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CELL

AND
BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 8

MOLECULAR

CELLULAR MEMBRANES
Plasma Membrane
Thin and fragile
5 to 10 nm wide
J.D. Robertson
The plasma membrane is a
trilaminar layer
Trilaminar
layer:
Dark
staining inner and outer
layer, lightly staining middle
layer
Membrane has a lipid
bilayer: Polar surface (polar
head) and non-polar tails
Membrane Functions
1. Compartmentalization
Membranes
are
continuous
and
unbroken sheets
Function:
enclose
compartments in the
cell
(the
nuclear
and
cytoplasmic
membranes
enclose
intercellular spaces)
The
compartments
allow
specialized
activities to proceed
without any external
interference
and
there is regulation of
the cellular activities
2. Scaffold for biochemical
activities
Membranes are also
scaffolds

As long as there are


reactants present in the
solute, relative position
cannot be stabilized
Interactions in the cell
depend on random
collisions
Function: Membranes
provide the extensive
framework
of
scaffolding
which
components can be
ordered for effective
interaction

3. Providing
a
selectively
permeable barrier
Provide a barrier that
prevents
the
unrestricted exchange
of molecules from one
side to another
Function:
For
communication
between
compartments as it
separates
Function:
Promote
movement
of
selected
elements
into and out of the
enclosed living space
4. Transporting solutes
Transports
substances from one
side to another side
Follows the pathway
of
lower
concentration
to
higher concentration
There will be an
accumulation of sugar
and amino acids for

metabolism
and
macromolecules
Transport ions- ionic
gradient (nerve and
muscle cells)

5. Responding to external
stimuli
Response of a cell to
the external stimuli
Signal transduction:
receptors bind to
ligands
Respond to other
types of stimuli such
as
light
or
mechanical tension
Signals generated may
stimulate or inhibit
internal activities
Ex:
1. Signals generated
at
the
plasma
membrane may tell
a
cell
to
manufacture more
glycogen
2. Prepare for cell
division
3. Move
toward
a
higher
concentration of a
particular
compounds
4. Release
calcium
from internal stores
5. Commit
suicide
(apoptosis)
6. Intercellular interaction
Interaction of a cell
with its neighbors
Outer edge of the living
plasma membrane
1. Cells can recognize
one another

2. Adhere
to
one
another
(cell
adhesion)
3. Exchange materials
and information
Proteins
can
facilitate
interaction
between
extracellular
materials
and
intracellular
cytoskeleton
7. Energy transduction
Energy
is
converted from one
type to another
type
Photosynthesis
has
the
most
abundant
energy
transduction (light
energy to chemical
energy)
Energy from the sun
is absorbed by the
membrane
bound
pigments
(energy
will be stored as
carbohydrates)
Plasma Membrane Structure
Ernst Overton
- Lipids are chemical
in nature
- Like dissolves like
(non-polar
solute
dissolves in nonpolar solvent)
- Used plant root
hairs: more lipidsoluble the solute,
more rapidly it
would enter the
root hair cells

E. Gorter and F.
Grendel
- Cellular
membranes have
a lipid bilayer
- Extracted lipid from
red blood cells
and measured the
amount of surface
area the lipid would
cover when spread
over the surface of
water
- Ratio of surface
area
of
water
covered
by
extracted lipid 2:1
- Polar groups of
molecular layers
or leaflets were
directed outwards
towards
the
aqueous
environment

Hugh Davson and


James Danielli
- Cellular
membranes were
not purely made
up of a lipid
bilayer
- Surface
tension
can lower the pure
lipid structure
- Plasma membrane
was composed of
a lipid bilayer that
as lined on both
its inner and outer
surface
by
globular proteins
- Protein-lined
pores
- WRONG MODEL

Jonathan Singer and


Garth Nicolson
- FLUID-MOSAIC
MODEL
- Bilayer of a fluidmosaic model is in
a fluid state
- Lipid
molecules
move laterally in
the plane of the
membrane
- Mosaic

of
discontinuous
particles
that
penetrate the lipid
sheet
(Made up of lipids
and proteins)
- The
cell
membrane
is
DYNAMIC
- Proteins penetrate
the lipid bilayer
o Peripheral
Proteins
o Integral Proteins

Chemical
Composition
of
Membranes
Membrane Lipids
Membranes are made
up of Lipids and
proteins
Held together by noncovalent bonds
Ratio of lipid to protein
in membrane varies
and depends on the
type of cell membrane
(plasma
or
endoplasmic reticulum
or Golgi), type of
organism (bacterium,
animal or plant), type of

cell (cartilage, muscle


or liver)
Ex:
The
inner
mitochondrial
membrane has a high
ratio of protein/lipid in
comparison to the red
blood
cell
plasma
membrane
- The myelin sheath
acts as a primarily
as
electrical
insulation for the
nerve
cell
it
encloses
Membranes
are
amphipathic can be
hydrophilic
or
hydrophobic
1. Sphingolipids
2. Phospholipds
3. Cholesterol

Phosphoglycerides
Contain a phosphate
group
Glycerol
backbone:
Phosphoglycerides
Diglycerides: two of
the hydroxyl (OH)
groups of glycerol
are esterified to the
fatty acids and the
third OH is esterified
to
a
hydrophilic
phosphate group and
two fatty acyl chain
Phosphatidic acid
Phosphatidylcholine
(PC)
Phosphatidylethanolam
ine (PE)
Phosphatidylserine
(PS)
Phosphatidylinositol
(PI)

Phosphatidyl
groups
are
small
and
hydrophilic
and
together
with
the
negatively
charged
phosphate to which it is
attached,
forms
a
highly water-soluble
domain at one end of
the molecule: HEAD
GROUP
Membrane fatty acid
may be saturated,
monounsaturated,
saturated
or
polyunsaturated

Sphingolipids
Sphingosine backbone
Sphingosine is linked to a
fatty acid
Ceramide
If
phosphorylcholine

sphingomyelin
Carbohydrate: Glycolipid
Simple sugar: Ceramide
- sialic acid, ganglioside
Nervous system is rich in
glycolipid
Myelin
sheath:
galactocerbroside
Cholesterol
Most of the animal cells are
made up of cholesterol
Plant
cells
contain
cholesterol-like sterols
Made up of 4 different rings
rings of are flat and rigid

The Nature and Importance of the


Lipid Bilayer
Lipid
composition
can
determine the physical state
of
the
membrane
and
influence the activity of the
particular membrane proteins
Membrane proteins also
provide the precursors for
highly
active
chemical
messengers that regulate
cellular function
Lipid membrane is thought to
facilitate the regulated fusion
or budding of membranes
Lipid bilayer maintains the
proper internal composition
of a cell
Lipid bilayer is capable of
self-assembly
Ex: Liposomes
The Asymmetry of Membrane
Lipids
Lipid
digestive
enzymes
cannot penetrate the plasma
membrane and are only able
to digest lipids that reside in
the outer leaflet of the bilayer
Membrane Carbohydrates
Plasma
membranes
also
contain
carbohydrates
(sugars)
More than 90 percent of the
membranes carbohydrate
is covalently linked to
proteins
to
form
glycoproteins
Addition of a carbohydrate:
Glycoslation
Oligosaccharides

Structure
and
Functions
of
Membrane Proteins
Membranes
may
contain
many types of proteins
Asymmetry is referred to as
sidedness
Integral proteins
Penetrate the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins
Constitute 25-30 percent of all
encoded proteins and roughly
60 percent of all current drug
targets
Most are receptors that bind
to specific substances at the
membrane surface
Acts
as
channels,
transporters involved in the
movement of ions, solutes
across the membrane or
transfer of electrons
Amphipathic
Van der Waals forces
hydrophobic seals it with
the membrane
Protein is anchored to the
bilayer
Globular proteins: These are
the portions of the integral
membrane protein that project
into either the cytoplasm or
the extracellular space
hydrophilic, low molecular
weight substrates, hormones
and other proteins
Distribution
of
Integral
Proteins:
Freeze-Fracture
Analysis
Freeze
fracture
replication
Used as a technique to
investigate
the
cell
membrane structure

Membrane-associated
particles

Structure and Properties of


Integral Membrane Proteins
Integral
proteins
have
hydrophobic transmembrane
domains

Peripheral Membrane proteins


Outside of the lipid bilayer
Associated with the surface of
the
membrane
with
noncovalent bonds
It is associated with the
membrane
with
weak
electrostatic bonds
High
concentration
salt
solutions
weaken
the
electrostatic bonds
Ex of peripheral proteins:
These are located on the
internal (cytosolic) surface of
the plasma membrane, where
they form a fibrillar network
that acts as a membrane
skeleton
Dynamic relationship with
the
membranebeing
recruited to the membrane

or
released
membrane

from

the

Lipid-Anchored
Membrane
proteins
Outside the lipid bilayer on
either the extracellular or
cytoplasmic surface
Covalently linked to a lipid
molecule that is situated
within the bilayer
GPI-anchored proteins
These group of proteins are
present on the cytoplasmic
side
of
the
plasma
membrane and is anchored
to the membrane by one or
more long hydrocardbon
chains embedded in the
inner leaflet of the lipid
bilayer
Membrane Lipds and Membrane
Fluidity
Membrane Fluidity
Physical state of the lipid
depends on its viscosity or
fluidity
If temperature is warm: lipid
is relatively at a fluid state
(membrane
is
a
twodimensional liquid crystal)
Transition
temperature:
change from the liquid
crystal state to the frozen
crystalline gel change in
the temperature
The shape of a saturated
fatty acid: shape of a
flexible rod
Cis-unsaturated fatty acid:
crooks in the chain

Importance of Membrane Fluidity


Membrane fluidity provides a
perfect compromise between
a rigid, ordered structure
Mobility can be absent and
there will be fluidity
Nonviscous liquid could not
be oriented
Fluidity
is
what
lets
interactions
take
place
within the membrane
Fluidity
also
allows
membrane assembly
Maintaining membrane fluidity
Membranes of a cell should
remain fluid
Cells respond to changing
conditions by altering the
types of phospholoipids in
which they are made up of
Maintaining the fluidity can
be
1.
Changing
the
temperature
2.
Desaturating single
bonds in fatty acly
chains
to
form
double
bonds
(desaturates)
3.
Reshuffling
the
chains
between
different
phospholipid
molecules
(phospholipases)
Liquid rafts
Formation
of
the
artificial lipid bilayer
The artificlal lipid
bilayer cholesterol
and
sphingolipids
tend to self-asemble

The
patches
of
cholesterol and the
sphinglolipids
are
what are termed as
lipid rafts
random sea of lipid
molecules

Dynamic Nature of the Plasma


Membrane
Diffusion of Membrane Proteins
after Cell Fusion

Control of
Mobility

Membrane

Membrane Lipid Mobility

Protein

Membrane
Polarity

Domains

Integral
Proteins
Erythrocyte Membrane

and

Cell

of

the

Movement of Substance Across


Cell Membrane
Membrane Potentials and Never
impulses

Erythrocyte Membrane Skeleton

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