HEMODYNAMIC ASSESSMENT

IN THE EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT

Tools and Information for

Clinical Decision Making

A U T H OR S

Robert Bilkovski, MD
Senior Staff Physician
Department of Emergency Medicine
Henry Ford Hospital
Detroit, MI

H. Bryant Nguyen, MD, MS

Assistant Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine
Loma Linda University
Loma Linda, CA

Nathan Shapiro, MD, MPH

Research Director, Department of Emergency Medicine
Staff Physician, Department of Emergency Medicine
Beth Israel Deaconess Hospital
Boston, MA

Rob Sherwin, M.D.

Assistant Professor Emergency Medicine
Wayne State University School of Medicine
Detroit, MI

This activity has been planned and produced

in accordance with the ACCME Essential Areas and Policies

Supported through an unrestricted educational grant from USCOM Ltd.

Editorial services by

Course capture and production by

MEDUNET

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

HEMODYNAMIC ASSESSMENT
IN THE EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT

Tools and Information for

Clinical Decision Making
Learning objectives:
Following completion of the symposium the participant should be
able to:

Describe hemodynamic assessment tools and hemodynamic

monitoring.

Discuss the use of hemodynamic trending to assess patient

status in sepsis.

Review the starling Curve and the use of cardiac output to

guide resuscitation.

Apply techniques related to hemodynamic monitoring in the

ED and transport services.

The information presented at this CME program represents the

views and opinions of the individual presenters, and does not
constitute the opinion or endorsement of, or promotion by, Temple
University School of Medicine, Temple University Health System
or its affiliates. Reasonable efforts have been taken intending for
educational subject matter to be presented in a balanced, unbiased
fashion and in compliance with regulatory requirements.
However, each program attendee must always use his/her own
personal and professional judgment when considering further
application of this information, particularly as it may relate to
patient diagnostic or treatment decisions including, without
limitation, FDA-approved uses and any off-label uses.

Intended Audience:
The activity is intended for internists and family practitioners.
Accreditation Statement:
Temple University School of Medicine is accredited by the
Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education
(ACCME) to sponsor Continuing Medical Education for
Physicians
Certification Statement:
Temple University School of Medicine designates this educational
activity for a maximum of 2 AMA PRA category 1 credit. Each
physician should claim only those hours of credit that he/she actually
spent in the educational activity.

Disclosure Policy:
It is the policy of Temple University School of Medicine; The
Albert J. Finestone, M.D. Office for Continuing Medical
Education to insure balance, independence, objectivity and
scientific rigor in all of its sponsored or jointly sponsored
educational programs. All faculty participating in programs
sponsored or jointly sponsored by Temple University School of
Medicine are expected to disclose to the program audience any real
or apparent conflict (s) of interest related to the content of their
presentation(s).

Faculty Disclosure:
The following contributing author has declared that he has no
financial arrangement or affiliation with any corporate
organization whose product(s) is discussed in this monograph:
Rob Sherwin, M.D.
Listed below are those authors who have indicated a relationship
with a commercial company. Such disclosure should not be
construed as a conflict of interest, but rather as a disclosure of a
current of previous financial arrangement. All efforts have been
made to assure independence and balance of content that is based
on a structured review of the best scientific evidence at the time of
the publication.
Robert N. Bilkovski, MD
H. Bryant Nguyen, MD, MS
Nathan Shapiro, MD, MPH

Release Date: March 1, 2006

Expiration Date: March 1, 2007

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making
Hemodynamic Trending to Assess Patient Status

performance. Neither CVP nor pulmonary artery occlusion

pressure demonstrated a significant correlation with right
ventricular end-diastolic volume index (RVEDVI). However,
stroke volume did correlate with RVEDVI. My personal opinion
is that there is a level of discomfort associated with putting in a
central line, especially in the subclavian or internal jugular area,
even in academic centers, said Dr. Bilkovski. I think technology
is starting to show that there are noninvasive ways to do this.

Although invasive hemodynamic monitoring remains the standard

for management of critically ill patients, minimally invasive
techniques continue to emerge and show promise as potential
alternatives to the current standard. Interest in minimally invasive
and noninvasive monitoring techniques is fueled in part by the
limitations of current monitoring technology, said Robert N.
Bilkovski, MD, associate research director in emergency medicine
at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit, Mich. Additionally, noninvasive
techniques offer more potential for hemodynamic monitoring in
the emergency department and the out of hospital environment.
The pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) offers a good example of the
mixed emotions evoked by invasive monitoring techniques. We
have a lovehate relationship with the pulmonary artery catheter,
said Dr. Bilkovski When it is used correctly, it is very helpful, but
it can be difficult to use. If you wanted to place one in a patient in
the emergency department, would your nurses shoot you or just
kick you out of the ER?

Esophageal Doppler monitoring (EDM) has shown some

potential as a minimally invasive approach to hemodynamic
monitoring. The device measures blood flow across the
descending aorta. The principal limitation of the technology is
that it is applicable only in mechanically ventilated patients.
EDMs value as a measure of cardiac output was compared with
cardiac output by thermodilution method in 46 critically ill
patients [3]. Good correlation (r = 0.95, p < 0.0001) was observed
between the EDM and thermodilution measurements. The
investigators concluded that transesophageal Doppler can
provide a noninvasive, clinically useful estimate of cardiac output
and detect hemodynamic changes in mechanically ventilated,
critically ill patients. Another study evaluated EDM as an aid to
hemodynamic optimization [4]. The study involved patients
undergoing major elective surgery with anticipated blood loss
greater than 500 mL. Patients who had EDM-directed
intraoperative fluid administration had a higher stroke volume
and cardiac output at the end of surgery, shorter duration of
hospital stay, and earlier return of normal bowel function. There
is a fair amount of literature supporting the utility and accuracy
of EDM for measuring cardiac output, said Dr. Bilkovski.
However, use of the technology is still limited to patients who
are mechanically ventilated.

The PAC is used predominantly in the intensive care unit (ICU)

and operating room. The device measures pulmonary artery
wedge pressure, thermodilution cardiac output, and cardiac
output by the Fick method. Growing controversy surrounds use
of the PAC, in part because of studies that have raised questions
about its utility and, more importantly, its safety. As an example,
Dr. Bilkovski cited a case-control study that evaluated the use of
right-heart catheterization in 5,735 critically ill adult patients who
received care in ICUs at five U.S. teaching hospitals [1]. The
principal endpoints of the study were survival, cost of care,
intensity of care, and length of stay in the ICU and hospital. By
case-matching analysis, right-heart catheterization had worse
outcomes, in particular increased mortality at 30, 60, and 180
days. Additionally, use of a PAC was associated with greater
hospital charges, and prolonged length of stay in the ICU.

Monitoring-guided hemodynamic optimization, particularly early

introduction of hemodynamic optimization, has shown potential
to improve outcomes in septic patients. In some of the earliest
work in the field, Shoemaker et al. found that supranormal
oxygen delivery improves outcomes in critically ill patients. In one
study, survivors among critically ill surgical patients had greater
oxygen delivery (DO2) values than did non-survivors [5]. Another
study yielded similar results: High-risk surgical patients who had
augmented DO2 had a lower mortality compared to a control
group [6]. Bishop et al. reported that severely injured trauma
patients who achieved supranormal DO2 within 24 hours had
reduced mortality and a lower rate of organ failure [7]. Another
report showed that severely injured patients who achieved
optimal hemodynamic values had improved survival, regardless
of the resuscitation technique used [8]. The one limitation of

As compared to the PAC, central venous pressure (CVP)

monitoring is used more extensively, both in the ICU, the
operating room, and the emergency department. However, the
device has some prominent limitations related to valvular heart
disease, pulmonary hypertension, ventricular compliance, and
assessment of preload, said Dr. Bilkovski. CVP has been
considered a reliable measure of ventricular preload in patients
requiring hemodynamic monitoring. That reliability was evaluated
in a group of healthy volunteers [2]. Specifically, investigators
assessed the relationship between pressure estimates of
ventricular preload (pulmonary artery occlusion pressure and
CVP) and end-diastolic ventricular volumes and cardiac

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

these results is that they have all come from the same institution,
said Dr. Bilkovski. No other institution has been able to
replicate these results.

currently is the mainstay for treatment of critically ill patients, but

minimally invasive techniques are becoming more prevalent in
clinical settings. Noninvasive cardiac output monitoring shows
promise, and its value in clinical practice will be defined by
ongoing clinical investigation.

Investigators at Dr. Bilkovskis institution evaluated the impact of

early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and
septic shock [9]. The approach has been used extensively in the
ICU, but this study sought to determine the feasibility and
efficacy of early goal-directed therapy before admission to the
ICU. The study involved 263 patients, 130 of whom wee
randomized to early hemodynamic optimization. In-hospital
mortality was significantly reduced by the goal-directed therapy
(30.5% vs. 46.5%, p = 0.009). The improved survival was
associated with a significantly higher mean central venous oxygen
saturation (ScvO2), lower lactate concentration, lower base
deficit, and a higher pH value between 7 and 72 hours (p 0.02
for all comparisons). Patients assigned to early goal-directed
therapy also had significantly lower APACHE II scores
(p < 0.001), suggesting less severe organ dysfunction.

Hemodynamic Monitoring in the Emergency Department

A combination of noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring and
assessment of tissue oxygenation ultimately may offer the ideal
approach to improving outcomes in critically ill patients. A
monitoring strategy that relies on physical examination is no
longer sufficient, said H. Bryant Nguyen, MD, assistant professor
of emergency medicine at Loma Linda University, in Loma
Linda, Calif. Invasive monitoring currently has the best
supporting science but is impractical for many settings. Findings
on physical examination, including postural hypotension, status of
skin and mucous membranes, mental status, and capillary refill
time, lack the sensitivity, specificity, or both to provide for reliable
assessment of patients [13]. Additionally, blood pressure
monitoring reflects afterload, but the ausculatory method may
underestimate actual blood pressure [14].

Stroke volume variation (SVV) represents another development

in minimally and noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring. To date,
the technique has been used almost exclusively in Europe, where
the monitoring equipment is manufactured, according to
Dr. Bilkovski. One recent study evaluated SVV to guide fluid
therapy in mechanically ventilated patients [10]. The technique was
compared with pulse pressure variation (PPV), stroke volume
index (SVI), and several other standard preload indices. SVV and
PPV were the most accurate methods for predicting fluid
responsiveness, and SVV was more accurate than PPV. Both SVV
and PPV correlated significantly with changes in SVI (p < 0.001).
Like EDM, SVVs applicability is limited to mechanically
ventilated patients. Additionally, other studies have yielded
inconsistent findings. One investigation found that SVV predicts
fluid responsiveness [11], whereas another study found no
correlation between SVV and SVI [12].

As an indication of patient status, blood pressure does not reflect

the adequacy of flow to tissues. In point of fact, systemic
hypoperfusion usually precedes hypotension, especially in septic
patients [15]. Neither blood pressure nor heart rate reliably predicts
cardiac output until extreme hypotension occurs [16].
In a hemorrhagic shock model, it is possible to lose up to 20%
of blood volume with no loss in blood pressure, said
Dr. Nguyen. Its possible to compensate pretty well up to 20%
blood loss, which is pretty significant. In contrast to simple
blood pressure measurements, the shock index (heart rate/
systolic blood pressure) has shown potential for evaluation of
critically ill patients in the emergency department. As an example,
a shock index of 0.9 (0.5 to 0.7 considered normal) was
associated with emergency department triage to priority status,
increased likelihood of hospital admission, and continued therapy
in the ICU [17].

The era of truly noninvasive monitoring of cardiac output has

arrived with the ultrasound cardiac output monitor (USCOM),
said Dr. Bilkovski. Recently released in the United States,
USCOM assesses cardiac output by means of continuous-wave
Doppler ultrasound, which measures blood flow across the aortic
valve. In contrast to the descending aorta, the aortic valve does
not vary from beat to beat, so we should be able to obtain a more
reliable and more robust cardiac output measurement from beat
to beat, said Dr. Bilkovski. USCOM has considerable potential
as a noninvasive means of monitoring goal-directed therapy to
achieve hemodynamic optimization, he added. With respect to
hemodynamic trending, USCOM can be used to monitor stroke
volume response to fluid challenge. Cardiac output can be
monitored in real time, and the technology can be used to guide
resuscitation efforts. In summary, Dr. Bilkovski said fluid
challenge will optimize stroke volume, which in turn should
optimize cardiac output. Invasive hemodynamic monitoring

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Comparisons of invasive monitoring and clinical examination for

determining preload have consistently favored the invasive
approach. One representative study showed that therapy
suggested by clinical examination was changed 48% of the time
after catheterization [18]. Another study found a 50% error rate for
clinical examination, and therapy was changed 58% of the time
after catheterization [19]. An evaluation of clinical assessment of
central venous pressure in ICU patients found high rates of
inaccuracy among medical students, residents, and staff
physicians [20]. Invasive monitoring has a demonstrated ability to
guide hemodynamic optimization. For example, preoperative
placement of a pulmonary artery catheter was used to monitor
and optimize cardiac index, oxygen delivery, and oxygen

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

annual meeting of the American College of Emergency

Physicians [24]. Paired USCOM measurements of cardiac index
and stroke volume index were obtained by two blinded operators,
including physicians, students, nurses, and paramedics. The
investigators obtained 52 paired measurements in 44 patients
presenting to the emergency department. The ultrasound signal
was inadequate in five other patients. The USCOM monitoring
device demonstrated good correlation between operators for
both cardiac index (r2 = 0.87, p = 0.001) and stroke volume
index (r2 = 0.84, p = 0.001). Dr. Nguyen and his associated
concluded that the USCOM is a feasible, noninvasive
hemodynamic monitoring device in the ED with acceptable interrater agreement when utilized by ED personnel involved in
patient care. Its ease of use suggests further study is needed to
examine the utility of this device in the hemodynamic assessment
and resuscitation of critically ill patients presenting to the ED.

consumption in high-risk surgical patients [6]. Patients who

received the catheter had a lower mortality, fewer complications,
shorter duration of hospitalization and ICU stay, and less need
for mechanical ventilation. Moreover, invasive monitoring was
associated with lower costs. In another study, invasive monitoring
of early goal-directed therapy showed that optimization of
central venous pressure, mean arterial pressure, and central
venous oxygen saturation improved outcomes in critically ill
patients [9].
Esophageal Doppler monitoring (EDM) has demonstrated
potential as a minimally invasive alternative to invasive
monitoring. EDM was compared with clinical evaluation for
assessment of hemodynamic status in critically ill patients
presenting to the emergency department [21]. Assessment focused
on preload, contractility, and afterload, and the variables were
recorded as high, normal, or low by the attending physician prior
to EDM. Therapeutic decisions were recorded before and after
EDM. Physician agreement with EDM ranged between 39% and
48% for the three variables, and treatment changed in about a
third of cases following EDM. This study showed that EDM is
a less invasive alternative, is feasible and convenient for use in the
emergency department, is more accurate than a clinicians
assessment, and leads to a significant change in therapy, said
Dr. Nguyen. More recently, EDM was investigated as a means of
guiding hemodynamic optimization in patients undergoing
cardiac surgery [22]. Patients were randomized to conventional
hemodynamic monitoring or to an EDM-guided algorithm
designed to maintain a target stroke volume. Patients randomized
to the algorithm had fewer complications, and the EDM-guided
resuscitation was associated with a significant reduction
(p = 0.02) in the length of hospital stay.

Tissue oxygenation monitoring represents yet another potentially

useful strategy for hemodynamic optimization, said Dr. Nguyen.
Indices that have been evaluated include base deficit, lactate,
gastric pH, and sublingual carbon dioxide partial pressure
(pCO2). Base deficit is the amount of base required to titrate 1 L
of blood to normal pH. The index is an indicator of volume
deficit and has been found potentially useful as a guide to volume
replacement in the resuscitation of trauma patients [25]. The
reliability of base deficit as a tissue oxygenation index is affected
by bicarbonate, temperature, ethanol consumption, and heparin,
said Dr. Nguyen. Associations of base deficit with mortality and
of other factors affecting mortality were examined in 3,791
trauma patients who had an arterial blood gas sample obtained in
the first 24 hours [26]. More than 80% of the patients (3,038)
exhibited a base deficit. By logistic regression analysis, base deficit
demonstrated an association with mortality, as did older age,
injury mechanism, and head injury. Base deficit also added
significantly to the predictive value of the Revised Trauma Score
and the Trauma Injury Severity Score. If a patient had a base
deficit of about 10 or higher, the mortality risk was up to 60%,
said Dr. Nguyen. As base deficit of 20 was associated with a
mortality risk of 80%. So, using base deficit in triage or trauma
resuscitation can help make a disposition.

Because EDM is applicable only to intubated patients, a reliable

minimally or noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring technique is
still needed. An ultrasound cardiac output monitor (USCOM) has
demonstrated potential as a possible noninvasive alternative to
standard hemodynamic monitoring techniques. The device
determines cardiac output by means of continuous-wave Doppler
ultrasound monitoring of the aortic valve. USCOM was
compared with standard thermodilution technique using a
pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) in 24 patients who were
mechanically ventilated following cardiac surgery [23]. Investigators
obtained 40 paired measurements from 22 patients, and the
ultrasound signal was unacceptable in two patients. The USCOM
demonstrated good correlation with PAC, leading the authors to
conclude that the USCOM monitor has a place in intensive care
monitoring. It is accurate, rapid, safe, well tolerated, noninvasive,
and cost-effective. However, they noted that the devices
suitability for patients with high and low cardiac output requires
further validation.

Lactic acidosis, which reflects anaerobic metabolism, has been

shown to correlate with overall oxygen debt and survival in
critically ill patients [27]. Studies dating back more than 30 years
have show that lactate levels correlate with outcome and reflect
the severity a patients condition [28,29]. Lactate and central venous
oxygen saturation (ScvO2) were evaluated as indicators of
response to resuscitation in critically ill patients presenting to the
emergency department [30]. The results showed that initial
resuscitation led to improvement in standard hemodynamic
parameters but did not improve ScvO2 or lactate levels in 31 of
36 patients involved in the study. Additional resuscitative therapy
led to a significant decrease in lactate and a significant increase in
ScvO2 without significant changes in blood pressure, heart rate,

Dr. Nguyen and colleagues at his institution also have evaluated

the USCOM monitoring device and presented results at the

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

third component of shock is oxygen demand in tissues, which

drives oxygen consumption. An imbalance between oxygen
delivery and consumption had several adverse consequences,
including tissue hypoxia, acidosis, and organ dysfunction, said
Nathan I. Shapiro, MD, an instructor in emergency medicine at
Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical
Center in Boston. Blood leaves the heart with a certain level of
oxygen saturation, typically 95100%, and thus begins the delivery
side of the balancing act. Upon reaching the microcirculation,
about 2030% of the oxygen is removed, and oxygen saturation is
7080% in blood that is returning to the heart through the venous
system. When there is increased oxygen demand and more
oxygen is pulled out of the blood, low oxygenation will result,
said Dr. Shapiro. In a patient in shock, oxygen demand exceeds
the uptake. As a result, we need to increase oxygen delivery. An
evaluation of early goal-directed therapy for septic patients
showed that if we pay attention to balancing oxygen supply and
demand, and if we intervene early and aggressively, we can
improve outcomes [9]. The protocol employed in the study
included three key target parameters. Central venous pressure
(CVP) was to be maintained at 812 mm Hg, and a 500 cc fluid
bolus was administered if CVP declined to less than 8 mm Hg.
The target for mean arterial pressure was 6090 mm Hg, and
vasoactive agents were given if the pressure fell below 60 mm Hg.
Finally, the minimum value for systemic venous oxygenation was
70%, and red cell transfusion or dobutamine was administered if
venous oxygenation declined to less than 70%. In reality, this
protocol is an effort to normalize basic components of oxygen
delivery and oxygen uptake, said Dr. Shapiro.

or shock index. The investigators concluded that a majority of

critically ill patients require additional resuscitative therapy to
restore adequate systemic oxygenation after initial resuscitation
and hemodynamic stabilization in the emergency department.
They also concluded that ScvO2 and lactate levels can be used to
guide the additional therapy. Other studies have shown that
lactate clearance predicts outcome in septic patients. For example,
one study showed that a low lactate clearance rate predicted an
increased mortality risk in critically ill septic patients with normal
lactate levels [31]. Dr. Nguyen and colleagues reported that early
lactate clearance may reflect resolution of global tissue hypoxia
and correlates with a reduced mortality risk. Greater lactate
clearance within 6 hours of emergency department intervention
was associated with better outcomes compared to patients who
had lower clearance rates [32]. We found that if we can reduce
lactate in septic shock by 10% within 6 hours, survival is about
60%, said Dr. Nguyen. Those who do not decrease lactate by
more than 10% have a 20% survival, a 40% absolute difference.
The role of pH as a prognostic factor in critically ill patients has
been evaluated somewhat less extensively, but available data
suggest the parameter might be useful in patient monitoring.
Gastric mucosal pH was evaluated in 80 adult ICU patients, 54 of
whom had normal pH and 26 of whom had low pH values [33].
Patients with low gastric intramucosal pH had a significantly
higher mortality (p < 0.04) and higher rates of sepsis and
multisystem organ failure (p < 0.01). Moreover, patients with
persistently low gastric pH during the first 12 hours after
admission had a mortality of 86.7% compared to 26.8% for
patients with normal pH (p < 0.001).

Prevention of tissue hypoxia requires a three-prong strategy:

maintenance of an adequate preload and an adequate perfusion
pressure and matching oxygen delivery with consumption, which
involves maintaining cardiac output. CVP is used as a surrogate
for preload, but cardiac output is the true object of interest, said
Dr. Shapiro. Cardiac output is the product of heart rate and
stroke volume. Stroke volume consists of end diastolic volume
(EDV) and ejection fraction. EDV can be measured by CVP.
We ought to be asking why we are using CVP as a surrogate for
end-diastolic volume, stroke volume, and cardiac output when
there are now ways to measure cardiac output noninvasively, said
Dr. Shapiro. Fluid responsiveness offers a means to assess
preload and, ultimately, cardiac output. If the addition of a fluid
bolus increases cardiac output, the patient exhibits fluid
responsiveness. Continual administration of fluid until cardiac
output no longer responds has the effect of maximizing oxygen
delivery. CVP is problematic because it measures pressure and
not volume and depends on both fluid and compliance of the
heart. As the compliance of the heart varies, so will pressure
measurement but not volume measurement, said Dr. Shapiro.
CVP also poses a problem because the normal or ideal CVP is
unknown. Patients and their hearts vary, and hearts also differ in
various physiologic states. Finally, CVPs influence on cardiac
output, which comprises preload and contractility, is unclear.

Microcirculatory flow in the sublingual space has been evaluated

as a potential prognostic factor in several recent studies. Weil et
al. found that sublingual pCO2 increases as mean arterial pressure
and cardiac index decrease and as lactate level increases,
predicting increased risk for circulatory shock and mortality [34].
Sakr et al. also found that persistent alterations in sublingual
microcirculation are associated with organ failure and mortality in
septic patients. Conversely, increased microvascular perfusion was
associated with better outcomes [35]. Marik and Bankov reported
that sublingual microcirculation was a better predictor of
outcome than were lactate and venous oxygen saturation and was
more responsive to therapeutic interventions [36]. The available
evidence suggests that a combination of noninvasive approach
and assessment of tissue oxygenation might be the way to go in
terms of hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients, said
Dr. Nguyen.

The Use of the Starling Curve and Cardiac Output to Guide

Resuscitation
Shock represents a loss of homeostasis and more specifically an
imbalance between oxygen delivery and oxygen consumption. A

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

development and implementation of noninvasive approaches to

perform hemodynamic monitoring. In the United States,
malpractice has affected transport volume and the acuity of
transferred patients, said Robert Sherwin, MD, assistant professor
of emergency medicine at Wayne State University in Detroit. In
particular, malpractice has led to increased concentration and
regionalization of medical specialists. For example, in
Philadelphia and the four-county surrounding area, the number
of hospitals offering neurosurgical care has decreased from 12 to
two, although the total number of neurosurgeons in the area has
not changed. The number of hospitals with hand surgeons has
declined from seven to two. Emergency departments with on-call
orthopedic surgeons have dwindled from 18 to five, and only
four EDs have on-call plastic/oral surgeons, down from 12.

Some patients have increased contractility, so, for a given

preload, they will have a higher stroke volume or cardiac output,
said Dr. Shapiro. Others will have low contractility, and at the
same preload, they will have a different stroke volume and cardiac
output. If we take just one static measurement, were not going to
know where we are in terms of stroke volume or cardiac output.
Well just know where we are in preload. This variability really
presents a challenge.
Michard and Teboul reviewed published, peer-reviewed studies
investigating predictive factors for fluid responsiveness in ICU
patients [37]. They identified 12 studies that evaluated both static and
dynamic parameters of cardiac preload. Dynamic parameters (such
as inspiratory decrease in right atrial pressure) predicted fluid
responsiveness with high positive and negative predictive values. In
contrast, static parameters (such as right atrial pressure and
pulmonary artery occlusion pressure) did not discriminate between
responders and nonresponders. Evaluation of CVP yielded
inconsistent results, as some studies showed CVP discriminated
between responders and nonresponders but other studies did not.
CVP has demonstrated a similar lack of prognostic value in other
studies. Kumar et al. found no correlation between CVP and stroke
volume index (SVI) or between change in CVP and change in SVI
in healthy volunteers [2]. Brock et al. also found no correlation
between CVP and SVI or cardiac index in hypovolemic postcardiac surgery patients [38].

Technological improvements will continue to swell the population

of patients who are technology dependent, such as those
requiring cardiac balloon pumps, ventricular assist devices, and
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Moreover, procedures
once considered high risk and performed only at tertiary care
centers increasingly are being done at satellite centers and
community hospitals that formerly could not support the
interventions. Complications of those procedures have
contributed to the increased volume of interfacility transfers and
the increased acuity of transferred patients, said Dr. Sherwin. The
growing need for noninvasive monitoring in interfacility transport
and prehospital settings has not been matched by the volume of
research in the area. There is a paucity of research and literature
on noninvasive monitoring of prehospital patients or interfacility
transfers, said Dr. Sherwin. We need more research, especially
more outcome-based research.

The ultrasonic cardiac output monitor (USCOM) was compared

with the Swan-Ganz catheter for measurement of cardiac output
in 36 patients undergoing coronary revascularization [39]. The
comparison showed that cardiac output and stroke volume
assessed by USCOM correlated well with the invasive measures
and with central venous saturation percentage. The authors
concluded that the USCOM devices makes it possible to
determine noninvasively beat-to-beat cardiac output in
postcardiac surgery patients without the possible complications
associated with invasive right-heart catheterization. As
mentioned above, esophageal Doppler monitoring (EDM) was
associated with fewer complications and a briefer hospital stay
compared to conventional hemodynamic management [22]. In the
next few years, I think we will see a lot of ways to go about
monitoring hemodynamic status in critically ill patients, said
Dr. Shapiro. Noninvasive measurement of cardiac output is
going to happen. It is clear that technology will solve the
problems. The question is whether we will be ready to implement
this in our practices. It is important to start thinking about the
concept of noninvasive monitoring so that we can start to
incorporate it into practice, because it is the wave of the future.

The need for noninvasive monitoring techniques was illustrated

in a recent evaluation of hemodynamic management of patients
undergoing interfacility transport for suspected acute aortic
dissection [40]. The study showed that pretransport hemodynamic
therapy was frequently omitted and when administered was often
inadequate. Another study evaluated potential adverse effects
associated with interfacility transfer [41]. The study involved 3,298
patients who were hospitalized for chest pain or related
complaints after transfer from the emergency department at a
different facility. The analysis found no evidence that interfacility
transfer increases the risk of mortality, duration of hospital stay,
or hospital readmission. Noninvasive monitoring techniques
currently being investigated include radial artery tonometry
(RAT), bispectral index (BIS), transcutaneous oxygen tension
(TOT), and impedance cardiography (ICG). Available data for
each of the techniques is too limited to draw any conclusions at
this point.

Noninvasive Pre-Hospital and Inter-Facility Monitoring

RAT continuously monitors blood pressure by means of a

transducer attached to the skin just above the radial artery. A
preliminary clinical evaluation compared RAT with invasive
monitoring in 22 high-risk surgical patients [42]. The noninvasive

An increasing volume of inter-facility transport and changing

clinical characteristics of transported patients will fuel

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

technique exhibited poor correlation with invasive monitoring for

systolic, diastolic, and mean pressure. The investigators concluded
that RAT offers a reliable trend indicator of pressure changes
during anesthesia induction and might be considered an
alternative to invasive pressure measurement. However, the
accuracy of absolute RAT values was moderate and
unpredictable. Additionally, about 20% of the RAT readings were
unacceptable and could not be used in the data analysis, said
Dr. Sherwin. A more recent study evaluated the feasibility of
RAT for continuous out-of-hospital blood pressure monitoring
[43]
. The study involved 29 patients transported by airplane,
helicopter, or ground vehicle, and RAT was compared with
conventional oscillometric cuff methods. A total of 139 paired
assessments of mean arterial pressure were available for
comparison. RAT demonstrated good correlation with
oscillometric measurement across the range of mean arterial
pressures (42 to 163 mm Hg). RATs performance did not appear
to be adversely affected by the out-of-hospital setting. However,
no outcome data were collected from the study.

Transcutaneous oxygen tension is a surrogate for tissue

perfusion, said Dr. Sherwin. It is based on the concept that
tissue tends to lose perfusion first in the skin and gut, and this is
where it is picked up first. To date no significant literature on
ICG in the prehospital setting has developed. Multiple studies
have correlated its use with thermodilution. In general, the
studies have shown poor correlation for ejection fraction but
better correlation with thermodilution for cardiac index, said
Dr. Sherwin.
Temple University in Philadelphia has an ongoing study to
evaluate the ultrasonic cardiac output monitor (USCOM) for
hemodynamic monitoring of adult patients who require
interfacility transport and who are receiving or require
intravenous vasoactive agents. Outcomes include the
hemodynamic effects of ventilation profile and medication
adjustments, length of hospital stay, and length of ICU stay. The
study also includes a survey of practitioners to determine their
confidence in optimizing hemodynamic profiles. Thus far, the
study has produced some notable cases, said Dr. Sherwin. In a
patient with sepsis, noninvasive cardiac output monitoring had a
favorable effect on patient safety and use of existing vasoactive
agents and helped prevent cardiac collapse. In a patient with
pulmonary edema, noninvasive monitoring allowed aggressive
management of afterload reduction and helped the patient avoid
mechanical ventilation. Finally, a patient with chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and multisystem organ failure benefited from
monitoring to determine the optimal positive end-expiratory
pressure and guide administration of intravenous boluses.

BIS is a sedation monitor that is used extensively and has a large

body of anesthesia literature to validate it, said Dr. Sherwin. A
feasibility study showed that BIS can be used to monitor patients
being transported by helicopter [44]. There are data to show that
when you use something like this in critically ill patients who are
being sedated you have fewer issues with hypertension, less
tachycardia, and less agitation, said Dr. Sherwin. During
transfer of patients who need a continuous airway, you want to
keep them down and have an objective score to shoot for.
Bispectral index monitoring is a reasonable alternative to
consider. A lot of study need to be done in the future to validate
the use, but I think the opportunity exists. TOT was
prospectively evaluated in 151 severely injured patients, who were
followed from arrival at the emergency department through
transport to the operating room and then to the ICU [45].
Comparison of measurements in survivors and nonsurvivors
revealed significantly greater cumulative deficits of cardiac index,
arterial hypoxemia, and tissue perfusion in nonsurvivors.

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

In conclusion, Dr. Sherwin reiterated the need for more

outcome-based research into noninvasive hemodynamic
monitoring for critically ill patients. Though largely untested in
the medical transport arena, noninvasive monitoring of
parameters such as cardiac output and systemic vascular
resistance has considerable potential for guiding therapy
adjustments during transport.

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

References
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24. Losey T, Nguyen HB, Corbett SW, et al. Inter-rater agreement of a noninvasive ultrasound cardiac output monitoring (USCOM) device in
emergency department patients. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;46:S18.
25. Davis JW, Shackford SR, Mackersie RC, Hoyt DB. Base deficit as a guide to
volume resuscitation. J Trauma. 1988;28:1464-1467.
26. Rutherford EJ, Morris JA Jr, Reed GW, Hall KS. Base deficit stratifies
mortality and determines therapy. J Trauma. 1992;33:417-423.
27. Mizock BA, Falk JL. Lactic acidosis in critical illness. Crit Care Med.
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28. Weil MH, Afifi AA. Experimental and clinical studies on lactate and pyruvate
as indicators of the severity of acute circulatory failure (shock). Circulation.
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29. Mizock BA. Lactic acidosis. Dis Mon. 1989;35:233-300.
30. Rady MY, Rivers EP, Nowak RM. Resuscitation of the critically ill in the ED:
responses of blood pressure, heart rate, shock index, central venous oxygen
saturation, and lactate. Am J Emerg Med. 1996;14:218-225.
31. Levraut J, Ichai C, Petit I, et al. Low exogenous lactate clearance as an early
predictor of mortality in normolactatemic critically ill septic patients. Crit
Care Med. 2003;31:705-710.
32. Nguyen HB, Rivers EP, Knoblich BP, et al. Early lactate clearance is
associated with improved outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit
Care Med. 2004;32:1637-1642.
33. Doglio GR, Pusajo JF, Egurrola MA, et al. Gastric mucosal pH as a
prognostic index of mortality in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med.
1991;19:1037-1040.
34. Weil MH, Nakagawa Y, Tang W, et al. Sublingual capnometry: a new
noninvasive measurement for diagnosis and quantitation of severity of
circulatory shock. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1225-1229.
35. Sakr Y, Dubois MJ, De Backer D, et al. Persistent microcirculatory alterations
are associated with organ failure and death in patients with septic shock. Crit
Care Med. 2004;32:1825-1831.
36. Marik PE, Bankov A. Sublingual capnometry versus traditional markers of
tissue oxygenation in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:818-822.
37. Michard F, Teboul JL. Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients: a
critical analysis of the evidence. Chest. 2002;121:2000-2008.
38. Brock H, Gabriel C, Bibl D, Necek S. Monitoring intravascular volumes for
postoperative volume therapy. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2002;19:288-294.
39. Knobloch K, Lichtenberg A, Winterhalter M, et al. Non-invasive cardiac
output determination by two-dimensional independent Doppler during and
after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;80:1479-1483.
40. Winsor G, Thomas SH, Biddinger PD, Wedel SK. Inadequate hemodynamic
management in patients undergoing interfacility transfer for suspected aortic
dissection. Am J Emerg Med. 2005;23:24-29.
41. Selevan JS, Fields WW, Chen W, et al. Critical care transport: outcome
evaluation after interfacility transfer and hospitalization. Ann Emerg Med.
1999;33:33-43.
42. Weiss BM, Spahn DR, Rahmig H, et al. Radial artery tonometry: moderately
accurate but unpredictable technique of continuous noninvasive arterial
pressure measurement. Br J Anaesth. 1996;76:405-411.
43. Thomas SH, Winsor G, Pang P, et al. Near-continuous noninvasive blood
pressure monitoring in the out-of-hospital setting. Prehosp Emerg Care.
2005;9:68-72.
44. Deschamp C, Carlton FB Jr, Phillips W, Norris D. The bispectral index
monitor: a new tool for air medical personnel. Air Med J. 2001;20:38-39.
45. Shoemaker WC, Wo CC, Chan L, et al. Outcome prediction of emergency
patients by noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring. Chest. 2001;120:528-537.

Connors AF Jr, et al. The effectiveness of right heart catheterization in the

initial care of critically ill patients. SUPPORT investigators. JAMA
1996;276:889897.
Kumar A, et al. Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure and central venous
pressure fail to predict ventricular filling volume, cardiac performance, or the
response to volume infusion in normal subjects. Crit Care Med
2004;32:691699.
Valtier B, et al. Noninvasive monitoring of cardiac output in critically ill
patients using transesophageal Doppler. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med
1998;158:7783.
Gan TJ, et al. Goal-directed intraoperative fluid administration reduces length
of hospital stay after major surgery. Anesthesiology 2002;97:820826.
Shoemaker WC, et al. Physiologic patterns in surviving and nonsurviving
shock patients. Use of sequential cardiorespiratory variables in defining
criteria for therapeutic goals and early warning of death. Arch Surg
1973;106:630636.
Shoemaker WC, et al. Prospective trial of supranormal values of survivors as
therapeutic goals in high-risk surgical patients. Chest 1988;94:11761186.
Bishop MH, et al. Prospective, randomized trial of survivor values of cardiac
index, oxygen delivery, and oxygen consumption as resuscitation endpoints in
severe trauma. J Trauma 1995;38:780787.
Velmahos GC, et al. Endpoints of resuscitation of critically injured patients:
Normal or supranormal? A prospective randomized trial. Ann Surg
2000;232:409418.
Rivers E, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis
and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001;345:13681377.
Hofer CK, et al. Stroke volume and pulse pressure variation for prediction of
fluid responsiveness in patients undergoing off-pump coronary artery bypass
grafting. Chest 2005;128:848854.
Reuter DA, et al. Stroke volume variations for assessment of cardiac
responsiveness to volume loading in mechanically ventilated patients after
cardiac surgery. Intensive Care Med 2002;28:392398.
Wiesenack C, et al. Stroke volume variation as an indicator of fluid
responsiveness using pulse contour analysis in mechanically ventilated
patients. Anesth Analg 2003;96:12541257.
McGee S, et al. The rational clinical examination. Is this patient hypovolemic?
JAMA 1999;281:10221029.
Cohn JN. Blood pressure measurement in shock. Mechanism of inaccuracy
in asculatory and palpatory methods. JAMA 1967;199:118122.
Rackow EC, Astiz ME. Pathophysiology and treatment of septic shock.
JAMA 1991;266:548554.
Wo CC, et al. Unreliability of blood pressure and heart rate to evaluate
cardiac output in emergency resuscitation and critical illness. Crit Care Med
1993;21:218223.
Rady MY, et al. A comparison of the shock index and conventional vital signs
to identify acute, critical illness in the emergency department. Ann Emerg
Med 1994;24:685690.
ConnOrs AF Jr, et al. Evaluation of right-heart catheterization in the
critically ill patient without acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med
1983;308:263267, 377.
Eisenberg PR, et al. Clinical evaluation compared to pulmonary artery
catheterization in the hemodynamic assessment of critically ill patients. Crit
Care Med 1984;12:549553.
Cook DJ. Clinical assessment of central venous pressure in the critically ill.
Am J Med Sci 1990;299:175178.
Urrunaga J, et al. Hemodynamic evaluation of the critically ill in the
emergency department: a comparison of clinical impression versus
transesophageal doppler measurement. Crit Car Med 1999;27(suppl.):A89
(Abstr. 232).
McKendry M, McGloin H, Saberi D, et al. Randomised controlled trial
assessing the impact of a nurse delivered, flow monitored protocol for
optimisation of circulatory status after cardiac surgery. BMJ. 2004;329:258.

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

10

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

Continuing Education Post-Test

Continuing Education questions for
Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department, Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making
Please choose the best answer for each question below, and shade the corresponding oval on the answer sheet at the end of the test.

Lecture 1: Hemodynamic Training in the Management of

Sepsis

Lecture 2: Hemodynamic Monitoring in the Emergency

Department

1) In addition to preload, the force of cardiac contraction is

dependent upon ____________ and ____________?
a) Dromotropy and inotropy
b) Dromotropy and afterload
c) Afterload and inotropy

6) Which of the following physical findings, according to

McGee et al. (JAMA, 1999) has the greatest sensitivity and
specificity (respectively) for identification of hypovolemia?
a) Postural hypotension, skin/mucous membranes
b) Mental status, capillary refill
c) Skin/mucous membranes, capillary refill
d) Skin/mucous membranes, postural hypotension
e) Capillary refill,, mental status

2) Which of the following statements regarding central

venous oximetry (ScvO2) is INCORRECT?
a) A normal ScvO2 is a 70-75 %
b) Hypothermia can result in elevation of the ScvO2
c) Lactic acidosis occurs when there is an imbalance between
oxygen delivery (DO2 and oxygen consumption (VO2)
d) Falling of the ScvO2 occurs in the delivery independent
portion of metabolism
e) Hypoxia can result in lowering of the ScvO2

7) Use of the central venous pressure monitor is useful in

guiding intravenous fluid requirements. Which of the
following conditions may result in an overestimation of
CVP?
a) Tricuspid valve stenosis
b) Right ventricular failure
c) Constrictive pericarditis
d) All of the above
e) None of the above

3) True or false, in the 1996 JAMA article by Connors et al.

use of the pulmonary artery catheter was associated poorer
survival rates at 30, 60 and 180 days compared to matched
pairs managed without a pulmonary artery catheter?
a) True
b) False

8) Which of the following pairs most accurately represents

the response of stroke volume following an intravenous
fluid
challenge?
a) 0%  hypovolemia
b) < 10%  euvolemia
c) > 10%  hypovolemia
d) a, b and c
e) b and c

4) Which of the following measurements according to the

findings reported by Kumar et al. (CCM, 2004) has the
greatest correlation with right ventricular end diastolic
volume indices (RVEDVI)?
a) Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP)
b) Central venous pressure (CVP)
c) Stroke volume index (SVI)

9) True or false, the rate of lactate clearance is not associated with survival amongst septic patients?
a) True
b) False

5) Cardiac output measured by the ultrasound cardiac

output monitor (USCOM) utilizes _______ Doppler
ultrasound intimated across the __________.
a) Pulse Wave, aortic valve
b) Continuous Wave, aortic valve
c) Continuous Wave, descending aorta
d) Pulse Wave, aortic arch
e) none of the above

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

10) Which of the following methodologies is best utilized to

monitor microcirculatory flow?
a) Lactate
b) Base deficit
c) Esophageal Doppler Monitor
d) Sublingual PCO2
e) Central venous oximetry (ScvO2)

11

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

Lecture 3: Use of the Startling Curve and Cardiac Output to

Guide Resuscitation

Lecture 4: Noninvasive Prehospital and Interfacility

Monitoring

11) Which of the following parameters is not necessary for

calculation of oxygen delivery (DO2)?
a) Hemoglobin
b) Arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2)
c) Stroke volume
d) Oxygen extraction ratio (O2ER)
e) Heart rate

16) True or false, the volume of interfacility transports is

growing each year?
a) True
b) False
17) Which of the following is NOT affecting the frequency
of interfacility transports?
a) Increased regionality (i.e. trauma centers)
b) The presence of evidence based outcome research on interfacility transports
c) Consolidation of sub-specialties (i.e. neurosurgeons, orthopedic surgeons, etc.) within a metropolitan area
d) Worsening medical malpractice climate
e) Regionalized quaternary care (i.e. ECMO, balloon pumps, etc.)

12) According to the early goal directed therapy (EGDT)

protocol, which of the following is not a recognized endpoint?
a) Central venous pressure (CVP) = 812 mm Hg
b) Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = 6590 mm Hg
c) Cardiac output (CO) > 5 L/min
d) Central venous oximetry (ScvO2) <70%
e) Hematocrit >30%

18) Which of the following noninvasive devices has been

applied in the prehospital/interfacility transports setting?
a) Bispectral index monitoring (BIS)
b) Radial artery tonometry
c) Impedance cardiography (ICG)
d) Ultrasound cardiac output monitor (USCOM)
e) Ventricular assist devices

13) According to Starling forces, given a fixed preload and

afterload, increases in contractility will result in __________
stroke volume?
a) Increased
b) Decreased
c) No change

19) True or false, there is a wealth of research supporting

the use of noninvasive monitoring devices in the interfacility transports arena?
a) True
b) False

14) According to Starling forces, stroke volume changes

>10% in response to a 200 ML intravenous fluid bolus would
indicate the state of ?
a) Hypervolemia
b) Hypovolemia
c) Euvolemia
15) According to the data presented by Kumar et al. (CCM,
2004) choose the most appropriate correlation coefficient
between central venous pressure (CVP) and stroke volume
index (SVI).
a) 0.10 0.15
b) 0.20 0.25
c) 0.30 0.35
d) 0.40 0.45
e) 0.50 0.55

Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

12

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

Notes
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Hemodynamic Assessment in the Emergency Department

13

Tools and Information for Clinical Decision Making

CME Post-Test
Directions
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For CME credit, please detach this Examination Answer Sheet/Registration Information/CME Evaluation Form,
fill it out, sign it, and mail it in the envelope provided to the following address:
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The Albert J. Finestone, M.D.
Office for Continuing Medical Education
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