Rosengarten Chemistry

Mark Rosengartens Amazing
Chemistry Powerpoint Presentation!

Aligned to the New York State Standards and Core
Curriculum for The Physical Setting-Chemistry

Can be used in any high-school chemistry class!
Please give the link to this file to your chemistry
students! www.markrosengarten.com
Enjoy it!!! A LOT of work has gone into bringing
you this work, so please credit me when you use
it!
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

garten
Outline for Review

1) The Atom (Nuclear, Electron Config)
2) Matter (Phases, Types, Changes)
3) Bonding (Periodic Table, Ionic, Covalent)
4) Compounds (Formulas, Reactions, IMAFs)
5) Math of Chemistry (Formula Mass, Gas Laws,
Neutralization, etc.)
6) Kinetics and Thermodynamics (PE Diagrams, etc.)
7) Acids and Bases (pH, formulas, indicators, etc.)
8) Oxidation and Reduction (Half Reactions, Cells, etc.)
9) Organic Chemistry (Hydrocarbons, Families, Reactions)
garten
The Atom
1) Nucleons
2) Isotopes
3) Natural Radioactivity
4) Half-Life
5) Nuclear Power
6) Electron Configuation
7) Development of the Atomic Model
garten
Nucleons
Protons: +1 each, determines identity of element, mass of 1
amu, determined using atomic number, nuclear charge

Neutrons: no charge, determines identity of isotope of an
element, 1 amu, determined using mass number - atomic
number (amu = atomic mass unit)
3216S and 3316S are both isotopes of S
S-32 has 16 protons and 16 neutrons
S-33 has 16 protons and 17 neutrons
All atoms of S have a nuclear charge of +16 due to the 16
protons.

garten
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element MUST contain the same
number of protons.
Atoms of the same element can vary in their numbers of
neutrons, therefore many different atomic masses can exist
for any one element. These are called isotopes.
The atomic mass on the Periodic Table is the
weight-average atomic mass, taking into account the
different isotope masses and their relative abundance.
Rounding off the atomic mass on the Periodic Table will
tell you what the most common isotope of that element is.
garten
Weight-Average Atomic Mass

WAM = ((% A of A/100) X Mass of A) + ((% A of B/100) X Mass of B) +
What is the WAM of an element if its isotope masses and
abundances are:
X-200: Mass = 200.0 amu, % abundance = 20.0 %
X-204: Mass = 204.0 amu, % abundance = 80.0%
amu = atomic mass unit (1.66 10-27 kilograms/amu)

garten
Most Common Isotope

The weight-average atomic mass of Zinc is
65.39 amu. What is the most common isotope

of Zinc? Zn-65!
What are the most common isotopes of:
Co
S
Ag
Pb
FACT: one atomic mass unit (1.66 10-27
kilograms) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an

atom of C-12.
This method doesnt always work, but it
usually
it for
the Regents exam.
(c)does.
2006,Use
Mark
Rosen
garten
Natural Radioactivity
Alpha Decay
Beta Decay
Positron Decay
Gamma Decay
Charges of Decay Particles
Natural decay starts with a parent nuclide
that ejects a decay particle to form a

daughter nuclide which is more stable
than the parent nuclide was.

garten
Alpha Decay
The nucleus ejects two protons and two neutrons. The
atomic mass decreases by 4, the atomic number decreases

by 2.
23892U

garten
Beta Decay
A neutron decays into a proton and an electron. The
electron is ejected from the nucleus as a beta particle. The

atomic mass remains the same, but the atomic number
increases by 1.
146C

garten
Positron Decay
A proton is converted into a neutron and a positron. The
positron is ejected by the nucleus. The mass remains the

same, but the atomic number decreases by 1.
5326Fe

garten
Gamma Decay
The nucleus has energy levels just like electrons, but the
involve a lot more energy. When the nucleus becomes

more stable, a gamma ray may be released. This is a
photon of high-energy light, and has no mass or charge.
The atomic mass and number do not change with gamma.
Gamma may occur by itself, or in conjunction with any
other decay type.
garten
Charges of Decay Particles

garten
Half-Life
Half life is the time it takes for half of
the nuclei in a radioactive sample to

undergo decay.
Problem Types:
Going forwards in time
Going backwards in time
Radioactive Dating

garten
Going Forwards in Time

How many grams of a 10.0 gram sample of I-131 (half-life
of 8 days) will remain in 24 days?

#HL = t/T = 24/8 = 3
Cut 10.0g in half 3 times: 5.00, 2.50, 1.25g

garten
Going Backwards in Time

How many grams of a 10.0 gram sample of I-131 (half-life
of 8 days) would there have been 24 days ago?

#HL = t/T = 24/8 = 3
Double 10.0g 3 times: 20.0, 40.0, 80.0 g

garten
Radioactive Dating
A sample of an ancient scroll contains 50% of the original
steady-state concentration of C-14. How old is the scroll?

50% = 1 HL
1 HL X 5730 y/HL = 5730y

garten
Nuclear Power
Artificial Transmutation
Particle Accelerators
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fusion

garten
Artificial Transmutation
4020Ca + _____ ----->
9642Mo +
K + 11H
40
19
H -----> 10n + _____
2
1
Nuclide + Bullet --> New Element + Fragment(s)
The masses and atomic numbers must add up
to be the same on both sides of the arrow.

garten
Particle Accelerators
Devices that use electromagnetic fields to accelerate
particle bullets towards target nuclei to make artificial

transmutation possible!
Most of the elements from 93 on up (the transuranium
elements) were created using particle accelerators.
Particles with no charge cannot be accelerated by the
charged fields.

garten
Nuclear Fission
235
92
U +
92
36
Kr +
141
56
Ba + 3
n + energy
The three neutrons given off can be reabsorbed by other
U-235 nuclei to continue fission as a chain reaction
A tiny bit of mass is lost (mass defect) and converted into a
huge amount of energy.

garten
Chain Reaction

garten
Nuclear Fusion
21H + 21H 42He + energy
Two small, positively-charged nuclei
smash together at high temperatures and

pressures to form one larger nucleus.
A small bit of mass is destroyed and
converted into a huge amount of energy,
more than even fission.
garten
Electron Configuration
Basic Configuration
Valence Electrons
Electron-Dot (Lewis Dot) Diagrams
Excited vs. Ground State
What is Light?

garten
Basic Configuration
The number of electrons is determined from the atomic
number.
Look up the basic configuration below the atomic number
on the periodic table. (PEL: principal energy level = shell)
He: 2 (2 e- in the 1st PEL)
Na: 2-8-1 (2 e- in the 1st PEL, 8 in the 2nd and 1 in the
3rd)
Br: 2-8-18-7 (2 e- in the 1st PEL, 8 in the 2nd, 18 in the
3rd and 7 in the 4th)

garten
Valence Electrons
The valence electrons are responsible for all chemical
bonding.
The valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost PEL
(shell).
He: 2 (2 valence electrons)
Na: 2-8-1 (1 valence electron)
Br: 2-8-18-7 (7 valence electrons)
The maximum number of valence electrons an atom can
have is EIGHT, called a STABLE OCTET.

garten
Electron-Dot Diagrams
The number of dots equals the number of valence
electrons.
The number of unpaired valence electrons in a nonmetal
tells you how many covalent bonds that atom can form
with other nonmetals or how many electrons it wants to
gain from metals to form an ion.
The number of valence electrons in a metal tells you how
many electrons the metal will lose to nonmetals to form an
ion. Caution: May not work with transition metals.
EXAMPLE DOT DIAGRAMS

garten
Example Dot Diagrams
Carbon can also have this dot diagram, which it

has when it forms organic compounds.
garten
Excited vs. Ground State

Configurations on the Periodic Table are ground state
configurations.
If electrons are given energy, they rise to higher energy
levels (excited state).
If the total number of electrons matches in the
configuration, but the configuration doesnt match, the
atom is in the excited state.
Na (ground, on table): 2-8-1
Example of excited states: 2-7-2, 2-8-0-1, 2-6-3

garten
What Is Light?
Light is formed when electrons drop from
the excited state to the ground state.

The lines on a bright-line spectrum come
from specific energy level drops and are
unique to each element.
EXAMPLE SPECTRUM
garten
EXAMPLE SPECTRUM
This is the bright-line spectrum of hydrogen. The top

numbers represent the PEL (shell) change that produces the
light with that color and the bottom number is the
wavelength of the light (in nanometers, or 10-9 m).
No other element has the same bright-line spectrum as
hydrogen, so these spectra can be used to identify
elements or mixtures of elements.
garten
Development of the Atomic

Model
Thompson Model
Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment and Mode
l
Bohr Model
Quantum-Mechanical Model

garten
Thompson Model
The atom is a positively charged diffuse
mass with negatively charged electrons

stuck in it.

garten
Rutherford Model
The atom is made of a small, dense, positively charged
nucleus with electrons at a distance, the vast majority of

the volume of the atom is empty space.
Alpha particles shot
at a thin sheet of gold
foil: most go through
(empty space). Some
deflect or bounce off
(small + charged
nucleus).
garten
Bohr Model
Electrons orbit around the nucleus in energy levels (shells).
Atomic bright-line spectra was the clue.

garten
Quantum-Mechanical Model
Electron energy levels are wave functions.
Electrons are found in orbitals, regions of space where an
electron is most likely to be found.

You cant know both where the electron is and where it is
going at the same time.
Electrons buzz around the nucleus like gnats buzzing
around your head.

garten
Matter
1) Properties of Phases
2) Types of Matter
3) Phase Changes

garten
Properties of Phases
Solids: Crystal lattice (regular geometric pattern),
vibration motion only

Liquids: particles flow past each other but are still
attracted to each other.
Gases: particles are small and far apart, they travel in a
straight line until they hit something, they bounce off
without losing any energy, they are so far apart from each
other that they have effectively no attractive forces and
their speed is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature (Kinetic-Molecular Theory, Ideal Gas Theory)
garten
Solids
The positive and

negative ions
alternate in the
ionic crystal lattice
of NaCl.

garten
Liquids
When heated, the ions move
faster and eventually
separate from each other to
form a liquid. The ions are
loosely held together by the
oppositely charged ions, but
the ions are moving too fast
for the crystal lattice to stay
together.
garten
Gases
Since all gas molecules spread out
the same way, equal volumes of
gas under equal conditions of
temperature and pressure will
contain equal numbers of
molecules of gas. 22.4 L of any
gas at STP (1.00 atm and 273K)
will contain one mole
(6.02 X 1023) gas molecules.
Since there is space between gas
molecules, gases are affected by
in pressure.
(c) 2006, changes
Mark Rosen
garten
Types of Matter
Substances (Homogeneous)
Elements (cannot be decomposed by chemical
change): Al, Ne, O, Br, H
Compounds (can be decomposed by chemical
change): NaCl, Cu(ClO3)2, KBr, H2O, C2H6
Mixtures
Homogeneous: Solutions (solvent + solute)
Heterogeneous: soil, Italian dressing, etc.
garten
Elements
A sample of lead atoms (Pb). All
atoms in the sample consist of lead,

so the substance is homogeneous.
A sample of chlorine atoms (Cl).
All atoms in the sample consist of

chlorine, so the substance is
homogeneous.
garten
Compounds
Lead has two charges listed, +2
and +4. This is a sample of lead

(II) chloride (PbCl2). Two or more
elements bonded in a wholenumber ratio is a COMPOUND.
This compound is formed from the
+4 version of lead. This is lead
(IV) chloride (PbCl4). Notice how
both samples of lead compounds
have consistent composition
throughout? Compounds are
homogeneous!
garten
Mixtures
A mixture of lead atoms and
chlorine atoms. They exist in no

particular ratio and are not
chemically combined with each
other. They can be separated by
physical means.
A mixture of PbCl2 and PbCl4
formula units. Again, they are in

no particular ratio to each other
and can be separated without
chemical change.
garten
Phase Changes
Phase Change Types
Phase Change Diagrams
Heat of Phase Change
Evaporation

garten
Phase Change Types

garten
Phase Change Diagrams

AB: Solid Phase
BC: Melting (S + L)
CD: Liquid Phase
DE: Boiling (L + G)
EF: Gas Phase
Notice how temperature remains constant during a phase

(c) 2006,
Mark
Rosen not the KE.
change? Thats because
the PE
is changing,
garten
Heat of Phase Change
How many joules would it take to melt 100. g of H 2O (s) at 0oC?

q=mHf = (100. g)(334 J/g) = 33400 J
How many joules would it take to boil 100. g of H 2O (l) at
100oC?
q=mHv = (100.g)(2260 J/g) = 226000 J

garten
Evaporation
When the surface molecules of a gas travel upwards at a
great enough speed to escape.

The pressure a vapor exerts when sealed in a container at
equilibrium is called
vapor pressure, and can be found on Table H.
When the liquid is heated, its vapor pressure increases.
When the liquids vapor pressure equals the pressure
exerted on it by the outside atmosphere, the liquid can boil.
If the pressure exerted on a liquid increases, the boiling
point of the liquid increases (pressure cooker). If the
pressure decreases, the boiling point of the liquid decreases
(special cooking directions
for high
elevations).
(c) 2006, Mark
Rosen
garten
Reference Table H: Vapor

Pressure of Four Liquids

garten
Bonding
1) The Periodic Table
2) Ions
3) Ionic Bonding
4) Covalent Bonding
5) Metallic Bonding

garten
The Periodic Table

Metals
Nonmetals
Metalloids
Chemistry of Groups
Electronegativity
Ionization Energy
garten
Metals
Have luster, are malleable and ductile, good
conductors of heat and electricity

Lose electrons to nonmetal atoms to form positive
ly charged ions
in ionic bonds
Large atomic radii compared to nonmetal atoms
Low electronegativity and ionization energy
Left side of the periodic table (except H)
garten
Nonmetals
Are dull and brittle, poor conductors
Gain electrons from metal atoms to form negatively c
harged ions
in ionic bonds
Share unpaired valence electrons with other nonmetal
atoms to form covalent bonds and molecules
Small atomic radii compared to metal atoms
High electronegativity and ionization energy
Right side of the periodic table (except Group 18)
garten
Metalloids
Found lying on the jagged line between metals and
nonmetals flatly touching the line (except Al and Po).

Share properties of metals and nonmetals (Si is shiny like a
metal, brittle like a nonmetal and is a semiconductor).

garten
Chemistry of Groups
Group 1: Alkali Metals
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Groups 3-11: Transition Elements
Group 17: Halogens
Group 18: Noble Gases
Diatomic Molecules
garten
Group 1: Alkali Metals

Most active metals, only found in compounds in
nature
React violently with water to form hydrogen gas
and a strong base: 2 Na (s) + H2O (l) 2 NaOH
(aq) + H2 (g)
1 valence electron
Form +1 ion by losing that valence electron
Form oxides like Na2O, Li2O, K2O

garten
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

Very active metals, only found in compounds in
nature
React strongly with water to form hydrogen gas
and a base:
Ca (s) + 2 H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
2 valence electrons
Form +2 ion by losing those valence electrons
Form oxides like CaO, MgO, BaO

garten
Groups 3-11: Transition Metals

Many can form different possible charges of ions
If there is more than one ion listed, give the charge as a
Roman numeral after the name

Cu+1 = copper (I) Cu+2 = copper (II)
Compounds containing these metals can be colored.

garten
Group 17: Halogens

Most reactive nonmetals
React violently with metal atoms to form halide
compounds: 2 Na + Cl2 2 NaCl
Only found in compounds in nature

Have 7 valence electrons
Gain 1 valence electron from a metal to form -1
ions
Share 1 valence electron with another nonmetal
atom to form one covalent bond.
garten
Group 18: Noble Gases

Are completely nonreactive since they have eight
valence electrons, making a stable octet.

Kr and Xe can be forced, in the laboratory, to give
up some valence electrons to react with fluorine.
Since noble gases do not naturally bond to any
other elements, one atom of noble gas is
considered to be a molecule of noble gas. This is
called a monatomic molecule. Ne represents an
atom of Ne and a molecule of Ne.

garten
Diatomic Molecules
Br, I, N, Cl, H, O and F are so reactive that they exist in a
more chemically stable state when they covalently bond

with another atom of their own element to make two-atom,
or diatomic molecules.
Br2, I2, N2, Cl2, H2, O2 and F2
The decomposition of water: 2 H2O 2 H2 + O2

garten
Electronegativity
An atoms attraction to electrons in a chemical bond.
F has the highest, at 4.0
Fr has the lowest, at 0.7
If two atoms that are different in EN (END) from each other by
1.7 or more collide and bond (like a metal atom and a nonmetal
atom), the one with the higher electronegativity will pull the
valence electrons away from the atom with the lower
electronegativity to form a (-) ion. The atom that was stripped
of its valence electrons forms a (+) ion.
If the two atoms have an END of less than 1.7, they will share
their unpaired valence electronscovalent bond!

garten
Ionization Energy
The energy required to remove the most loosely held
valence electron from an atom in the gas phase.

High electronegativity means high ionization energy
because if an atom is more attracted to electrons, it will
take more energy to remove those electrons.
Metals have low ionization energy. They lose electrons
easily to form (+) charged ions.
Nonmetals have high ionization energy but high
electronegativity. They gain electrons easily to form (-)
charged ions when reacted with metals, or share unpaired
valence electrons with other nonmetal atoms.
garten
Ions
Ions are charged particles formed by the gain or loss of
electrons.
Metals lose electrons (oxidation) to form (+) charged
cations.
Nonmetals gain electrons (reduction) to form (-) charged
anions.
Atoms will gain or lose electrons in such a way that they end up
with 8 valence electrons (stable octet).
The exceptions to this are H, Li, Be and B, which are not
large enough to support 8 valence electrons. They must be
satisfied with 2 (Li, Be, B) or 0 (H).

garten
Metal Ions (Cations)

Na: 2-8-1
Na+1: 2-8
Ca: 2-8-8-2
Note that when the atom

loses its valence electron,
the next lower PEL
becomes the valence PEL.
Ca+2: 2-8-8
Notice how the dot

Al: 2-8-3
diagrams for metal ions
lack dots! Place brackets
Al+3: 2-8
around the element symbol
and put the charge on the
upper right outside!
garten
Nonmetal Ions (Anions)

F: 2-7
F-1: 2-8
O: 2-6
O-2: 2-8
Note how the ions all have 8

valence electrons. Also note the
gained electrons as red dots.
Nonmetal ion dot diagrams show
8 dots, with brackets around the
dot diagram and the charge of
the ion written to the upper right
side outside the brackets.
N: 2-5
N-3: 2-8

garten
Ionic Bonding
If two atoms that are different in EN (END) from each other
by 1.7 or more collide and bond (like a metal atom and a

nonmetal atom), the one with the higher electronegativity
will pull the valence electrons away from the atom with the
lower electronegativity to form a (-) ion. The atom that was
stripped of its valence electrons forms a (+) ion.
The oppositely charged ions attract to form the bond. It is a
surface bond that can be broken by melting or dissolving in
water.
Ionic bonding forms ionic crystal lattices, not molecules.

garten
Example of Ionic Bonding

garten
Covalent Bonding
If two nonmetal atoms have an END of 1.7 or less, they
will share their unpaired valence electrons to form a

covalent bond.
A particle made of covalently bonded nonmetal atoms is
called a molecule.
If the END is between 0 and 0.4, the sharing of electrons is
equal, so there are no charged ends. This is NONPOLAR
covalent bonding.
If the END is between 0.5 and 1.7, the sharing of electrons
is unequal. The atom with the higher EN will be - and the
one with the lower EN will be + charged. This is a
POLAR covalent(c)
bonding.
(means
2006, Mark
Rosenpartial)
garten
Examples of Covalent Bonding

garten
Metallic Bonding
Metal atoms of the same element bond with each other by
sharing valence electrons that they lose to each other.

This is a lot like an atomic game of hot potato, where
metal kernals (the atom inside the valence electrons) sit in
a crystal lattice, passing valence electrons back and forth
between each other).
Since electrons can be forced to travel in a certain
direction within the metal, metals are very good at
conducting electricity in all phases.

garten
Compounds
1) Types of Compounds
2) Formula Writing
3) Formula Naming
4) Empirical Formulas
5) Molecular Formulas
6) Types of Chemical Reactions
7) Balancing Chemical Reactions
8) Attractive Forces
garten
Types of Compounds
Ionic: made of metal and nonmetal ions. Form an ionic
crystal lattice when in the solid phase. Ions separate when

melted or dissolved in water, allowing electrical
conduction. Examples: NaCl, K2O, CaBr2
Molecular: made of nonmetal atoms bonded to form a
distinct particle called a molecule. Bonds do not break

upon melting or dissolving, so molecular substances do not
conduct electricity. EXCEPTION: Acids [H+A- (aq)]
ionize in water to form H3O+ and A-, so they do conduct.
Network: made up of nonmetal atoms bonded in a
seemingly endless matrix of covalent bonds with no

distinguishable molecules.
Very Rosen
high m.p., dont conduct.
(c) 2006, Mark
garten
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Crystal Structure, then adding heat (or dissolving in water) to break
up the crystal into a liquid composed of free-moving ions.

garten
Molecular Compounds

garten
Network Solids
Network solids are made of nonmetal atoms covalently
bonded together to form large crystal lattices. No individual
molecules can be distinguished. Examples include C
(diamond) and SiO2 (quartz). Corundum (Al2O3) also forms
these, even though Al is considered a metal. Network solids
are among the hardest materials known. They have
extremely high melting points and do not conduct electricity.

garten
Formula Writing
The charge of the (+) ion and the charge of the (-) ion must
cancel out to make the formula. Use subscripts to indicate

how many atoms of each element there are in the compound,
no subscript if there is only one atom of that element.
Na+1 and Cl-1 = NaCl
Ca+2 and Br-1 = CaBr2
Al+3 and O-2 = Al2O3
Zn+2 and PO4-3 = Zn3(PO4)2
Try these problems!

garten
Formulas to Write
Ba+2 and N-3
NH4+1 and SO4-2
Li+1 and S-2
Cu+2 and NO3-1
Al+3 and CO3-2
Fe+3 and Cl-1
Pb+4 and O-2
Pb+2 and O-2
garten
Formula Naming
Compounds are named from the elements or
polyatomic ions that form them.

KCl = potassium chloride
Na2SO4 = sodium sulfate
(NH4)2S = ammonium sulfide
AgNO3 = silver nitrate
Notice all the metals listed here only have one
charge listed? So what do you do if a metal

has more than one charge listed? Take a peek!

garten
The Stock System
CrCl2 = chromium (II) chloride
Try
CrCl3 = chromium (III) chloride
Co(NO3)2 and
CrCl6 = chromium (VI) chloride
Co(NO3)3
FeO = iron (II) oxide

Fe2O3 = iron (III) oxide
MnS = manganese (II) sulfide

MnS2 = manganese (IV) sulfide
The Roman numeral

is the Mark
chargeRosen
of the metal ion!
(c) 2006,
garten
Empirical Formulas
Ionic formulas: represent the simplest whole number mole
ratio of elements in a compound.

Ca3N2 means a 3:2 ratio of Ca ions to N ions in the
compound.
Many molecular formulas can be simplified to empirical
formulas
Ethane (C2H6) can be simplified to CH3. This is the
empirical formulathe ratio of C to H in the molecule.
All ionic compounds have empirical formulas.
garten
Molecular Formulas
The count of the actual number of atoms of each element
in a molecule.
H2O: a molecule made of two H atoms and one O atom
covalently bonded together.
C2H6O: A molecule made of two C atoms, six H atoms and
one O atom covalently bonded together.
Molecular formulas are whole-number multiples of
empirical formulas:
H2O = 1 X (H2O)
C8H16 = 8 X (CH2)
Calculating Molecular
Formulas
(c) 2006,
Mark Rosen
garten
Types of Chemical Reactions

Redox Reactions: driven by the loss (oxidation) and gain
(reduction) of electrons. Any species that does not change

charge is called the spectator ion.
Synthesis
Decomposition
Single Replacement
Ion Exchange Reaction: driven by the formation of an
insoluble precipitate. The ions that remain dissolved

throughout are the spectator ions.
Double Replacement
garten
Synthesis
Two elements combine to form a compound
2 Na + O2 Na2O
Same reaction, with charges added in:
2 Na0 + O20 Na2+1O-2

Na0 is oxidized (loses electrons), is the reducing agent
O20 is reduced (gains electrons), is the oxidizing agent
Electrons are transferred from the Na0 to the O20.
No spectator ions, there are only two elements here.

garten
Decomposition
A compound breaks down into its original elements.
Na2O 2 Na + O2
Na2+1O-2 2 Na0 + O20

O-2 is oxidized (loses electrons), is the reducing agent
Na+1 is reduced (gains electrons), is the oxidizing agent
Electrons are transferred from the O-2 to the Na+1.
No spectator ions, there are only two elements here.

garten
Single Replacement
An element replaces the same type of element in a compound.
Ca + 2 KCl CaCl2 + 2 K
Ca0 + 2 K+1Cl-1 Ca+2Cl2-1 + 2 K0

Ca0 is oxidized (loses electrons), is the reducing agent
K+1 is reduced (gains electrons), is the oxidizing agent
Electrons are transferred from the Ca0 to the K+1.
Cl-1 is the spectator ion, since its charge doesnt change.

garten
Double Replacement
The (+) ion of one compound bonds to the (-) ion of another
compound to make an insoluble precipitate. The compounds

must both be dissolved in water to break the ionic bonds first.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
The Cl-1 and Ag+1 come together to make the insoluble
precipitate, which looks like snow in the test tube.

No species change charge, so this is not a redox reaction.
Since the Na+1 and NO3-1 ions remain dissolved throughout
the reaction, they are the spectator ions.
How do identify the precipitate?

garten
Identifying the Precipitate
The precipitate is the compound that is insoluble. AgCl is
a precipitate because Cl- is a halide. Halides are soluble,

except when combined
with
Ag+ Rosen
and others.
(c) 2006,
Mark
garten
Balancing Chemical Reactions

Balance one element or ion at a time
Use a pencil
Use coefficients only, never change formulas
Revise if necessary
The coefficient multiplies everything in the formula by
that amount
2 Ca(NO3)2 means that you have 2 Ca, 4 N and 12 O.
Examples for you to try!

garten
Reactions to Balance
___NaCl ___Na + ___Cl2
___Al + ___O2 ___Al2O3
___SO3 ___SO2 + ___O2
___Ca + ___HNO3 ___Ca(NO3)2 + ___H2
__FeCl3 + __Pb(NO3)2 __Fe(NO3)3 + __PbCl2

garten
Attractive Forces
Molecules have partially charged ends. The + end of one
molecule attracts to the - end of another molecule.

Ions are charged (+) or (-). Positively charged ions attract
other to form ionic bonds, a type of attractive force.
Since partially charged ends result in weaker attractions
than fully charged ends, ionic compounds generally have
much higher melting points than molecular compounds.
Determining Polarity of Molecules
Hydrogen Bond Attractions

garten
Determining Polarity of
Molecules
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

garten
Hydrogen Bond
Attractions
A hydrogen bond attraction is a

very strong attractive force
between the H end of one polar
molecule and the N, O or F end
of another polar molecule. This
attraction is so strong that water
is a liquid at a temperature
where most compounds that are
much heavier than water (like
propane, C3H8) are gases. This
also gives water its surface
tension and its ability to form a
(c) 2006, meniscus
Mark Rosen
in a narrow glass tube.
garten
Math of Chemistry
1) Formula Mass
2) Percent Composition
3) Mole Problems
4) Gas Laws
5) Neutralization
6) Concentration
7) Significant Figures and Rounding
8) Metric Conversions
9) Calorimetry
garten
Formula Mass
Gram Formula Mass = sum of atomic masses of all
elements in the compound

Round given atomic masses to the nearest tenth
H2O: (2 X 1.0) + (1 X 16.0) = 18.0 grams/mole
Na2SO4: (2 X 23.0)+(1 X 32.1)+(4 X 16.0) = 142.1 g/mole
Now you try:
BaBr2
CaSO4
Al2(CO3)3
garten
Percent Composition
What is the % composition, by mass,
of each element in SiO2?
%Si =
(28.1/60.1) X 100 = 46.8%
%O = (2 X 16.0 = 32.0), (32.0/60.1) X 100 = 53.2%
The mass of part is the number of atoms of that element in the

compound. The mass of whole is the formula mass of the
compound. Dont forget to take atomic mass to the nearest
tenth! This is a problem for you to try.
garten
Practice Percent
Composition Problem
What is the percent by mass of each element in Li2SO4?

garten
Mole Problems
Grams <=> Moles
Molecular Formula
Stoichiometry

garten
Grams <=> Moles

How many grams will 3.00 moles of NaOH (40.0 g/mol)
weigh?
3.00 moles X 40.0 g/mol = 120. g
How many moles of NaOH (40.0 g/mol) are represented
by 10.0 grams?
(10.0 g) / (40.0 g/mol) = 0.250 mol
garten
Molecular Formula
Molecular Formula = (Molecular Mass/Empirical Mass) X Empirical Formula
What is the molecular formula of a compound with an
empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of 70.0

grams/mole?
1) Find the Empirical Formula Mass: CH2 = 14.0
2) Divide the MM/EM: 70.0/14.0 = 5
3) Multiply the molecular formula by the result:
5 (CH2) = C5H10

garten
Stoichiometry
Moles of Target = Moles of Given X (Coefficent of Target/Coefficient of given)
Given the balanced equation N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3, How
many moles of H2 need to be completely reacted with N2

to yield 20.0 moles of NH3?
20.0 moles NH3 X (3 H2 / 2 NH3) = 30.0 moles H2

garten
Gas Laws
Make a data table to put the numbers so you can eliminate the
words.
Make sure that any Celsius temperatures are converted to Kelvin
(add 273).
Rearrange the equation before substituting in numbers. If you are
trying to solve for T2, get it out of the denominator first by crossmultiplying.
If one of the variables is constant, then eliminate it.
Try these problems!

garten
Gas Law Problem 1

A 2.00 L sample of N2 gas at
STP is compressed to 4.00 atm

at constant temp-erature. What
is the new volume of the gas?
V 2 = P 1 V 1 / P2
= (1.00 atm)(2.00 L) / (4.00
atm)
= 0.500 L

garten
Gas Law Problem 2

To what temperature must a 3.000 L sample of O2 gas at
300.0 K be heated to raise the volume to 10.00 L?

T2 = V2T1/V1
= (10.00 L)(300.0 K) / (3.000 L) = 1000. K

garten
Gas Law Problem 3

A 3.00 L sample of NH3 gas at 100.0 kPa is cooled from
500.0 K to 300.0 K and its pressure is reduced to 80.0 kPa.

What is the new volume of the gas?
V2 = P1V1T2 / P2T1
= (100.0 kPa)(3.00 L)(300. K) / (80.0 kPa)(500. K)
= 2.25 L

garten
Neutralization
10.0 mL of 0.20 M HCl is neutralized by 40.0 mL of
NaOH. What is the concentration of the NaOH?

#H MaVa = #OH MbVb, so Mb = #H MaVa / #OH Vb
= (1)(0.20 M)(10.0 mL) / (1) (40.0 mL) = 0.050 M

How many mL of 2.00 M H2SO4 are needed to completely
neutralize 30.0 mL of 0.500 M KOH?

garten
Concentration
Molarity
Parts per Million
Percent by Mass
Percent by Volume

garten
Molarity
What is the molarity of a 500.0 mL solution of NaOH (FM
= 40.0) with 60.0 g of NaOH (aq)?

Convert g to moles and mL to L first!
M = moles / L = 1.50 moles / 0.5000 L = 3.00 M
How many grams of NaOH does it take to make 2.0 L of a
0.100 M solution of NaOH (aq)?

Moles = M X L = 0.100 M X 2.0 L = 0.200 moles
Convert moles to grams: 0.200 moles X 40.0 g/mol = 8.00 g

garten
Parts Per Million

100.0 grams of water is evaporated and analyzed for lead.
0.00010 grams of lead ions are found. What is the

concentration of the lead, in parts per million?
ppm = (0.00010 g) / (100.0 g) X 1 000 000 = 1.0 ppm
If the legal limit for lead in the water is 3.0 ppm, then the water
sample is within the legal limits (its OK!)

garten
Percent by Mass
A 50.0 gram sample of a solution is evaporated and found
to contain 0.100 grams of sodium chloride. What is the

percent by mass of sodium chloride in the solution?
% Comp = (0.100 g) / (50.0 g) X 100 = 0.200%

garten
Percent By Volume
Substitute volume for mass in the above equation.
What is the percent by volume of hexane if 20.0 mL of
hexane are dissolved in benzene to a total volume of 80.0

mL?
% Comp = (20.0 mL) / (80.0 mL) X100 = 25.0%

garten
Sig Figs and Rounding

How many Significant Figures does a number have?
What is the precision of my measurement?
How do I round off answers to addition and subtraction pr
oblems?
How do I round off answers to multiplication and division
problems?
garten
How many Sig Figs?

Start counting sig figs at the first non-zero.
All digits except place-holding zeroes are sig figs.
Measurement
# of Sig Figs
Measurement
# of Sig Figs
0.115 cm
234 cm
0.00034 cm
67000 cm
0.00304 cm
0.0560 cm
_
45000 cm
560. cm
0.00070700 cm
560.00 cm

garten
What Precision?
A numbers precision is determined by the furthest
(smallest) place the number is recorded to.

6000 mL : thousands place
6000. mL : ones place
6000.0 mL : tenths place
5.30 mL : hundredths place
8.7 mL : tenths place
23.740 mL : thousandths place

garten
Rounding with addition and

subtraction
Answers are rounded to the least precise place.

garten
Rounding with multiplication

and division
Answers are rounded to the fewest number of significant
figures.

garten
Metric Conversions
Determine how many powers of ten
difference there are between the two

units (no prefix = 100) and create a
conversion factor. Multiply or divide
the given by the conversion factor.
How many kg are in 38.2 cg?

(38.2 cg) /(100000 cg/kg) = 0.000382 km
How many mL in 0.988 dL?

(0.988 dg) X (100 mL/dL) = 98.8 mL

garten
Calorimetry
This equation can be used to determine any of the variables
here. You will not have to solve for C, since we will always
assume that the energy transfer is being absorbed by or
released by a measured quantity of water, whose specific
heat is given above.
Solving for q
Solving for m
Solving for
garten
Solving for q
How many joules are absorbed by 100.0 grams of water in
a calorimeter if the temperature of the water increases from

20.0oC to 50.0oC?
q = mCT = (100.0 g)(4.18 J/goC)(30.0oC) = 12500 J

garten
Solving for m
A sample of water in a calorimeter cup increases from
25oC to 50.oC by the addition of 500.0 joules of energy.

What is the mass of water in the calorimeter cup?
q = mCT, so m = q / CT = (500.0 J) / (4.18 J/goC)(25oC) = 4.8 g

garten
Solving for T
If a 50.0 gram sample of water in a calorimeter cup
absorbs 1000.0 joules of energy, how much will the

temperature rise by?
q = mCT, so T = q / mC = (1000.0 J)/(50.0 g)(4.18 J/goC) = 4.8oC
If the water started at 20.0oC, what will the final
temperature be?
Since the water ABSORBS the energy, its temperature will
INCREASE by the T: 20.0oC + 4.8oC = 24.8oC

garten
Kinetics and Thermodynamics

1) Reaction Rate
2) Heat of Reaction
3) Potential Energy Diagrams
4) Equilibrium
5) Le Chteliers Principle
6) Solubility Curves

garten
Reaction Rate
Reactions happen when reacting particles collide with
sufficient energy (activation energy) and at the proper angle.

Anything that makes more collisions in a given time will
make the reaction rate increase.
Increasing temperature
Increasing concentration (pressure for gases)
Increasing surface area (solids)
Adding a catalyst makes a reaction go faster by removing
steps from the mechanism and lowering the activation energy

without getting used up in the process.

garten
Heat of Reaction
Reactions either absorb PE (endothermic, +H) or release
PE (exothermic, -H)
Exothermic, PEKE, Temp

Endothermic, KEPE, Temp
Rewriting the equation with heat included:

4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Al2O3(s) + 3351 kJ
N2(g) + O2(g) +182.6 kJ 2 NO(g)
garten
Potential Energy Diagrams

Steps of a reactions:
Reactants have a certain amount of PE stored in their

bonds (Heat of Reactants)
The reactants are given enough energy to collide and
react (Activation Energy)
The resulting intermediate has the highest energy that
the reaction can make (Heat of Activated Complex)
The activated complex breaks down and forms the
products, which have a certain amount of PE stored in
their bonds (Heat of Products)
Hproducts - Hreactants = H
EXAMPLES
garten
Making a PE Diagram
X axis: Reaction Coordinate (time, no units)
Y axis: PE (kJ)
Three lines representing energy (Hreactants, Hactivated complex,
Hproducts)
Two arrows representing energy changes:
From Hreactants to Hactivated complex: Activation Energy

From Hreactants to Hproducts : H
ENDOTHERMIC PE DIAGRAM
EXOTHERMIC PE DIAGRAM

garten
Endothermic PE Diagram
If a catalyst is added?
garten
Endothermic with Catalyst
The red line represents the catalyzed reaction.

garten
Exothermic PE Diagram
(c) with
2006,a Mark
Rosen
What does it look like
catalyst?
garten
Exothermic with a Catalyst
The red line represents the catalyzed reaction. Lower

A.E. and faster reaction
time! Mark Rosen
(c) 2006,
garten
Equilibrium
When the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the
reverse reaction. (c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Examples of Equilibrium
Solution Equilibrium: when a solution is saturated, the rate of
dissolving equals the rate of precipitating.

NaCl (s) Na+1 (aq) + Cl-1 (aq)
Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium: when a liquid is trapped with air
in a container, the liquid evaporates until the rate of

evaporation equals the rate of condensation.
H2O (l) H2O (g)
Phase equilibrium: At the melting point, the rate of solid
turning to liquid equals the rate of liquid turning back to

solid.
H2O (s) H2O (l)

garten
Le Chteliers Principle
If a system at equilibrium is stressed, the equilibrium
will shift in a direction that relieves that stress.

A stress is a factor that affects reaction rate. Since catalysts
affect both reaction rates equally, catalysts have no effect on
a system already at equilibrium.
Equilibrium will shift AWAY from what is added
Equilibrium will shift TOWARDS what is removed.
This is because the shift will even out the change in reaction
rate and bring the system back to equilibrium
NEXT
garten
Steps to Relieving Stress

1) Equilibrium is subjected to a STRESS.
2) System SHIFTS towards what is removed from the system or away
from what is added.

The shift results in a CHANGE OF CONCENTRATION for both the
products and the reactants.
If the shift is towards the products, the concentration of the
products will increase and the concentration of the reactants will
decrease.
If the shift is towards the reactants, the concentration of the
reactants will increase and the concentration of the products will
decrease.
NEXT

garten
Examples
For the reaction N2(g)
+ 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g) + heat
Adding N2 will cause the equilibrium to shift RIGHT, resulting in

an increase in the concentration of NH3 and a decrease in the
concentration of N2 and H2.
Removing H2 will cause a shift to the LEFT, resulting in a
decrease in the concentration of NH3 and an increase in the
concentration of N2 and H2.
Increasing the temperature will cause a shift to the LEFT, same
results as the one above.
Decreasing the pressure will cause a shift to the LEFT, because
there is more gas on the left side, and making more gas will bring
the pressure back up to its equilibrium amount.
Adding a catalyst(c)
will2006,
have no
effect,
so no shift will happen.
Mark
Rosen
garten
Solubility Curves
Solubility: the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved in a
given quantity of solvent at a given temperature to make a saturated

solution.
Saturated: a solution containing the maximum quantity of solute that
the solvent can hold. The limit of solubility.
Supersaturated: the solution is holding more than it can theoretically
hold OR there is excess solute which precipitates out. True
supersaturation is rare.
Unsaturated: There are still solvent molecules available to dissolve
more solute, so more can dissolve.
How ionic solutes dissolve in water: polar water molecules attach to
the ions and tear them off the crystal.

garten
Solubility
Solubility: go to the temperature
and up to the desired line, then
across to the Y-axis. This is how
many g of solute are needed to
make a saturated solution of that
solute in 100g of H2O at that
particular temperature.
At 40oC, the solubility of KNO3 in
100g of water is 64 g. In 200g of
water, double that amount. In 50g
of water, cut it in half.
garten
Supersaturated
If 120 g of NaNO3 are added to
100g of water at 30oC:
1) The solution would be
SUPERSATURATED, because
there is more solute dissolved
than the solubility allows
2) The extra 25g would
precipitate out
3) If you heated the solution up
by 24oC (to 54oC), the excess
would dissolve.
(c) 2006, solute
Mark Rosen
garten
Unsaturated
If 80 g of KNO3 are added to
100g of water at 60oC:
1) The solution would be
UNSATURATED, because there
is less solute dissolved than the
solubility allows
2) 26g more can be added to
make a saturated solution
3) If you cooled the solution
down by 12oC (to 48oC), the
solution would become saturated
garten
How Ionic Solutes Dissolve in

Water
Water solvent molecules attach to the

Water solvent holds the ions apart and
ions (H end to the Cl-, O end(c)
to the
Na+) Mark
keeps the
ions from coming back together
2006,
Rosen
garten
Acids and Bases

1) Formulas, Naming and Properties of Acids
2) Formulas, Naming and Properties of Bases
3) Neutralization
4) pH
5) Indicators
6) Alternate Theories

garten
Formulas, Naming and

Properties of Acids
Arrhenius Definition of Acids: molecules that dissolve in
water to produce H3O+ (hydronium) as the only positively

charged ion in solution.
HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl Properties of Acids
Naming of Acids
Formula Writing of Acids

garten
Properties of Acids
Acids react with metals above H2 on Table J to
form H2(g) and a salt.

Acids have a pH of less than 7.
Dilute solutions of acids taste sour.
Acids turn phenolphthalein CLEAR, litmus RED
and bromthymol blue YELLOW.
Acids neutralize bases.
Acids are formed when acid anhydrides (NO2, SO2,
CO2) react with water for form acids. This is how
acid rain forms from auto and industrial emissions.

garten
Naming of Acids
Binary Acids (H+ and a nonmetal)
hydro (nonmetal) -ide + ic acid

HCl (aq) = hydrochloric acid
Ternary Acids (H+ and a polyatomic ion)
(polyatomic ion) -ate +ic acid

HNO3 (aq) = nitric acid
(polyatomic ion) -ide +ic acid

HCN (aq) = cyanic acid
(polyatomic ion) -ite +ous acid

HNO
= nitrous acid
(c) 2006,
Mark
Rosen
2 (aq)
garten
Formula Writing of Acids

Acids formulas get written like any other. Write the H+1
first, then figure out what the negative ion is based on the
name. Cancel out the charges to write the formula. Dont
forget the (aq) after itits only an acid if its in water!
Hydrosulfuric acid: H+1 and S-2 = H2S (aq)
Carbonic acid: H+1 and CO3-2 = H2CO3 (aq)
Chlorous acid: H+1 and ClO2-1 = HClO2 (aq)
Hydrobromic acid: H+1 and Br-1 = HBr (aq)
Hydronitric acid:
Hypochlorous acid:
Perchloric acid: (c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Formulas, Naming and

Properties of Bases
Arrhenius Definition of Bases: ionic compounds that
dissolve in water to produce OH- (hydroxide) as the only

negatively charged ion in solution.
NaOH (s) Na+1 (aq) + OH-1 (aq)
Properties of Bases
Naming of Bases
Formula Writing of Bases

garten
Properties of Bases
Bases react with fats to form soap and glycerol. This
process is called saponification.

Bases have a pH of more than 7.
Dilute solutions of bases taste bitter.
Bases turn phenolphthalein PINK, litmus BLUE and
bromthymol blue BLUE.
Bases neutralize acids.
Bases are formed when alkali metals or alkaline earth
metals react with water. The words alkali and alkaline
mean basic, as opposed to acidic.

garten
Naming of Bases
Bases are named like any ionic
compound, the name of the metal ion

first (with a Roman numeral if
necessary) followed by hydroxide.
Fe(OH)2 (aq) = iron (II) hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 (aq) = iron (III) hydroxide
Al(OH)3 (aq) = aluminum hydroxide
NH3 (aq) is the same thing as NH4OH:
NH3 + H2O NH4OH
Also
garten
called ammonium hydroxide.
Formula Writing of Bases

Formula writing of bases is the same as for any ionic
formula writing. The charges of the ions have to cancel out.

Calcium hydroxide = Ca+2 and OH-1 = Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Potassium hydroxide = K+1 and OH-1 = KOH (aq)
Lead (II) hydroxide = Pb+2 and OH-1 = Pb(OH)2 (aq)
Lead (IV) hydroxide = Pb +4 and OH-1 = Pb(OH)4 (aq)
Lithium hydroxide =
Copper (II) hydroxide =
Magnesium hydroxide =

garten
Neutralization
H+1 + OH-1 HOH
Acid + Base Water + Salt (double replacement)
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) HOH (l) + NaCl (aq)
H2SO4 (aq) + KOH (aq) 2 HOH (l) + K2SO4 (aq)
HBr (aq) + LiOH (aq)
H2CrO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq)
HNO3 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)
H3PO4 (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (aq)

garten
pH
A change of 1 in pH is a tenfold increase in acid or base
strength.
A pH of 4 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 5.
A pH of 12 is 100(c)
times
more
basic
than a pH of 10.
2006,
Mark
Rosen
garten
Indicators
At a pH of 2:
Methyl Orange = red
Bromthymol Blue = yellow
Phenolphthalein = colorless
Litmus = red
Methyl orange is red at a pH of
3.2 and below and yellow at a pH
of 4.4 and higher. In between the
two numbers, it is an intermediate
color that is not listed on this
table.
Bromcresol Green = yellow

Thymol Blue = yellow

garten
Alternate Theories
Arrhenius Theory: acids and bases must be in aqueous
solution.
Alternate Theory: Not necessarily so!
Acid: proton (H+1) donorgives up H+1 in a reaction.
Base: proton (H+1) acceptorgains H+1 in a reaction.
HNO3 + H2O H3O+1 + NO3-1
Since HNO3 lost an H+1 during the reaction, it is an acid.

Since H2O gained the H+1 that HNO3 lost, it is a base.
garten
Oxidation and Reduction

1) Oxidation Numbers
2) Identifying OX, RD and SI Species
3) Agents
4) Writing Half-Reactions
5) Balancing Half-Reactions
6) Activity Series
7) Voltaic Cells
8) Electrolytic Cells
9) Electroplating
garten
Oxidation Numbers
Elements have no charge until they bond to other elements.
Na0, Li0, H20. S0, N20, C600

The formula of a compound is such that the charges of the
elements making up the compound all add up to zero.

The symbol and charge of an element or polyatomic ion is
called a SPECIES.
Determine the charge of each species in the following
compounds:
NaCl
KNO3
CuSO4
Fe2(CO3)3
garten
Identifying OX, RD, SI

Species
Ca0 + 2 H+1Cl-1 Ca+2Cl-12 + H20
Oxidation = loss of electrons. The species becomes more
positive in charge. For example, Ca0 Ca+2, so Ca0 is the

species that is oxidized.
Reduction = gain of electrons. The species becomes more
negative in charge. For example, H+1 H0, so the H+1 is
the species that is reduced.
Spectator Ion = no change in charge. The species does not
gain or lose any electrons. For example, Cl-1 Cl-1, so the
Cl-1 is the spectator ion.
garten
Agents
Ca0 + 2 H+1Cl-1 Ca+2Cl-12 + H20
Since Ca0 is being oxidized and H+1 is being reduced, the
electrons must be going from the Ca0 to the H+1.

Since Ca0 would not lose electrons (be oxidized) if H+1
werent there to gain them, H+1 is the cause, or agent, of
Ca0s oxidation. H+1 is the oxidizing agent.
Since H+1 would not gain electrons (be reduced) if Ca0
werent there to lose them, Ca0 is the cause, or agent, of
H+1s reduction. Ca0 is the reducing agent.
garten
Writing Half-Reactions
Ca0 + 2 H+1Cl-1 Ca+2Cl-12 + H20
Oxidation: Ca0 Ca+2 + 2e Reduction: 2H+1 + 2e- H20
The two electrons lost

by Ca0 are gained by
the two H+1 (each H+1
picks up an electron).
PRACTICE SOME!
garten
Practice Half-Reactions
Dont forget to determine the charge of each species first!
4 Li + O2 2 Li2O
Oxidation Half-Reaction:
Reduction Half-Reaction:
Zn + Na2SO4 ZnSO4 + 2 Na
Oxidation Half-Reaction:
Reduction Half-Reaction:

garten
Balancing Half-Reactions
Ca0 + Fe+3 Ca+2 + Fe0
Cas charge changes by 2, so double the Fe.
Fes charge changes by 3, so triple the Ca.
3 Ca0 + 2 Fe+3 3 Ca+2 + 2 Fe0

Try these:
__Na0 + __H+1 __Na+1 + __H20
(hint: balance the H and H2 first!)
__Al0 + __Cu+2 __Al+3 + __Cu0

garten
Activity Series
For metals, the higher up the chart the
element is, the more likely it is to be

oxidized. This is because metals like to
lose electrons, and the more active a
metallic element is, the more easily it can
lose them.
For nonmetals, the higher up the chart the
element is, the more likely it is to be
reduced. This is because nonmetals like to
gain electrons, and the more active a
nonmetallic element is, the more easily it
can gain them.
garten
Metal Activity
3 K0 + Fe+3Cl-13
REACTION
Fe0 + 3 K+1Cl-1
NO REACTION
Metallic elements start out with a charge
of ZERO, so they can only be oxidized to

form (+) ions.
The higher of two metals MUST undergo
oxidation in the reaction, or no reaction
will happen.
The reaction 3 K + FeCl3 3 KCl + Fe
WILL happen, because K is being
oxidized, and that is what Table J says
should happen.
The reaction Fe + 3 KCl FeCl3 + 3 K
(c)will
2006,
Mark
Rosen
NOT
happen.
garten
Voltaic Cells
Produce electrical current using a spontaneous redox reaction
Used to make batteries!
Materials needed: two beakers, piece of the oxidized metal
(anode, - electrode), solution of the oxidized metal, piece of

the reduced metal (cathode, + electrode), solution of the
reduced metal, porous material (salt bridge), solution of a salt
that does not contain either metal in the reaction, wire and a
load to make use of the generated current!
Use Reference Table J to determine the metals to use
Higher = (-) anode
Lower = (+) cathode

garten
Making Voltaic Cells

More
Info!!!
Create
Your
Own
garten
Cell!!!!
How It Works
Since Zn is listed above Cu, Zn0 will be
oxidized when it reacts with Cu+2. The
reaction: Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
The Zn0 anode loses 2 e-, which go up the wire and through
the load. The Zn0 electrode gets smaller as the Zn0 becomes
Zn+2 and dissolves into solution. The e- go into the Cu0,
where they sit on the outside surface of the Cu0 cathode and
wait for Cu+2 from the solution to come over so that the ecan jump on to the Cu+2 and reduce it to Cu0. The size of
the Cu0 electrode increases. The negative ions in solution
go over the salt bridge to the anode side to complete the
circuit.
garten
You Start At The Anode

Vital to make a battery
Is this electrochemistry
You take two half-cells
And connect them up so well
With a load to power in between
You need to have electrodes you see
Full of that metallicity
Let electrons flow
Across the salt bridge we go!
Allowing us to make electricity
We start the anode
Electrons are lost there
And go through the wire
And through the load on fire
They get to the cathode
And reduce the cations
And the anions go through the salt bridge
Back to where
(c) 2006, Mark
WHERE?
garten
Rosen
Make Your Own Cell!!!

garten
Electrolytic Cells
Use electricity to force a nonspontaneous redox reaction to
take place.
Uses for Electrolytic Cells:
Decomposition of Alkali Metal Compounds
Decomposition of Water into Hydrogen and Oxygen
Electroplating
Differences between Voltaic and Electrolytic Cells:
ANODE:
Voltaic (-)
Electrolytic (+)
CATHODE:
Voltaic (+)
Electrolytic (-)
Voltaic: 2 half-cells, a salt bridge and a load
Electrolytic: 1(c)
cell,
no salt
bridge,
2006,
Mark
RosenIS the load
garten
Decomposing Alkali
Metal Compounds
2 NaCl 2 Na + Cl2
The Na+1 is reduced at

the (-) cathode,
picking up an e- from
the battery
The Cl-1 is oxidized at

the (+) anode, the ebeing pulled off by the
battery (DC)
garten
Decomposing Water
2 H2O 2 H2 + O2
The H+ is reduced at
the (-) cathode,
yielding H2 (g), which
is trapped in the tube.
The O-2 is oxidized at

the (+) anode, yielding
O2 (g), which is
trapped in the tube.
garten
Electroplating
The Ag0 is oxidized to Ag+1
when the (+) end of the
battery strips its electrons
off.
The Ag+1 migrates through

the solution towards the (-)
charged cathode (ring),
where it picks up an electron
from the battery and forms
Ag0, which coats on to the
ring.
(c) 2006, Mark
Rosen
garten
Organic Chemistry
1) Hydrocarbons
2) Substituted Hydrocarbons
3) Organic Families
4) Organic Reactions

garten
Hydrocarbons
Molecules made of Hydrogen and Carbon
Carbon forms four bonds, hydrogen forms one bond
Hydrocarbons come in three different homologous series:
Alkanes (single bond between Cs, saturated)

Alkenes (1 double bond between 2 Cs, unsaturated)
Alkynes (1 triple bond between 2 Cs, unsaturated)
These are called aliphatic, or open-chain, hydrocarbons.
Count the number of carbons and add the appropriate
suffix!
garten
Alkanes
CH4 = methane
C2H6 = ethane
C3H8 = propane
C4H10 = butane
C5H12 = pentane
To find the number of hydrogens,
double the number of carbons and add

(c)2.2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Methane
Meth-: one carbon
-ane: alkane
The simplest organic

molecule, also known as
natural gas!
garten
Ethane
Eth-: two carbons
-ane: alkane

garten
Propane
Prop-: three carbons
-ane: alkane
Also known as cylinder gas, usually stored under pressure
and used for gas grills and stoves. Its also very handy as a
fuel for Bunsen burners!

garten
Butane
But-: four carbons
-ane: alkane
Liquefies with moderate pressure, useful for gas lighters. You
have probably lit your gas grill with a grill lighter fueled with
butane!

garten
Pentane
Pent-: five carbons
-ane: alkane
Your Turn!!!
Draw Hexane:
Draw Heptane:
garten
Alkenes
C2H4 = Ethene
C3H6 = Propene
C4H8 = Butene
C5H10 = Pentene
To find the number of hydrogens, double
the number of carbons.

garten
Ethene
Two carbons, double bonded.
Notice how each carbon has
four bonds? Two to the other
carbon and two to hydrogen
atoms.
Also called ethylene, is used for the production of
polyethylene, which is an extensively used plastic. Look for
the PE, HDPE (#2 recycling) or LDPE (#4 recycling)
on your plastic bags and containers!

garten
Propene
Three carbons, two of them
double bonded. Notice how
each carbon has four bonds?
If you flipped this molecule so that the double bond was on
the right side of the molecule instead of the left, it would still
be the same molecule. This is true of all alkenes.
Used to make polypropylene (PP, recycling #5), used for

dishwasher safe containers and indoor/outdoor carpeting!
garten
Butene
This is 1-butene, because the double
bond is between the 1st and 2nd
carbon from the end. The number 1
represents the lowest numbered
carbon the double bond is touching.
This is 2-butene. The double bond
is between the 2nd and 3rd carbon
from the end. Always count from
the end the double bond is closest
to.
ISOMERS: Molecules that share the same molecular
formula, but have different structural formulas.
garten
Pentene
This is 1-pentene. The double bond is
on the first carbon from the end.
This is 2-pentene. The double bond is

on the second carbon from the end.
This is not another isomer of pentene.

This is also 2-pentene, just that the
double bond is closer to the right end.
garten
Alkynes
C2H2 = Ethyne
C3H4 = Propyne
C4H6 = Butyne
C5H8 = Pentyne
To find the number of hydrogens, double
the number of carbons and subtract 2.

garten
Ethyne
Now, try to draw propyne! Any isomers? Lets see!

Also known as acetylene, used by miners by dripping
water on CaC2 to light up mining helmets. The carbide
lamps were attached to miners helmets by a clip and had
a large reflective mirror that magnified the acetylene
flame.
Used for welding and cutting applications, as ethyne
burns at temperatures over 3000oC!
garten
Propyne
This is propyne! Nope! No
isomers.
OK, now draw butyne. If there are any isomers, draw
them too.

garten
Butyne
Well, heres 1-butyne!
And heres 2-butyne!

Is there a 3-butyne? Nope! That would be 1-butyne. With
four carbons, the double bond can only be between the 1st
and 2nd carbon, or between the 2nd and 3rd carbons.
Now, try pentyne!
garten
Pentyne
1-pentyne
2-pentyne
Now, draw all of the possible isomers for hexyne!
garten
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon chains can have three kinds of dingly-
danglies attached to the chain. If the dingly-dangly is

made of anything other than hydrogen and carbon, the
molecule ceases to be a hydrocarbon and becomes another
type of organic molecule.
Alkyl groups
Halide groups
Other functional groups
To name a hydrocarbon with an attached group, determine
which carbon (use lowest possible number value) the
group is attached to. Use di- for 2 groups, tri- for three.
garten
Alkyl Groups

garten
Halide Groups

garten
Organic Families
Each family has a functional group to identify it.
Alcohol (R-OH, hydroxyl group)

Organic Acid (R-COOH, primary carboxyl group)
Aldehyde (R-CHO, primary carbonyl group)
Ketone (R1-CO-R2, secondary carbonyl group)
Ether (R1-O-R2)
Ester (R1-COO-R2, carboxyl group in the middle)
Amine (R-NH2, amine group)
Amide (R-CONH2, amide group)
These molecules are alkanes with functional groups attached. The
name is based on the alkane name.

garten
Alcohol
On to DI and TRIHYDROXY ALCOHOLS

garten
Di and Trihydroxy Alcohols

garten
Positioning of
Functional Group
PRIMARY (1o): the functional group is

bonded to a carbon that is on the end of
the chain.
SECONDARY (2o): The functional
group is bonded to a carbon in the
middle of the chain.
TERTIARY (3o): The functional group is
bonded to a carbon that is itself directly
bonded to three other carbons.
garten
Organic Acid
These are weak acids. The H on the right side is the one
that ionized in water to form H3O+. The -COOH (carboxyl)
functional group is always on a PRIMARY carbon.
Can be formed from the oxidation of primary alcohols
using a KMnO4 catalyst.
garten
Aldehyde
Aldehydes have the CO (carbonyl) groups ALWAYS on a

PRIMARY carbon. This is the only structural difference
between aldehydes and ketones.
Formed by the oxidation of primary alcohols with a catalyst.
Propanal is formed from the oxidation of 1-propanol using
pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) catalyst.*
garten
Ketone
Ketones have the CO (carbonyl) groups ALWAYS on a

SECONDARY carbon. This is the only structural difference
between ketones and aldehydes.
Can be formed from the dehydration of secondary alcohols
with a catalyst. Propanone is formed from the oxidation of 2propanol using KMnO4 or PCC catalyst.*
garten
Ether
Ethers are made of two alkyl groups surrounding one oxygen

atom. The ether is named for the alkyl groups on ether side
of the oxygen. If a three-carbon alkyl group and a fourcarbon alkyl group are on either side, the name would be
propyl butyl ether. Made with an etherfication reaction.
garten
Ester
Esters are named for the alcohol and organic acid that
reacted by esterification to form the ester. If the alcohol was
1-propanol and the acid was hexanoic acid, the name of the
ester would be propyl hexanoate. Esters contain a COO
(carboxyl) group in the middle of the molecule, which
differentiates them from organic acids.
garten
Amine
- Component of amino acids, and therefore proteins, RNA and

DNAlife itself!
- Essentially ammonia (NH3) with the hydrogens replaced by
one or more hydrocarbon chains, hence the name amine!
garten
Amide
Synthetic Polyamides: nylon, kevlar

Natural Polyamide: silk!
For more information on polymers, go here.
garten
Organic Reactions
Combustion
Fermentation
Substitution
Addition
Dehydration Synthesis
Etherification
Esterification
Saponification
Polymerization
garten
Combustion
Happens when an organic molecule reacts with oxygen gas
to form carbon dioxide and water vapor. Also known as

burning.

garten
Fermentation
Process of making ethanol by having yeast digest simple
sugars anaerobically. CO2 is a byproduct of this reaction.

The ethanol produced is toxic and it kills the yeast when
the percent by volume of ethanol gets to 14%.

garten
Substitution
Alkane + Halogen Alkyl Halide + Hydrogen Halide
The halogen atoms substitute for any of the hydrogen atoms in the alkane. This happens one atom at a time. The halide generally replaces an H on the end of the
molecule.
C2H6 + Cl2 C2H5Cl + HCl
The second Cl can then substitute for another H:
C2H5Cl + HCl C2H4Cl2 + H2

garten
Addition
Alkene + Halogen Alkyl Halide
The double bond is broken, and the halogen adds at either
side of where the double bond was. One isomer possible.

garten
Etherification*
Alcohol + Alcohol Ether + Water
A dehydrating agent (H2SO4) removes H from one alcohols
OH and removes the OH from the other. The two molecules

join where there H and OH were removed.
Note: dimethyl ether and diethyl ether are also produced from
this reaction, but can be separated out.
garten
Esterification
Organic Acid + Alcohol
Ester + Water
A dehydrating agent (H2SO4) removes H from the organic acid and removes the OH
from the alcohol. The two molecules join where there H and OH were removed.

garten
Saponification
The process of making soap from glycerol esters (fats).
Glycerol ester + 3 NaOH soap + glycerol
Glyceryl stearate + 3 NaOH sodium stearate + glycerol
The sodium stearate is the soap! It emulsifies grease
surrounds globules with its nonpolar ends, creating micelles
with - charge that water can then wash away. Hard water
replaces Na+ with Ca+2 and/or other low solubility ions, which
forms a precipitate called soap scum.
Water softeners remove these hardening ions from your tap
water, allowing the soap to dissolve normally.
garten
Polymerization
A polymer is a very long-chain molecule made up of many
monomers (unit molecules) joined together.

The polymer is named for the monomer that made it.
Polystyrene is made of styrene monomer
Polybutadiene is made of butadiene monomer
Addition Polymers
Condensation Polymers
Rubber

garten
Addition Polymers
Joining monomers together by breaking double
bonds
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): vinyl siding, PVC pipes, etc.
Vinyl chloride
n C2H3Cl
polyvinyl chloride
-(-C2H3Cl-)-n
Polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE, teflon):

TFE
n C2F4
PTFE
-(-C2F4-)-n
(c) 2006,
Mark Rosen
garten
Condensation Polymers
Condensation polymerization is just dehydration synthesis,
except instead of making one molecule of ether or ester, you
make a monster molecule of polyether or polyester.

garten
Rubber
The process of toughing rubber by cross-linking the polymer

strands with sulfur is called...
garten
VULCANIZATION
!!!
garten
THE END
garten

Rosengarten Chemistry

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Rosengarten Chemistry

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Mark Rosengartens Amazing

Chemistry Powerpoint Presentation!

Curriculum for The Physical Setting-Chemistry

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

Outline for Review

amu, determined using atomic number, nuclear charge

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

Weight-Average Atomic Mass

What is the WAM of an element if its isotope masses and

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

Most Common Isotope

65.39 amu. What is the most common isotope

FACT: one atomic mass unit (1.66 10-27

kilograms) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an

that ejects a decay particle to form a

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

The nucleus ejects two protons and two neutrons. The

atomic mass decreases by 4, the atomic number decreases

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

A neutron decays into a proton and an electron. The

electron is ejected from the nucleus as a beta particle. The

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

A proton is converted into a neutron and a positron. The

positron is ejected by the nucleus. The mass remains the

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

involve a lot more energy. When the nucleus becomes

Charges of Decay Particles

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

the nuclei in a radioactive sample to

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

Going Forwards in Time

of 8 days) will remain in 24 days?

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

Going Backwards in Time

of 8 days) would there have been 24 days ago?

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

steady-state concentration of C-14. How old is the scroll?

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

H -----> 10n + _____

Nuclide + Bullet --> New Element + Fragment(s)

The masses and atomic numbers must add up

to be the same on both sides of the arrow.

particle bullets towards target nuclei to make artificial

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

The three neutrons given off can be reabsorbed by other

U-235 nuclei to continue fission as a chain reaction

A tiny bit of mass is lost (mass defect) and converted into a

huge amount of energy.

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

smash together at high temperatures and

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

The maximum number of valence electrons an atom can

have is EIGHT, called a STABLE OCTET.

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

EXAMPLE DOT DIAGRAMS

Example Dot Diagrams

Carbon can also have this dot diagram, which it

Excited vs. Ground State

(c) 2006, Mark Rosen

the excited state to the ground state.

This is the bright-line spectrum of hydrogen. The top