Perception, 1978, volume 7, pages 21 -46

Op art and visual perception

Nicholas J Wade
Department of Psychology, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, Scotland
Received 17 March 1977; in revised form 11 August 1977

Abstract. An attempt is made to list the visual phenomena exploited in op art. These include
moire fringes, afterimages, Hermann grid effects, Gestalt grouping principles, blurring and movement
due to astigmatic fluctuations in accommodation, scintillation and streaming possibly due to eye
movements, and visual persistence. The historical origins of these phenomena are also noted.

1 Introduction
Op art is an extension of geometrical abstraction aimed at producing some striking
visual impact on the observer. The term was coined by a Time reporter in 1964 as
an abbreviation for Optical Art, because it was considered to rely on the optical
characteristics of the eye. Indeed, the first exhibition of op art, held in the Museum
of Modern Art in New York, was entitled "The Responsive Eye" (see Seitz 1965).
In recent years examples of op art have been used increasingly in textbooks on
perception (e.g. Davidoff 1975; Gregory 1970; Lindsay and Norman 1972; Massaro
1975; Robinson 1972), but rarely do we find explanations of how the paintings
produce the effects that they do. The best attempt at this can be found in Massaro's
book, otherwise the interpretations of the visual bases of op art have been left to
nonpsychologists (e.g. Barrett 1970, 1971; Carraher and Thurston 1966; Lucie-Smith
1969; Oster 1965; Parola 1969; Popper 1968; Tovey 1971; Walker 1975).
In this paper I shall try to list the main visual effects exploited in op art, and to
note briefly their historical origins. The discussion will be confined almost entirely
to examples of achromatic op art, because the effects are generally more striking with
high-contrast black and white patterns. This is not to deny that many op paintings
are in colour, but they tend to exploit one phenomenonsimultaneous colour
contrastin addition to those effects in common with the achromatic paintings.
Simultaneous colour contrast is a subtle phenomenon, and it could be argued that its
effects tend to be lost in combination with other achromatic phenomena which are
anything but subtle.
2 Moire* patterns

When two periodic patterns are superimposed, slightly out of alignment, a new
configuration emerges that is determined by the intersections of the component
patterns. This is called a moire pattern (after moire or watered silk, which has a
pronounced parallel weave) and an example of one is shown in figure 1. Here two
gratings are inclined relative to one another, but the dominant impression is of the
parallel moire interference fringes due to the regions of minimal overlap of the
gratings.
It is obvious from the name alone that moire patterns have long been observed, but
they have also proved to be of interest to physicists over the last century. For
example, Lord Rayleigh (1874) noted the moire fringes that were produced when
photographic negatives of finely ruled gratings were overlaid, and he went on to
describe them mathematically: the distance between the moire fringes can be
calculated from the relative inclination of the gratings and the spacing of the lines.

22

Figure 1. Moire fringes produced by the overlap of two gratings.

Figure 2. Ludwig Wilding; Kinetic Structure; 1963; 86 cm x 66 cm. Owned by the artist.

N J Wade

Op art and visual perception

23

He also found that any imperfections in finely ruled gratings could be detected more
readily in the moire patterns they produced (see Guild 1956).
Examples of more complex moire patterns can be found in many textbooks of
optics (but see also Oster and Nishijima 1963) as well as in many art galleries. Moire
patterns have proved particularly potent in the works of a number of op artists. In
Ludwig Wilding's Kinetic Structure (figure 2) they are produced by systematically
changing the direction of the tilted lines relative to a vertically striped background
(see Barrett 1970; Seitz 1965 for other examples). While there is a wide range of
two dimensional moire patterns that can be produced they are basically static.
Dynamically changing moire patterns can be produced in two ways, either by separating
the patterns in space or by moving them relative to one another. In the first case,
the moire patterns change constantly with the movement of the observer. Such
effects are visible in many of Naum Gabo's constructions (see Newman 1976) and,
while it can not be illustrated with a static figure, a general impression can be gained
from Acceleration Number 19 by Yvaral (figure 3): a series of parallel perspex rods
are in front of a white wire design (which is itself in relief) against a black background.
The second method, involving relative movement of the periodic patterns, has
provided fascination for both scientists and artists. Roget (1825) illustrated the
patterns produced by the spokes of a carriage wheel passing vertical railings, and also
gave a mathematical description of the curves so produced. A little later Faraday (1831)
was similarly struck by such patterns, as well as by those generated by moving
gratings and by superimposed, rotating spokes of coach wheels. A similar technique
has been used most ingeniously by Victor Vasarely with his series of Transparencies
(Vasarely 1965): the transparencies (which are not always of the same pattern) are
superimposed and then one is moved relative to the other, producing ever-changing
interference fringes. Since it is pointless trying to represent these dynamic effects
photographically and since it is easy to produce them by drawing a pattern on clear
paper and then copying it on some transparent surface, I have made Op Art (figure 4)

Figure 3. Yvaral; Acceleration Number 19; 1962; 61 cm x 62 cm x 8 cm. The Museum of

Modern Art, New York.

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N J Wade

ON

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Op art and visual perception

25

so that they can be observed by the reader: movement of the transparent overlay
relative to the printed pattern produces a variety of interesting moire patterns. As Oster
and Nishijima (1963) noted, the moire fringes move much more rapidly than does the
component pattern.
A number of op works that incorporate both of these methods has been produced by
Jesus-Raphael Soto. For example, in Cardenal (figure 5) metal rods are suspended at
different heights in front of a set of horizontal striations. The moire patterns so
produced change with the movement of the observer, but much more dramatic effects
are generated when the bars are set into slow periodic oscillations.

Figure 5. Jesus-Raphael Soto; Cardenal; 1965; 156 cm x 106 cm x 25 cm. The Tate Gallery,
London.
3 Afterimages
Some op paintings exploit the occurrence of afterimages produced by viewing highcontrast black and white patterns. One of the best examples of this is White Discs I
by Bridget Riley (figure 6). If one looks at the pattern for some time, a configuration
of white discs will be superimposed suddenly and briefly on the background. The white
discs have the same configuration as the black discs and are negative afterimages. The
occurrence of negative afterimages has been known for centuries (see Plateau 1878),
but the first clear explanation of their basis was provided by, Robert Darwin (the son
of Erasmus and father of Charles) in a paper presented to the Royal Society in 1786.
In fact the pattern he used was very similar to that of White Discs I: "Make with ink
on white paper a very black spot, about half an inch in diameter, with a tail almost
an inch in length, so as to represent a tadpole; look steadily for a minute on this

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N J Wade

spot, and, on moving the eye a little, the figure of the tadpole will be seen on the
white part of the paper, which figure of the tadpole will appear whiter or more
luminous than the other parts of the white paper; for the part of the retina on
which the tadpole was delineated, is now more sensitive to light than the other parts
of it, which were exposed to the white paper" (Darwin 1786, p 321). The advantage
of prolonged fixation is that the differential adaptation is increased, so the afterimage
lasts longer. Without such prolonged fixation the afterimages are transient. It is of
interest to try to prevent the white discs from appearing during observation: even
when attempts are made to maintain steady fixation on one of the black discs the
afterimage is likely to appear after either a large enough involuntary eye movement or a
blink, both of which move the eye (see Verheijen 1961 for a similar demonstration).

Figure 6. Bridget Riley; White Discs I; 1964; 132 cm x 132 cm. Collection Michael Findlay,
New York; courtesy of the artist.
4 Hermann grid
When John Tyndall committed to book form his eight lectures on sound, given to the
Royal Institution in 1867, he was unaware that it would make a contribution to the
study of vision. One of the illustrations consisted of forty Chladni figures presented
in a 5 x 8 matrix of black squares on a white ground (figure 7). On reading the
German translation of the book (Tyndall 1869) Hermann (1870) reported a peculiar
visual effect when he looked at the figure: dark grey dots appeared at all the
intersections other than that fixated, an effect he attributed to simultaneous contrast.
This is now referred to as the Hermann grid, and its complementseeing light grey
dots at the intersections of white squares on blackwas described by Hering (1964).
More recently it has been suggested that the grey dots are a consequence of the receptive
field organization at the retinal ganglion level (Baumgartner 1960; Jung 1973; Jung and
Spillman 1970). If the human visual system is constructed in a manner similar to
that for cat and monkey, then such cells would have concentric receptive fields with
either on-centres or off-centres and antagonistic surrounds. Thus, an on-centre cell
stimulated by a white intersection would be inhibited by four arms whereas one
falling between intersections would be inhibited by two arms only, and the latter
would give a greater signal (see figure 8). Dots would not appear at the point of
fixation because the receptive fields in the central fovea would be very small (Jung

Op art and visual perception

27

and Spillmann 1970) or the foveal cones would have 'private lines' to the cortex
(Lindsay and Norman 1972).

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Figure 7. The matrix of Chladni figures in which Hermann first observed the dark dots at the
nonfixated intersections (figure 65 Tyndall's Sound).

Figure 8. The possible influence of black and white areas upon the activity of on-centre
receptive fields; greater inhibition would be operating on those stimulated at the intersections
relative to their neighbours (after Jung and Spillmann 1970).

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N J Wade

Figure 9. Victor Vasarely; Supernovae; 1959-1961; 242 cm x 152 cm. The Tate Gallery,
London; courtesy of the artist.

Op art and visual perception

29

The grey spots diminish in intensity with steady fixation and they are not apparent
in an afterimage of the pattern. This last observation can be made readily by fixating
some part of the pattern (like the thin diagonal cross near the centre of figure 7) for
about 1 min and then viewing a plain white sheet of paper.
Many of Vasarely's paintings consist of matrices of black and white squares, which
lead to Hermann grid effects (see Blakemore 1973). In Supernovae (figure 9) the
dark grey dots add to the vibrancy of the overall pattern, giving it an ethereal quality.
Eridan-III (figure 10), also by Vasarely, employs black and white squares on
complementary backgrounds so that both the light and dark grey dots can be seen.

Up

Figure 10. Victor Vasarely; Eridan-ffl; 1956; 195 cm x 130 cm. Galerie Denise Rene, Paris;
courtesy of the artist.
5 Gestalt grouping principles

It is possible that the Hermann grid effects in Eridan -III were incidental to other
perceptual principles which Vasarely was manipulating. The painting consists of a
matrix of black and white squares, the orientations of which are systematically
varied in some regions. This results in the squares being perceived in groups
according to their similarity of orientation. Hence, some of the Gestalt principles of
perceptual grouping are in operationhere grouping according to similarity; the
proximity principle is operating in some directions but not in others. The grouping
principles were proposed by Wertheimer (1923), and they describe the way in which
elements of a larger pattern are combined according to their similarity, proximity,

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N J Wade

symmetry or continuity, or their tendency to make a good (i.e. geometrically simple)

figure (see Attneave 1954; Hochberg 1974, for critical reviews of these concepts).

3333333^^^^^333^^
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Figure 11. Bridget Riley; Straight Curve; 1963; 71 cm x 62 cm. Private Collection, England;
courtesy of the artist.

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Figure 12. Bridget Riley; Fission; 1962; 87 cm x 89 cm. The Museum of Modern Art, New York;
courtesy of the artist.

Op art and visual perception

These principles are evident in many of the paintings by Victor Vasarely and
Bridget Riley. For instance, Riley's aptly titled Straight Curve (figure 11) provides,
to my mind, one of the best examples of the principle of good continuation; since
the painting is made up of black triangles of varying height and base, the apparent
curvature is induced by the continuation along their hypotenuses. It is certainly
more compelling than the drawings that have been adduced to demonstrate it in
texts on perception (e.g. Koffka 1935; Kohler 1929).
Straight Curve also gives the impression of a curved surface receding in depth.
This technique of grouping elements that are systematically varied along some
dimensions to suggest a perspective transformation (see Gibson 1950) has been used
to great effect by Riley. This is shown clearly in Fission (figure 12) which consists
of circles transformed into ellipses with decreasing then increasing minor axes,
invoking a receding then approaching surface. The slight discontinuity of the similar
elements near the centre of the pattern suggests a fissure in this surface.
6 Distortions and movement
The op paintings that have attracted the most attention are those which generate
some spatial distortion, often associated with the subjective impression of movement

31

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N J Wade

within the pattern. Two good examples of this category are Bridget Riley's Current
(figure 13) and Reginald Neal's Square of Three (figure 14). In Current there is
considerable activity around the central curves, so that the clarity of the contours
varies and a wave-like movement is evident. In Square of Three the clarity of the
lines again varies, but the 'squares' appear to pulsate rather than displaying a gradual
motion. It will probably be noticed that the pulsation is strongest in the periphery
of the visual field and occurs hardly at all around the fixation point. Several visual
effects seem to be involved when these paintings are viewed, which probably account
for their particular success. All the paintings in this category have certain features in
common, namely, many closely spaced contours in a variety of orientations.

6.1 Blurring and movement

The blurring of the contours evident in the last two paintings is also visible in a more
regular pattern, like concentric circles (figure 15). During observation of the circles
radiating spokes become visible and they appear to rotate. The phenomenon was
described initially by Purkinje (1823, 1825) and later in more detail by Helmholtz
(1856).

Op art and visual perception

33

When apparent movement is observed in a physically stationary pattern the first

step is to determine whether it can be attributed to any movement of the observer.
One obvious candidate for such examination is movement of the eyes. It is known
that the eyes are undergoing constant involuntary movements, even during attempts
to maintain steady fixation (see Ditchburn 1973). There are a high-frequency tremor,
slow drifts, and saccades or flicks. It is possible that the saccades are involved in the
blurring and subjective-movement effects: rapid movement of the eye relative to the
patterns would blur those contours perpendicular to the direction of motion but not
those lying in the same direction as the eye movements. An analogue to this can be
demonstrated by moving the patterns relative to the eye: if the concentric circles
are moved vertically up and down, two clear horizontal fans (comprised of near
vertical arcs) are seen, with the rest of the pattern slightly blurred. Movement
horizontally has the reverse effect, while circular movement results in rotating fans
rather like revolving propellers.
The saccades could blur the contours during movement, or they could displace a
persisting image of the pattern relative to that presently available; this would produce
moire effects, which would be very similar to the distortions described above. Indeed,
this was essentially the interpretation suggested initially by Purkinje (1823), but he
rejected it because the blurring effect was visible directly upon viewing the concentric
circles.
The alternative Purkinje preferred was that variation in accommodation was
involved in the blurring, but it was Helmholtz (1856) who presented a more complete
account by attributing the rotating sectors in concentric circles to some asymmetry of
the eye (astigmatism), which varied with accommodation. The evidence clearly
favours Helmholtz's interpretation over that relating the effects to eye movements.
Firstly, detailed measurements of lens curvature during fixation have shown it is
undergoing constant small fluctuations which are not uniform over its surface (Arnulf
and Dupuy 1960; Campbell et al 1959). Moveover, the axis of this transient
astigmatism itself fluctuates, so that the same mechanism could account for both the
blurring and the apparent movement. Secondly, factors which reduce the astigmatic
fluctuations in lens curvature also reduce the magnitude and frequency of the perceptual
effects. The astigmatic fluctuations increase with increasing accommodation, as do the
blurring movements (Millodot 1968); at optical infinity the distortions virtually

Figure 15. Concentric circles which yield the revolving propellor effect owing to transient
astigmation.

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N J Wade

disappear (Campbell and Robson 1958). Immobilizing the ciliary muscles with
cycloplegics reduces or abolishes the effect (Kupin et al 1973; Millodot 1968).
Thirdly, tests made on a subject who had one aphakic and one normal eye (though
he wore contact lenses on both eyes to equalize acuity) indicated that a concentric
circular pattern appeared stable when viewed with the aphakic eye, but appeared
distorted and moving when seen by the normal eye (Millodot 1968).
Additional evidence supporting the accommodation hypothesis is that the time
course of the distortions corresponds more closely to that of lens curvature fluctuations
than to the saccadic eye movements (Campbell and Robson 1958; Millodot 1968). It
also resolves the apparent paradox that the patterns do appear distorted when viewed
as optically stabilized images (Pritchard 1958) but are undistorted when viewed as
prolonged afterimages (Evans and Marsden 1966). Contact lens devices provide optical
stabilization relative to the eyeball alone, and variations in lens curvature can result in
retinal image changes. Afterimages, on the other hand, are generated by a brief and
intense bleaching of the!photochemical pigments in the retinal receptors, and
fluctuations in both accommodation and eye movement are bypassed.
In a sense the paintings in this category exemplify the most specifically optical op
art, as the optical pattern is distorted before it reaches the retina which, presumably,
transmits this information faithfully to more central sites. The astigmatic variations
in accommodation are small, so that a high density of contours is required for the
blurring and movement to be apparent. This is most evident in Currentthe
relatively thicker lines, representing the near vertical bulges in the waves, remain
relatively stable, with the blurring and the movement being confined to the narrower
and more closely spaced lines.
6.2 Scintillation and movement
Not all the effects observed in figures 13-15 can be attributed to the small astigmatic
fluctuations in accommodation. If the patterns are fixated steadily for about
30-60 s, scintillating dots will appear superimposed on the contours, moving either
perpendicularly to them or diagonally in zigzags. When the patterns are viewed with
one eye the scintillations are often accompanied by the disappearance of the contours
so that the dots seem to be shimmering in a dark cloud. Descriptions of this effect
have a long history, being reported by Purkinje (1823) and Brewster (1825), both of
whom observed it accidentally in engravings consisting of fine parallel lines, and more
recently by MacKay (1957). The scintillations are unlikely to be due to transient
astigmatism, as they occur when the ciliary muscles are immobilized (MacKay 1958)
and also with gratings comprised of lines in one orientation. Thus, fixation on the
central dot in figure 16 should result in the appearance of scintillating or streaming
dots moving across it. A variety of interpretations have been proposed for this effect
(see Wade 1977b). For example, MacKay (1957) suggested that the regularity of the
contours led to satiation of direction detectors in the visual system. An alternative
interpretation is that the scintillations result from involuntary eye movements which
constantly displace the borders of the contours over the receptors; this temporal
modulation of the receptor activity could stimulate cells within the visual system that
have a transient response (Wade 1977b). Similar scintillating patterns are visible when
the eye is illuminated intermittently by a large spatially homogeneous field (Purkinje
1823; Smythies 1957).
It is evident that prolonged observation of these patterns can produce some mildly
disturbing effects. One critic has depicted op paintings as assaulting the retina (see
Oster 1965). Indeed, it is of interest to note the similarities between the scintillations
produced by these patterns and the visual consequences of ophthalmic migraine
attacks. The latter tend to involve an expanding area of blindness within which there

Op art and visual perception

35

is much scintillation and the borders are usually defined by zigzag lines that are
frequently likened to fortifications (see Airy 1870; Richards 1971). Wheatstone
described one of his own attacks as an area of total blindness which was
"accompanied by an effect like the motion of a luminous liquid" and it was
bordered by "zig-zag luminous lines" (cited by Airy 1870, p 253). The basis for
the progressive cortical disturbance in ophthalmic migraine is not understood, but
Richards (1971) has proposed that the fortifications reflect the pattern of neuronal
organization in the visual cortex. The fact that there are two clearly distinguishable
visual effectsthe scintillations and the fortificationsmight be a consequence of
the differential disturbance of the transient and sustained representations in the
visual cortex (see Wright and Ikeda 1974).

Figure 16. Fixate the central dot of the grating and after about 30 s scintillating dots will probably
appear to move across the contours.
6.2.1 Streaming aftereffects. The patterns that produce scintillations during
prolonged observation yield scintillating or streaming aftereffects when the eyes are
subsequently closed or view a homogeneous surface. The streaming motion is
generally perpendicular to the contours of the original pattern, but it also occurs in
directions diagonal to them (Georgeson 1976a, 1976b; MacKay 1957; Pierce 1901;
Purkinje 1823). For example, after one looks at the centre of the circular pattern
(figure 15) for about 30 s and then closes one's eyes a rapid radial streaming of
diffuse dots will be apparent; mainly horizontal streaming will follow fixation of the
vertical grating pattern (figure 16).
Georgeson (1976a, 1976b) has suggested that the aftereffect is due to inhibitory
interactions between the sustained and transient neural systems, but it might reflect
the visual consequences of adapting the transient neural system during prolonged
viewing (Wade 1977b).
6.2.2 Line distortions
Viewing the line patterns to see the scintillations and aftereffects probably results in
other line distortions: straight lines become wavy and oscillating, and curved lines
seem to change their curvature. For example, fixation of the centre of the grating
(figure 16) will probably lead to the lines losing their straightness after 10-15 s
and then undulating somewhat. This effect, which was described by Purkinje (1823),
cannot be ascribed either to astigmatic variations in lens curvature or to involuntary
eye movements as it remains visible when the ciliary muscles are immobilized, and

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N J Wade

when the patterns are viewed as afterimages (Schilder 1912). The basis for these line
distortions and movements remains obscure (see Wade 1977b).
6.3 Subjective colours
Yet another phenomenon that will probably have been noticed while viewing these
figures is that of subjective colours: the scintillating dots sometimes appear coloured,
predominantly in unsaturated tints of yellow, green and blue, and this is associated
most particularly with the zigzag scintillations inclined to the contours. The subjective
colours were first seen in patterns of parallel lines, although they have been examined
most thoroughly with rotating patterns. Brewster (1825) first reported seeing the
effect when looking at a map which represented the sea as fine horizontal lines. He
ascribed the colours to the retinal image movement produced by the instability of the
eye, and his interpretation has received general support (Erb and Dallenbach 1939).
Brewster (1834) also investigated the subjective colours produced by rotating patterns,
which were rediscovered later by Fechner (1838), Benham (1894), and many others
(see Cohen and Gordon 1949; Erb and Dallenbach 1939; Wade 1977a). The
subjective colours produced by both stationary and moving patterns seem to be due
to temporal modulation of the input, as a consequence of either involuntary eye
movements or stimulus movement.
This interpretation does not apply, however, to the colour effects, recently
reported by Stanley and Hoffman (1976), which can be seen in black and white
patterns consisting of lines in different orientations. Their figure had concentric
squares with vertical and horizontal sides, and most subjects reported that the
vertical white spaces appeared a desaturated reddish-pink with the horizontal spaces
looking pale green. That is, a particular colour was associated with a specific line
orientation. The reader can try to see this effect by observing Neal's Square of Three
(figure 14) rotated 45 deg so that the lines are vertical and horizontal: the pulsating
squares may appear in pastel reds and greens. Rotation of the head by 90 deg leads
to an equivalent shift of the colour effect, and Stanley and Hoffman reported that it
did not occur with the lines oriented diagonally. The dependence of these subjective
colours upon the orientation of the lines differentiates them from those mentioned
above. In Brewster-type subjective colours seen with stationary line patterns there
appears a scintillating pattern of dots of many colours, rather than uniform areas of
a particular tint. Moreover, the scintillating, coloured dots are not dependent upon
the orientation of the lines.
One possible interpretation of Stanley and Hoffman's effect is that it results from
regular astigmatism of the eye, rather than from the transient astigmatism mentioned
in section 6.1. Regular1 astigmatism, in which there is unequal refraction of light in
different meridians, generally results from irregularities in the curvature of the optical
surfaces of the eye (Duke-Elder 1970; Young 1801). Indeed, a pattern essentially
similar to Stanley and Hoffman's was used by Verhoeff (1899) as a test for regular
astigmatism, as it is not possible to focus lines of orthogonal orientations in the
astigmatic eye (unless they are both inclined 45 deg to the axis of astigmatism).
Thus, with the concentric squares the contours in one orientation could be adequately
focused, while the orthogonal ones are blurred; the colour within the blurred part could
then be due to chromatic aberration, and that in the focused part could result from
simultaneous contrast with this. Some informal support for this speculation derives
from the disappearance of the colours when a 1 mm artificial pupil is used. Moreover, if
it is not possible to see the colours in the pattern (because of the absence of regular
astigmatism), these may be generated by viewing it through a cylindrical lens whose
axis is parallel to one of the line orientations; if colours can then be seen these can
be shifted to the orthogonal lines by rotating the lens through 90 deg.

Op art and visual perception

37

Thus regular astigmatism may lead to the appearance of colours in patterns that
consist of lines in several orientations, like figures 13, 14, and 15. Most people have
some slight regular astigmatism and this is associated most frequently with the vertical
and horizontal meridians (Duke-Elder 1970). Presumably, this is why the effect is
more pronounced when the contours are also vertical and horizontal rather than only
oblique.
7 Visual persistence
The investigation and manipulation of persisting visual images has an impeccable
pedigree in both science and art. Although it would seem to be a process admirably
suited to op artists it has been exploited but rarely by them. Marcel Duchamp and
Naum Gabo constructed optical-kinetic works in the 1920s, of which Rotary Glass
(figure 17) is an example: it consists of glass arms or propellers with black and
white arcs painted on them. The centres of the arms are attached to a motor, and when
this is rotated rapidly a set of concentric circles becomes visible. The circles are seen
because of the recurrent stimulation of the retina by the arcs; the effects of each
stimulation persist until the next one. The fact that the effect can be photographed
indicates that the exposure duration of the camera exceeded the time required for
rotation through 180 deg (as the glass arms are separated by 180 deg).
Duchamp's construction resembles Newton's demonstration for observing persisting
images. The sixteenth query in the second edition of Opticks states: "And when a
Coal of Fire moved nimbly in the circumference of a Circle, makes the whole

Figure 17. Marcel Duchamp; Rotary Glass; 1920, reconstruction 1961. Private collection. The
painted arms of glass are stationary on the left and rotating on the right.

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N J Wade

circumference appear like a Circle of Fire: Is it not because the Motions excited in
the bottom of the Eye by the Rays of Light are of a lasting nature, and continue till
the Coal of Fire in going round returns to its former place?" (Newton 1718, p 322).
Similarly Gabo's Kinetic Sculpture (see Compton 1974), which consists of a
vibrating wire that produces a standing wave, has its scientific precursors. Wheat stone
(1827) constructed a device, called a kaleidophone (after Brewster's kaleidoscope),
which rendered visible the paths described by light reflected from vibratings rods (1) :
"The entire track of each orbit is rendered simultaneously visible by causing it to be
delineated by a brilliantly luminous point, and the figure being completed in less
time than the duration of the visual impression, the whole orbit appears as a
continuous line of light" (Wheatstone 1827, p 345). Although Wheatstone suggested
that this could provide an accurate method for determining the duration of visual
persistence, he did not employ it to this end. Values for visual persistence that are
typically obtained are between about 100-250 ms, depending upon the experimental
conditions (see Airport 1970; Efron 1970).
Works of art that involve moving parts are generally classified as kinetic or optical kinetic, but the distinction between op art and kinetic art becomes very difficult to
sustain when they are considered in terms of the visual mechanisms underlying them.
For example, since the eyes are undergoing constant involuntary movements a
stationary pattern will yield a moving retinal image. Alternately, brief and intermittent
exposure of a moving pattern yields a sequence of stationary images that will appear to
move in a predictable manner. This last effect (which is the basis for the apparent
movement in films and television) can also be produced by stroboscope illumination
of a moving stimulus, and it has been used by Peter Sedgley with his videorotors
rotating discs covered with patterns of coloured fluorescent paints (see Barrett 1968;
1970).
When simple patterns, like gratings, are rotated and illuminated stroboscopically a
wide range of complex and symmetrical patterns can be seen, some of which are
shown in figure 18. The particular pattern that is visible depends upon the angular
velocity of the grating, the strobe frequency, and the duration of visual persistence.
The strobe frequency determines the number of exposures occurring within the
duration of visual persistence that appear simultaneous, and the angular velocity
determines the angular displacement between each exposure. Suppose, for example,
that the duration of visual persistence (for a given subject and viewing conditions) is
200 ms, the strobe frequency is 100 Hz, and the angular velocity is 5 rev s"1. The
grating would rotate 18 deg between each flash and twenty flashes would occur
within the 200 ms persistence duration, resulting in a pattern comprised of twenty
overlapping gratings each separated by 18 deg. Similar patterns can be produced by
simply drawing gratings that are displaced by a certain angle, as Francois Morellet has
done in his Screen Painting 0, 22-5, 45, 67-5(2) (figure 19). If the relationship
between the strobe frequency and angular velocity does not result in a recurrent
pattern of stimulation then apparent rotation will be evident, and under certain
combinations apparent rotations of adjacent parts of the pattern take place in
opposite directions. When a single eccentric line is rotated and strobed at different
frequencies the number of lines that are visible simultaneously can be used to
determine the duration of visual persistence (Wade 1974).
(^The method was devised originally by Thomas Young (1800), who attached some silvered wire
to a piano string and, using a microscope, observed the path of light reflected from it during
vibration. Wheatstone's method dispensed with the need for a microscope, but the illustrations of
the figures so produced were similar using both methods.
^This title, though seemingly precise, is not precise enough because the orientations of 90 deg,
112-5 deg, 135 deg, and 157-5 deg are also represented.

Op art and visual perception

39

To the best of my knowledge effects of this type (which I refer to as strop art!)
have not been examined by op artists, although they do seem to offer certain
advantages over most static displays as a wider range of patterns can be generated.
If the viewer can control the strobe frequency and angular velocity then different
patterns can be produced according to taste. Small variations in strobe frequency can
yield striking differences in the overlap patterns visible, but these can only be
appreciated adequately by assembling the equipment and producing them. Obviously
there are many variations that can be played on this theme: gratings can be mounted
eccentrically, patterns other than gratings can be used (but they should not be too
complex, and are better if some linear symmetry is maintained), and coloured lines
can be used instead of black and white ones. If artists were to exploit the temporal
properties of vision to the full then they would undoubtedly produce works of far
greater impact and interest than those examined in the perceptual laboratory.

Figure 18. The grating (top left) was rotated rapidly and illuminated stroboscopically at different
frequencies to produce the other patterns. The photographs were taken with ^ s exposure at
strobe frequencies of 50, 130, 180 and 195 Hz (working from the top left in a clockwise direction)
and the angular velocites were 0, 25, 25, and 35 rev s"1, respectively (photographer: Barry Gibson).

40

N J Wade

Figure 19. Francis Morellet; Screen Painting 0, 22-5, 45, 67-5; 1958; 140 cm x 140 cm.
Galerie Denise Rene, Paris; courtesy of the artist.
8 Additional effects
The phenomena described above probably account for most of the effects exploited
in op art. However, others are clearly present, though the extent to which they have
been systematically manipulated is not so readily apparent. For instance, subjective
contours can be seen in some of the paintings by Bridget Riley (see Opening, figure 20)
and by Victor Vasarely (Vasarely 1965); that is, a contour seems to be present in an
area that is physically homogeneous. In Opening the diamond shape seems to have a
continuous border, even though it is made up from segments of the sides. Other
examples can be found in Massaro (1975, p 179) and Carraher and Thurston (1966,
p 61). These subjective contours have attracted considerable interest of late (Coren
1972; Gregory 1972; Kanizsa 1955, 1976). Kanizsa (1976) has suggested that a
common feature of patterns that induce subjective contours is the presence of
incomplete elements that are completed according to the Gestalt organizing principles.
Thus the strength of a subjective contour may be related to the number of incomplete
elements providing information consistent with a continuous contour. The areas
bounded by the subjective contours appear to be of a different brightness to those
outside (although this difference disappears when the 'contour' is fixated), which
gives the impression of surfaces at different depths (Coren 1972).

41

Op art and visual perception

One colour effect that has been used in addition to simultaneous colour contrast is
the fluttering heart phenomenon. This was first reported by Wheatstone (1844), who
observed it in a carpet with a dominant red and green designthe coloured parts
appeared to be moving. He found that the effect occurred best with red and green,
and that dim lighting was necessary for its observation. According to Helmholtz
(1924) the effect was most pronounced with juxtaposed, saturated reds and blues; if
a card bearing red and blue figures was moved to and fro "the figures themselves
seem to shift their positions with respect to the paper, and dance about on it"
(Helmholtz 1924, volume II, p 258). Presumably with stationary figures the
movement is provided by the eyes. The effect has been exploited on a large scale
by Ellsworth Kelly (see Seitz 1965) and more recently in some of Vasarely's coloured
paintings (see Vasarely 1973). However, it is Marcel Duchamp's delightful visual pun,
called Fluttering Hearts (see Barrett 1970, p 24), which provides the best example:
this consists of a blue heart surrounded by a red one, with this sequence repeated.
Wheatstone (1844) considered that the effect was due to "the eye retaining its
sensibility for various colours during varying lengths of time" (p 10), and Helmholtz
adopted essentially the same interpretation. There are, however, problems with this
hypothesis and an alternative in terms of spatial and temporal interaction between
rods and long wavelength cones has been advanced (Griinau 1975a, 1975b, 1976).

I
Figure 20. Bridget Riley; Opening', 1961; 102 cm x 102 cm. The National Gallery of Victoria,
Australia; Felton Bequest; courtesy of the artist.
9 Conclusion
Op is a relatively modern movement in art which enjoyed a meteoric rise to popular
acclaim in the 1960s and then suffered an equally spectacular decline. Its critics
have condeihned it as visual trickery or as an extension of experimental psychology
(e.g. Lippard 1967; Rose 1965). The first criticism seems superfluous, as it is not
confined to op art, and the second can be taken to reflect poorly on experimental

42

N J Wade

Figure 21. Nicholas Wade; Op Eye; 1911; 50 cm x 60 cm. Owned by the artist. Moire patterns
will be produced by movement of the transparency. Otherwise, viewing either the transparency or
the underlying pattern alone for long enough can lead to the visibility of most of the phenomena
mentioned in the article.

Op art and visual perception

43

psychology rather than op art. All the phenomena exploited by the op artists have
had a long history during which they have been available to the perceptual psychologist
for manipulation. They have, however, awaited the artist for their full visual
exploitation. It seems to me extremely implausible that the range and complexity of
op art patterns would ever have emerged from psychological laboratories (although
figure 21 represents a belated contribution, by attempting to incorporate most of the
phenomena described above). A third criticism that has been levelled at the op artists
is that they are utilizing known processes of visual functioning as formulated by
scientists. This criticism seems unwarranted because it suggests that the knowledge
of the phenomena involved is confined to science, whereas it is much more likely
that they are undergoing constant individual discovery and intuitive exploitation.
To argue otherwise would be to deny that the op artists use their eyes.
The illustrations included in this paper represent a small fraction of the op
paintings that have been produced, but it is hoped that they give a flavour of the
artists' endeavours. In attempting to classify the paintings according to the visual
effects they utilize it has not been my intention to explain them away, and no
attempt has been made to handle the thorny issue of their aesthetic appeal. The
visual impact of op art has provided fascination for both artists and scientists;
understanding how a painting produces the visual effects that it does need not
reduce its fascination. Cyril Barrett (1971) considers that "the artist and the
scientist are on common ground only in so far as one explores and exploits these
(optical) phenomena, and the other isolates and classifies them" (p 11). This
distinction seems to me to be too rigid, as both groups explore the effects but at
different levels; both are concerned with visual phenomena, but the questions
they ask of them differ.
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Note added in proof
The effect that is referred to as the Hering grid (see section 4) was reported earlier
by Brewster to a meeting of the British Association at York in 1844. However,
Brewster was not its discoverer as it was communicated to him by a Rev W Selwyn:
"When a number of black parallel lines are intersected at right angles, so as to
inclose a number of squares or rectangles, a white spot appears at the intersections of
all the lines" (Brewster 1844a, p 8). It was at the same meeting that Wheatstone
described his "singular effect of the juxtaposition of certain colours" (see section 8),
following which Brewster (1844b) delivered a paper "On the same subject". It would
seem that the phenomenon had been known informally for some time as both
Wheatstone and Brewster had taken independent accounts of it to the York meeting.
Moreover, Brewster remarked that it "has been called by some fluttering hearts, from
one of the colours having the shape of hearts".
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Brewster Sir D, 1844b "On the same subject" Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. Transactions of the Sections p 10

1978 a Pion publication printed in Great Britain