You are on page 1of 624

© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2
Data Networks
Sharing data through the use of floppy disks is not an efficient
or cost-effective manner in which to operate businesses.

Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address


the following three problems:
• How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources
• How to communicate efficiently
• How to set up and manage a network

Businesses realized that networking technology could


increase productivity while saving money.

3
Networking Devices

Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is


referred to as a device.

These devices are broken up into two classifications.


• end-user devices
• network devices

End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and


other devices that provide services directly to the user.

Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-
user devices together to allow them to communicate.
4
Network Interface Card
A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board
that provides network communication capabilities to and
from a personal computer. Also called a LAN adapter.

5
Networking Device Icons

6
Repeater
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation. A repeater does not
perform intelligent routing.

7
Hub
Hubs concentrate
connections. In other words,
they take a group of hosts
and allow the network to see
them as a single unit.

This is done passively,


without any other effect on
the data transmission.

Active hubs not only


concentrate hosts, but they
also regenerate signals. 8
Bridge
Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as
perform basic data transmission management. Bridges, as
the name implies, provide connections between LANs. Not
only do bridges connect LANs, but they also perform a check
on the data to determine whether it should cross the bridge or
not. This makes each part of the network more efficient.

9
Workgroup Switch

Workgroup switches add


more intelligence to data
transfer management.

Switches can determine


whether data should remain
on a LAN or not, and they
can transfer the data to the
connection that needs that
data.

10
Router
Routers have all capabilities of the previous devices. Routers
can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and manage data
transfers.They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them
to connect LANs that are separated by great distances.

11
“The Cloud”
The cloud is used in diagrams to represent where the
connection to the internet is.
It also represents all of the devices on the internet.

12
Network Topologies
Network topology defines the structure of the network.

One part of the topology definition is the physical topology,


which is the actual layout of the wire or media.

The other part is the logical topology,which defines how the


media is accessed by the hosts for sending data.

13
Physical Topologies

14
Bus Topology
A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is
terminated at both ends.

All the hosts connect directly to this backbone.

15
Ring Topology
A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host
to the first.

This creates a physical ring of cable.

16
Star Topology
A star topology connects all cables to a central point of
concentration.

17
Extended Star Topology
An extended star topology links individual stars together by
connecting the hubs and/or switches.This topology can extend
the scope and coverage of the network.

18
Hierarchical Topology

A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star.

19
Mesh Topology
A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much
protection as possible from interruption of service.
Each host has its own connections to all other hosts.
Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one
location, it does not adopt the full mesh topology.

20
LANs, MANs, & WANs

One early solution was the creation of local-area network


(LAN) standards which provided an open set of guidelines for
creating network hardware and software, making equipment
from different companies compatible.

What was needed was a way for information to move


efficiently and quickly, not only within a company, but also
from one business to another.

The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks


(MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).

21
Examples of Data Networks

22
LANs

23
Wireless LAN Organizations
and Standards
In cabled networks, IEEE is the prime issuer of standards for
wireless networks. The standards have been created within the
framework of the regulations created by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC).

A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is Direct


Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

24
Cellular Topology for Wireless

25
WANs

26
SANs

A SAN is a dedicated, high-


performance network used to
move data between servers
and storage resources.

Because it is a separate,
dedicated network, it avoids
any traffic conflict between
clients and servers.

27
Virtual Private Network
A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network
infrastructure such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecommuter
can access the network of the company headquarters through the
Internet by building a secure tunnel between the telecommuter’s PC
and a VPN router in the headquarters.

28
Bandwidth

29
Measuring Bandwidth

30
31
Why do we need the OSI Model?

To address the problem of networks increasing in size


and in number, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched many network
schemes and recognized that there was a need to
create a network model that would help network
builders implement networks that could communicate
and work together and therefore, released the OSI
reference model in 1984.

32
Don’t Get Confused.

ISO - International Organization for Standardization

OSI - Open System Interconnection

IOS - Internetwork Operating System

The ISO created the OSI to make the IOS more


efficient. The “ISO” acronym is correct as shown.

To avoid confusion, some people say “International


Standard Organization.”
33
The OSI Reference Model
7 Application The OSI Model will be
used throughout your
6 Presentation
entire networking
5 Session career!
4 Transport
3 Network
Memorize it!
2 Data Link
1 Physical

34
Layer 7 - The Application Layer
7 Application This layer deal with
networking applications.
6 Presentation
5 Session Examples:
4 Transport • Email
• Web browsers
3 Network
2 Data Link PDU - User Data
1 Physical

35
Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer
7 Application This layer is responsible
for presenting the data in
6 Presentation
the required format which
5 Session may include:
4 Transport • Encryption
• Compression
3 Network
2 Data Link PDU - Formatted Data
1 Physical

36
Layer 5 - The Session Layer
7 Application This layer establishes,
manages, and terminates
6 Presentation
sessions between two
5 Session communicating hosts.
4 Transport
Example:
3 Network • Client Software
2 Data Link ( Used for logging in)

1 Physical PDU - Formatted Data

37
Layer 4 - The Transport Layer
7 Application This layer breaks up the data
from the sending host and
6 Presentation
then reassembles it in the
5 Session receiver.
4 Transport
It also is used to insure
3 Network reliable data transport
2 Data Link across the network.
1 Physical
PDU - Segments

38
Layer 3 - The Network Layer
7 Application Sometimes referred to as the
“Cisco Layer”.
6 Presentation
5 Session Makes “Best Path
4 Transport Determination” decisions
based on logical addresses
3 Network (usually IP addresses).
2 Data Link
PDU - Packets
1 Physical

39
Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer
7 Application This layer provides reliable
transit of data across a
6 Presentation
physical link.
5 Session
4 Transport Makes decisions based on
physical addresses (usually
3 Network MAC addresses).
2 Data Link
PDU - Frames
1 Physical

40
Layer 1 - The Physical Layer
This is the physical media
7 Application through which the data,
6 Presentation represented as electronic
signals, is sent from the
5 Session
source host to the
4 Transport destination host.
3 Network
Examples:
2 Data Link • CAT5 (what we have)
1 Physical • Coaxial (like cable TV)
• Fiber optic

PDU - Bits 41
OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Source Host

After riding your new bicycle a few times in


NewYork, you decide that you want to give it to a
friend who lives in Munich,Germany. 42
OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Source Host

Make sure you have the proper directions to


disassemble and reassemble the bicycle.
43
OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Source Host

Call your friend and make sure you have his


correct address.
44
OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Source Host

Disassemble the bicycle and put different pieces


in different boxes. The boxes are labeled
“1 of 3”, “2 of 3”, and “3 of 3”. 45
OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Source Host

Put your friend's complete mailing address (and


yours) on each box.Since the packages are too
big for your mailbox (and since you don’t have
enough stamps) you determine that you need to
go to the post office. 46
OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer – Source Host

NewYork post office takes possession of the


boxes.
47
OSI Model Analogy
Physical Layer - Media

The boxes are flown from USA to Germany.

48
OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer - Destination

Munich post office receives your boxes.

49
OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Destination

Upon examining the destination address,


Munich post office determines that your
boxes should be delivered to your written
home address. 50
OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Destination

Your friend calls you and tells you he got all 3


boxes and he is having another friend named
BOB reassemble the bicycle. 51
OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Destination

Your friend hangs up because he is done talking


to you.
52
OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Destination

BOB is finished and “presents” the bicycle to


your friend. Another way to say it is that your
friend is finally getting him “present”. 53
OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Destination

Your friend enjoys riding his new bicycle in


Munich.
54
Host Layers
7 Application These layers
only exist in the
6 Presentation
source and
5 Session destination host
4 Transport computers.

3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical

55
Media Layers
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
These layers manage
3 Network
the information out in
2 Data Link the LAN or WAN
1 Physical between the source
and destination hosts.

56
The OSI Layers
Communications

57
Encapsulation Process

58
Data Flow Through a Network

59
60
LAN Physical Layer
Various symbols are used to represent media types.

The function of media is to carry a flow of information


through a LAN.Networking media are considered
Layer 1, or physical layer, components of LANs.

Each media has advantages and disadvantages.


Some of the advantage or disadvantage comparisons
concern:
• Cable length
• Cost
• Ease of installation
• Susceptibility to interference
Coaxial cable, optical fiber, and even free space can
carry network signals. However, the principal medium
that will be studied is Category 5 unshielded twisted-
pair cable (Cat 5 UTP)
61
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

62
UTP Implementation
EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable.
The RJ-45 transparent end connector shows eight colored wires.
Four of the wires carry the voltage and are considered “tip” (T1 through T4).
The other four wires are grounded and are called “ring” (R1 through R4).
The wires in the first pair in a cable or a connector are designated as T1 & R1

63
Connection Media
The registered jack (RJ-45) connector and jack are the most
common.

In some cases the type of connector on a network interface


card (NIC) does not match the media that it needs to connect
to.

The attachment unit interface (AUI) connector allows different


media to connect when used with the appropriate transceiver.

A transceiver is an adapter that converts one type of


connection to another.
64
Ethernet Standards

The Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an


RJ-45 connector have a particular purpose. A NIC transmits
signals on pins 1 & 2, and it receives signals on pins 3 & 6.

65
Remember…

A straight-thru cable has T568B on both ends. A crossover (or


cross-connect) cable has T568B on one end and T568A on the
other. A console cable had T568B on one end and reverse T568B
on the other, which is why it is also called a rollover cable.

66
Straight-Thru or Crossover

Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:


• Switch to router
• Switch to PC or server
• Hub to PC or server
Use crossover cables for the following cabling:
• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router
• PC to PC
• Router to PC 67
Sources of Noise on Copper Media

Noise is any electrical energy on the


transmission cable that makes it difficult for a
receiver to interpret the data sent from the
transmitter. TIA/EIA-568-B certification of a cable
now requires testing for a variety of types of
noise.Twisted-pair cable is designed to take
advantage of the effects of crosstalk in order to
minimize noise. In twisted-pair cable, a pair of
wires is used to transmit one signal.The wire pair
is twisted so that each wire experiences similar
crosstalk. Because a noise signal on one wire
will appear identically on the other wire, this
noise be easily detected and filtered at
receiver.Twisting one pair of wires in a cable
also helps to reduce crosstalk of data or noise
signals from adjacent wires. 68
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

69
Coaxial Cable

70
Fiber Optic Cable

71
Fiber Optic Connectors
Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers can
be connected to the ports on the transmitter and receiver.
The type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber
is the Subscriber Connector (SC connector).On single-mode
fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is frequently used

72
Fiber Optic Patch Panels
Fiber patch panels similar to the patch panels used with copper
cable.

73
Cable Specifications

10BASE-T
The T stands for twisted pair.
10BASE5
The 5 represents the fact that a signal can travel for approximately
500 meters 10BASE5 is often referred to as Thicknet.
10BASE2
The 2 represents the fact that a signal can travel for approximately
200 meters 10BASE2 is often referred to as Thinnet.

All 3 of these specifications refer to the speed of transmission at 10


Mbps and a type of transmission that is baseband, or digitally
interpreted. Thinnet and Thicknet are actually a type of networks,
while 10BASE2 & 10BASE5 are the types of cabling used in these
networks. 74
Ethernet Media Connector Requirements

75
LAN Physical Layer Implementation

76
Ethernet in the Campus

77
WAN Physical Layer

78
WAN Serial Connection Options

79
Serial Implementation of DTE & DCE
When connecting directly to a service provider, or to a
device such as a CSU/DSU that will perform signal clocking,
the router is a DTE and needs a DTE serial cable.
This is typically the case for routers.

80
Back-to-Back Serial Connection

When
performing a
back-to-back
router scenario
in a test
environment,
one of the
routers will be a
DTE and the
other will be a
DCE.
81
Repeater
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation.Repeater is a Physical
Layer device

82
The 4 Repeater Rule
The Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet should be
used as a standard when extending LAN segments.

This rule states that no more than four repeaters


can be used between hosts on a LAN.

This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by each


repeater.

83
Hub

Hubs concentrate
connections.In other words,
they take a group of hosts
and allow the network to see
them as a single unit.
Hub is a physical layer
device.

84
Network Interface Card
The function of a NIC is to connect a host device to the network medium.

A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot on the motherboard or
peripheral device of a computer. The NIC is also referred to as a network adapter.

NICs are considered Data Link Layer devices because each NIC carries a
unique code called a MAC address.

85
MAC Address
MAC address is 48 bits in length and expressed as twelve hexadecimal
digits.MAC addresses are sometimes referred to as burned-in addresses
(BIA) because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are
copied into random-access memory (RAM) when the NIC initializes.

86
Bridge
Bridges are Data Link layer devices.Connected host
addresses are learned and stored on a MAC address
table.Each bridge port has a unique MAC address

87
Bridges

88
Bridging Graphic

89
Switch

Switches are Data Link


layer devices.

Each Switch port has a


unique MAC address.

Connected host MAC


addresses are learned and
stored on a MAC address
table.

90
Switching Modes

cut-through
A switch starts to transfer the frame as soon as the destination MAC
address is received. No error checking is available.
Must use synchronous switching.

store-and-forward
At the other extreme, the switch can receive the entire frame before
sending it out the destination port. This gives the switch software an
opportunity to verify the Frame Check Sum (FCS) to ensure that the
frame was reliably received before sending it to the destination.
Must be used with asynchronous switching.

fragment-free
A compromise between the cut-through and store-and-forward modes.
Fragment-free reads the first 64 bytes, which includes the frame header,
and switching begins before the entire data field and checksum are read.
91
Full Duplex

Another capability emerges when only two nodes are connected. In a network that
uses twisted-pair cabling, one pair is used to carry the transmitted signal from one
node to the other node. A separate pair is used for the return or received signal. It is
possible for signals to pass through both pairs simultaneously. The capability of
communication in both directions at once is known as full duplex.

92
Switches – MAC Tables

93
Switches – Parallel Communication

94
Microsegmentation

A switch is simply a bridge with many ports. When only one node is connected to a
switch port, the collision domain on the shared media contains only two nodes.
The two nodes in this small segment, or collision domain, consist of the switch port
and the host connected to it. These small physical segments are called micro
segments.

95
Peer-to-Peer Network
In a peer-to-peer network, networked computers act as equal partners, or peers.

As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the server function.

At one time, computer A may make a request for a file from computer B, which
responds by serving the file to computer A. Computer A functions as client, while B
functions as the server. At a later time, computers A and B can reverse roles.
In a peer-to-peer network, individual users control their own resources. Peer-to-
peer networks are relatively easy to install and operate. As networks grow, peer-to-
peer relationships become increasingly difficult to coordinate.

96
Client/Server Network
In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated
computer called a server.

The server responds to the requests of clients.

The server is a central computer that is continuously available to respond to


requests from clients for file, print, application, and other services.

Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server relationship.

97
98
Why Another Model?
Although the OSI reference model is universally
recognized, the historical and technical open standard
of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol


stack make data communication possible between any
two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the
speed of light.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the


TCP/IP reference model because it wanted a network
that could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war.
99
Don’t Confuse the Models

7 Application
6 Presentation Application
5 Session
4 Transport Transport
3 Network Internet
2 Data Link Network
1 Physical Access 100
2 Models
Side-By-Side
7 Application
6 Presentation Application
5 Session
4 Transport Transport
3 Network Internet
2 Data Link Network
1 Physical Access
101
The Application Layer
The application
layer of the
TCP/IP model
handles high-
level protocols,
issues of
representation,
encoding, and
dialog control.

102
The Transport Layer

The transport layer provides transport services from


the source host to the destination host. It constitutes
a logical connection between these endpoints of the
network. Transport protocols segment and
reassemble upper-layer applications into the same
data stream between endpoints.
The transport layer data stream provides end-to-end
transport services. 103
The Internet Layer
The purpose of the Internet layer is to
select the best path through the network for
packets to travel. The main protocol that
functions at this layer is the Internet
Protocol (IP). Best path determination and
packet switching occur at this layer.

104
The Network Access Layer
The network access layer is also called the host-to-
network layer. It the layer that is concerned with all of the
issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a
physical link to the network media. It includes LAN and
WAN details, and all the details contained in the OSI
physical and data-link layers. NOTE: ARP & RARP work
at both the Internet and Network Access Layers.

105
Comparing TCP/IP & OSI Models

NOTE: TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee
reliable delivery of packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.

106
Introduction to the Transport Layer

The primary duties of the transport layer, Layer 4 of the OSI


model, are to transport and regulate the flow of information from
the source to the destination, reliably and accurately.

End-to-end control and reliability are provided by sliding


windows, sequencing numbers, and acknowledgments.

107
More on The Transport Layer

The transport layer provides transport services from the


source host to the destination host.

It establishes a logical connection between the endpoints of


the network.
• Transport services include the following basic services:
• Segmentation of upper-layer application data
• Establishment of end-to-end operations
• Transport of segments from one end host to another
end host
• Flow control provided by sliding windows
• Reliability provided by sequence numbers and
acknowledgments 108
Flow Control
As the transport layer sends data segments, it tries to ensure that data is not lost.
A receiving host that is unable to process data as quickly as it arrives could be a
cause of data loss.

Flow control avoids the problem of a transmitting host overflowing the buffers in
the receiving host.

109
3-Way Handshake
TCP requires connection establishment before data transfer begins.
For a connection to be established or initialized, the two hosts must
synchronize their Initial Sequence Numbers (ISNs).

110
Basic Windowing
Data packets must be
delivered to the
recipient in the same
order in which they
were transmitted to
have a reliable,
connection-oriented
data transfer.
The protocol fails if
any data packets are
lost, damaged,
duplicated, or
received in a different
order.
An easy solution is to
have a recipient
acknowledge the
receipt of each packet
before the next packet
is sent. 111
Sliding Window

112
Sliding Window
with Different Window Sizes

113
TCP Sequence & Acknowledgement

114
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented Layer 4
protocol that provides reliable full-duplex data transmission.

TCP is part of the TCP/IP protocol stack. In a connection-oriented


environment, a connection is established between both ends before the
transfer of information can begin.
TCP is responsible for breaking messages into segments, reassembling
them at the destination station, resending anything that is not received,
and reassembling messages from the segments.TCP supplies a virtual
circuit between end-user applications.

The protocols that use TCP include:


• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Telnet 115
TCP Segment Format

116
UDP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the connectionless transport protocol
in the TCP/IP protocol stack.

UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without


acknowledgments or guaranteed delivery. Error processing and
retransmission must be handled by higher layer protocols.

UDP uses no windowing or acknowledgments so reliability, if needed, is


provided by application layer protocols. UDP is designed for applications
that do not need to put sequences of segments together.

The protocols that use UDP include:


• TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol)
• DNS (Domain Name System) 117
UDP Segment Format

118
Well Known Port Numbers
The following port numbers should be memorized:
NOTE:
The curriculum forgot to mention one of the most important port numbers.
Port 80 is used for HTTP or WWW protocols. (Essentially access to the internet.)

119
URL

120
SNMP – Managed Network

121
122
Base 2 Number System

101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) +
(1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 = 0) = 22

123
Converting Decimal to Binary

Convert 20110 to binary:


201 / 2 = 100 remainder 1
100 / 2 = 50 remainder 0
50 / 2 = 25 remainder 0
25 / 2 = 12 remainder 1
12 / 2 = 6 remainder 0
6 / 2 = 3 remainder 0
3 / 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 / 2 = 0 remainder 1
When the quotient is 0, take all the remainders in
reverse order for your answer: 20110 = 110010012 124
125
Network and Host Addressing
Using the IP address of the
destination network, a router can
deliver a packet to the correct
network.

When the packet arrives at a


router connected to the
destination network, the router
uses the IP address to locate the
particular computer connected to
that network.
Accordingly, every IP address has
two parts. 126
Network Layer Communication Path

A router forwards packets from the originating network to the


destination network using the IP protocol. The packets must
include an identifier for both the source and destination networks.

127
Internet Addresses
IP Addressing is a hierarchical structure.An IP address combines two
identifiers into one number. This number must be a unique number,
because duplicate addresses would make routing impossible.The
first part identifies the system's network address.The second part,
called the host part, identifies which particular machine it is on the
network.

128
IP Address Classes

IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large,


medium, and small networks.

Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks.


Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks, &
Class C for small networks.

129
Identifying Address Classes

130
Address Class Prefixes
To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these networks, IP
addresses are divided into groups called classes.This is classful addressing.

131
Network and Host Division
Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part
and a host part. A bit or bit sequence at the start of each address
determines the class of the address. There are 5 IP address classes.

132
Class A Addresses
The Class A address was designed to support extremely large
networks, with more than 16 million host addresses available.
Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate the
network address. The remaining three octets provide for host
addresses.

133
Class B Addresses
The Class B address was designed to support the needs of
moderate to large-sized networks.A Class B IP address uses
the first two of the four octets to indicate the network address.
The other two octets specify host addresses.

134
Class C Addresses

The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the


original address classes.This address space was intended to
support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.

135
Class D Addresses

The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an


IP address. A multicast address is a unique network address that
directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of
IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit
a single stream of data to multiple recipients.

136
Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these addresses for
its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have been
released for use in the Internet.

137
IP Address Ranges

The graphic below shows the IP address range of the first octet
both in decimal and binary for each IP address class.

138
IPv4
As early as 1992, the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) identified two specific
concerns: Exhaustion of the remaining,
unassigned IPv4 network addresses and the
increase in the size of Internet routing tables.

Over the past two decades, numerous


extensions to IPv4 have been developed.
Two of the more important of these are
subnet masks and classless interdomain
routing (CIDR).

139
Finding the Network Address with ANDing
By ANDing the Host address of 192.168.10.2 with 255.255.255.0
(its network mask) we obtain the network address of 192.168.10.0

140
Network Address

141
Broadcast Address

142
Network/Broadcast Addresses
at the Binary Level
An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the network address, which identifies the network.
An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the broadcast address, which is used to send data
to all hosts on the network. Here are some examples:

Class Network Address Broadcast Address

A 100.0.0.0 100.255.255.255

B 150.75.0.0 150.75.255.255

C 200.100.50.0 200.100.50.255 143


Public IP Addresses
Unique addresses are required for each device on a network.

Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network Information


Center (InterNIC) handled this procedure.

InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA).

No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP
address because public IP addresses are global and standardized.

All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system.

Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service provider


(ISP) or a registry at some expense.
144
Private IP Addresses

Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the


impending exhaustion of public IP addresses.As mentioned, public
networks require hosts to have unique IP addresses.

However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may
use any host addresses, as long as each host within the private
network is unique.

145
Mixing Public and
Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses can be intermixed, as shown in the graphic, with
public IP addresses.This will conserve the number of addresses used for
internal connections. Connecting a network using private addresses to
the Internet requires translation of the private addresses to public
addresses. This translation process is referred to as Network Address
Translation (NAT).

146
Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the
network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient and
manageable segments, or subnets.

With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default Class A, B, or


C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network design.

Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and
a host field.The ability to decide how to divide the original host portion
into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for
the network administrator.

147
The 32-Bit
Binary IP Address

148
Numbers That Show Up In
Subnet Masks (Memorize Them!)

149
Addressing with Subnetworks

150
Obtaining an Internet Address

151
Static Assignment of an IP Address

Static assignment
works best on small
networks.

The administrator
manually assigns and
tracks IP addresses
for each computer,
printer, or server on
the intranet.

Network printers,
application servers,
and routers should be
assigned static IP
addresses. 152
ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol)
Host A
ARP Request - Broadcast to all hosts
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
„What is the hardware address for IP address 128.0.10.4?“

ARP Reply

SIEMENS
NIXDORF
SIEMENS
NIXDORF

Host B
IP Address: 128.0.10.4
HW Address: 080020021545

153
Fig. 32 How does ARP work? (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 47)
154
Fig. 33 The ARP command (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 47)
1 Network = 1 Broadcast Domain

A B host B would reply

Broadcast: ARP request

2 Networks = 2 Broadcast Domains

A B no one would reply


Router

Broadcast: ARP request

155
Fig. 34 Proxy-ARP concept (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 49)
A

A
B

Router R

I take care, to forward


IP packets to B

Broadcast Message to all:


If your IP address matches “B” Yes, I know the destination
then please tell me your network, let me give you my
Ethernet address Ethernet address

156
RARP

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) associates a known MAC addresses


with an IP addresses.

A network device, such as a diskless workstation, might know its MAC address but not
its IP address. RARP allows the device to make a request to learn its IP address.
Devices using RARP require that a RARP server be present on the network to answer
RARP requests.

157
BootP
The bootstrap protocol (BOOTP) operates in a client-server environment and only
requires a single packet exchange to obtain IP information.

However, unlike RARP, BOOTP packets can include the IP address, as well as
the address of a router, the address of a server, and vendor-specific information.

One problem with BOOTP, however, is that it was not designed to provide
dynamic address assignment. With BOOTP, a network administrator creates a
configuration file that specifies the parameters for each device.The administrator
must add hosts and maintain the BOOTP database.

Even though the addresses are dynamically assigned, there is still a one to one
relationship between the number of IP addresses and the number of hosts.

This means that for every host on the network there must be a BOOTP profile
with an IP address assignment in it. No two profiles can have the same IP
address.
158
DHCP

Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) is the successor to BOOTP.

Unlike BOOTP, DHCP allows a host to obtain an IP address dynamically without the
network administrator having to set up an individual profile for each device.

All that is required when using DHCP is a defined range of IP addresses on a DHCP
server.As hosts come online, they contact the DHCP server and request an address.

The DHCP server chooses an address and leases it to that host.

With DHCP, the entire network configuration of a computer can be obtained in one
message.

This includes all of the data supplied by the BOOTP message, plus a leased IP
address and a subnet mask.

The major advantage that DHCP has over BOOTP is that it allows users to be mobile.
159
160
Introduction to Routers
A router is a special type of computer. It has the same basic components as a
standard desktop PC. However, routers are designed to perform some very specific
functions. Just as computers need operating systems to run software applications,
routers need the Internetwork Operating System software (IOS) to run configuration
files. These configuration files contain the instructions and parameters that control the
flow of traffic in and out of the routers. The many parts of a router are shown below:

161
RAM
Random Access Memory, also called dynamic RAM (DRAM)

RAM has the following characteristics and functions:

• Stores routing tables


• Holds ARP cache
• Holds fast-switching cache
• Performs packet buffering (shared RAM)
• Maintains packet-hold queues
• Provides temporary memory for the configuration file of
the router while the router is powered on
• Loses content when router is powered down or restarted

162
NVRAM
Non-Volatile RAM

NVRAM has the following characteristics and functions:

• Provides storage for the startup configuration file


• Retains content when router is powered down or
restarted

163
Flash
Flash memory has the following characteristics and
functions:

• Holds the operating system image (IOS)


• Allows software to be updated without
removing and replacing chips on the processor
• Retains content when router is powered down
or restarted
• Can store multiple versions of IOS software

Is a type of electronically erasable, programmable


ROM (EEPROM) 164
ROM
Read-Only Memory

ROM has the following characteristics and functions:

• Maintains instructions for power-on self test


(POST) diagnostics
• Stores bootstrap program and basic operating
system software
• Requires replacing pluggable chips on the
motherboard for software upgrades

165
Interfaces
Interfaces have the following characteristics and functions:

• Connect router to network for frame entry and exit


• Can be on the motherboard or on a separate module

Types of interfaces:

• Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet
• Serial
• Token ring
• ISDN BRI
• Loopback
• Console
• Aux 166
Internal Components of a 2600 Router

167
External Components of a 2600 Router

168
External Connections

169
Fixed Interfaces
When cabling routers for serial connectivity, the routers will either have
fixed or modular ports. The type of port being used will affect the syntax
used later to configure each interface. Interfaces on routers with fixed
serial ports are labeled for port type and port number.

170
Modular Serial Port Interfaces
Interfaces on routers with modular serial ports are labeled for port type, slot, and port
number.The slot is the location of the module.To configure a port on a modular card, it is
necessary to specify the interface using the syntax “port type slot number/port number.” Use
the label “serial 0/1,” when the interface is serial, the slot number where the module is
installed is slot 0, and the port that is being referenced is port 1.

171
Routers & DSL Connections
The Cisco 827 ADSL router has one asymmetric digital
subscriber line (ADSL) interface. To connect a router for DSL
service, use a phone cable with RJ-11 connectors. DSL
works over standard telephone lines using pins 3 and 4 on a
standard RJ-11 connector.

172
Computer/Terminal Console Connection

173
Modem Connection to Console/Aux Port

174
HyperTerminal Session Properties

175
Establishing a
HyperTerminal Session
Take the following steps
to connect a terminal to
the console port on the
router:

First, connect the


terminal using the RJ-45
to RJ-45 rollover cable
and an RJ-45 to DB-9 or
RJ-45 to DB-25 adapter.

Then, configure the


terminal or PC terminal
emulation software for
9600 baud, 8 data bits,
no parity, 1 stop bit, and
176
no flow control.
Cisco IOS
Cisco technology is built around the Cisco
Internetwork Operating System (IOS), which is the
software that controls the routing and switching
functions of internetworking devices.

A solid understanding of the IOS is essential for a


network administrator.

177
The Purpose of Cisco IOS
As with a computer, a router or switch cannot function without
an operating system. Cisco calls its operating system the
Cisco Internetwork Operating System or Cisco IOS.

It is the embedded software architecture in all of the Cisco


routers and is also the operating system of the Catalyst
switches.

Without an operating system, the hardware does not have any


capabilities.

The Cisco IOS provides the following network services:


• Basic routing and switching functions
• Reliable and secure access to networked resources
178
• Network scalability
Router Command Line
Interface

179
Setup Mode
Setup is not intended as the mode for entering complex protocol features in the
router. The purpose of the setup mode is to permit the administrator to install a
minimal configuration for a router, unable to locate a configuration from another
source.

In the setup mode, default answers appear in square brackets [ ] following the
question. Press the Enter key to use these defaults.

During the setup process, Ctrl-C can be pressed at any time to terminate the
process. When setup is terminated using Ctrl-C, all interfaces will be
administratively shutdown.

When the configuration process is completed in setup mode, the following options
will be displayed:

[0] Go to the IOS command prompt without saving this config.


[1] Return back to the setup without saving this config.
[2] Save this configuration to nvram and exit.
Enter your selection [2]: 180
Operation of Cisco IOS Software
The Cisco IOS devices have three distinct operating environments or
modes:
• ROM monitor
• Boot ROM
• Cisco IOS

The startup process of the router normally loads into RAM and executes
one of these operating environments. The configuration register setting can
be used by the system administrator to control the default start up mode for
the router.

To see the IOS image and version that is running, use the show version
command, which also indicates the configuration register setting.

181
IOS File System Overview

182
Initial Startup of Cisco Routers
A router initializes by loading the bootstrap, the operating system, and a
configuration file.

If the router cannot find a configuration file, it enters setup mode.

Upon completion of the setup mode a backup copy of the configuration file
may be saved to nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM).

The goal of the startup routines for Cisco IOS software is to start the router
operations. To do this, the startup routines must accomplish the following:
• Make sure that the router hardware is tested and functional.
• Find and load the Cisco IOS software.
• Find and apply the startup configuration file or enter the setup
mode.

When a Cisco router powers up, it performs a power-on self test (POST).
During this self test, the router executes diagnostics from ROM on all
hardware modules. 183
After the Post…
After the POST, the following events occur as the router initializes:

Step 1
The generic bootstrap loader in ROM executes. A bootstrap is a simple set of
instructions that tests hardware and initializes the IOS for operation.

Step 2
The IOS can be found in several places. The boot field of the configuration register
determines the location to be used in loading the IOS. If the boot field indicates a
flash or network load, boot system commands in the configuration file indicate the
exact name and location of the image.

Step 3
The operating system image is loaded.

Step 4
The configuration file saved in NVRAM is loaded into main memory and executed
one line at a time. The configuration commands start routing processes, supply
addresses for interfaces, and define other operating characteristics of the router.

Step 5
If no valid configuration file exists in NVRAM, the operating system searches for an
184
available TFTP server. If no TFTP server is found, the setup dialog is initiated.
Step in Router Initialization

185
Router LED Indicators
Cisco routers use LED indicators to provide status information.
Depending upon the Cisco router model, the LED indicators will
vary. An interface LED indicates the activity of the corresponding
interface. If an LED is off when the interface is active and the
interface is correctly connected, a problem may be indicated. If an
interface is extremely busy, its LED will always be on. The green OK
LED to the right of the AUX port will be on after the system initializes
correctly.

186
Enhanced
Cisco IOS Commands

187
The show version Command
The show version command displays information about the Cisco IOS
software version that is currently running on the router. This includes the
configuration register and the boot field settings.

The following information is available from the show version command:


IOS version and descriptive information
• Bootstrap ROM version
• Boot ROM version
• Router up time
• Last restart method
• System image file and location
• Router platform
• Configuration register setting

Use the show version command to identify router IOS image and boot
source. To find out the amount of flash memory, issue the show flash
command.
188
Checking File System Information
with show version command

189
190
Router User Interface Modes
The Cisco command-line interface (CLI) uses a hierarchical structure. This
structure requires entry into different modes to accomplish particular tasks.

Each configuration mode is indicated with a distinctive prompt and allows


only commands that are appropriate for that mode.

As a security feature the Cisco IOS software separates sessions into two
access levels, user EXEC mode and privileged EXEC mode. The privileged
EXEC mode is also known as enable mode.

191
Overview of Router Modes

192
Router Modes

193
User Mode Commands

194
Privileged Mode Commands

NOTE:
There are
many more
commands
available in
privileged
mode.

195
Specific Configuration Modes

196
CLI Command Modes
All command-line interface (CLI) configuration changes to a Cisco router
are made from the global configuration mode. Other more specific modes
are entered depending upon the configuration change that is required.

Global configuration mode commands are used in a router to apply


configuration statements that affect the system as a whole.

The following command moves the router into global configuration mode

Router#configure terminal (or config t)


Router(config)#

When specific configuration modes are entered, the router prompt changes
to indicate the current configuration mode.

Typing exit from one of these specific configuration modes will return the
router to global configuration mode. Pressing Ctrl-Z returns the router to all
the way back privileged EXEC mode. 197
Configuring a Router’s Name
A router should be given a unique name as one of the
first configuration tasks.

This task is accomplished in global configuration


mode using the following commands:

Router(config)#hostname Tokyo
Tokyo(config)#

As soon as the Enter key is pressed, the prompt


changes from the default host name (Router) to the
newly configured host name (which is Tokyo in the
example above). 198
Setting
the Clock
with Help

199
Message Of The Day (MOTD)
A message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner can be displayed on all
connected terminals.

Enter global configuration mode by using the command config t

Enter the command


banner motd # The message of the day goes here #.

Save changes by issuing the command copy run start

200
Configuring a Console Password
Passwords restrict access to routers.
Passwords should always be configured for virtual terminal
lines and the console line.

Passwords are also used to control access to privileged EXEC


mode so that only authorized users may make changes to the
configuration file.

The following commands are used to set an optional but


recommended password on the console line:

Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-line)#password <password>
Router(config-line)#login 201
Configuring a Modem Password
If configuring a router via a modem you are most likely
connected to the aux port.

The method for configuring the aux port is very similar to


configuring the console port.

Router(config)#line aux 0
Router(config-line)#password <password>
Router(config-line)#login

202
Configuring Interfaces
An interface needs an IP Address and a Subnet Mask to be configured.
All interfaces are “shutdown” by default.
The DCE end of a serial interface needs a clock rate.

Router#config t
Router(config)#interface serial 0/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 200.100.50.75 255.255.255.240
Router(config-if)#clock rate 56000 (required for serial DCE only)

Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Router(config)#int f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 150.100.50.25 255.255.255.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Router(config)#exit
Router#

On older routers, Serial 0/1 would be just Serial 1 and f0/0 would be e0.
s = serial e = Ethernet f = fast Ethernet 203
Configuring a Telnet Password
A password must be set on one or more of the virtual terminal
(VTY) lines for users to gain remote access to the router using
Telnet.

Typically Cisco routers support five VTY lines numbered 0


through 4.

The following commands are used to set the same password


on all of the VTY lines:

Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#password <password>
Router(config-line)#login
204
Examining the show Commands
There are many show commands that can be used to examine the contents of files
in the router and for troubleshooting. In both privileged EXEC and user EXEC
modes, the command show ? provides a list of available show commands. The list
is considerably longer in privileged EXEC mode than it is in user EXEC mode.

show interfaces – Displays all the statistics for all the interfaces on the router.
show int s0/1 – Displays statistics for interface Serial 0/1
show controllers serial – Displays information-specific to the interface hardware
show clock – Shows the time set in the router
show hosts – Displays a cached list of host names and addresses
show users – Displays all users who are connected to the router
show history – Displays a history of commands that have been entered
show flash – Displays info about flash memory and what IOS files are stored there
show version – Displays info about the router and the IOS that is running in RAM
show ARP – Displays the ARP table of the router
show start – Displays the saved configuration located in NVRAM
show run – Displays the configuration currently running in RAM
show protocol – Displays the global and interface specific status of any configured
Layer 3 protocols
205
The copy run tftp Command

206
The copy tftp run Command

207
208
Ethernet Overview
Ethernet is now the dominant LAN technology in the world.

Ethernet is not one technology but a family of LAN


technologies.

All LANs must deal with the basic issue of how individual
stations (nodes) are named, and Ethernet is no exception.

Ethernet specifications support different media, bandwidths,


and other Layer 1 and 2 variations.

However, the basic frame format and addressing scheme is


the same for all varieties of Ethernet. 209
Ethernet and the OSI Model
Ethernet
operates in two
areas of the
OSI model, the
lower half of
the data link
layer, known as
the MAC
sublayer and
the physical
layer
210
Ethernet Technologies
Mapped to the OSI Model

211
Layer 2 Framing
Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process.

A frame is the Layer 2 protocol data unit.

The frame format diagram shows different groupings of bits


(fields) that perform other functions.

212
Ethernet and IEEE Frame
Formats are Very Similar

213
3 Common Layer 2 Technologies
Ethernet
Uses CSMA/CD logical bus topology
(information flow is on a linear bus)
physical star or extended star (wired as a
star)

Token Ring
logical ring topology (information flow is
controlled in a ring) and a physical star
topology (in other words, it is wired as a
star)

FDDI
logical ring topology (information flow is
controlled in a ring) and physical dual-
ring topology(wired as a dual-ring)

214
Collision Domains

To move data between one Ethernet station and


another, the data often passes through a repeater.

All other stations in the same collision domain see


traffic that passes through a repeater.

A collision domain is then a shared resource.


Problems originating in one part of the collision
domain will usually impact the entire collision
domain.
215
CSMA/CD Graphic

216
Backoff

After a collision occurs and all stations allow the cable to


become idle (each waits the full interframe spacing), then the
stations that collided must wait an additional and potentially
progressively longer period of time before attempting to
retransmit the collided frame.

The waiting period is intentionally designed to be random so


that two stations do not delay for the same amount of time
before retransmitting, which would result in more collisions.

217
218
Hierarchical Addressing Using
Variable-Length Subnet Masks

© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 219


Prefix Length and Network
Mask
Range of Addresses: 192.168.1.64 through 192.168.1.79 Fourth Octet
64 01000000
• Have the first 28 bits in common, which is
represented by a /28 prefix length 65 01000001
• 28 bits in common can also be represented in dotted 66 01000010
decimal as 255.255.255.240 67 01000011
68 01000100
Binary ones in the network mask represent network bits in the 69 01000101
accompanying IP address; binary zeros represent host bits 70 01000110
11000000.10101000.00000001.0100xxxx IP Address 71 01000111
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 Network 72 01001000
Mask 73 01001001
In the IP network number that accompanies the network 74 01001010
mask, when the host bits of the IP network number are: 75 01001011
• All binary zeros – that address is the bottom of the 76 01001100
address range 77 01001101
• All binary ones – that address is the top of the 78 01001110
address range 220
79 01001111
Implementing VLSM

221
Range Of Addresses for
VLSM

222
Breakdown Address Space
for Largest Subnet

223
Breakdown Address Space
for Ethernets at Remote Sites

224
Address Space for Serial
Subnets

225
Calculating VLSM: Binary

226
Route Summarization and
Classless Interdomain Routing

© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 227


What Is Route Summarization?

228
Summarizing Within an Octet

229
Summarizing Addresses in a
VLSM-Designed Network

230
Classless Interdomain Routing

– CIDR is a mechanism developed to alleviate


exhaustion of addresses and reduce routing
table size.
– Block addresses can be summarized into single
entries without regard to the classful boundary of
the network number.
– Summarized blocks are installed in routing
tables.

231
What Is CIDR?

• Addresses are the same as in the route summarization figure, except that
Class B network 172 has been replaced by Class C network 192. 232
CIDR Example

233
234
Anatomy of an IP Packet
IP packets consist of the data from upper layers plus an IP
header. The IP header consists of the following:

235
Introducing Routing
Routing is the process that a router uses to forward packets
toward the destination network. A router makes decisions
based upon the destination IP address of a packet. All devices
along the way use the destination IP address to point the
packet in the correct direction so that the packet eventually
arrives at its destination. In order to make the correct
decisions, routers must learn the direction to remote networks.

236
Configuring Static Routes by
Specifying Outgoing Interfaces

237
Configuring Static Routes by
Specifying Next-Hop Addresses

238
Administrative Distance
The administrative distance is an optional parameter that gives a measure
of the reliability of the route. The range of an AD is 0-255 where smaller
numbers are more desireable.

The default administrative distance when using next-hop address is 1,


while the default administrative distance when using the outgoing interface
is 0. You can statically assign an AD as follows:

Router(config)#ip route 172.16.3.0


255.255.255.0 172.16.4.1 130

Sometimes static routes are used for backup purposes. A static route can
be configured on a router that will only be used when the dynamically
learned route has failed. To use a static route in this manner, simply set the
administrative distance higher than that of the dynamic routing protocol
being used. 239
Configuring Default Routes
Default routes are used to route packets with destinations that do
not match any of the other routes in the routing table.

A default route is actually a special static route that uses this format:

ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [next-hop-address | outgoing interface]

This is sometimes referred to as a “Quad-Zero” route.

Example using next hop address:

Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.4.1

Example using the exit interface:

Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0 240


Verifying Static
Route Configuration
After static routes are configured it is important to
verify that they are present in the routing table and
that routing is working as expected.

The command show running-config is used to view


the active configuration in RAM to verify that the static
route was entered correctly.

The show ip route command is used to make sure


that the static route is present in the routing table. 241
Trouble Shooting Static
Route Configuration

242
Path Determination Graphic

243
Routing Protocol

Router
Switch

Router Router

Router
Router
Switch
What is
an optimal
route ?

244
Routing Protocols
Routing protocols
includes the following:

processes for sharing


route information
allows routers to
communicate with
other routers to update
and maintain the
routing tables

Examples of routing
protocols that support
the IP routed protocol
are:

RIP, IGRP,
OSPF, BGP,
and EIGRP.

245
Routing Protocols

246
Routed Protocols
Protocols used at the network layer that transfer data from one host to another across
a router are called routed or routable protocols. The Internet Protocol (IP) and Novell's
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of routed protocols. Routers use
routing protocols to exchange routing tables and share routing information. In other
words, routing protocols enable routers to route routed protocols.

247
Routed Protocols

248
Autonomous System An Autonomous System (AS) is a group of IP networks, which
has a single and clearly defined external routing policy.

EGP
Exterior Gateway
Protocols are used
for routing between
Autonomous Systems

AS 1000 AS 3000

IGP
Interior Gateway Protocols are
used for routing decisions
AS 2000 within an Autonomous System.

249
Fig. 48 IGP and EGP (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 67)
Interior Gateway Protocol Exterior Gateway Interior Gateway Protocol
(IGP) Protocol (EGP) (IGP)

AS 1000 AS 3000
EGP

EGP IGP
EGP

AS 2000

250
Fig. 49 The use of IGP and EGP protocols (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 67)
IGP and EGP
An autonomous system is a network or set of networks under
common administrative control, such as the cisco.com domain.

251
Categories of Routing
Protocols
Most routing algorithms can be classified into one of two
categories:

• distance vector
• link-state

The distance vector routing approach determines the direction


(vector) and distance to any link in the internetwork.

The link-state approach, also called shortest path first,


recreates the exact topology of the entire internetwork.
252
Distance Vector
Routing Concepts

253
Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Routing table contains the addresses
Destination Distance
of destinations and the distance
192.16.1.0 1 of the way to this destination.
192.16.5.0 1
192.16.7.0 2

2 Hops

1 Hop 1 Hop

Router A Router B Router C Router D

192.16.1.0 Flow of routing 192.16.7.0


information

192.16.5.0
254
Routing Tables Graphic

255
Distance Vector
Topology Changes

256
Router Metric Components

257
Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
192.16.3.0

192.16.2.0 192.16.6.0

Router A Router B Router C Router D


192.16.4.0
192.16.1.0 192.16.7.0

192.16.5.0

192.16.1.0 0 L 192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L


192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.3.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 0 L 192.16.7.0 0 L
192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L

192.16.1.0 0 L 192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L


192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.3.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 0 L 192.16.7.0 0 L
192.16.3.0 1 B 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 1 C
192.16.4.0 1 B 192.16.1.0 1 A 192.16.3.0 1 B 192.16.4.0 1 C
192.16.5.0 1 C 192.16.2.0 1 B

L Locally connected 192.16.6.0 1 C 192.16.7.0 1 D


258
Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

192.16.1.0 0 L 192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L

192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.3.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 0 L 192.16.7.0 0 L

192.16.3.0 1 B 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 1 C

192.16.4.0 1 B 192.16.1.0 1 A 192.16.3.0 1 B 192.16.4.0 1 C

192.16.5.0 2 B 192.16.5.0 1 C 192.16.2.0 1 B 192.16.3.0 2 C

192.16.6.0 2 B 192.16.6.0 1 C 192.16.7.0 1 D 192.16.2.0 2 C

192.16.7.0 2 C 192.16.1.0 2 B

192.16.1.0 0 L 192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L

192.16.2.0 0 L 192.16.3.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 0 L 192.16.7.0 0 L

192.16.3.0 1 B 192.16.4.0 0 L 192.16.6.0 0 L 192.16.5.0 1 C

192.16.4.0 1 B 192.16.1.0 1 A 192.16.3.0 1 B 192.16.4.0 1 C

192.16.5.0 2 B 192.16.5.0 1 C 192.16.2.0 1 B 192.16.3.0 2 C

192.16.6.0 2 B 192.16.6.0 1 C 192.16.7.0 1 D 192.16.2.0 2 C

192.16.7.0 3 B 192.16.7.0 2 C 192.16.1.0 2 B 192.16.1.0 3 C

259
Fig. 53 Distribution of routing information with distance vector routing protocol (cont.) (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 71)
RIPv1
Distance Vector Routing Protocol,
classful

Distribution of Routing Tables via broadcast


to adjacent routers

Fig. 59 Properties of RIPv1 (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 81)


Only one kind of metric:
Number of Hops

Connections with different


bandwidth can not be weighted

Routing loops can occur


-> bad convergence in case of a failure

Count to infinity problem


(infinity = 16)

Maximum network size is limited


by the number of hops 260
RIP Characteristics

261
RIP-1 permits only a Single Subnet Mask
Port 1
130.24.13.1/24
130.24.13.0/24

RIP-1: 130.24.36.0 RIP-1: 130.24.36.0

130.24.25.0/24 Router A

RIP-1: 130.24.0.0

Port 2 200.14.13.0/24
130.24.36.0/24 200.14.13.2/24

262
Fig. 60 RIP-1 permits only a single subnet mask (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 83)
Router Configuration
The router command starts a routing process.

The network command is required because it enables the


routing process to determine which interfaces participate in the
sending and receiving of routing updates.

An example of a routing configuration is:

GAD(config)#router rip
GAD(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0

The network numbers are based on the network class


addresses, not subnet addresses or individual host addresses.
263
Configuring RIP Example

264
Verifying RIP Configuration

265
The debug ip rip Command
Most of the RIP
configuration
errors involve an
incorrect network
statement,
discontiguous
subnets, or split
horizons. One
highly effective
command for
finding RIP update
issues is the
debug ip rip
command. The
debug ip rip
command
displays RIP
routing updates as
they are sent and
received. 266
Routing loops
can occur Problem: Routing Loops
when
inconsistent
routing tables
are not
updated due
to slow
convergence
in a changing
network.

267
Problem: Counting to Infinity

268
Solution: Define a Maximum

269
Solution: Split Horizon

270
Route Poisoning
Route poisoning is used by various distance vector protocols in order to
overcome large routing loops and offer explicit information when a subnet
or network is not accessible. This is usually accomplished by setting the
hop count to one more than the maximum.

271
Triggered Updates
New routing tables are sent to neighboring routers on a regular basis.

For example, RIP updates occur every 30 seconds.

However a triggered update is sent immediately in response to some


change in the routing table.

The router that detects a topology change immediately sends an update


message to adjacent routers that, in turn, generate triggered updates
notifying their adjacent neighbors of the change.

When a route fails, an update is sent immediately rather than waiting on the
update timer to expire.

Triggered updates, used in conjunction with route poisoning, ensure that all
routers know of failed routes before any holddown timers can expire.
272
Triggered Updates Graphic

273
Solution: Holddown Timers

274
IGRP
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a proprietary
protocol developed by Cisco.

Some of the IGRP key design characteristics emphasize


the following:
• It is a distance vector routing protocol.
• Routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds.
• Bandwidth, load, delay and reliability are used to
create a composite metric.

275
IGRP Stability Features
IGRP has a number of features that are designed to enhance its stability, such as:
• Holddowns
• Split horizons
• Poison reverse updates

Holddowns
Holddowns are used to prevent regular update messages from inappropriately
reinstating a route that may not be up.

Split horizons
Split horizons are derived from the premise that it is usually not useful to send
information about a route back in the direction from which it came.

Poison reverse updates


Split horizons prevent routing loops between adjacent routers, but poison reverse
updates are necessary to defeat larger routing loops.

Today, IGRP is showing its age, it lacks support for variable length subnet masks
(VLSM). Rather than develop an IGRP version 2 to correct this problem, Cisco has
built upon IGRP's legacy of success with Enhanced IGRP. 276
Configuring IGRP

277
Routing Metrics Graphics

278
Link State Concepts

279
Link State Topology Changes

280
Link State Routing (LSR)
LSP: LSP:
„My links to SPF „My links to R1 and R3 are
R2 and R4 are up“ up.
Routing My link to R2 is down.“
Table
Router 1 Router 4

Router 2 Router 3

LSP: „My links to LSP: „My links to


R1 and R3 are up, R2 and R4 are up.“
my link to R4 is down.“

LSP....link state packet


SPF... shortest path first 281
Link State Concerns

282
Link State Routing (LSR)

1
Router A Router C 4

2 2 Router E

1
4
Router B Router D

Link State Database


B-2 A-2 A-1 C-2 C-4
C-1 D-4 D-2 B-4 D-1
E-4 E-1

Router A Router B Router C Router D Router E

A B C D

B C A D D A E C B

D C E E B A
283
E
Link State Routing Features
Link-state algorithms are also known as Dijkstras algorithm or as SPF (shortest path first)
algorithms.

Link-state routing algorithms maintain a complex database of topology information.

The distance vector algorithm are also known as Bellman-Ford algorithms. They have
nonspecific information about distant networks and no knowledge of distant routers.

A link-state routing algorithm maintains full knowledge of distant routers and how they
interconnect. Link-state routing uses:

• Link-state advertisements (LSAs)


A link-state advertisement (LSA) is a small packet of routing information
that is sent between routers.

• Topological database
A topological database is a collection of information gathered from LSAs.

• SPF algorithm
The shortest path first (SPF) algorithm is a calculation performed on the
database resulting in the SPF tree.
284
• Routing tables – A list of the known paths and interfaces.
Link State Routing

285
Comparing Routing Methods

286
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Protocol

© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 287


OSPF is a Link-State Routing
Protocols
– Link-state (LS) routers recognize much more information
about the network than their distance-vector
counterparts,Consequently LS routers tend to make more accurate
decisions.

– Link-state routers keep track of the following:


• Their neighbours
• All routers within the same area
• Best paths toward a destination

288
Link-State Data Structures

– Neighbor table:
• Also known as the adjacency database
(list of recognized neighbors)

– Topology table:
• Typically referred to as LSDB
(routers and links in the area or network)
• All routers within an area have an identical LSDB

– Routing table:
• Commonly named a forwarding database
(list of best paths to destinations)

289
OSPF vs. RIP
RIP is limited to 15 hops, it converges slowly, and it sometimes chooses
slow routes because it ignores critical factors such as bandwidth in route
determination. OSPF overcomes these limitations and proves to be a
robust and scalable routing protocol suitable for the networks of today.

290
OSPF Terminology
The next several slides explain various OSPF terms
-one per slide.

291
OSPF Term: Link

292
OSPF Term: Link State

293
OSPF Term: Area

294
OSPF Term: Link Cost

295
OSPF Term: Forwarding Database

296
OSPF Term: Adjacencies Database

297
OSPF Terms: DR & BDR

298
Link-State Data Structure:
Network Hierarchy

•Link-state routing requires a hierachical


network structure that is enforced by OSPF.
•This two-level hierarchy consists of the
following:
• Transit area (backbone or area 0)
• Regular areas (nonbackbone areas)

299
OSPF Areas

300
Area Terminology

301
LS Data Structures: Adjacency
Database

– Routers discover neighbors by exchanging


hello packets.
– Routers declare neighbors to be up after checking
certain parameters or options in the hello packet.
– Point-to-point WAN links:
• Both neighbors become fully adjacent.
– LAN links:
• Neighbors form an adjacency with the DR and BDR.
• Maintain two-way state with the other routers (DROTHERs).
– Routing updates and topology information are only passed between
adjacent routers.

302
OSPF Adjacencies

Routers build logical adjacencies between each other


using the Hello Protocol. Once an adjacency is formed:
• LS database packets are exchanged to synchronize
each other’s LS databases.
• LSAs are flooded reliably throughout the area or network
using these adjacencies.
303
Link State Routing Graphic

304
Open Shortest Path First
Calculation
•Routers find the best paths to destinations by applying
Dijkstra’s SPF algorithm to the link-state database as
follows:
– Every router in an area has the identical
link-state database.
– Each router in the area places itself into
the root of the tree that is built.
– The best path is calculated with respect to the
lowest total cost of links to a specific destination.
– Best routes are put into the forwarding database.

305
OSPF Packet Types

306
OSPF Packet Header Format

307
Neighborship

308
Establishing Bidirectional
Communication

309
Establishing Bidirectional
Communication (Cont.)

310
Establishing Bidirectional
Communication (Cont.)

311
Establishing Bidirectional
Communication

312
Discovering the Network Routes

313
Discovering the Network Routes

314
Adding the Link-State Entries

315
Adding the Link-State Entries
(Cont.)

316
Adding the Link-State Entries

317
Maintaining Routing Information

• Router A notifies all OSPF DRs on 224.0.0.6


318
Maintaining Routing Information
(Cont.)

• Router A notifies all OSPF DRs on 224.0.0.6


• DR notifies others on 224.0.0.5
319
Maintaining Routing Information
(Cont.)

• Router A notifies all OSPF DRs on 224.0.0.6


• DR notifies others on 224.0.0.5
320
Maintaining Routing Information

• Router A notifies all OSPF DRs on 224.0.0.6


• DR notifies others on 224.0.0.5
321
Configuring Basic OSPF:
Single Area
Router(config)#
router ospf process-id

• Turns on one or more OSPF routing processes in


the IOS software.

Router(config-router)#
network address inverse-mask area [area-id]

• Router OSPF subordinate command that defines


the interfaces (by network number) that OSPF
will run on. Each network number must be
defined to a specific area.
322
Configuring OSPF on Internal
Routers of a Single Area

323
Verifying OSPF Operation
Router#
show ip protocols

• Verifies the configured IP routing protocol


processes, parameters and statistics
Router#
show ip route ospf

• Displays all OSPF routes learned by the router


Router#
show ip ospf interface

• Displays the OSPF router ID, area ID and


adjacency information 324
Verifying OSPF Operation
(Cont.)

Router#
show ip ospf

• Displays the OSPF router ID, timers, and statistics

Router#
show ip ospf neighbor [detail]

• Displays information about the OSPF neighbors,


including Designated Router (DR) and Backup
Designated Router (BDR) information on
broadcast networks
325
The show ip route ospf
Command
RouterA# show ip route ospf

Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile,

B - BGP, D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF,


IA - OSPF inter area, E1 - OSPF external type 1,
E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP, i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS
level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default

Gateway of last resort is not set


10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 is subnetted, 2 subnets
O 10.2.1.0 [110/10] via 10.64.0.2, 00:00:50, Ethernet0

326
The show ip ospf interface
Command
RouterA# show ip ospf interface e0

Ethernet0 is up, line protocol is up


Internet Address 10.64.0.1/24, Area 0
Process ID 1, Router ID 10.64.0.1, Network Type BROADCAST, Cost: 10
Transmit Delay is 1 sec, State DROTHER, Priority 1
Designated Router (ID) 10.64.0.2, Interface address 10.64.0.2
Backup Designated router (ID) 10.64.0.1, Interface address 10.64.0.1
Timer intervals configured, Hello 10, Dead 40, Wait 40, Retransmit 5
Hello due in 00:00:04
Neighbor Count is 1, Adjacent neighbor count is 1
Adjacent with neighbor 10.64.0.2 (Designated Router)
Suppress hello for 0 neighbor(s)

327
The show ip ospf neighbor
Command
RouterB# show ip ospf neighbor

Neighbor ID Pri State Dead Time Address Interface


10.64.1.1 1 FULL/BDR 00:00:31 10.64.1.1 Ethernet0
10.2.1.1 1 FULL/- 00:00:38 10.2.1.1 Serial0

328
show ip protocol

show ip route

329
show ip ospf neighbor detail

show ip ospf database

330
OSPF Network Types - 1

331
Point-to-Point Links

• Usually a serial interface running either PPP


or HDLC
• May also be a point-to-point subinterface
running Frame Relay or ATM
• No DR or BDR election required
• OSPF autodetects this interface type
• OSPF packets are sent using multicast 224.0.0.5
332
Multi-access Broadcast Network

• Generally LAN technologies like Ethernet and Token Ring


• DR and BDR selection required
• All neighbor routers form full adjacencies with the DR and
BDR only
• Packets to the DR use 224.0.0.6
• Packets from DR to all other routers use 224.0.0.5 333
Electing the DR and BDR

• Hello packets are exchanged via IP multicast.


• The router with the highest OSPF priority is
selected as the DR.
• Use the OSPF router ID as the tie breaker.
• The DR election is nonpreemptive. 334
Setting Priority for DR Election
Router(config-if)#
ip ospf priority number

• This interface configuration command assigns the


OSPF priority to an interface.
• Different interfaces on a router may be assigned
different values.
• The default priority is 1. The range is from 0 to 255.
• 0 means the router is a DROTHER; it can’t be the
DR or BDR.
335
OSPF Network Types - 2

336
Creation of Adjacencies
RouterA# debug ip ospf adj

Point-to-point interfaces coming up: No election


%LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface Serial1, changed state to up
OSPF: Interface Serial1 going Up
OSPF: Rcv hello from 192.168.0.11 area 0 from Serial1 10.1.1.2
OSPF: End of hello processing
OSPF: Build router LSA for area 0, router ID 192.168.0.10
OSPF: Rcv DBD from 192.168.0.11 on Serial1 seq 0x20C4 opt 0x2 flag 0x7 len 32
state INIT
OSPF: 2 Way Communication to 192.168.0.11 on Serial1, state 2WAY
OSPF: Send DBD to 192.168.0.11 on Serial1 seq 0x167F opt 0x2 flag 0x7 len 32
OSPF: NBR Negotiation Done. We are the SLAVE
OSPF: Send DBD to 192.168.0.11 on Serial1 seq 0x20C4 opt 0x2 flag 0x2 len 72

337
Creation of Adjacencies (Cont.)
RouterA# debug ip ospf adj

Ethernet interface coming up: Election


OSPF: 2 Way Communication to 192.168.0.10 on Ethernet0, state 2WAY
OSPF: end of Wait on interface Ethernet0
OSPF: DR/BDR election on Ethernet0
OSPF: Elect BDR 192.168.0.12
OSPF: Elect DR 192.168.0.12
DR: 192.168.0.12 (Id) BDR: 192.168.0.12 (Id)
OSPF: Send DBD to 192.168.0.12 on Ethernet0 seq 0x546 opt 0x2 flag 0x7 len 32
<…>
OSPF: DR/BDR election on Ethernet0
OSPF: Elect BDR 192.168.0.11
OSPF: Elect DR 192.168.0.12
DR: 192.168.0.12 (Id) BDR: 192.168.0.11 (Id)

338
339
Overview
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a Cisco-
proprietary routing protocol based on Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(IGRP).

Unlike IGRP, which is a classful routing protocol, EIGRP supports CIDR


and VLSM.

Compared to IGRP, EIGRP boasts faster convergence times, improved


scalability, and superior handling of routing loops.

Furthermore, EIGRP can replace Novell Routing Information Protocol


(RIP) and AppleTalk Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP),
serving both IPX and AppleTalk networks with powerful efficiency.

EIGRP is often described as a hybrid routing protocol, offering the best


of distance vector and link-state algorithms.
340
Comparing EIGRP with IGRP
IGRP and EIGRP are compatible with each other.
EIGRP offers multiprotocol support, but IGRP does not.
EIGRP and IGRP use different metric calculations.
EIGRP scales the metric of IGRP by a factor of 256.
IGRP has a maximum hop count of 255.
EIGRP has a maximum hop count limit of 224.

Enabling dissimilar routing protocols such as OSPF and RIP to


share information requires advanced configuration.
Redistribution, the sharing of routes, is automatic between
IGRP and EIGRP as long as both processes use the same
341
autonomous system (AS) number.
EIGRP & IGRP Metric Calculation

342
Comparing EIGRP with IGRP

343
Comparing EIGRP with IGRP

344
EIGRP Concepts & Terminology
EIGRP routers keep route and topology information readily
available in RAM, so they can react quickly to changes.

Like OSPF, EIGRP saves this information in several tables and


databases.

EIGRP saves routes that are learned in specific ways.

Routes are given a particular status and can be tagged to


provide additional useful information.

EIGRP maintains three tables:


• Neighbor table
• Topology table
345
• Routing table
Neighbor Table
The neighbor table is the most important table in EIGRP.

Each EIGRP router maintains a neighbor table that lists adjacent


routers. This table is comparable to the adjacency database used by
OSPF. There is a neighbor table for each protocol that EIGRP
supports.

When a neighbor sends a hello packet, it advertises a hold time. The


hold time is the amount of time a router treats a neighbor as
reachable and operational. In other words, if a hello packet is not
heard within the hold time, then the hold time expires.

When the hold time expires, the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL),
which is the EIGRP distance vector algorithm, is informed of the
topology change and must recalculate the new topology.
346
Topology Table
The topology table is made up of all the EIGRP routing tables in the
autonomous system.

DUAL takes the information supplied in the neighbor table and the topology
table and calculates the lowest cost routes to each destination. By
tracking this information, EIGRP routers can identify and switch to alternate
routes quickly.

The information that the router learns from the DUAL is used to determine
the successor route, which is the term used to identify the primary or best
route.
A copy is also placed in the topology table.

Every EIGRP router maintains a topology table for each configured network
protocol. All learned routes to a destination are maintained in the topology
table.
347
Routing Table
The EIGRP routing table holds the best routes to a destination. This
information is retrieved from the topology table. Each EIGRP router
maintains a routing table for each network protocol.

A successor is a route selected as the primary route to use to reach a


destination.DUAL identifies this route from the information contained in the
neighbor and topology tables and places it in the routing table.

There can be up to four successor routes for any particular route. These
can be of equal or unequal cost and are identified as the best loop-free
paths to a given destination.

A copy of the successor routes is also placed in the topology table.

A feasible successor (FS) is a backup route.These routes are identified at


the same time the successors are identified, but they are only kept in the
topology table. Multiple feasible successors for a destination can be
348
retained in the topology table although it is not mandatory.
EIGRP Data Structure
Like OSPF, EIGRP relies on different types of packets to maintain its various tables
and establish complex relationships with neighbor routers. The five EIGRP packet
types are:
• Hello
• Acknowledgment
• Update
• Query
• Reply

EIGRP relies on hello packets to discover, verify, and rediscover neighbor routers.

Rediscovery occurs if EIGRP routers do not receive hellos from each other for a
hold time interval but then re-establish communication.

EIGRP routers send hellos at a fixed but configurable interval, called the hello
interval. The default hello interval depends on the bandwidth of the interface.

On IP networks, EIGRP routers send hellos to the multicast IP address 224.0.0.10.


349
Default Hello Intervals
and Hold Times for EIGRP

350
EIGRP Algorithm
The sophisticated DUAL algorithm results in the exceptionally fast
convergence of EIGRP.

Each router constructs a topology table that contains information about how
to route to a destination network.

Each topology table identifies the following:


• The routing protocol or EIGRP
• The lowest cost of the route, which is called Feasible Distance
• The cost of the route as advertised by the neighboring router,
which is called Reported Distance

The Topology heading identifies the preferred primary route, called the
successor route (Successor), and, where identified, the backup route,
called the feasible successor (FS). Note that it is not necessary to have an
identified feasible successor.
351
FS Route Selection Rules

352
DUAL Example

353
Configuring EIGRP

354
Configuring EIGRP Summarization
EIGRP automatically summarizes routes at the classful boundary.

This is the boundary where the network address ends, as defined by class-
based addressing.

This means that even though RTC is connected only to the subnet 2.1.1.0,
it will advertise that it is connected to the entire Class A network, 2.0.0.0.

In most cases auto summarization is beneficial because it keeps routing


tables as compact as possible.

355
Configuring EIGRP no-summary
However, automatic summarization may not be the preferred option in
certain instances. To turn off auto-summarization, use the following
command: router(config-router)#no auto-summary

356
Configuring EIGRP
Summary Addersses Manually
With EIGRP, a summary address can be manually configured by configuring a
prefix network. Manual summary routes are configured on a per-interface basis.
router(config-if)#ip summary-address eigrp autonomous-system-
number ip-address mask administrative-distance
EIGRP summary routes have an administrative distance of 5 by default.
In the graphic below, RTC can be configured using the commands shown:
RTC(config)#router eigrp 2446
RTC(config-router)#no auto-summary
RTC(config-router)#exit
RTC(config)#interface serial 0/0
RTC(config-if)#ip summary-address eigrp 2446 2.1.0.0 255.255.0.0

357
Verifying the EIGRP Configuration

To verify the EIGRP configuration a number of show


and debug commands are available.
These commands are shown on the next few slides.

358
show ip eigrp neighbors

show ip eigrp interfaces

359
show ip eigrp topology

show ip eigrp topology


[active | pending | successors]

360
show ip eigrp topology
all-links

show ip eigrp traffic

361
Administrative Distances

362
Classful and Classless
Routing Protocols

363
364
What are ACLs?
ACLs are lists of conditions that are applied to traffic traveling
across a router's interface. These lists tell the router what types
of packets to accept or deny. Acceptance and denial can be
based on specified conditions.

ACLs can be created for all routed network protocols, such as


Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).

ACLs can be configured at the router to control access to a


network or subnet.

Some ACL decision points are source and destination addresses,


protocols, and upper-layer port numbers.

ACLs must be defined on a per-protocol, per direction, or per port


365
basis.
Reasons to Create ACLs
The following are some of the primary reasons to create ACLs:

• Limit network traffic and increase network performance.


• Provide traffic flow control.
• Provide a basic level of security for network access.
• Decide which types of traffic are forwarded or blocked at
the router interfaces. For example: Permit e-mail traffic to
be routed, but block all telnet traffic.

Allow an administrator to control what areas a client can access


on a network.

If ACLs are not configured on the router, all packets passing


through the router will be allowed onto all parts of the network.366
ACLs Filter Traffic Graphic

367
How ACLs Filter Traffic

368
One List per Port, per
Destination, per Protocol...

369
How ACLs work.

370
Creating ACLs
ACLs are created in the global configuration mode. There are many
different types of ACLs including standard, extended, IPX,
AppleTalk, and others. When configuring ACLs on a router, each
ACL must be uniquely identified by assigning a number to it. This
number identifies the type of access list created and must fall within
the specific range of numbers that is valid for that type of list.

Since IP is by far the


most popular routed
protocol, addition ACL
numbers have been
added to newer router
IOSs.
Standard IP: 1300-1999
Extended IP: 2000-2699371
The access-list command

372
The ip access-group command

{ in | out }

373
ACL Example

374
Basic Rules for ACLs
These basic rules should be followed when creating and applying access lists:

• One access list per protocol per direction.


• Standard IP access lists should be applied closest to the destination.
• Extended IP access lists should be applied closest to the source.
• Use the inbound or outbound interface reference as if looking at the port
from inside the router.
• Statements are processed sequentially from the top of list to the bottom
until a match is found, if no match is found then the packet is denied.
• There is an implicit deny at the end of all access lists. This will not appear
in the configuration listing.
• Access list entries should filter in the order from specific to general.
Specific hosts should be denied first, and groups or general filters should
come last.
• Never work with an access list that is actively applied.
• New lines are always added to the end of the access list.
• A no access-list x command will remove the whole list. It is not possible
to selectively add and remove lines with numbered ACLs.
• Outbound filters do not affect traffic originating from the local router.
375
Wildcard Mask Examples
5 Examples follow that demonstrate how a wildcard mask can be
used to permit or deny certain IP addresses, or IP address ranges.

While subnet masks start with binary 1s and end with binary 0s,
wildcard masks are the reverse meaning they typically start with
binary 0s and end with binary 1s.

In the examples that follow Cisco has chosen to represent the binary
1s in the wilcard masks with Xs to focus on the specific bits being
shown in each example.

You will see that while subnet masks were ANDed with ip
addresses, wildcard masks are ORed with IP addresses.

.
376
Wildcard Mask Example #1

377
Wildcard Mask Example #2

378
Wildcard Mask Example #3

379
Wildcard Mask Example #4 - Even IPs

380
Wildcard Mask Example #5 - Odd IP#s

381
The any and host Keywords

382
Verifying ACLs
There are many show commands that will verify the content
and placement of ACLs on the router.

The show ip interface command displays IP interface


information and indicates whether any ACLs are set.

The show access-lists command displays the contents of all


ACLs on the router.

show access-list 1 shows just access-list 1.

The show running-config command will also reveal the


access lists on a router and the interface assignment
information. 383
Standard ACLs
Standard ACLs check the source address of IP packets that are routed.

The comparison will result in either permit or deny access for an entire protocol
suite, based on the network, subnet, and host addresses.

The standard version of the access-list global configuration command is used to


define a standard ACL with a number in the range of 1 to 99 (also from 1300 to
1999 in recent IOS).

If there is no wildcard mask. the default mask is used, which is 0.0.0.0.


(This only works with Standard ACLs and is the same thing as using host.)

The full syntax of the standard ACL command is:

Router(config)#access-list access-list-number
{deny | permit} source [source-wildcard ] [log]

The no form of this command is used to remove a standard ACL. This is the syntax:
384
Router(config)#no access-list access-list-number
Extended ACLs
Extended ACLs are used more often than standard ACLs because they provide a
greater range of control. Extended ACLs check the source and destination packet
addresses as well as being able to check for protocols and port numbers.

The syntax for the extended ACL statement can get very long and often will wrap in
the terminal window.

The wildcards also have the option of using the host or any keywords in the
command.

At the end of the extended ACL statement, additional precision is gained from a field
that specifies the optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) port number.

Logical operations may be specified such as, equal (eq), not equal (neq), greater
than (gt), and less than (lt), that the extended ACL will perform on specific protocols.

Extended ACLs use an access-list-number in the range 100 to 199 (also from 2000
to 2699 in recent IOS). 385
Extended ACL Syntax

386
Well Known Port Numbers

Don’t forget that WWW or HTTP is 80 387


Extended ACL Example
This extended ACL will allow people in network 200.100.50.0
to surfing the internet, but not allow any other protocols like
email, ftp, etc.

access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 80


or
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq www
or
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq http

NOTE: Just like all Standard ACLs end with an implicit "deny
any", all Extended ACLs end with an implicit "deny ip any any"
which means deny the entire internet from anywhere to
anywhere. 388
ip access-group
The ip access-group command links an existing standard or
extended ACL to an interface.

Remember that only one ACL per interface, per direction, per
protocol is allowed.

The format of the command is:

Router(config-if)#ip access-group
access-list-number {in | out}

389
Named ACLs
IP named ACLs were introduced in Cisco IOS Software Release 11.2,
allowing standard and extended ACLs to be given names instead of
numbers.

The advantages that a named access list provides are:


• Intuitively identify an ACL using an alphanumeric name.
• Eliminate the limit of 798 simple and 799 extended ACLs
• Named ACLs provide the ability to modify ACLs without deleting
them completely and then reconfiguring them.

Named ACLs are not compatible with Cisco IOS releases prior to Release
11.2.

The same name may not be used for multiple ACLs.

390
Named ACL Example

391
Placing ACLs
The general rule is to put the extended ACLs as close as possible to the
source of the traffic denied. Standard ACLs do not specify destination
addresses, so they should be placed as close to the destination as
possible. For example, in the graphic a standard ACL should be placed on
Fa0/0 of Router D to prevent traffic from Router A.

392
393
Permitting a Single Host
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.23 0.0.0.0
or
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.23
or
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.23

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)

Router(config)# int e0
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 in
or
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
394
Denying a Single Host
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 200.100.50.23 0.0.0.0
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny host 200.100.50.23
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any

(The implicit “deny any” is still present, but totally irrelevant.)

Router(config)# int e0
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 in
or
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
395
Permitting a Single Network
Class C
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
or
Class B
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
or
Class A
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 13.0.0.0 0.255.255.255

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)

Router(config)# int e0
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 in
or
396
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
Denying a Single Network
Class C
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any
or
Class B
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any
or
Class A
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 13.0.0.0 0.255.255.255
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any

(The implicit “deny any” is still present, but totally irrelevant.)


397
Permitting a Class C Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 200.100.50.0/28
Desired Subnet: 3rd

Process:
32-28=4 2^4 = 16
1st Usable Subnet address range it 200.100.50.16-31
2nd Usable Subnet address range it 200.100.50.32-47
3rd Usable Subnet address range it 200.100.50.48-63

Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.240 Inverse Mask is 0.0.0.15


or subtract 200.100.50.48 from 200.100.50.63 to get 0.0.0.15

Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.48 0.0.0.15

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)


398
Denying a Class C Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 192.68.72.0/27
Undesired Subnet: 2nd

Process:
32-27=5 2^5=32
1st Usable Subnet address range it 192.68.72.32-63
2nd Usable Subnet address range it 192.68.72.64-95

Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.224 Inverse Mask is 0.0.0.31


or subtract 192.68.72.64 from 192.68.72.95 to get 0.0.0.31

Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 192.68.72.64 0.0.0.31


Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any

(The implicit “deny any” is still present, but totally irrelevant.)399


Permitting a Class B Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 150.75.0.0/24
Desired Subnet: 129th

Process:
Since exactly 8 bits are borrowed the 3rd octet will denote the
subnet number.
129th Usable Subnet address range it 150.75.129.0-255

Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.0 Inverse Mask is 0.0.0.255


or subtract 150.75.129.0 from 150.75.129.255 to get 0.0.0.255

Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 150.75.129.0 0.0.0.255

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)


400
Denying a Class B Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 160.88.0.0/22
Undesired Subnet: 50th

Process:
32-22=10 (more than 1 octet) 10-8=2 2^2=4
1st Usable Subnet address range it 160.88.4.0-160.88.7.255
2nd Usable Subnet address range it 160.88.8.0-160.88.11.255

50 * 4 = 200 50th subnet is 160.88.200.0-160.88.203.255

Subnet Mask is 255.255.252.0 Inverse Mask is 0.0.3.255


or subtract 160.88.200.0 from 160.88.203.255 to get 0.0.3.255

Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 160.88.200.0 0.0.3.255


401
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any
Permitting a Class A Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 111.0.0.0/12
Desired Subnet: 13th

Process:
32-12=20 20-16=4 2^4=16
1st Usable Subnet address range is 111.16.0.0-111.31.255.255
13*16=208
13th Usable Subnet address range is 111.208.0.0-111.223.255.255

Subnet Mask is 255.240.0.0 Inverse Mask is 0.15.255.255


or subtract 111.208.0.0 from 111.223.255.255 to get 0.15.255.255

Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 111.208.0.0 0.15.255.255

402
(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)
Denying a Class A Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 40.0.0.0/24
Undesired Subnet: 500th

Process:
Since exactly 16 bits were borrowed the 2nd and 3rd octet will
denote the subnet.

1st Usable Subnet address range is 40.0.1.0-40.0.1.255


255th Usable Subnet address range is 40.0.255.0-40.0.255.255
256th Usable Subnet address range is 40.1.0.0-40.1.0.255
300th Usable Subnet address range is 40.1.44.0-40.1.44.255
500th Usable Subnet address range is 40.1.244.0-40.1.244.255

Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 40.1.244.0 0 0.0.0.255


403
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any
404
Permit 200.100.50.24-100 Plan A
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.24
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.25
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.26 This
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.27 would
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.28 get very
: : : : : : : : tedious!
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.96
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.97
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.98
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.99
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.100
405
Permit 200.100.50.24-100 Plan B
access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.24 0.0.0.7 (24-31)

access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.32 0.0.0.31 (32-63)

access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.64 0.0.0.31 (64-95)

access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.96 0.0.0.3 (96-99)

access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.100 (100)

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)

406
Permit 200.100.50.16-127 Plan A
access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.16 0.0.0.15 (16-31)

access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.32 0.0.0.31 (32-63)

access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.64 0.0.0.63 (64-127)

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)

407
Permit 200.100.50.16-127 Plan B
access-list 1 deny 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.15 (0-15)

access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.127 (0-127)


First we make sure that addresses 0-15 are denied.

Then we can permit any address in the range 0-127.

Since only the first matching statement in an ACL is applied an


address in the range of 0-15 will be denied by the first statement
before it has a chance to be permitted by the second.

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)


408
Permit 200.100.50.1,5,13,29,42,77
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.1
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.5
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.13
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.29
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.42
access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.77

Sometimes a group of addresses has no pattern and the best


way to deal with them is individually.

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)


409
410
Permit Source Network
access-list 101 permit ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or

access-list 101 permit ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any

Implicit deny ip any any

411
Deny Source Network
access-list 101 deny ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
access-list 101 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or

access-list 101 deny ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any


access-list 101 permit ip any any

Implicit deny ip any any is present but irrelevant.


412
Permit Destination Network
access-list 101 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
or

access-list 101 permit ip any 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255

Implicit deny ip any any

413
Deny Destination Network
access-list 101 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
access-list 101 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or

access-list 101 deny ip any 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255


access-list 101 permit ip any any

Implicit deny ip any any is present but irrelevant.


414
Permit one Source Network to
another Destination Network
Assume the only traffic you want is traffic from network
200.100.50.0 to network 150.75.0.0

access-list 101 permit ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255


150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
Implicit deny ip any any

To allow 2 way traffic between the networks add this statement:

access-list 101 permit ip 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255


415
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
Deny one Source Network to
another Destination Network
Assume you want to allow all traffic EXCEPT from network
200.100.50.0 to network 150.75.0.0

access-list 101 deny ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255


150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
access-list 101 permit ip any any

To deny 2 way traffic between the networks add this statement:

access-list 101 deny ip 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255


416
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
Deny FTP
Assume you do not want anyone FTPing on the network.

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq 21


access-list 101 permit ip any any

or

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq ftp


access-list 101 permit ip any any
417
Deny Telnet
Assume you do not want anyone telnetting on the network.

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq 23


access-list 101 permit ip any any

or

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq telnet


access-list 101 permit ip any any
418
Deny Web Surfing
Assume you do not want anyone surfing the internet.

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq 80


access-list 101 permit ip any any

or

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq www


access-list 101 permit ip any any

You can also use http instead of www. 419


Complicated Example #1
Suppose you have the following conditions:
• No one from Network 200.100.50.0 is allowed to FTP anywhere
• Only hosts from network 150.75.0.0 may telnet to network 50.0.0.0
• Subnetwork 100.100.100.0/24 is not allowed to surf the internet

access-list 101 deny tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 21

access-list 101 permit tcp 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255 50.0.0.0


0.255.255.255 eq 23

access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq 23

access-list 101 deny tcp 100.100.100.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 80

420
access-list 101 permit ip any any
Complicated Example #2
Suppose you are the admin of network 200.100.50.0. You want to permit
Email only between your network and network 150.75.0.0. You wish to place
no restriction on other protocols like web surfing, ftp, telnet, etc.
• Email server send/receive Protocol: SMTP, port 25
• User Check Email Protocol: POP3, port 110
This example assumes the your Email server is at addresses 200.100.50.25

access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 150.75.0.0


0.0.255.255 eq 25
access-list 101 permit tcp 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 eq 25
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 eq 110
access-list 101 deny tcp any any smtp
access-list 101 deny tcp any any pop3
access-list 101 permit ip any any 421
NAT
Network Address
Translator

422
Fig. 3 NAT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 7)
New addressing concepts

Problems with IPv4


Shortage of IPv4 addresses
Allocation of the last IPv4 addresses is forecasted for the year 2005
Address classes were replaced by usage of CIDR, but this is not sufficient

Short term solution


NAT: Network Address Translator

Long term solution


IPv6 = IPng (IP next generation)
Provides an extended address range

423
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
NAT: Network Address Translator

NAT
Translates between local addresses and public ones
Many private hosts share few global addresses

Private Network Public Network


Uses private address range Uses public addresses
(local addresses)
Local addresses may not Public addresses are
be used externally globally unique
424
Fig. 4 How does NAT work? (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 9)
realm with realm with
private addresses public addresses

translate reserve
To be pool
translated

map
NAT

exclude exclude

NAT Router

425
Fig. 5 Translation mechanism (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 9)
free
NAT
Pool

A timeout value (default 15 min) instructs NAT


how long to keep an association in an idle state before
returning the external IP address to the free NAT pool.
426
Fig. 8 How does NAT know when to return the public IP address to the pool? (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 15)
NAT Addressing Terms
• Inside Local
– The term “inside” refers to an address used for a host
inside an enterprise. It is the actual IP address assigned
to a host in the private enterprise network.

• Inside Global
– NAT uses an inside global address to represent the
inside host as the packet is sent through the outside
network, typically the Internet.
– A NAT router changes the source IP address of a packet
sent by an inside host from an inside local address to an
inside global address as the packet goes from the inside
to the outside network.
427
NAT Addressing Terms
• Outside Global
– The term “outside” refers to an address used for a
host outside an enterprise, the Internet.
– An outside global is the actual IP address assigned to
a host that resides in the outside network, typically the
Internet.
• Outside Local
– NAT uses an outside local address to represent the
outside host as the packet is sent through the private
enterprise network.
– A NAT router changes a packet’s destination IP
address, sent from an outside global address to an
inside host, as the packet goes from the outside to the
inside network.
428
WAN

Router

Router A with NAT


Router Router Router B
SA = 193.50.30.4
DA = 192.50.20.5

SA = 10.47.10.10 Router Router


DA = 192.50.20.5 Net B
192.50.20.0
LAN LAN
Net A
10.0.0.0

10.47.10.10 192.50.20.5

429
Fig. 7 An example for NAT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 13)
WAN
NAT with Router
WAN interface:
138.76.28.4
138.76.29.7
Router

SA = 138.76.28.4 SA = 138.76.29.7
DA =138.76.29.7 DA = 138.76.28.4

Router

SA = 10.0.0.10 SA = 138.76.29.7
DA = 138.76.29.7 DA = 10.0.0.10

Net A
10.0.0.0/8

10.0.0.10

430
Fig. 11 An example for NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 21)
Types Of NAT
• There are different types of NAT that can
be used, which are
– Static NAT
– Dynamic NAT
– Overloading NAT with PAT (NAPT)

431
Static NAT
• With static NAT, the NAT router simply
configures a one-to-one mapping between
the private address and the registered
address that is used on its behalf.

432
Static NAT

433
Dynamic NAT
• Like static NAT, the NAT router creates a one-
to-one mapping between an inside local and
inside global address and changes the IP
addresses in packets as they exit and enter
the inside network.

• However, the mapping of an inside local


address to an inside global address happens
dynamically.

434
Dynamic NAT

• Dynamic NAT sets up a pool of possible inside global


addresses and defines criteria for the set of inside local
IP addresses whose traffic should be translated with
NAT.

• The dynamic entry in the NAT table stays in there as


long as traffic flows occasionally.

• If a new packet arrives, and it needs a NAT entry, but all


the pooled IP addresses are in use, the router simply
discards the packet.
435
PAT
Port Address Translator

436
Fig. 9 NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 17)
WAN
NAPT with Router
WAN interface:
138.76.28.4
138.76.29.7
Router

SA = 138.76.28.4, sport = 1024 SA = 138.76.29.7, spor t= 23


DA =138.76.29.7, dpor t= 23 DA = 138.76.28.4, dport = 1024

Router

SA = 10.0.0.10, sport = 3017 SA = 138.76.29.7, spor t= 23


DA = 138.76.29.7, dpor t= 23 DA = 10.0.0.10, dport = 3017

Net A
10.0.0.0/8

10.0.0.10

437
Fig. 11 An example for NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 21)
PATwith
PAT withe.g.
e.g.aasingle
singlepublic
publicIP
IPaddress
address

single public
IP address
private IP network
WAN
(e.g. SOHO)

pool of TU port numbers

local IP @,
registered IP @,
local TU port # mapping
assigned TU port #

438
TU....TCP/UDP
Fig. 10 NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 19)
NAT&PAT
Network Address Translation
&
Port Address Transation

439
Fig. 3 NAT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 7)
New addressing concepts

Problems with IPv4


Shortage of IPv4 addresses
Allocation of the last IPv4 addresses is forecasted for the year 2006
Address classes were replaced by usage of CIDR, but this is not sufficient

Short term solution


NAT: Network Address Translator

Long term solution


IPv6 = IPng (IP next generation)
Provides an extended address range

440
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
NAT: Network Address Translator

NAT
Translates between local addresses and public ones
Many private hosts share few global addresses

Private Network Public Network


Uses private address range Uses public addresses
(local addresses)
Local addresses may not Public addresses are
be used externally globally unique
441
Fig. 4 How does NAT work? (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 9)
private addresses public addresses

translate reserve
To be pool
translated

map
NAT

exclude exclude

NAT Router

442
Fig. 5 Translation mechanism (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 9)
free
NAT
Pool

A timeout value (default 15 min) instructs NAT


how long to keep an association in an idle state before
returning the external IP address to the free NAT pool.
443
Fig. 8 How does NAT know when to return the public IP address to the pool? (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 15)
NAT Addressing Terms
• Inside Local “Private address”
– The term “inside” refers to an address used for a host
inside an enterprise. It is the actual IP address assigned
to a host in the private enterprise network.

• Inside Global “Public address”


– NAT uses an inside global address to represent the
inside host as the packet is sent through the outside
network, typically the WAN.
– A NAT router changes the source IP address of a packet
sent by an inside host from an inside local address to an
inside global address as the packet goes from the inside
to the outside network.
444
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
WAN

Router

Router A with NAT


Router Router Router B
SA = 193.50.30.4
DA = 192.50.20.5

SA = 10.47.10.10 Router Router


DA = 192.50.20.5 Net B
192.50.20.0
LAN LAN
Net A
10.0.0.0

10.47.10.10 192.50.20.5

445
Fig. 7 An example for NAT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 13)
WAN
NAT with Router
WAN interface:
138.76.28.4
138.76.29.7
Router

SA = 138.76.28.4 SA = 138.76.29.7
DA =138.76.29.7 DA = 138.76.28.4

Router

SA = 10.0.0.10 SA = 138.76.29.7
DA = 138.76.29.7 DA = 10.0.0.10

Net A
10.0.0.0/8

10.0.0.10

446
Fig. 11 An example for NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 21)
Types Of NAT
• There are different types of NAT that can
be used, which are
– Static NAT
– Dynamic NAT
– Overloading NAT with PAT (NAT Over PAT)

447
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
Static NAT
• With static NAT, the NAT router simply
configures a one-to-one mapping between
the private address and the registered
address that is used on its behalf.

448
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
Static NAT

449
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
Static NAT Configuration

• To form NAT table


Router(config)#IP Nat inside source static [inside local
source IP address] [inside global source IP address]

• Assign NAT to an Interface

Router(config)#Interface [Serial x/y]


Router(config-if)#IP NAT [Inside]

• See Example

450
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
Dynamic NAT
• Like static NAT, the NAT router creates a one-
to-one mapping between an inside local and
inside global address and changes the IP
addresses in packets as they exit and enter
the inside network.

• However, the mapping of an inside local


address to an inside global address happens
dynamically.

451
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
Dynamic NAT

• Dynamic NAT sets up a pool of possible inside global


addresses and defines criteria for the set of inside
local IP addresses whose traffic should be translated
with NAT.

• The dynamic entry in the NAT table stays in there as


long as traffic flows occasionally.

• If a new packet arrives, and it needs a NAT entry, but


all the pooled IP addresses are in use, the router
simply discards the packet.
452
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
Dynamic NAT Configuration

• Specify inside addresses to be translated


Router(config)#IP Nat inside source list [standard Access
List number] pool [NAT Pool Name]

• Specify NAT pool


Router(config)#IP Nat pool [NAT Pool Name] [First inside
global address] [Last inside global address] netmask
[subnet mask]

• Assign NAT to an Interface


Router(config)#Interface [Serial x/y]
Router(config-if)#IP NAT [Inside]

• See Example
453
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
PAT
Port Address Translator

454
Fig. 9 NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 17)
WAN
NAPT with Router
WAN interface:
138.76.28.4
138.76.29.7
Router

SA = 138.76.28.4, sport = 1024 SA = 138.76.29.7, spor t= 23


DA =138.76.29.7, dpor t= 23 DA = 138.76.28.4, dport = 1024

Router

SA = 10.0.0.10, sport = 3017 SA = 138.76.29.7, spor t= 23


DA = 138.76.29.7, dpor t= 23 DA = 10.0.0.10, dport = 3017

Net A
10.0.0.0/8

10.0.0.10

455
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
PATwith
PAT withe.g.
e.g.aasingle
singlepublic
publicIP
IPaddress
address

single public
IP address
private IP network
WAN
(e.g. SOHO)

pool of TU port numbers

local IP @,
registered IP @,
local TU port # mapping
assigned TU port #

456
TU....TCP/UDP
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
PAT Configuration

• Specify inside addresses to be translated


Router(config)#IP Nat inside source list [standard Access
List number] pool [NAT Pool Name] overload

• Specify PAT pool


Router(config)#IP Nat pool [NAT Pool Name] [First inside
global address] [Last inside global address] netmask
[subnet mask]

• Assign PAT to an Interface


Router(config)#Interface [Serial x/y]
Router(config-if)#IP NAT [Inside]

• See Example
457
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
458
Ethernet Access with Hubs

459
Ethernet Access with Bridges

460
Ethernet Access with Switches

461
Today's LAN

462
Full Duplex Transmitting
Full-duplex Ethernet allows the transmission of a packet and the reception of a
different packet at the same time.
This simultaneous transmission and reception requires the use of two pairs of wires
in the cable and a switched connection between each node. This connection is
considered point-to-point and is collision free.
The full-duplex Ethernet switch takes advantage of the two pairs of wires in the
cable by creating a direct connection between the transmit (TX) at one end of the
circuit and the receive (RX) at the other end.
Ethernet usually can only use 50%-60% of the available 10 Mbps of bandwidth
because of collisions and latency. Full-duplex Ethernet offers 100% of the
bandwidth in both directions. This produces a potential 20 Mbps throughput.

463
Why Segment LANs?

464
Collision Domains

465
Segmentation with Bridges

466
Segmentation with Routers

467
Segmentation with Switches

468
Basic Operations of a Switch
Switching is a technology that decreases congestion in Ethernet, Token
Ring, and FDDI LANs. Switching accomplishes this by reducing traffic and
increasing bandwidth. LAN switches are often used to replace shared hubs
and are designed to work with existing cable infrastructures.
Switching equipment performs the following two basic operations:
• Switching data frames
• Maintaining switching operations

469
Switching Methods
1. Store-and-Forward
The entire frame is received before any forwarding takes place. Filters are
applied before the frame is forwarded. Most reliable and also most latency
especially when frames are large.

2. Cut-Through
The frame is forwarded through the switch before the entire frame is
received. At a minimum the frame destination address must be read before
the frame can be forwarded. This mode decreases the latency of the
transmission, but also reduces error detection.

3. Fragment-Free
Fragment-free switching filters out collision fragments before forwarding
begins. Collision fragments are the majority of packet errors. In a properly
functioning network, collision fragments must be smaller than 64 bytes.
Anything > 64 bytes is a valid packet and is usually received without error.

470
Frame Transmission Modes

471
Benefits of Switching

472
How Switches and Bridges
Learn Addresses
Bridges and switches learn in the following ways:

• Reading the source MAC address of each


received frame or datagram

• Recording the port on which the MAC address


was received.

In this way, the bridge or switch learns which addresses


belong to the devices connected to each port.
473
CAM
Content Addressable Memory
CAM is used in switch applications:

• To take out and process the address information from


incoming data packets

• To compare the destination address with a table of


addresses stored within it

The CAM stores host MAC addresses and associated port


numbers. The CAM compares the received destination MAC
address against the CAM table contents. If the comparison
yields a match, the port is provided, and switching control
forwards the packet to the correct port and address. 474
Shared vs. Dedicates Bandwidth
If a hub is used, bandwidth is shared. If a switch is used, then bandwidth is
dedicated. If a workstation or server is directly connected to a switch port, then the
full bandwidth of the connection to the switch is available to the connected
computer. If a hub is connected to a switch port, bandwidth is shared between all
devices connected to the hub.

475
Microsegmentation of a Network

476
Microsegmentation

477
3 Methods of Communication

478
Switches & Broadcast Domains
When two switches are connected, the broadcast domain is increased.
The overall result is a reduction in available bandwidth. This happens because all
devices in the broadcast domain must receive and process the broadcast frame.
Routers are Layer 3 devices. Routers do not propagate broadcasts. Routers are
used to segment both collision and broadcast domains.

479
Broadcast Domain

480
481
Overview
To design reliable, manageable, and scalable networks, a network
designer must realize that each of the major components of a
network has distinct design requirements.

Good network design will improve performance and also reduce the
difficulties associated with network growth and evolution.

The design of larger LANs includes identifying the following:


• An access layer that connects end users into the LAN
• A distribution layer that provides policy-based connectivity
between end-user LANs
• A core layer that provides the fastest connection between
the distribution points

Each of these LAN design layers requires switches that are best
suited for specific tasks. 482
The Access Layer
The access layer is the entry point for user workstations and servers to
the network. In a campus LAN the device used at the access layer can
be a switch or a hub.

Access layer functions also include MAC layer filtering and


microsegmentation. Layer 2 switches are used in the access layer.

483
Access Layer Switches
Access layer switches operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model

The main purpose of an access layer switch is to allow end


users into the network.

An access layer switch should provide this functionality with


low cost and high port density.

The following Cisco switches are commonly used at the


access layer:
• Catalyst 1900 series
• Catalyst 2820 series
• Catalyst 2950 series
• Catalyst 4000 series
• Catalyst 5000 series
484
The Distribution Layer
The distribution layer of the network is between the access and core layers.
Networks are segmented into broadcast domains by this layer. Policies can be
applied and access control lists can filter packets.

The distribution layer isolates network problems to the workgroups in which they
occur. The distribution layer also prevents these problems from affecting the core
layer. Switches in this layer operate at Layer 2 and Layer 3.

485
Distribution Layer Switches
The distribution layer switch must have high performance.

The distribution layer switch is a point at which a broadcast domain is


delineated. It combines VLAN traffic and is a focal point for policy
decisions about traffic flow.

For these reasons distribution layer switches operate at both Layer 2


and Layer 3 of the OSI model.

Switches in this layer are referred to as multilayer switches. These


multilayer switches combine the functions of a router and a switch in
one device.

The following Cisco switches are suitable for the distribution layer:
• Catalyst 2926G
• Catalyst 5000 family
• Catalyst 6000 family 486
The Core Layer
The core layer is a high-speed switching backbone.

This layer of the network design should not perform any packet manipulation.
Packet manipulation, such as access list filtering, would slow down the process.

Providing a core infrastructure with redundant alternate paths gives stability to the
network in the event of a single device failure.

The core can be designed to use Layer 2 or Layer 3 switching. Asynchronous


Transfer Mode (ATM) or Ethernet switches can be used.

487
Core Layer Switches
The switches in this layer can make use of a number of Layer 2
technologies. Provided that the distance between the core layer
switches is not too great, the switches can use Ethernet technology.

In a network design, the core layer can be a routed, or Layer 3, core.


Core layer switches are designed to provide efficient Layer 3
functionality when needed.

Factors such as need, cost, and performance should be considered


before a choice is made.

The following Cisco switches are suitable for the core layer:
• Catalyst 6500 series
• Catalyst 8500 series
• IGX 8400 series
• Lightstream 1010 488
489
Physical Startup of the Catalyst Switch
Switches are dedicated, specialized
computers, which contain a CPU, RAM, and
an operating system.

Switches usually have several ports for the


purpose of connecting hosts, as well as
specialized ports for the purpose of
management.

A switch can be managed by connecting to


the console port to view and make changes
to the configuration.

Switches typically have no power switch to


turn them on and off. They simply connect or
disconnect from a power source.

Several switches from the Cisco Catalyst


2950 series are shown in graphic to the right. 490
Switch LED Indicators
The front panel of a switch has several lights to help monitor system
activity and performance. These lights are called light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). The switch has the following LEDs:

• System LED
• Remote Power Supply (RPS) LED
• Port Mode LED
• Port Status LEDs

The System LED shows whether the system is receiving power and
functioning correctly.

The RPS LED indicates whether or not the remote power supply is in use.

The Mode LEDs indicate the current state of the Mode button.

The Port Status LEDs have different meanings, depending on the current
value of the Mode LED. 491
Verifying Port LEDs During Switch POST
Once the power cable is connected, the switch initiates a
series of tests called the power-on self test (POST).

POST runs automatically to verify that the switch functions


correctly.

The System LED indicates the success or failure of POST.

492
Connecting a Switch to a Computer

493
Examining Help in the Switch CLI
The command-line interface (CLI) for Cisco switches is very
similar to the CLI for Cisco routers.

The help command is issued by entering a question mark (?).

When this command is entered at the system prompt, a list of


commands available for the current command mode is
displayed.

The help command is very flexible and essentially functions


the same way it does in a router CLI.

This form of help is called command syntax help, because it


provides applicable keywords or arguments based on a partial
command. 494
Switch Command Modes
Switches have several command modes.

The default mode is User EXEC mode, which ends in a


greater-than character (>).

The commands available in User EXEC mode are limited to


those that change terminal settings, perform basic tests, and
display system information.

The enable command is used to change from User EXEC


mode to Privileged EXEC mode, which ends in a pound-sign
character (#).

The configure command allows other command modes to be


accessed. 495
Show Commands in User-Exec Mode

496
Setting Switch Hostname
Setting Passwords on Lines

497
498
Overview
Redundancy in a network is extremely important because
redundancy allows networks to be fault tolerant.

Redundant topologies based on switches and bridges are


susceptible to broadcast storms, multiple frame
transmissions, and MAC address database instability.

Therefore network redundancy requires careful planning


and monitoring to function properly.

The Spanning-Tree Protocol is used in switched networks


to create a loop free logical topology from a physical
topology that has loops.
499
Redundant Switched Topologies
Networks with redundant paths and devices allow for more network uptime.
In the graphic, if Switch A fails, traffic can still flow from Segment 2 to
Segment 1 and to the router through Switch B. If port 1 fails on Switch A then
traffic can still flow through port 1 on Switch B.
Switches learn the MAC addresses of devices on their ports so that data can
be properly forwarded to the destination. Switches will flood frames for
unknown destinations until they learn the MAC addresses of the devices.
A redundant switched topology may cause broadcast storms, multiple frame
copies, and MAC address table instability problems.

500
Broadcast Storms
Broadcasts and multicasts can cause problems in a switched network.
Multicasts are treated as broadcasts by the switches.

Broadcasts and multicasts frames are flooded out all ports, except the one on
which the frame was received.

The switches continue to propagate broadcast traffic over and over. This is
called a broadcast storm. This will continue until one of the switches is
disconnected. The network will appear to be down or extremely slow.

501
Multiple Frame Transmissions
In a redundant switched network it is possible for an end device to receive
multiple frames. Assume that the MAC address of Router Y has been timed
out by both switches. Also assume that Host X still has the MAC address of
Router Y in its ARP cache and sends a unicast frame to Router Y. The router
receives the frame because it is on the same segment as Host X. Switch A
does not have the MAC address of the Router Y and will therefore flood the
frame out its ports. Switch B also does not know which port Router Y is on.
Switch B then floods the frame it received causing Router Y to receive
multiple copies of the same frame. This is a cause of unnecessary processing
in all devices.

502
MAC Database Instability
A switch can incorrectly learn that a MAC address is on one port, when it is
actually on a different port. In this example the MAC address of Router Y is
not in the MAC address table of either switch. Host X sends a frame directed
to Router Y. Switches A & B learn the MAC address of Host X on port 0. The
frame to Router Y is flooded on port 1 of both switches. Switches A and B see
this information on port 1 and incorrectly learn the MAC address of Host X on
port 1. When Router Y sends a frame to Host X, Switch A and Switch B will
also receive the frame and will send it out port 1. This is unnecessary, but the
switches have incorrectly learned that Host X is on port 1.

503
Using Bridging Loops
for Redundancy

504
Logical Loop Free Topology
Created with STP

505
NOTE:
Don’t confuse Spanning Tree Protocol
(STP) with Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).

506
Spanning Tree Protocol - 1
Ethernet bridges
and switches can
implement the
IEEE 802.1D
Spanning-Tree
Protocol and use
the spanning-tree
algorithm to
construct a loop
free shortest path
network.

Shortest path is
based on
cumulative link
costs.
Link costs are
based on the
speed of the link. 507
Spanning Tree Protocol - 2
The Spanning-Tree Protocol
establishes a root node, called the
root bridge/switch.

The Spanning-Tree Protocol


constructs a topology that has one
path for reaching every network
node. The resulting tree originates
from the root bridge/switch.

The Spanning-Tree Protocol requires


network devices to exchange
messages to detect bridging loops.
Links that will cause a loop are put
into a blocking state.

The message that a switch sends,


allowing the formation of a loop free
logical topology, is called a Bridge
Protocol Data Unit (BPDU).
508
Selecting the Root Bridge
The first decision that all switches in the network make, is to identify
the root bridge. The position of the root bridge in a network will affect
the traffic flow.

When a switch is turned on, the spanning-tree algorithm is used to


identify the root bridge. BPDUs are sent out with the Bridge ID (BID).

The BID consists of a bridge priority that defaults to 32768 and the
switch base MAC address.

When a switch first starts up, it assumes it is the root switch and
sends BPDUs. These BPDUs contain the switch MAC address in both
the root and sender BID. As a switch receives a BPDU with a lower
root BID it replaces that in the BPDUs that are sent out. All bridges
see these and decide that the bridge with the smallest BID value will
be the root bridge.

A network administrator may want to influence the decision by setting


509
the switch priority to a smaller value than the default.
BDPUs
BPDUs contain enough information so that all switches can do
the following:
• Select a single switch that will act as the root of the
spanning tree
• Calculate the shortest path from itself to the root switch
• Designate one of the switches as the closest one to the
root, for each LAN segment. This bridge is called the
“designated switch”. The designated switch handles all
communication from that LAN towards the root bridge.
• Each non-root switch choose one of its ports as its root
port, this is the interface that gives the best path to the

root switch.
• Select ports that are part of the spanning tree, the
designated ports. Non-designated ports are blocked.
510
Spanning Tree Operation
When the network has stabilized, it has converged and there is one spanning
tree per network. As a result, for every switched network the following
elements exist:
• One root bridge per network
• One root port per non root bridge
• One designated port per segment
• Unused, non-designated ports
Root ports and designated ports are used for forwarding (F) data traffic.
Non-designated ports discard data traffic.
Non-designated ports are called blocking (B) or discarding ports.

511
Spanning Tree Port States

512
Spanning Tree Recalculation
A switched internetwork has converged when all the switch and
bridge ports are in either the forwarding or blocked state.

Forwarding ports send and receive data traffic and BPDUs.

Blocked ports will only receive BPDUs.

When the network topology changes, switches and bridges


recompute the Spanning Tree and cause a disruption of user
traffic.

Convergence on a new spanning-tree topology using the IEEE


802.1D standard can take up to 50 seconds.

This convergence is made up of the max-age of 20 seconds, plus


the listening forward delay of 15 seconds, and the learning forward
delay of 15 seconds. 513
Rapid STP Designations

514
515
VLANs
VLAN implementation combines Layer 2 switching and Layer 3 routing
technologies to limit both collision domains and broadcast domains.

VLANs can also be used to provide security by creating the VLAN


groups according to function and by using routers to communicate
between VLANs.

A physical port association is used to implement VLAN assignment.

Communication between VLANs can occur only through the router.

This limits the size of the broadcast domains and uses the router to
determine whether one VLAN can talk to another VLAN.

NOTE: This is the only way a switch can break up a broadcast domain!
516
Setting up VLAN Implementation

517
VLAN Communication

518
VLAN Membership Modes

• VLAN membership can either be static or dynamic.


519
Static VLANs

• All users attached to same switch port must be in the same VLAN.
520
Configuring VLANs in Global
Mode
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vlan 3
Switch(config-vlan)#name Vlan3
Switch(config-vlan)#exit
Switch(config)#end

521
Configuring VLANs
in VLAN Database Mode
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan 3

VLAN 3 added:
Name: VLAN0003
Switch(vlan)#exit
APPLY completed.
Exiting....

522
Deleting VLANs in Global Mode

Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#no vlan 3
Switch(config)#end

523
Deleting VLANs
in VLAN Database Mode

Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#no vlan 3

VLAN 3 deleted:
Name: VLAN0003
Switch(vlan)#exit
APPLY completed.
Exiting....

524
Assigning Access Ports to a
VLAN
Switch(config)#interface gigabitethernet 1/1

• Enters interface configuration mode

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

• Configures the interface as an access port

Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3

• Assigns the access port to a VLAN

525
Verifying the VLAN
Configuration
Switch#show vlan [id | name] [vlan_num | vlan_name]

VLAN Name Status Ports


---- -------------------------------- --------- -------------------------------
1 default active Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/5, Fa0/7
Fa0/8, Fa0/9, Fa0/11, Fa0/12
Gi0/1, Gi0/2
2 VLAN0002 active
51 VLAN0051 active
52 VLAN0052 active

VLAN Type SAID MTU Parent RingNo BridgeNo Stp BrdgMode Trans1 Trans2
---- ----- ---------- ----- ------ ------ -------- ---- -------- ------ ------
1 enet 100001 1500 - - - - - 1002 1003
2 enet 100002 1500 - - - - - 0 0
51 enet 100051 1500 - - - - - 0 0
52 enet 100052 1500 - - - - - 0 0

Remote SPAN VLANs


------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary Secondary Type Ports 526
------- --------- ----------------- ------------------------------------------
Verifying the VLAN Port
Configuration
Switch#show running-config interface {fastethernet |
gigabitethernet} slot/port

• Displays the running configuration of the interface

Switch#show interfaces [{fastethernet | gigabitethernet}


slot/port] switchport

• Displays the switch port configuration of the interface

Switch#show mac-address-table interface interface-id [vlan


vlan-id] [ | {begin | exclude | include} expression]

• Displays the MAC address table information for the specified


interface in the specified VLAN
527
Implementing VLAN Trunks

528
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. BCMSN v2.0—2-528
VLAN Trunking

529
Importance of Native VLANs

530
ISL Encapsulation

– Performed with ASIC


– Not intrusive to client
stations; client does not
see the header
– Effective between
switches, and between
routers and switches

531
ISL and Layer 2 Encapsulation

532
Configuring ISL Trunking
Switch(config)#interface fastethernet 2/1

• Enters interface configuration mode

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk

• Configures the interface as a Layer 2 trunk

Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation [isl|dot1q]

• Selects the encapsulation

533
Verifying ISL Trunking
Switch#show running-config interface {fastethernet |
gigabitethernet} slot/port

Switch#show interfaces [fastethernet | gigabitethernet]


slot/port [ switchport | trunk ]

Switch#show interfaces fastethernet 2/1 trunk

Port Mode Encapsulation Status Native VLAN


Fa2/1 desirable isl trunking 1

Port VLANs allowed on trunk


Fa2/1 1-1005

Port VLANs allowed and active in management domain


Fa2/1 1-2,1002-1005

Port VLANs in spanning tree forwarding state and not pruned


Fa2/1 1-2,1002-1005

534
802.1Q Trunking

535
Configuring 802.1Q Trunking

Switch(config)#interface fastethernet 5/8


Switch(config-if)#shutdown
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan 1,15,11,1002-1005
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk
Switch(config-if)#switchport nonegotiate
Switch(config-if)#no shutdown

536
Verifying 802.1Q Trunking
Switch#show running-config interface {fastethernet |
gigabitethernet} slot/port

Switch#show interfaces [fastethernet | gigabitethernet]


slot/port [ switchport | trunk ]

Switch#show interfaces gigabitEthernet 0/1 switchport


Name: Gi0/1
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: trunk
Operational Mode: trunk
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001

. . .
537
Implementing VLAN Trunk Protocol

538
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. BCMSN 2.0—2-538
VTP Protocol Features
– Advertises VLAN configuration information
– Maintains VLAN configuration consistency throughout a
common administrative domain
– Sends advertisements on trunk ports only

539
VTP Modes
• Creates, modifies, and deletes
VLANs
• Sends and forwards
advertisements
• Synchronizes VLAN
configurations
• Saves configuration in NVRAM

• Cannot create,
change, or delete • Creates, modifies, and
VLANs deletes VLANs locally
• Forwards only
advertisements • Forwards
• Synchronizes advertisements
VLAN • Does not
configurations synchronize VLAN
• Does not save in configurations
NVRAM • Saves configuration in
NVRAM 540
VTP Operation
• VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames.
• VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest update identified
revision number.
• VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change.

541
VTP Pruning

• Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic


• Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward
any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN.

542
VTP Configuration Guidelines
– Configure the following:
• VTP domain name
• VTP mode (server mode is the default)
• VTP pruning
• VTP password

– Be cautious when adding a new switch into an existing


domain.
– Add a new switch in a Client mode to get the last up-to-date
information from the network then convert it to Server mode.
– Add all new configurations to switch in transparent mode and
check your configuration well then convert it to Server mode
to prevent the switch from propagating incorrect VLAN
information.

543
Configuring a VTP Server

Switch(config)#vtp server

• Configures VTP server mode

Switch(config)#vtp domain domain-name

• Specifies a domain name

Switch(config)#vtp password password

• Sets a VTP password

Switch(config)#vtp pruning

• Enables VTP pruning in the domain


544
Configuring a VTP Server
(Cont.)

Switch#configure terminal

Switch(config)#vtp server

Setting device to VTP SERVER mode.


Switch(config)#vtp domain Lab_Network

Setting VTP domain name to Lab_Network


Switch(config)#end

545
Verifying the VTP Configuration
Switch#show vtp status

Switch#show vtp status

VTP Version : 2
Configuration Revision : 247
Maximum VLANs supported locally : 1005
Number of existing VLANs : 33
VTP Operating Mode : Client
VTP Domain Name : Lab_Network
VTP Pruning Mode : Enabled
VTP V2 Mode : Disabled
VTP Traps Generation : Disabled
MD5 digest : 0x45 0x52 0xB6 0xFD 0x63 0xC8 0x49 0x80
Configuration last modified by 0.0.0.0 at 8-12-99 15:04:49
Switch#

546
Verifying the VTP Configuration
(Cont.)
Switch#show vtp counters

Switch#show vtp counters

VTP statistics:
Summary advertisements received : 7
Subset advertisements received : 5
Request advertisements received : 0
Summary advertisements transmitted : 997
Subset advertisements transmitted : 13
Request advertisements transmitted : 3
Number of config revision errors : 0
Number of config digest errors : 0
Number of V1 summary errors : 0

VTP pruning statistics:


Trunk Join Transmitted Join Received Summary advts received from
non-pruning-capable device
---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------------------
Fa5/8 43071 42766 5
547
548
Contents
• Remote access overview
• WAN Connection Types
• Defining WAN Encapsulation Protocols
• Determining the WAN Type to Use
• OSI Layer-2 Point-to-Point WANs
– PPP
– HDLC
– Frame Relay
549
Remote Access Overview
• A WAN is a data communications network
covering a relatively broad geographical
area.

• A network administrator designing a


remote network must weight issues
concerning users needs such as
bandwidth and cost of the variable
available technologies.
550
WAN Connection Types

551
WAN Connection Types

• Leased lines
– It is a pre-established WAN communications path
from the CPE, through the DCE switch, to the CPE
of the remote site, allowing DTE networks to
communicate at any time with no setup procedures
before transmitting data.
• Circuit switching
– Sets up line like a phone call. No data can transfer
before the end-to-end connection is established.

552
WAN Connection Types
• Packet switching
– WAN switching method that allows you to share
bandwidth with other companies to save money. As
long as you are not constantly transmitting data and
are instead using bursty data transfers, packet
switching can save you a lot of money.

– However, if you have constant data transfers, then


you will need to get a leased line.
– Frame Relay and X.25 are packet switching
technologies.
553
Defining WAN Encapsulation
Protocols
• Each WAN connection uses an
encapsulation protocol to encapsulate
traffic while it crossing the WAN link.

• The choice of the encapsulation protocol


depends on the underlying WAN
technology and the communicating
equipment.
554
Defining WAN Encapsulation
Protocols
• Typical WAN encapsulation types include the
following:

– Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)


– Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
– High-Level Data Link Control Protocol (HDLC)
– X.25 / Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB)
– Frame Relay
– Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

555
Determining the WAN Type to
Use
• Availability
– Each type of service may be available in certain
geographical areas.
• Bandwidth
– Determining usage over the WAN is important to
evaluate the most cost-effective WAN service.
• Cost
– Making a compromise between the traffic you need to
transfer and the type of service with the available cost
that will suit you.

556
Determining the WAN Type to
Use
• Ease of Management
– Connection management includes both the initial
start-up configuration and the outgoing configuration
of the normal operation.
• Application Traffic
– Traffic may be as small as during a terminal session ,
or very large packets as during file transfer.

557
Max. WAN Speeds for WAN
Connections
WAN Type Maximum
Speed
Asynchronous Dial-Up 56-64 Kbps

X.25, ISDN – BRI 128 Kbps

ISDN – PRI E1 / T1

Leased Line / Frame Relay E3 / T3


558
OSI Layer-2 Point-to-Point
WANs
• WAN protocols used on Point-to-Point
serial links provide the basic function of
data delivery across that one link.

• The two most popular data link protocols


used today are Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) and High-Level Data Link Control
(HDLC).
559
HDLC
• HDLC performs OSI Layer-2 functions.
• It determines when it is appropriate to use
the physical medium.
• Ensures that the correct recipient receives
and processes the data that is sent.
• Determines whether the sent data was
received correctly or not (error detection).

560
HDLC
• HDLC Frame Format

• The original HDLC didn’t include any


Protocol Type field, every company
(including Cisco) added its own field, so it
became a proprietary protocol that can be
used between only Cisco routers.
561
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• PPP is a standard encapsulation protocol for the
transport of different Network Layer protocols
(including, but not limited to, IP).

• It has the following main functional components


– Link Control Protocol (LCP) that establishes,
authenticates, and tests the data link connection.
– Network Control Protocols (NCPs) that establishes
and configure different network layer protocols.

562
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• PPP discards frames that do not pass the
error check.
• PPP is a standard protocol, and so it can
be used with all types of routers (not Cisco
Proprietary).

563
PPP LCP Features
• Authentication
• Compression
• Multilink PPP
• Error Detection
• Looped Link Detection

564
PAP Authentication

565
CHAP Authentication

566
Compression
• Compression enables higher data throughput
across the link.
• Different compression schemes are available:
– Predictor : checks if the data was already
compressed.
– Stacker : it looks at the data stream and only sends
each type of data once with information about where
the type occurs and then the receiving side uses this
information to reassemble the data stream.
– MPPC (Microsoft Point-to-Point Compression) :
allows Cisco routers to compress data with Microsoft
clients.
567
PPP Multilink
• PPP Multilink provides load balancing over
dialer interfaces-including ISDN,
synchronous, and asynchronous
interfaces.

• This can improve throughput and reduce


latency between systems by splitting
packets and sending fragments over
parallel circuits.
568
Error Detection
• PPP can take down a link based on the
value of what is called LQM (Link Quality
Monitor) as it gets the ratio of corrupted
packets to the total number of sent
packets, and according to a
predetermined value, the link can be
brought down if it is thought that its
performance is beyond limits accepted.

569
Looped Link Detection
• PPP can detect looped links (that are
sometimes done by Teleco companies)
using what is called Magic Number.

• Every router will have a magic number,


and if packets were received having the
same router’s magic number, then the link
is looped.
570
PPP Configuration Commands
• To enable PPP
– Router(config-if)#encapsulation ppp

• To configure PAP authentication


– Router(Config-if)#ppp authentication pap
– Router(Config-if)#ppp pap username .. password ..

• To configure Compression
– Router(Config-if)#compress [predictor|stack|mppc]

571
Frame Relay

572
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. BCMSN v2.0—2-572
Frame Relay Components

573
Frame Relay
• The switch examines the frame sent by the
router that has a header containing an address
called DLCI (Data Link Control Identifier) and
then switches the frame based on the DLCI till it
reaches the router on the other side of the
network.

574
Frame Relay
• Frame Relay networks use permanent virtual circuits
(PVCs) or switched virtual circuits (SVCs) but most
nowadays Frame Relay networks use permanent virtual
circuits (PVCs).
• The logical path between each pair of routers is called a
Virtual Circuit (VC).
• VCs share the access link and the frame relay network.
• Each VC is committed to a CIR (Committed Information
Rate) which is a guarantee by the provider that a
particular VC gets at least this much of BW.

575
PVC
PC PVC
Port PVC
CPE
SVC
UNI
SVC
Controller
Router ISDN dial-up connection
or Switch
direct connection
(V.35, E1, RS232)
PBX

Video

Desktop & LAN Network access Frame Relay


Network
Formats
packets
in frames

576
LMI and Encapsulation Types
• The LMI is a definition of the messages used between
the DTE and the DCE.

• The encapsulation defines the headers used by a DTE to


communicate some information to the DTE on the other
end of a VC.

• The switch and its connected router care about using the
same LMI; the switch does not care about the
encapsulation. The endpoint routers (DTEs) do care
about the encapsulation.

577
LMI
• The most important LMI message is the LMI status
inquiry message. Status messages perform two
key functions:

– Perform a keepalive function between the DTE and


DCE. If the access link has a problem, the absence of
keepalive messages implies that the link is down.

– Signal whether a PVC is active or inactive. Even though


each PVC is predefined, its status can change.

578
LMI
• Three LMI protocol options are available in
Cisco IOS software: Cisco, ITU, and ANSI.
• Each LMI option is slightly different and
therefore is incompatible with the other two.

579
LAPF
• A Frame Relay-connected router encapsulates
each Layer 3 packet inside a Frame Relay header
and trailer before it is sent out an access link.

• The header and trailer are defined by the Link


Access Procedure Frame Bearer Services (LAPF)
specification.

• The LAPF framing provides error detection with


an FCS in the trailer, as well as the DLCI, DE,
FECN, and BECN fields in the header.
580
LAPF
• DTEs use and react to the fields specified by
these two types of encapsulation, but Frame
Relay switches ignore these fields. Because the
frames flow from DTE to DTE, both DTEs must
agree to the encapsulation used.

• However, each VC can use a different


encapsulation. In the configuration, the
encapsulation created by Cisco is called cisco,
and the other one is called ietf.

581
DLCI Addressing Details
• The logical path between a pair of DTEs is called a virtual
circuit (VC).
• The data-link connection identifier (DLCI) identifies each
individual PVC.
• When multiple VCs use the same access link, the Frame
Relay switches know how to forward the frames to the
correct remote sites.

The DLCI is the Frame Relay address describing a


Virtual Circuit

582
DLCI=17 B
DLCI=32
DLCI=32

DLCI=16
FR-network
R
DLCI=17
DLCI=16 DLCI=16
DLCI=21 R

Virtual circuit

R Router

B Bridge

Frame Relay switch

583
DLCI Addressing Details
• The difference between layer-2
addressing and DLCI addressing is mainly
because the fact that the header has a
single DLCI field, not both Source and
Destination DLCI fields.

584
Global DLCI Addressing
• Frame Relay DLCIs are locally significant; this
means that the addresses need to be unique
only on the local access link.
• Global addressing is simply a way of choosing
DLCI numbers when planning a Frame Relay
network so that working with DLCIs is much
easier.
• Because local addressing is a fact, global
addressing does not change these rules. Global
addressing just makes DLCI assignment more
obvious.
585
Global DLCI Addressing

586
Global DLCI Addressing
• The final key to global addressing is that the
Frame Relay switches actually change the DLCI
value before delivering the frame.
• The sender treats the DLCI field as a destination
address, using the destination’s global DLCI in the
header.
• The receiver thinks of the DLCI field as the
source address, because it contains the global
DLCI of the frame’s sender.

587
Layer 3 Addressing
• Cisco’s Frame Relay implementation
defines three different options for
assigning subnets and IP addresses on
Frame Relay interfaces:
– One subnet containing all Frame Relay DTEs
– One subnet per VC
– A hybrid of the first two options

588
One Subnet Containing All Frame
Relay DTEs
• The single-subnet option is typically used
when a full mesh of VCs exists.

• In a full mesh, each router has a VC to


every other router, meaning that each
router can send frames directly to every
other router

589
One Subnet Containing All Frame
Relay DTEs

590
One Subnet Containing All Frame
Relay DTEs

591
One Subnet Per VC
• The single-subnet-per-VC alternative, works better with a
partially meshed Frame Relay network.

592
One Subnet Per VC

593
Hybrid Terminology
• Point-to-point subinterfaces are used when a
single VC is considered to be all that is in the
group—for instance, between Routers A and D
and between Routers A and E.

• Multipoint subinterfaces are used when more than


two routers are considered to be in the same
group— for instance, with Routers A, B, and C.

594
Hybrid Terminology

595
Hybrid Terminology

596
Frame Relay Address Mapping
• Mapping creates a correlation between a Layer-
3 address (IP Address) and its corresponding
Layer-2 address (DLCI in Frame Relay).

• It is used so that after the router receives the


packet with the intended IP address could be
able to handle it to the right Frame Relay switch
(with the appropriate DLCI)

597
Mapping Methods
• Mapping can be done either two ways:
• Dynamic Mapping
– Using the Inverse ARP that is enabled by default
on Cisco routers.

• Static Mapping
– Using the frame-relay map command but you
should first disable the inverse arp using the
command no frame-relay inverse-arp

598
Inverse ARP Process

599
Frame Relay Configuration

600
Frame Relay Verification

601
Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN)

602
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. BCMSN v2.0—2-602
ISDN Protocols

603
BRI & PRI B and D Channels

604
LAPD & PPP on D and B
Channels

605
LAPD & PPP on D and B
Channels
• LAPD is used as a data-link protocol across an
ISDN D channel.

• Essentially, a router with an ISDN interface needs


to send and receive signaling messages to and
from the local ISDN switch to which it is
connected.

• LAPD provides the data-link protocol that allows


delivery of messages across that D channel to the
local switch.
606
LAPD & PPP on D and B
Channels
• The call setup and teardown messages
themselves are defined by the Q.931
protocol. So, the local switch can receive a
Q.931 call setup request from a router
over the LAPD-controlled D channel, and
it should react to that Q.931 message by
setting up a circuit over the public network.

607
LAPD & PPP on D and B
Channels
• An ISDN switch often requires some form of
authentication with the device connecting to it.

• Switches use a free-form decimal value, call the


service profile identifier (SPID), to perform
authentication.

• In short, before any Q.931 call setup messages are


accepted, the switch asks for the configured SPID
values. If the values match what is configured in
the switch, call setup flows are accepted.
608
PRI Encoding and Framing
• ISDN PRI in North America is based on a digital
T1 circuit. T1 circuits use two different encoding
schemes—Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) and
Binary 8 with Zero Substitution (B8ZS).

• The two options for framing on T1s are to use


either Extended Super Frame (ESF) or the older
option—Super Frame (SF). In most cases today,
new T1s use ESF.

609
DDR (Dial On Demand Routing)
• You can configure DDR in several ways,
including Legacy DDR and DDR dialer profiles.

• The main difference between the two is that


Legacy DDR associates dial details with a
physical interface, whereas DDR dialer profiles
disassociate the dial configuration from a
physical interface, allowing a great deal of
flexibility.

610
Legacy DDR Operation
1. Route packets out the interface to be dialed.
2. Determine the subset of the packets that
trigger the dialing process.
3. Dial (signal).
4. Determine when the connection is
terminated.

611
Legacy DDR Operation

612
DDR Step 1: Routing Packets Out the
Interface to Be Dialed
• DDR does not dial until some traffic is directed (routed) out
the dial interface.
• The router needs to route packets so that they are queued
to go out the dial interface. Cisco’s design for DDR defines
that the router receives some user-generated traffic and,
through normal routing processes, decides to route the
traffic out the interface to be dialed.
• The router (SanFrancisco) can receive a packet that must
be routed out BRI0; routing the packet out BRI0 triggers
the Cisco IOS software, causing the dial to occur.

613
DDR Step 2:
Determining the Interesting Traffic
• Packets that are worthy of causing the device to
dial are called interesting packets.

• Two different methods can be used to define


interesting packets.
– In the first method, interesting is defined as all
packets of one or more Layer 3 protocols.
– The second method allows you to define packets as
interesting if they are permitted by an access list.

614
DDR Step 3:
Dialing (Signaling)
• Defining the phone number to be dialed.

• The command is dialer string , where


string is the phone number (used when
dialing only one site).

• The dialer map command maps the


different dialer numbers to the equivalent
IP addresses of the routers to be dialed.
615
Configuring SPIDs
• You might need to configure the Service Profile
Identifier (SPID) for one or both B channels,
depending on the switch’s expectations.

• When the telco switch has configured SPIDs, it


might not allow the BRI line to work unless the
router announces the correct SPID values to the
switch. SPIDs, when used, provide a basic
authentication feature.

616
ISDN PRI Configuration
1. Configure the type of ISDN switch to which this
router is connected.
2. Configure the T1 or E1 encoding and framing
options (controller configuration mode).
3. Configure the T1 or E1 channel range for the
DS0 channels used on this PRI (controller
configuration mode).
4. Configure any interface settings (for example,
PPP encapsulation and IP address) on the
interface representing the D channel.

617
PRI Configuration Commands

618
ISDN Switch Types

619
Configuring a T1 or E1 Controller
• Your service provider will tell you what
encoding and framing to configure on the
router. Also, in almost every case, you will
use all 24 DS0 channels in the PRI—23 B
channels and the D channel.

620
DDR With Dialer Profiles
• Dialer profiles pool the physical interfaces
so that the router uses any available B
channel on any of the BRIs or PRIs in the
pool.

• Dialer profiles configuration moves most of


the DDR interface configuration to a virtual
interface called a dialer interface.
621
Dialer Profiles Configuration

622
Dialer Profiles Configuration

623
With all my best wishes for you
to succeed and distinguish in the
CCNA International Exam,
Keep In touch

© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 624

You might also like