenic/antiketogenic potential. Table adapted from Stafstrom (2004).
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Muller-Schwarze et al., 1999). CR, too, is equally anticonvulsant in both juvenile and adult mice (Greene et al.,
2001). Thus, increasing evidence suggests the anticonvulsant effects of KDs do not appear to be age-dependent.
Clinical reports indicate that outcome is unrelated to
seizure type or frequency (Freeman et al., 1998; Schwartz
et al., 1989a; Vining et al., 1998). At least 50% of patients treated with a classical KD will exhibit at least a
50% reduction in seizures (Livingston, 1972; Freeman
et al., 1998). Comparatively, anticonvulsant effects of KD
in animals are more modest. Rats and mice only demonstrate a 1520% increase in seizure threshold (Appleton
and DeVivo, 1974; Bough and Eagles, 1999; Rho et al.,
1999; Bough et al., 2000b). Despite efficacy across a variety of acute and chronic seizure models (Hori et al., 1997;
Muller-Schwarze et al., 1999; Su et al., 2000), KD-induced
anticonvulsant effects have been incomplete (Bough et al.,
2002) or of limited duration (Hori et al., 1997). Further,
there is little evidence to indicate that KDs diminish severity once a seizure begins. Indeed, many studiesincluding
our ownhave shown that CR and/or KDs can even exacerbate (maximal) seizures (Mahoney et al., 1983; Otani
et al., 1984; Bough et al., 2000a; Thavendiranathan et al.,
2000; Bough et al., 2003). If one considers that seizure
activity requires large amounts of energy, seizure exacerbation may be a reflection of enhanced energy reserves
after KD treatment, a situation that would allow for prolonged ictal activity once it begins (discussed below).
In summary, the following generalizations can be made
about the KD: (1) its anticonvulsant effects appear independent of dietary formulation, but appear to be strongly
linked to the total quantity of calories consumed; (2) the
KD must be strictly adhered to, if the anticonvulsant effect
is to be maintained; (3) CR may work synergistically with
KD to limit seizures and optimize treatment; (4) maximum
efficacy is not achieved for several days or weeks after initiation, suggesting that adaptive metabolic and/or genetic
programs underlie KD-induced seizure protection; (5)
these adaptations are likely generalized throughout the
(epileptic) brain, irrespective of underlying pathology or
genetic predisposition to seizures since the KD is an effective treatment for diverse epileptic conditions; and (6)
efficacy is independent of gender and age, suggesting that
KD treatment produces seizure control via a common set
of pathways in all clinical responders.
ANTICONVULSANT MECHANISMS
OF THE KETOGENIC DIET
Since the KD was originated over 85 years ago, several
major hypotheses have been advanced, but none have been
widely accepted. Several key aspects of the KD might ultimately result in seizure protection. Ketone bodies, free
fatty acids (in particular, polyunsaturated fatty acids), or
Epilepsia, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2007
46
FIG. 1. Metabolic pathways highlighting the production of ketone bodies fatty acids during fasting or treatment with the ketogenic diet (KD).
Estimated fasting- or KD-induced concentrations of beta-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone in blood are listed (large boxes).
Measures of beta-hydroxybutyrate levels in blood are most commonly used as the clinical indicator of successful KD treatment. From
Likhodii and Burnham (2004).
47
Others have hypothesized that glucose restriction during KD treatment activates ATP-sensitive potassium
(KATP ) channels (Schwartzkroin, 1999; Vamecq et al.,
2005). Interestingly, KATP channels are ligand-gated receptors broadly expressed throughout the central nervous
system, in both neurons and glia (Thomzig et al., 2005).
These channels act as metabolic sensors, linking cellular
membrane excitability to fluctuating levels of ADP and
ATP. Activation of this receptor by reduced ATP/ADP ratios opens the channel and leads to membrane hyperpolarization. When glucose is limited (e.g., during administration of a classic KD, which is typically CR by 25%),
KATP channels might open to hyperpolarize the cell as the
intracellular ATP concentrations fall. Conversely, when
glucose is present and ATP concentrations rise, KATP channels close. As such, KATP channels may provide a measure of protection against a variety of metabolic stressors
such as hypoxia, ischemia, and hypoglycemia, and are
believed to regulate seizure threshold (Seino and Miki,
2003).
KATP channels are particularly abundant in the substantia nigra (Hicks et al., 1994), a region of the brain thought
to act centrally in the propagation of seizure activity
(Iadarola and Gale, 1982). KATP channels would therefore
be ideally positioned to metabolically regulate the onset
of several different seizure types, as does the KD. There is
growing evidence that KATP channels may critically regulate seizure activity. Genetically engineered mice that
overexpress the sulfonylurea (SUR) subunit of KATP channels were significantly more resistant to seizures induced
by kainate, and showed no marked cell loss in hippocampus (Hernandez-Sanchez et al., 2001). Studies of KATP
channel (Kir6.2/ ) knockout mice suggested that these
channels help determine seizure threshold (Yamada et al.,
2001). Following hypoxic challenge (5% O2 ), knockout mice exhibited myoclonictonic seizure activity, and,
ultimately, death compared to controls who all recovered
without sequelae.
Despite these observations, there is one important
caveat in implicating KATP channels as mediators of a KDinduced anticonvulsant effect. Other studies have demonstrated an increase in energy reserves (specifically, ATP)
after KD treatment (DeVivo et al., 1978; Pan et al., 1999).
These data predict that KATP channels would remain
closed, not open, during diet treatment, and would thus
contribute to neuronal/glial cell membrane depolarization.
Nevertheless, several findings are consistent with the notion that KATP channels are selectively activated during
administration of a low-glucose, high-fat KD. First, KATP
channels are regulated preferentially via glycolytic energy
sources (Dubinsky et al., 1998). It has recently been shown
that the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) serves as an accessory protein to KATP channels and regulates directly their activity
(Dhar-Chowdhury et al., 2005; Jovanovic et al., 2005).
Epilepsia, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2007
48
The observed reduction in glycolytic processes after KD treatment (specifically, the concentration of
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, the key regulatory enzyme
of glycolysis) is consistent with this notion (DeVivo
et al., 1978; Puchowicz et al., 2005; Melo et al., 2006).
Glycolytic flux may be further limited as a consequence
of elevated ATP (DeVivo et al., 1978; Otani et al., 1984;
Pan et al., 1999; Bough et al., 2006) and citrate (Yudkoff
et al., 2001) levels on KD treatment; both ATP and citrate
are feedback inhibitors of glycolysis.
Second, it is hypothesized that the accumulation of free
fatty acids over the course of KD administration (Dekaban,
1966) may boost KATP channel activation (Vamecq et al.,
2005). Whereas PUFAs freely cross the BBB, saturated
free fatty acids are transported across the BBB via carriermediated processes (Avellini et al., 1994). Fatty acids
that intercalate within neuronal cell membranes have been
shown to interact potently with KATP channels, specifically
reducing their affinity for (and inhibition by) ATP (Shyng
and Nichols, 1998). Overall, these findings suggest that
the unique nature of low-glucose, high-fat KDs promotes
KATP channel activation, despite observed enhancements
in oxidative energy production.
Recent experiments involving 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG)
provide further support for a glucose-restriction hypothesis of KD action. Two-deoxyglucose is a glucose analogue,
which inhibits phosphoglucose isomerase and, hence, glycolysis. Stafstrom et al. (2005) reported that the addition of 1 mM 2-DG decreased epileptiform burst frequency to 2580% of baseline in rat hippocampal slices
exposed to elevated extracellular potassium. More significantly, the same group also showed that 2-DG (250 mg/kg,
i.p) elevated the after-discharge threshold in olfactory
bulb of perforant-path kindled rats, markedly reduced the
progression of kindling, and limited the expression of
BDNF and its cognate receptor, trkB (Garriga-Canut et al.,
2006).
Interestingly, there are a number of anticonvulsant parallels between 2-DG (Stafstrom et al., 2005; GarrigaCanut et al., 2006) and KD treatment (Bough et al., 2003).
First, both 2-DG and KD elevated electrographic seizure
threshold in vivo; second, both 2-DG and KD potently retarded the progression of epileptogenesis in kindling models of epilepsy in vivo; and, third, both 2-DG (in vitro)
and KD (in vivo) diminished measures of hippocampal
hyperexcitability. These results collectively suggest that
the anticonvulsant actions of KD may work, in large part,
via an inhibition of glycolysis. Importantly, because 2-DG
is fairly well tolerated when administered orally (Pelicano
et al., 2006), this compound may represent a novel treatment strategy for epilepsy.
Role of fatty acids
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as docosahexanoic acid (DHA, C22:63), arachidonic acid (AA,
Epilepsia, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2007
Uncoupling proteins
In addition to their direct actions on neuronal excitability, PUFAs may also act indirectly to limit excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration. PUFAs regulate the
expression of numerous genes in brain via transcription
factors such as PPAR (peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor-; Sampath and Ntambi, 2004). Through induction of PPAR and its coactivator PGC-1, PUFAs
induce the expression of mitochondrial uncoupling proteins (UCPs) and activate these proteins directly as well
(Jaburek et al., 1999; Diano et al., 2003). Recent evidence
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FIG. 2. Potential pathways through which polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may limit hyperexcitability in the brain. Acting directly,
PUFAs such as arachidonic acid (AA), docosahexanoic acid (DHA), and/or eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) might inhibit both voltage-gated
Na+ and Ca2+ channels, activate a lipid-sensitive class of K2P potassium channels, and enhance the activity of the Na+ /K+ -ATPase to
limit neuronal excitability and dampen seizure activity. Acting indirectly, PUFAs might induce the expression and activity of uncoupling
proteins (UCPs) to diminish reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduce neuronal dysfunction and induce a neuroprotective effect. Finally,
PUFAs are expected to activate PPAR and induce a coordinate up-regulation of energy transcripts leading to enhanced energy reserves,
stabilized synaptic function and limited hyperexcitability.
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dozen metabolic genes associated with oxidative phosphorylation after KD (Noh et al., 2004; Bough et al., 2006).
Second, KD treatment stimulated mitochondrial biogenesis, resulting in a striking 46% increase in the number of
mitochondria in the hilar/dentate gyrus region of rat hippocampus (Bough et al., 2006). And, third, levels of energy metabolites were increased after KD. Brain glycogen
and ATP concentrations were boosted throughout rodent
brain (DeVivo et al., 1978; Otani et al., 1984) and there was
an elevation in the phosphocreatine-to-creatine (PCr:Cr)
energy-reserve ratio in both animals (Bough et al., 2006)
and humans (Pan et al., 1999). These findings are consistent with results that show ketones (4 mM BHB + 1 mM
ACA) increased hydraulic work by 14% and improved
energy status in perfused heart tissue (Sato et al., 1995).
Further, there is an overall increased metabolic efficiency
(DeVivo et al., 1978; Bough et al., 2006), decreased respiratory quotient (Bough et al., 2000b), and maximal mitochondrial respiratory rate in rodents following the KD
(Sullivan et al., 2004). Collectively, these data provide
compelling evidence that the KD enhances oxidative energy production by activating a variety of transcriptional,
translational, and biochemical mechanisms in a concerted
fashion.
Metabolic dysfunction has been identified in regions of
hyperexcitability within the brain and is associated with
several epileptic conditions. Impairment of mitochondrial
function has been observed in the seizure foci of both human and experimental epilepsies (Kunz et al., 2000). Severe metabolic dysfunction occurred in both human and
rat hippocampal tissue during periods of heightened neuronal activity (Kann et al., 2005). Kudin et al. (2002)
demonstrated that seizure activity down-regulated mitochondrial enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
In an earlier study, the same group demonstrated a specific
deficiency in complex I activity and mitochondrial ultrastructural abnormalities within the hippocampal CA3 region of epileptic tissue resected from 57 human patients
(Kunz et al., 2000). In view of previous studies demonstrating impaired oxidative phosphorylation capacity in
pilocarpine-treated rats (Kudin et al., 2002) and in patients
with epilepsy (Antozzi et al., 1995; Kunz et al., 2000), a
KD-induced augmentation in oxidative phosphorylation
and energy reserves seems likely to counter energetic deficiencies in epileptic tissue, making neuronal tissue more
resilient to aberrant neuronal activity and, in this way, contributing to the diets anticonvulsant actions.
Stabilized synaptic function
Intriguing as this argument may be, how exactly would
enhanced energy reserves lead to stabilized synaptic function and diminished seizures? One possibility is via the
sodium pump. ATP is primarily used to maintain ionic gradients, especially through actions of the transmembrane
sodium pump (Hulbert and Else, 2000). Schwartzkroin
Epilepsia, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2007
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FIG. 3. Metabolic modifications of glutamate and GABA synthesis as a consequence of diminished glucose and ketosis. In ketosis, betahydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate contribute heavily to brain energy needs. A variable fraction of pyruvate (1) is ordinarily converted to
acetyl-CoA via pyruvate dehydrogenase. In contrast, all ketone bodies generate acetyl-CoA, which enters the tricarboxcylic acid (TCA)
cycle via the citrate synthetase pathway (2). This involves the consumption of oxaloacetate, which is necessary for the transamination of
glutamate to aspartate. Oxaloacetate is then less available as a reactant of the aspartate aminotransferase pathway, which couples the
glutamate-aspartate interchange via transamination to the metabolism of glucose through the TCA cycle. Less glutamate is converted
to aspartate and thus, more glutamate is available for synthesis of GABA (3) through glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD). Adapted from
Yudkoff et al. (2004).
Epilepsia, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2007
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FIG. 4. Hypothetical pathways leading to the anticonvulsant effects of the ketogenic diet (KD). Elevated free fatty acids (FFA) lead to
chronic ketosis and increased concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the brain. Chronic ketosis is predicted to lead
to increased levels of acetone; this might activate K2P channels to hyperpolarize neurons and limit neuronal excitability. Chronic ketosis
is also anticipated to modify the tricarboxcylic acid (TCA) cycle. This would increase glutamate and, subsequently, GABA synthesis in
brain. Among several direct inhibitory actions (see also Fig. 2), PUFAs boost the activity of brain-specific uncoupling proteins (UCPs).
This is expected to limit ROS generation, neuronal dysfunction, and resultant neurodegeneration. Acting via the nuclear transcription
factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- (PPAR), PUFAs would induce the expression of UCPs and coordinately up-regulate
several dozen genes related to oxidative energy metabolism. PPAR expression is inversely correlated with IL-1 cytokine expression;
given the role of IL-1 in hyperexcitability and seizure generation (Vezzani et al., 2000), diminished expression of IL- cytokines during KD
treatment could lead to improved seizure control. Ultimately, PUFAs would stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis. Mitochondrial biogenesis is
predicted to increase ATP production capacity and enhance energy reserves, leading to stabilized synaptic function and improved seizure
control. In particular, an elevated phosphocreatine:creatine (PCr:Cr) energy-reserve ratio is predicted to enhance GABAergic output,
perhaps in conjunction with the ketosis-induced elevated GABA production, leading to diminished hyperexcitability. Reduced glucose
coupled with elevated free fatty acids are proposed to reduce glycolytic flux during KD, which would further be feedback inhibited by high
concentrations of citrate and ATP produced during KD treatment. This would activate metabolic KATP channels. Opening of KATP channels
would hyperpolarize neurons and diminish neuronal excitability to contribute to the anticonvulsant (and perhaps neuroprotective) action
of the KD. Reduced glucose is also expected to downregulate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and trkB signaling in brain. As
activation of TrkB pathways by BDNF have been shown to promote hyperexcitability and kindling, these potential KD-induced effects would
be expected to limit the symptom (seizures) as well as the progression of epilepsy. Boxed variables depict findings taken from KD studies;
up () or down () arrows indicate the direction of the relationship between variables as a result of KD treatment.
54
rise in blood/brain ketone levels and a concomitant (moderate) reduction in blood/brain glucose. Fatty acid composition may not ultimately matter, as long as this important
metabolic shift occurs. And, interestingly, calorie restriction (Greene et al., 2001; Bough et al., 2003; Eagles et al.,
2003; Greene et al., 2003) or intake of 2-DG (Stafstrom
et al., 2005), both of which result in mild hypoglycemia,
may be the only requirement for seizure protection, regardless of whether fats are consumed or not.
As we continue to explore putative anticonvulsant
mechanisms of KD action, we are left with many outstanding clinical questions regarding dietary treatments
for epilepsy. Well-designed, multicenter prospective- and
controlled clinical trials are essential toward developing
the optimum KD. If woven together with pharmacokinetic
and pharmacogenetic investigations, these clinical studies will not only provide further insights into mechanistic
underpinnings, but will also help differentiate responders
from non-responders and identify patients in whom the
diet is definitively contraindicated. Clinicians would be
given the tools to make evidence-based decisions rather
than rely upon a few casecontrolled studies, anecdotal reports of efficacy, or clinical folklore as has been the practice in the past. Toward this end, information regarding the
impact of pharmacogenetics on epilepsy treatment is now
beginning to emerge (Depondt and Shorvon, 2006; Spurr,
2006), although much less is known regarding the genetically determined variables influencing dietary impact on
brain function, particularly as it relates to the epileptic
brain.
CONCLUSIONS
After nearly a century of clinical use, we still do not
know how the KD works. However, much progress in KD
research has been made in the past decade. Among other
factors, current evidence indicates KD optimizes cellular
metabolism. Endogenous biochemical and genetic programs are switched on in the brain in response to ketosis, glucose restriction, and elevated free fatty acids. This
unique metabolic state, if maintained, induces a shift away
from glycolytic energy production (glucose restriction)
toward the production of energy via oxidative phosphorylation (beta-oxidation of fatty acids and production of
ketone bodies). The reduction in glycolytic energy supply may activate selectively KATP channels to increase the
resistance to onset of ictal activity. An increase in oxidative phosphorylation coupled with an induction of UCPs
and mitochondrial biogenesis can diminish ROS generation and increase energy reserves, both of which would
be expected to prevent neuronal dysfunction, seizures and
even neurodegeneration.
It is improbable that one mechanistic target or mediator will produce entirely the seizure protection associated with the KD. Rather, several factors likely contribute
Epilepsia, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2007
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