OPTIMAL SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

MOHAMAD KASYFI BIN SAMSUDDIN

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

 “I hereby declare that I have read this research report and in my opinion this
research report is sufficient in view of scope and quality for the purpose of awarding
a Bachelor’s Degree of Electrical Engineering (Electronics)”

Signature : _____________________________

Name of Supervisor : EN. ABD RAHIM B. ABD RAHMAN

Date : 30 APRIL, 2010

 OPTIMAL SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

MOHAMAD KASYFI BIN SAMSUDDIN

Submitted to the Faculty of Electrical Engineering

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor in Electrical Engineering (Electronics)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL 2010
 ii

DECLARATION

I declare that this thesis entitled “OPTIMAL SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM” is the
result of my own project except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been
accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other
degree.

Signature : ………………………………………
Name : MOHAMAD KASYFI BIN
SAMSUDDIN
Date : 30 APRIL 2010
 iii

DEDICATION

To my beloved mother and father

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, En. Abd.

Rahim Abd. Rahman. Under his supervision, many aspects regarding this project
have been explored and with the knowledge, idea and support received from him,
this thesis can be presented in the time given.

My appreciation also goes to my family who has been so tolerant and

supports me all these years. Thanks for their encouragement, love and emotional
supports that they given to me. Thanks to my senior and all my friends who helped
me directly or indirectly in completing this projects. Not forgetting, grateful
appreciation is also extended to the lab technician of UTM’s Laboratory who gave
me great assistance during the process in accomplishing PSM one and two.
 v

ABSTRACT

Solar energy is the least polluting and most inexhaustible of all known energy
sources. The sun bathers the earth with more energy each minute then the world
consumes in one year. In Malaysia, the sun intensity does not vary by season. It is a
suitable place to develop the solar cell system. Fossil fuels are a relative short-term
energy source and to overcome this problem the uses of alternative sources such as
solar energy are becoming more wide spread. To make solar energy more efficient,
the solar panel system must be maximized. This project is regarding the development
of a sun tracking solar system. This system is a simple tracking solar system using a
dc motor and light sensor. The solar tracking system used in this method could
increased the power collection efficiency by developing a device that can tracks the
sun to keep the panel at a right angle to its rays. As the plane of the solar panel is
always maintained normal to the sun's rays, maximum power is generated by the
array. A solar tracking system is designed, implemented and experimentally tested.
The design details and the experimental results are shown promising result.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Tenaga suria adalah tenaga yang tidak menghasilkan pencemaran dan

diketahui tidak akan habis berbanding sumber-sumber tenaga lain. Tenaga matahari
yang dipancarkan ke atas bumi pada setiap minit sudah melebihi tenaga yang
diperlukan di bumi dalam setahun. Di Malaysia, cahaya matahari tidak dipengaruhi
oleh musim. Ini menjadikan, Malaysia sebuah tempat yang sesuai untuk
membangunkan system berasaskan tenaga suria. Sumber fosil sebenarnya adalah
sumber yang terhad dan untuk mengatasi masalah ini, penggunaan tenaga alternatif
seperti tenaga suria telah berkembang. Bagi menghasilkan penggunaan tenaga suria
yg lebih berkesan, sistem panel suria bagi memaximumkan keberkesanan perlu
dibangunkan. Laporan ini menunjukkan potensi dan kelebihan dengan menggunakan
sistem penjejek ringkas yang menggunakan motor arus terus dan pengesan cahaya.
Kaedah ini meningkatkan kadar pengumpulan tenaga suria dengan membangunkan
peralatan yang boleh menjejak matahari dan memastikan panel suria sentiasa
menghadap matahari. Reka bentuk secara mendalam dan keputusan analisis ada
ditunjukkan.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiv

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Project 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Scope of Project 3
1.4 Outline of Thesis 4
 viii

2 LITERATURE RIVIEW 5
2.1 Fundamental of Photovoltaic System 5
2.1.1 Photovoltaic 5
2.1.2 The Photovoltaic Effect 6
2.2 Efficiency 8
2.3 Types of System 10
2.4 Previous Study 11
2.4.1 Microcontroller Automatic Sun Tracker 11
2.4.1.1 System Description 11
2.4.1.2 Control Implementation 13
2.4.1.3 Test result 14
2.4.2 Implementation Solar Tracking System 16
2.4.2.1 System Description 16
2.4.2.1 Solar Tracker Verification and Testing19
2.5 Control System 20
2.6 Operation of 555 timers 21
2.6.1 Pin Configurations of the 555 Timer 21
2.6.2 Monostable Operation of the 555 Timer 23

3 METHODOLOGY 25
3.1 Development Process 25
3.1.1 Phase 1 26
3.1.2 Phase 2 26
3.1.3 Phase 3 28
3.2 Electronic control system 29
3.3 Hardware development 30
3.4 Electronic Design 30
3.4.1 Sensor Control Tracking System 31
3.4.2 Photo-Sensor 31
3.4.3 The 555 Timer 33
3.4.4 Relays 34
 ix

3.4.5 Relay Operation 34

3.4.5.1 Relay Energize (ON) 34
3.4.5.2Relay De-Energized (OFF) 34
3.4.6 DC Motor 35
3.5 Mechanical Design 36
3.5.1 Frame Work 37
3.5.2 Mechanical Operation 37
3.5.2.1 Stage 1 38
3.5.2.2 Stage 2 38
3.5.2.3 Stage 3 38

4 RESULT AND ANALYSIS 39

4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Indoor Analysis 40
4.2.1 Result at stage 1 40
4.2.2 Result at Stage 2 41
4.2.3 Result at Stage 3 42
4.2.4 Time Line Analysis Base on Indoor Analysis.44
4.3 Outdoor Analysis 46

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 48

5.1 Conclusion 48
5.2 Recommendation 49

REFERENCE

APPENDICES
 x

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

3.1 List of component 30
3.2 LDR operation 32
3.3 The 555 timer operation 33
4.1 Result 1 40
4.2 Result 2 40
4.3 Result 3 41
4.4 Result 4 41
4.5 Result 5 41
4.6 Result 6 42
4.7 Result 7 42
4.8 Result 8 42
4.9 Result of outdoor analysis 47
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 The emission of electron from metal plate 6
2.2 The photovoltaic effect in the dark place 7
2.3 The photovoltaic effect in the bright place 7
2.4 The photovoltaic effect in the bright place 8
2.5 System circuit diagram 12
2.6 Block diagram 12
2.7 Voltage against position graph 12
2.8 Circuit diagram 13
2.9 MPP at illumination level A 14
2.10 MPP at illumination level B 15
2.11 Voltage controlled power conversion 15
2.12 Current controlled power conversion 15
2.13 Solar tracker control circuit 17
2.14 H-bridge motor control 18
2.15 Basic software design flowchart 18
2.16 Signal generated when one LDR was under shadow19
2.17 Signal generated when both LDR in same illumination level19
2.18 Negative feedback control system 20
2.19 The comparator in the 555 timer 23
2.20 The sample input and output pulse 24
3.1 The circuit diagram 27
3.2 The block diagram 29
3.3 LDR 32
3.4 The PVC 32
3.5 The SPDT relay circuit diagram 35
 xii

3.6 The SPDT relay 35

3.7 The DC motor 36
3.8 The cassis of the system 37
 xiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

R - Resistor
C - Capacitor
Vcc - Voltage supply
 xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Mechanical Data of 555 Timer 53
B LDR Data Sheet 54
C NE555 Data Sheet 57
D DC Motor Data Sheet 64
E Songle Relay 65
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Project

Solar power is an alternative technology that will hopefully lead us away

from our petroleum dependent energy sources. The major problem with solar panel
technology is that the efficiencies for solar power systems are still poor and the costs
per kilo-watt-hour (kwh) are not competitive, in most cases, to compete with
petroleum energy sources.

. In Malaysia, the sun is always directly overhead and its intensity do not
varies by season. This give a lot more advantage for us to use solar power compare
with the place that have season. There are two most common type systems that
always use for small building generated system:-

1. The solar thermal system

2. The photovoltaic system

The solar thermal system operate by convert the radiant energy of the sun into
heat then use that heat to provide useful electric energy.

On other hand, the photovoltaic system converts directly the sun radiant into
useful electric energy, which can be used as most electrical energy in used today.
 2

Solar power (photovoltaic) systems are a sustainable way to convert the

energy of the sun into electricity. The expected lifetime of a system is 25-30 years.
This shows how efficient is this system even it is quite expensive to install this
system at the beginning.

Amount of power produced by a photovoltaic panel depends upon the amount

of sunlight it is exposed to. In other word, more light means more power. In order to
capture more light produce by sun, the photovoltaic panel must constantly orient
itself to the sun location. When the photovoltaic panel does not intercept as much
light as it can, it will not produce as much power as it can.

Fixed photovoltaic panel do not aim directly to the sun due to the constant
motion of earth. As the result, the power produce by the system is less then it capable
producing. To overcome this problem, the tracking system can be installed in order
that the panel continually adjusts so that the panel is always aim directly at the sun.
As the result, Photovoltaic panel are able to collect the maximum amount of sunlight
and produce the most power possible.

1.2 Objective

The objective of this project is to develop tracking mechanism for

photovoltaic panel to maximize the generation of electrical energy. The objective of
the project is
to develop the system that can constantly tracking the sun.
 3

1.3 Scope of Project

The system consists of a mechanical design and circuit development. The

tracker system will follow sun movement from east to west. The movement
controlled by the dc motor that using 12volt supply.

Mechanical part: The panel or the place that the solar cell hook up is designed that it
can move from right to left or from left to right. The panel movement is controlled by
string attached to the dc motor. The panel is designed to operate with single axis
only. Two sensors are placed at the east side and west side. Both sides also have reset
switch to limit panel movement.

Electronic Part: The circuit function is to control the motor movement determined by
the location of the sun ray. The 555 timer is used to control the system. Input control
is using LDR. The sensitivity of the circuit is control by potentiometer. Dc motor is
connecting to the relay and the circuit function is to trigger the relay to made dc
motor move.
 4

1.4 Outline of Thesis

This thesis consists of five chapters. In the first chapter, it will discuss about
the objective and scope of this project along with a summary works. While Chapter 2
will discuss more on literature reviews that have been done.

In Chapter 3, the discussion will be on the methodology, mechanical part and

electronic part of this project. The result and discussion will be presented in Chapter
4. Last but not least, Chapter 5 discusses the conclusion of this project and future
work that can be done
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Fundamental of Photovoltaic System

Photovoltaic panel are made of the natural element which becomes charged
electrically when subjected to sunlight. Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light
into electricity at the atomic level. The panel works on the principle of the
photovoltaic (PV) effect. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially
treated to form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other.

2.1.1 Photovoltaic

When light energy strikes the PV cell, electrons are knocked loose from the
atoms in the semiconductor material and start travel from the PV cell, through
electronic circuit to the load. Then, they return to the PV cell where the silicon
recaptures the electrons and the process is repeated. The photovoltaic itself is a p-n
junction, which through the process of electron dropping and this produces a current
in proportion to the solar radiation. If electrical conductors are attached to the
 6

positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be
captured in the form of an electric current and produce electricity. This electricity
can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool [1].

SUNLIGHT

Figure 2.1 The emission of electron from metal plate

Figure 2.1 illustrating the emission of electrons from a metal plate, requiring energy
gained from absorb sunlight radiation to be more than the work function of the
material.

2.1.2 The Photovoltaic Effect

The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV cell
converts sunlight into electricity .Sunlight is composed of packets of solar energy.
These sunlight radiations contain different amounts of energy that correspond to the
different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may
be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. The absorbed photons
generate electricity. The photovoltaic cells generally consist of two thin regions, one
above the other, N-type and P-type. This two region structure, called a p-n
junction. The collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a
 7

movement of electrons to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the junction.
When open circuit, carriers are prevented from leaving the solar cell, then the
collection of light-generated carriers causes an increase in the number of electrons on
the n-type side of the p-n junction and a similar increase in holes in the p-type
material. This separation of charge creates an electric field at the junction which is in
opposition to that already existing at the junction. Under short circuit conditions, the
minority carrier concentration on either side of the junction is increased and the drift
current, which depends on the number of minority carriers, is increased. In
equilibrium (in the dark) both the diffusion and drift current are small [2].

When in the dark

N-type

P-type

Figure 2.2 The photovoltaic effect in the dark place

LIGHT

Under the sun light

N-type

P-type

Figure 2.3 The photovoltaic effect in the bright place

 8

LIGHT

N-type

P-type

Figure 2.4 The photovoltaic effect in the bright place

2.2 Efficiency

On a bright, sunny day, the sun's rays give off approximately 1,000 watts of
energy per square meter of the planet's surface. If we could collect all of that energy,
we could easily power our homes and offices for free. However, in practically the
maximum allowed by the law of physics is between 30% and 40%. The efficiency of
photovoltaic cells can be very tricky to figure out and many of the companies that
produce them take different routes when manufacturing their products. Different
companies will use different materials and as the technology improves, the efficiency
of the solar paneling options will also improve. There are basically 3 different types
of solar panels on the market today, each of which has a different efficiency rating.
The following are the 3 types and their efficiency ratings [3]:
 9

Monocrystalline Silicon – manufactured using a single crystal of silicon

which has been cut into a prescribed shape, this type of solar panel has a 13%
conversion rate, meaning that it converts 13% of the captured sunlight into
electricity [4].
Polycrystalline Silicon – these are less expensive and have a lower
conversion rate because of the multiple crystal manufacturing process. This
increases internal resistance between the silicon crystals. The conversion rate
of these panels is around 12% to 12½% [5].
Thin Film Amorphous Silicon – probably the cheapest solar panel to produce
and the least efficient at a rate of only 6% to 8%. More suited for use in
cooler and tropical climates, this type of solar panel is not very efficient in
arid, hot climates [6].
Other then the material that use to crate solar cell its self, there are few factor that
will affect the energy efficiency. The output will be less at:-

In cloudy condition
The module is in the shade
Pointed away from the sun

In space, the output is more higher due to the solar radiation is much stronger
compare at the earth. Approximately, the power density is around 1365 watt per
square meter.
 10

2.3 Types of System

Basically, there are three main systems that commonly use in photovoltaic
system. It’s come with several configurations for difference use.

1. Directly Connected System

a. The system work without battery storage.
b. The load connected to the system operates in synchronization with
sunlight.
c. Usually an over current protection device is added for safety purpose.
d. Typical application are:-
i. Ventilation fan.
ii. Water pumping.
iii. Calculator.
2. Stand Alone System
a. The system may have battery storage or emergency backup supply to
provide power when the sun is not available.
b. Commonly use in a remote area where there is no power-lines.
c. This type of system need to have charge regulator to prevent battery
overcharging or over discharging.
d. Typical application are:-
i. Remote home.
ii. Outdoor lighting
iii. Solar car
3. Utility Interactive System
a. This system consist neither battery storage nor an emergency backup
system.
b. This system connected with the utility grid.
c. When the sunlight not available it has battery storage
d. When the sunlight and battery storage out, the power will be supply
by utility power system.
 11

2.4 Previous Study

There are two reviews that use as example before build optimal solar tracking
system. Both review using difference method to track the sun position.

2.4.1 Microcontroller Based Automatic Sun Tracker Combine with a New

Solar Energy Conversion Unit by F. Huang, D. Tien and James Or.

In 2004 F. Huang, D. Tien and James Or had complete the paper about
microcontroller based automatic sun tracker combined with a new solar energy
conversion unit. This sun tracker had developed in order to increase the efficiency of
the solar panel. The control system that developed base on automatic sun tracker that
used was implemented with a dc motor and a dc motor controller. The energy
conversion unit in this tracker system that created had an array of solar panel, a step-
up chopper, a single-phase inverter, an ac main power source and a microcontroller
based control unit. This tracker was not uses any sensor to detect the location or the
angle of the sun. In this tracker, Maximum Power Point (MPP) detector was use. In
simple, the array of solar was set up as sensor. It was operated to find the angle that
can provide the highest solar energy and assume that was the most direct angle with
the sun. The operation was started by search MPP location. The position and value of
MPP will set as reference for find new angle.

2.4.1.1 System Description

The system was designed at 500W using 10 solar panel connected in series
and in parallel. The output voltage output collected was 40 to 100 volt. The system
 12

was design to disable if the voltage drops below 40 volt. Set-up chopper was used to
convert the voltage collected to a higher voltage. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) was then used as inverter to convert the dc voltage from the chopper main
supply.

Figure 2.5 System circuit diagram

The system was designed to active when the panel voltage higher than 40
volt. There also had function to set the time interval for the panel to rotate. The time
interval used can be set 5 or 10 minutes. The system was designed to rotate at P
position first then move toward P2 position. The system compares the panel voltage
that was collected. When voltage panel at P2 was greater than P position, the panel
was set to move further until the voltage panel less than previous panel.

Figure 2.6 Block diagram

 13

Figure 2.7 Voltage against position graph

Figure 2.8 Circuit diagram

2.4.1.2 Control Implementation

MPP detection and the control of power conversion unit were controlled by
single circuit. The input of the control circuit was the feedback signal from the panel
voltage and the output was a current source to drive the power transistor in the
chopper circuit.

At the beginning, S1 was kept close and S2 was kept opened. The time
constant, T = RC was designed to be 10 milisecond. The two darlington transistor
TIP 112 and TIP 117 function as voltage to current source converter. The increases
of the voltage at the base of the TIP 112 result in increase of the current at the
collector of the TIP 117. After that, the microcontroller start obtained the information
of the panel voltage.

Once the detection mode complete, the conversion mode will be initiated.
The voltage from detection mode was set as reference in conversion mode. In
conversion mode, S1 and S2 kept open. TIP 112 and TIP 117 were now functioning
as switching mode. The panel voltage was sample every 5 micro second and this
 14

voltage (actual panel voltage) was compare with the reference voltage that collected
from detection mode.

When the actual voltage was higher than the reference, the logic high was
produce at the microcontroller. When the actual voltage falls below the reference
voltage, the logic low was produce. The logic low then switches off the power
transistor. The MPP condition was controlling the on-off duration of the power
transistor.

2.4.1.3 Test result.

The subject was test with two solar panels connected in series. In this review,
there were 4 test results collected from the project. First and second results were
about the waveform of the panel voltage, current and power of illumination level.
The other two were about the voltage across the solar panel when the panel was
controlled.

Figure 2.9 MPP at illumination level A

a) Panel voltage, 2Ov/div (top)
b) Panel output power, 5OW/div (middle)
c) Panel output current, 1Ndiv (bottom)
 15

Figure 2.10 MPP at illumination level B

a) Panel voltage, 2Ov/div (top)
b) Panel output power, 5OW/div (middle)
c) Panel output current, 1Ndiv (bottom)

Figure 2.11 Voltage controlled power conversion

Figure 2.12 Current controlled power conversion

 16

2.4.2 Implementation of a Prototype for a Traditional Solar Tracking System

by Nader Barsoum.

In 2009, Nader Barsoum had developed a system to implementation of a

prototype for a traditional solar tracking system. This prototype had developed in
order to increase the efficiency of the solar panel. The project was constructed using
sensor part, microcontroller part, motor part and mechanical part. The solar tracker
used photodiode as a sensor, PIC16F84A and dc motor. The PIC was controlled the
H-bridge or motor controller which consist of four transistor. The PIC was
programmed to receive the input from LDR and send the output to control the motor.

2.4.2.1 System Description.

The H-bridge was constructed using four transistor 2N2222, four diodes
1N4148 and two 10K resistor. There also additional component, variable resistor
bank used to reduce motor rotation. The system was designed to obtain its data from
LDR. When light falls on its surface, the LDR produce low resistance. The data
collected then send to PIC and process. Then, the PIC gives the output to control the
motor movement. In simple, when both LDR receive equal illumination, their
resistance level will be the same. With an error margin +/- 10 point, the PIC will not
generate any output. However, when LDR receive difference illumination level, the
PIC will generate output to control the motor [13, 14, and 15].
 17

Figure 2.13 Solar tracker control circuit

 18

Figure 2.14 H-bridge motor control

Figure 2.15 Basic software design flowchart

 19

2.4.2.2 Solar Tracker Verification and Testing

The testing was conducted to verify the functionality of LDR. There were two
situations that used in this testing. First situation when one LDR cover by shadow
and other when both LDR were under shadow.

Figure 2.16 Signal generated when one LDR was under shadow

Figure 2.17 Signal generated when both LDR in same illumination level
 20

2.5 Control System.

This tracking system use feedback control system. There are two main types
of feedback control systems: negative feedback and positive feedback. In a positive
feedback control system the set point and output values are added. In a negative
feedback control the set point and output values are subtracted. As a rule negative
feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback systems. Negative feedback
also makes systems more immune to random variations in component values and
inputs. The control system that use was negative feedback system due to stability and
immune to random value.

Figure 2.18 Negative feedback control system

Base from figure 2.18, the position reference actually is sun position. When sensor
detect sun location, it will give signal to run the motor (Pin) to move the panel to sun
location. Position output is representing the actual position of the photovoltaic panel.
If the position output is not directly with position reference, Pin is not equal to zero
 21

and this will give the signal to move until Pin equal to zero or mean position
reference equal with position output [10].

2.6 Operation of 555 timers.

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer

applications. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes
over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin.
Basically the 555 has three operating modes:
Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches,
and touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width
modulation (PWM) [6].
Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
generation, security alarms [6].
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop [6].
 22

2.6.1 Pin Configurations of the 555 Timer

Ground (Pin 1): this pin is connected directly to ground.

Trigger (Pin 2): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set
the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high.

Output (Pin 3): Output high is about 1.7V less than supply. Output high is
capable of Isource up to 200mA while output low is capable of Isink up to
200mA.

Reset (Pin 4): This is used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state.
The reset is an overriding function. When not used connect to V+.

Control (Pin 5): Allows access to the 2/3V+ voltage divider point when the 555
timer is used in voltage control mode. When not used connect to ground through
a 0.01 uF capacitor.

Threshold (Pin 6): This is an input to the upper comparator.

Discharge (Pin 7): This is the open collector to Q14 in figure 4 below.

V+ (Pin 8): This connects to Vcc the NE555 version is 3V - 16V DC.
 23

2.6.2 Monostable Operation of the 555 Timer

Figure 2.19 `The comparator in the 555 timer

The circuit is called a bistable because it is stable in two states: output high
and output low. It is also known as a 'flip-flop’. Base from figure, the 555 timer is
composed of the voltage comparators, the flip-flop and the transistor for the
discharge. The monostable mode (one shot) which requires only two external
components, Ra and C. Time period is determined by T period = 1.1 (Ra C).

Three resistors are connected with the inside in series and the power supply
voltage (Vcc) is divided in 3. 1/3 of power supply voltage is applied to the positive
input terminal of the comparator (COMP1) and the voltage of 2/3 is applied to the
negative terminal of the comparator (COMP2).
 24

When the voltage of the trigger terminal (TRIGGER) is less than 1/3 of the
power supply voltage, the output of the flip-flop becomes high level and a flip-flop is
set. When the voltage of the threshold terminal (THRESHOLD) is more than 2/3 of
the power supply voltage, the R terminal of the FF becomes H level and an FF is
reset.

The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be
cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low
and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should
be connected to +Vcc [8].

Other than that, the threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across
C1 and when this reaches 2/3 Vcc the time period is over and the output becomes low.
At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor
ready for the next trigger. The time period of the pulse given by, T period = 1.1 (Ra C)
[9].

Figure 2.20 The sample input and output pulse

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Development Process

The objective of this project is to develop the control system that can manipulate
the solar panel to move constantly with sun movement. In order to complete this
objective, the method and technical strategies implied is the most important
disciplined need to look at. Therefore, this project is divided into phase by phase.
The main objective for divided into phase is to detect any problem at early stage. It is
much more organized to do the job one by one according to their respective phase.
There are two phase of development that use to complete the project:-

Phase 1- Mechanical Design Process

Phase 2- Electronic Control System
Phase 3- Combination and Beta Test
 26

3.1.1 Phase 1

Mechanical design is one of the major phases in the development of the solar
tracking system. This part contributes to what the solar panel control would look like.
The skeleton of the panel is designed and constructed in this phase. Few sketches
have developed and one of the best had been chosen. The purpose of the skeleton is
to provide a place to mount the electronics component such as:-

DC motor
Sensor (LDR)
Push button
Potentiometer
Solar cell
String

3.1.2 Phase 2

Electronic Control development process is the main part of the project. The
second phase involves the development of control system. Base from the circuit of
Monostable Operation of the 555 timer, the circuit that can control motor movement
had been developed. There are few adjustments and some modification, so that the
circuit can operate accordingly. After that, numerous tests on the designed circuit are
performed on the prototyping board. The circuit is then constructed on PCB board
using Portel Software. There are two circuits that have been designed for this control
system:

Circuit A
Circuit B
 27

Circuit A and B are similar but each circuit controls different part in the system.
Circuit A control east side and circuit B control west side. Below is the diagram of
one part of the circuit.

Figure 3.1 The circuit diagram

 28

These circuits consist of:-

Sensor (LDR)
Push button switch
20k ohm potentiometer
C1 (0.01 microfarad)
C2 (3.3microfarad)
R1 (47k ohm)
R2 (1M ohm)
Relay 12v core- Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
IC 555 timer
DC motor
12 volt power supply (Lead Acid Rechargeable Battery).

3.1.3 Phase 3

In order to combine the circuit part A and B with mechanical system, the
circuit test need to be to make sure it will follow the sun constantly. Few adjustments
and modifications need to be done before the system can work smoothly. Every
condition and situation needs to be looked carefully.
 29

3.2 Electronic control system.

Figure 3.2 The block diagram

The block diagram shows how the electronic control system was developed
and how they communicate with each other. There are 10 block of the block diagram
and each block represents the component with its function to control the system.
There are 2 blocks that represent the sensor that are used to detect the position of the
sun. One at the east and the other at the west similar to the sun movements, that
move from east to west. That sensor will provide signal to the 555 timer when the
sun position is varied. The timer 555 will decide the motor movement base on the
input that they received from the sensors. After the DC motor moves the panel, the
 30

sensor will reconfigure the sun position and give new signal to timer 555. The
process is repeated until both sensors give the right position of sun.

3.3 Hardware development.

The hardware development can be divided into electronic design and

mechanical design. Both design related to each other and equally important.

3.4 Electronic Design

The tracking of photovoltaic panels is controlled or regulated among other

thing by electronic controller circuit.

Table 3.1: List of component

Component Quantity
NE555 timer 2
20K potentiometer 2
Cadmium Sulfide Photo resistor 2
1M ohm resistor 2
47k ohm resistor 2
0.01 micro farad capacitor 2
3.3 micro farad capacitor 2
SPDT Relays nominal 12v coil 2
Push button 2
Lead Acid Rechargeable Battery 12 volt 1
DC motor 1
 31

3.4.1 Sensor Control Tracking System.

In this project, the system is built using photo-sensor, electronics driven

control system(IC 555 timer) and DC motor. The radiation receive from the sun light
on the photo-sensor acts as the input to the controlling system and the angular
displacement caused by the DC motor is based on the input receive by photo-sensor.
The system supplied with 12volt (dc) supply.

3.4.2 Photo-Sensor

A pair of light dependent resistor (LDR) is used as photo-sensor for this

tracking system. Both LDRs act as input and sense the sun position. The resistance
LDR falls with increasing light intensity. When the LDR receive light the resistance
becomes low and this will input low to the 555 timer. However, when LDR in the
dark, LDR resistance become high and this will give input high to the 555 timer. The
555 timer trigged only when it receives voltage that below 1/3 of Vcc. In this case
the voltage to trig the IC 555 timer must be below 4volt.

A polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube with 6cm length is placed on each photo-
sensor to minimize the effect of sunlight diffusion. The diffuse radiation that is not
directly from the sun will be blocked by the tube. This will increase the sensitivity of
the photo-sensor.

The LDR1 is placed at the east part of the solar panel and the LDR2 is placed
at the west part of the solar panel. Both will act as a sun position detector. Then the
signal goes to the 555 timer.
 32

Figure 3.3 LDR

Sun light

2.5
cm

6cm
0
90

Figure 3.4 The PVC

Table 3.2: LDR operation

LDR condition Resistance Voltage Input Voltage Output

LIGHT LOW HIGH LOW
DARK HIGH LOW HIGH
 33

3.4.3 The 555 Timer.

The 555 timer is one of the most important components in this electronic
circuit. 555 timer is the heart of the solar tracking system. 555 timer in this design
has 8 pins and every pin have their own function. It acts as the central data
processing unit, responsible for the fundamental operation of logic. In this design, the
555 timer will pick up the input from LDR and give output to the DC motor. The
timer chip are wired for monostable “one shot” operation. It will give output high
when receive low voltage from LDR. The timed interval is controlled by a single
external resistor and capacitor network.

When the trigger input falls below the trigger level, the flip-flop is set and the
output goes high. If the trigger input above the trigger level and the threshold input is
above the threshold level, the flip-flop is reset and the output is low. The reset input
can override all other input and can be used to initiate a new timing cycle. When
reset goes low, the flip-flop is reset and the output goes low.

The output from the 555 timer will go to the relay before to DC motor. In this
design, there are two circuit that use to control the motor and each circuit have the
555 timer. Each timer receives input from difference LDR and this two 555 timers
connect to relay and both relay connect to the same motor.

Table 3.3: The 555 timer operation

RESET TRIGGER THRESHOLD OUTPUT
VOLTAGE (volt) VOLTAGE (volt)
Low - - Low
High <1/3 Vcc - High
High >1/3 Vcc >2/3 Vcc Low
High >1/3 Vcc <2/3 Vcc As previous
 34

3.4.4 Relays.

Relays are used as remote control switch. Relays which come in different
sizes, rating, and application, are used as remote control switches. Basically, relays
are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another switch, such as
power train control module. Relays allow a small current flow circuit to control a
higher current circuit. In this circuit, SPDT Relay with 12v coil is use. SPDT stand
for single pole double throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. All relays operate
using the same basic principle. The control circuit has a small control coil while the
load circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.

3.4.5 Relay Operation.

There are two type of operation in relay:

Relay energized (ON)
Relay de-energized (OFF)

3.4.5.1 Relay Energize (ON).

Current flowing through the control circuit coil creates a small magnetic field
which causes the switch to close. The switch, which is part of load circuit, is used to
control an electrical circuit that may connect to it. Current now flow through pins to
load.
 35

3.4.5.2 Relay De-Energized (OFF).

When current is stops flowing through the control circuit, the relay become
de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is prevented
from flowing through pins. The relay now OFF

In this tracking system, both relay set as ground when not function. When
sensor detects sun movement, it will give signal to the 555 timer. Then, the 555 timer
will trig relay to control the motor.

Figure 3.5 The SPDT relay circuit diagram

Figure 3.6 The SPDT relay

 36

3.4.6 DC Motor.

In this project, DC motor is used to move the solar panel. The DC motor is
connecting with string and attach to the panel. When motor rotate, it will move the
panel and that movement will relocate the angle of the LDR sensor. The LDR sensor
will send back the signal of sun location and the motor stopped when the right angle
was founded. It all depends from the input provided by sensor.

DC motor type that use in this project is from SPG30-20k series. This type of
series use 12 volt input and available to produce maximum 1.1 watt power as
mention in data sheet. A DC motor required at least one electromagnet. This
electromagnet switches the current flow as the motor turns, changing its polarity to
keep the motor running. The motor rotate from positive terminal to negative
terminal.

Figure 3.7 The DC motor

 37

3.5 Mechanical Design.

The combination of all components will create the control circuit. Every
component has own rule in the system. However, the system needs the chassis to
complete the prototype. The chassis developed is used to place the electronic
component at the right place and also to make it move freely from east to west and
back to east again.

3.5.1 Frame Work.

There is little part that critical that influences the movement of the chassis of
the solar panel. There are push buttons that limit the cassis movement. There also a
string that connects the motor with panel where the circuits are placed. The panel
also places the sensor to detect sun position. The DC motor is placed at the center
bottom of the cassis. The panel movement will be control by DC motor via timing
belt. The LDR will give information about panel position and the direction the motor
should move. The limit switch connects to pin number four and act as a limit for
panel movement. S1 connect to circuit 1 at east side and S2 connect to circuit 2 at
west side. S1 part represent east part and S2 part represent west.

Figure 3.8 The cassis of the system

 38

3.5.2 Mechanical Operation

The operation of this chassis can be divided into three categories:

Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3

3.5.2.1 Stage 1

Stage one consist of three situations:

When S1 doesn’t detect any light and S2 detect the light. The motor will
move to west.
When S2 doesn’t detect any light and S1 detect the light. The motor will
move to east.
Both movement will stop when touch the switch SW1 or SW2.

3.5.2.2 Stage 2

Stage two consists of two situations:

Motor will stop when both LDR in dark.
Motor will stop when both LDR in sun light.

3.5.2.3 Stage 3

Stage three happen when the panel at the west limit and touch SW2 or at east limit
where it touch SW1.
At east limit: when S2 detect the light, motor move to west.
At west limit: When S1 detect the light, motor move to east.
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discussed on the outcome of the project. The analysis

and experiment are being conduct in order to test the functionality and
performance of the tracking system. The analysis is Optimal Solar Tracking
System is done in two different situations:-

Indoor analysis
Outdoor analysis

Both have different objectives. The indoor analysis is just trying to

figure out the functionality of the system toward light. In this analysis, the
source of light are torch light and the result obtain must agree with the
theory. The motor movements are observed so it will show the result as
expected before the analysis at actual working field is conducted.

The outdoor analysis is done in actual field. The objective is to test

the functionality of the system toward sun position. The position in degree
is taken and compare between sun position and solar panel position.
 36

4.2 Indoor Analysis

These analyses follow the mechanical operation. It consist three stage

same as mechanical operation.

4.2.1 Result at stage 1

Table 4.1: Result 1

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement
S1(1),S2(0)
555 timer 1 12v 1.0v 10.0v Move to east
555 timer 2 12v 8.0v 0.0v Move to east

Table 4.2: Result 2

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(1),S2(1)
555 timer 1 12v 7.9v 0.0v Move to west
555 timer 2 12v 1.6v 9.0v Move to west

1 = High light intensity

0 = Low light intensity

Base from the table, when light strike at LDR S1, the input in pin two
of the 555 timer 1 become low. This produce high output at the 555 timer 1
and move the motor to the east. Same happen when LDR S2 receives the
light. The difference between this two are the motor movement. The motor
movement control by input from LDR sensor.
 37

Table 4.3: Result 3

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(1),S2(1)
555 timer 1 12v 1.03v 0.0v Motor don’t move
555 timer 2 12v 8.05v 0.0v Motor don’t move

Table 4.4: Result 4

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(1),S2(1)
555 timer 1 12v 7.5v 0.0v Motor don’t move
555 timer 2 12v 1.9v 0.0v Motor don’t move

1 = High light intensity

0 = Low light intensity

These tables are proving of function reset pin in IC 555 timer. When
the panel move and touch the push button that place at the limit range of
panel, the reset function at pin 4 of 555 timer will trigged. This function is
active low, mean when it receives voltage below 0.7 volt, the function
trigged.

4.2.2 Result at Stage 2

Table 4.5: Result 5

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(1),S2(1)
555 timer 1 12v 0.1v 0.0v Motor don’t move
555 timer 2 12v 0.2v 0.0v Motor don’t move
 38

Table 4.6: Result 6

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(0),S2(0)
555 timer 1 12v 8.1v 0.0v Motor don’t move
555 timer 2 12v 8.1v 0.0v Motor don’t move

1 = High Light Intensity

0 = Low Light Intensity

In this stage 2 analyses, the LDR sensor both uncover to same light
intensity. This analysis objective is to observe whether the system can stop
moving when the solar panel perpendicular with sun position. Beside,
observe what happen to the system at night.

4.2.3 Result at Stage 3

Table 4.7: Result 7

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(1),S2(1)
555 timer 1 12v 8.3v 0.0v To West
555 timer 2 12v 0.7v 10.0v To West

Table 4.8: Result 8

When VCC PIN 2 PIN 3 Motor Movement

S1(1),S2(1)
555 timer 1 12v 0.1v 10.0v To east
555 timer 2 12v 8.7v 0.0v To east

1 = High light intensity

0 = Low light intensity

 39

In this stage, the analysis is about the control system that already at
the limit switch but the receiver the light form the other side. For example,
the panel already moves until west limit and the system stop moving due to
reset function. However, went sun rise again from east, the LDR S1
received the light and that will move the motor to the east. The reset
function not influences the system because the system that actually reset is
the 555 timer 2. The LDR S1 only trigged the 555 timer 1. The same thing
happened if the opposite side tested.
 40

4.2.4 Time Line Analysis Base on Indoor Analysis.

Figure 4.1 Time line from no light to both LDR receive light
 41

Figure 4.2 Time line from motor on to motor stop due limit switch to
motor on
 42

Figure 4.3 Experimental set up

4.3 Outdoor Analysis

Outdoor analysis is to prototype of optimal solar tracking system in

actual situation. The angle of sun position is collected from software that
simulated the position of sun. However, the simulations use Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia as reference place. Assume that sun position at UTM skudai,
Malaysia have the same sun position with Kuala Lumpur, the data analysis
are collected from 6 a.m to 7 p.m.
 43

Table 4.9: Result of outdoor analysis

Time 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sun Position 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 170 180
(degree)
Angle 45 45 45 45 70 85 90 100 110 135 135 135 135 135
perpendicular
with solar
panel
(degree)

200
180
160
140
120
100 Sun Position
80
60 Angle perpendicular with
40 solar panel
20
0
9:00AM
6:00AM
7:00AM
8:00AM

1:00AM
2:00AM
3:00AM
4:00AM
5:00AM
6:00AM
7:00AM
10:00AM
11:00AM
12:00AM

Figure 4.4 The line chart of outdoor analysis

The line chart shows the different of actual sun position with the
position that detect by the system. The limits of the system are limited at 45
degree and 135 degree. Even the sun going more than 135 degree or less
than 45 degree, the system cannot follow more than the limit angle. There
also other things that influence the panel movement such as shade area
produce by cloud, building and other thing.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The objective of the project has been achieved. The Optimal Solar
Tracking System was able to constantly follow the sun movement. To
conclude, the system design that use in the project can brings a lot of
function and other application. Still using the design, with a little bit
modification such as change the sensor to temperature sensor, the system
that tracks the heat can develop. Other application such as tracking signal
also can use and develop from this sample electronic design. The
knowledge and skill from this project will give more experience for student
in electronic field.
 45

5.2 Recommendation

There are still a lot of space for improvement and enhancement for
this Optimal Solar Tracking System. Optimal Solar Tracking System covers
a large field which required creativity, talent and dynamic mentality to fully
optimize the technology, knowledge and inspiration of the nature. The
prototype of solar panel is a mechanical design while the sensor used was
LRD. The mechanical design of thesis of the system can only operate in
single axis only. In order to increase the efficiency and responsive of the
system, double axis should be used.

The DC motor in this project should be charge to move slowly

movement because the sun does not move really fast. The angle of
movement also should be increased in order to let the time of solar cell
orient with sun much longer.
 46

REFERENCE

1) Ng Seah Tian(1992), Optimal Solar Tracking, FKE.

2) Tan Khong Boon (2001), Optimal Solar Tracking, FKE.

3) Eric Anderson, Chris Dohan, Aaron Sikora. (2003) Solar Panel Peak
Power Tracking System, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

4) Sophie Gledhill, Oliver Nast Hartley, Keith Heasman, Richard Rusell,

Nigel Manson. (2003).High Effecciency monocrystalline Silicon Solar
Cell on B-Doped FZ and Ga-Dope CZ. Alcobendas, Mandrid, Spain.

5) Richard Stephenson. (2007) Fundamental Properties of Solar Cell

and Paste for Silicon Solar Cell. United State of America.

6) Rochs. (2004). Thin Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells.

7) Texas Instrument, Incorporate [SLFS022,E][M],NE555,SA555,SE555

(Rev E), Texas Instrument Incorporated, United State of America.

8) Phill Semiconductor (1998) NE555 and NE556 application

 47

9) What is the 555 timer? [online]. Available : http://www.electronics-

tutorials.com/devices/555.htm.

10) G.F. Frankin, J.D. Powell, and A. Emami-Naeini. Feedback Control

of Dynamic System, Addison-Wesly Publishing Company, 1995.

11) K. Harada and Gen Zhao, “ Controlled Power Interface Between

Solar Cells and AC source,” IEEE Trans on Power Electronic, No.4
Oct. 1993 p.654-62

12) R.M Hilloowala and A.M. Sharaf, ‘” A rule based fuzzy logic
controller for a PWM inverter in photo-voltaic energy convsion
scheme,” in Conf. Rec. of the IEEE Industry Applications Society
Annual Meeting, New York, 1992, V01.1,p.762-9.

13) Inoue, Seiichi, hardware of the PIC16F84A, 2008.

http://www.interq.or.jp/se-inoue/e_pic2.htm accessed jan, 2009

14) Wilmshurst, Tim. (2007), Designing Embededded Systems with PIC

Microcontrollers, Ch. 2,pg 32, Elsevier

15) Steven, Fred. (1997). Getting started with PIC microcontrollers, Ch.
1, pg 5-6. A. L. Stevens
 48

APPENDICES
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62