PART-A

1. Define Bearing Capacity of Soil.

It is defined as the maximum load per unit area that the soil n supports without causing undesirable
settlements. In other words, it is the inherentCapacity of the soil to bear the load imposed on it.

2. Define Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Soil.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Soil: The ultimate bearing capacity of a soil is determined by conducting a
Plate Load Test. in this test, a square rigid steel plate is

loaded gradually and the settlement of soil for each load is measured.

The graph showing the load-settlement relationship is used to determine the maximum kad carried, when
the soil just fails in shear. Ultimate Load

Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Soil = ___________________

Area of the Plate

3. Define Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil.

A load much lower than the ultimate bearing capacity iiy should be applied on the soil so that perfect
safety of the foundation is ensured. This safe load is called the Safe Bearing Capacity of the Soil.

safe Bearing Capacity of Soil is defined as the maximum load per unit area that the soil carry safely
without the risk of failure (collapse). Safe bearing capacity is rmined by dividing the ultimate bearing
capacity by a suitable Factor of Safely.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity

Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil = ____________________

Factor of Safety

4. What are factors affecting bearing capacity of soil?

FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Bearing capacity of soil depends upon a number of factors, which are listed below:

1. Physical features of the foundation, namely, Type of foundation, Size and shape of foundation, Depth
of foundation below the ground level and Rigidity of the structure.

2. Type of soil and its physical properties such as density, shear strength, cracks, etc.

3. Position of ground water-table.

4. Allowable total and differential settlements.

5. What is mean by Bonds in Brick Masonry?
Bond is the method arranging the bricks in courses so that individual units are tied together and the vertical joints of
the successive courses do not lie in same vertical line.
6. Distinguish between English Bond and Flemish Bond:
S.No English Bond Flemish Bond

1. Stretcher and header courses alternate Each course will be a combination of headers and
each other. stretchers.
2. For walls thicker than 1 ½ bricks English For thicker walls it is comparatively weak.
bond is more compact and stronger.

3. Appearance is not pleasing. Gives a pleasuring appearance for exposed faces.

4. In this bond, greater skill is not required. This bond requires more skill and experience.

5. Mortar requirement is less. More mortar is necessary since brick bats are
used.
7. Define flooring.
Floor may be defined as a building component that divides a building into different levels, for the purpose of
creating accommodation within a restricted space, one above the other.
8. What are the Requirements of a Good Floor?
1. It should give hard and smooth surface.
2. It should have adequate strength and stability.
3. It should be damp resistant.
4. It should have good thermal insulation capacity.
5. It should be durable and easy to maintain.
6. It should be fire resistant.
7. It should have an aesthetin look.
9. What are the Components of a Floor?
Structurally a floor may consist of two main component:
1. Sub – Floor or Base Course
2. Floor converting
Subfloor or base course provides paper support to floor covering . Floor covering provides a smooth, clean,
impervious and durable surface.
10. Define beams .
Beams are defined as horizontal load carrying member in a structure. Reinforced cement concrete, concrete, pre
stressed concrete and steel sections are used as beams to support the slabs.
Hence a beam should be supported by a column
11. Define Span of the Beam:
The horizontal distance between inner faces of the supporting wall is known as clear span of the beam. The
horizontal distance between the lines of action of the supporting walls is known as effective span. For design
purpose the effective span is considered always.

12. What are loads acting on beams?

The major loads acting on a structure are
1. Dead Load
2. Live Load
The dead load is the self weight of the various components of the building. The live load is the super imposed load
on a structure.
They may be (1) Concentrated load or point load (2) Uniformly distributed Load (3) Uniformly varying load.

13. Define columns and classification

The vertical load carrying member of a structure is called column. They may be constructed of timber, stone or brick
masonry, reinforced cement concrete or steel section. Reinforced cement and steel columns are used very
commonly.
Failure of columns depends on the length of the column compared to its cross – sectional dimensions.
It is classified as follows
1. Long Column.
2. Short Column.

If ≤ 1.2, it is a Short Column

If , it is a Long Column.

Left is the effective length of column. γ is the lateral dimension of the column.
14. Define lintels
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the openings. Openings are invariably left in the wall for the
provision of doors, windows, cupboards etc.
The Bearing of lintel should be the Minimum of the following
1. 10cm.
2. Height of Lintel.
3. 1/10th and 1/20th of the span of the lintel.

15. Define Hooke’s law.

Within the elastic limit stress directly proportional to strain.

 PART-B
1. What are methods of improving bearing capacity of soil?

METHODS OF IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

In early days, areas having weak soils or low bearing capacity soils, were avoided for construction. But
with scarcity of land in urban areas, it is not possible to do so. It is possible to improve the bearing
capacity of soil at the construction site by adopting any one of the following methods:

1. By increasing the depth of foundation: Soils have got greater bearing capacity at deeper depths. This is
especially true for sandy soils. For sandy soils, the bearing capacity increases due to the weight of
overlying materials.

This method cannot be adopted where the ground water level is high. Also, this method is not
advantageous, since the load of the building foundation also increases with depth.

2. By compacting the soil: Compaction (ramming) of the soil reduces the open (air) spaces between the
individual particles in the soil mass. Therefore, they are less liable to displacement, thereby bearing
capacity is increased.

By packing large sized particles like boulders, gravel, etc., to the soil or by driving Piles, compaction to a
certain extent can be attained particularly in sandy soils of loose nature.

3. By draining the sub-soil water: The bearing capacity of every soil (sandy soil or clayey soil) decreases
when its water content increases (i.e., due to a rise in ground water table). Reduction in water content
increases the bearing capacity of the soil.

Cohesionless soils, i.e., sandy soils and gravels can be drained easily, either by gravity pipe drainage
system or installing shallow tube wells.

4. By grouting the soil mass with cement grout so as to fill the cracks and fissures:

Cracks and fissures in the soil reduce the bearing capacity of soil. Cement grout can be injected under
pressure into the foundation soil to fill any cracks or fissures.

5. By confining the soil mass to restrict movement: Sheet Piles are driven to form an enclosure. Thus, the
movement of the soil is restricted. This can help in increasing the bearing capacity.

6. Injecting Chemicals: Chemical solutions like silicates are injected under pressure into the soil mass.
They form a gel and thereby unite to develop a compact mass. This method is very costly. It is adopted in
exceptional cases.

2. What are requirements of good foundations?

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD FOUNDATIONS

1. Loads on Foundations

The type of foundation to be used depends upon the loads carried by it. The loads on the foundations are
classified into the following three types:
(1) Dead Loads: Dead load is the dead weight or self weight of the foundation and the super structure. It
includes the weight of all walls, floors, roofs, etc. To determine the dead load, knowledge of the weight of
various building materials is necessary.

(ii) Live Loads: Live loads are the movable and superimposed loads on the floor. Live loads include all
the loads that are not permanent. Live loads are not constant loads, but varying loads. These include the
weight of persons on the floor, weight of materials such as furniture, etc., stored temporarily on the floor,
weight of snow, etc.

(iii) Wind Loads: The effect of wind should be considered in case of tall buildings. The exposed sides and
roofs of tall buildings are subjected to wind pressure. The design wind pressure at a place depends on the
wind velocity, height of the building, etc. The effect of wind pressure is to reduce the pressure on the
foundation in the windward side and to increase the pressure in the leeward side.

Foundation should distribute the above loads to a large area (in Shallow Foundation) or through end
bearing and skin friction (in Deep Foundation). Distribution of load is done so that the intensity of stress
and the settlement are within limits.

2. Safe Bearing Capacity Factor

The requirement of foundation is to transmit the load from the building to the soil such that the supporting
soil is not stressed beyond its bearing capacity.

3. Depth of Foundation

Depth of foundation should be sufficient enough to ensure adequate bearing capacity of soil. For fine
sands and silts, depths should be taken below the frost zone. For compressible soils like clay, depth
should be taken below the zones of shrinkage and expansion.

4. Level Surface for Super Structure

Foundation should provide a level surface to the super structure.

5. Stability Requirements

Foundation should impart lateral stability to the super structure by anchoring it to the ground.

6. Safety against Natural Events

Foundations should sustain heavy rains, large wind forces and earthquake forces. They should provide
safety against scouring or undermining by flood water or burrowing animals. They should also provide
safety against sliding and overturning due to horizontal forces like wind, earthquake, etc.

7. Control of Differential Settlement

Settlement of the foundation should be within reasonable limits. Settlement of foundation is classified as
Uniform (or Total), Tilt and Non-Uniform (or Differential) settlement.
Structures on rigid foundations should undergo uniform settlement. When the entire structure rotates, the
structure is said to be under uniform tilt, If foundations of different elements of a structure undergo varied
settlements, the foundation is said to be under nonuniform or differential settlement.

Foundations should distribute the load evenly under non-uniform loading conditions as well as non-
uniform soil conditions. Thus, the differential settlement should be prevented to avoid any damage to the
structure. This can be achieved by adopting suitable types of foundations such as combined footings, mat
or raft foundation, etc.

8. Safety against Volume Changes in the Soils

Distress or failure due to seasonal variations causing volume changes in the soils should be minimized by
providing special type of foundations.

9. Careful Design of the Invisible Foundation

Though the foundation once built is invisible to the owner and the public, it is a critical part of the total
building system. Therefore, it should be given careful attention in design.

10. Safe Location

The foundation should be so located that it is able to resist any un-expected future influence which may
affect the foundation and the superstructure.

11. Sub-surface Investigation

It is necessary to have a proper sub-surface investigation at the site to gain information on the strength,
compressibility and permeability of the sub-soil. The dimensions of the foundation should be determined
to suit the loads from the building and the properties of supporting soil.

12. Selection of Foundation System

The selection of the foundation system for a structure depends on the size, type and importance of the
structure, the properties of the subsoil, the design of the structure and the overall cost, tempered by
engineering judgment of the designer.

3. Explain the causes and precautions remedies of foundations failure?

FOUNDATION FAILURES - CAUSES AND PRECAUTIONS I REMEDIES

Failure of foundation results in the utter collapse of the structure resting on it. A foundation may fail due
to various causes. The major causes and the precautions / remedies are explained below:

1. Unequal Settlement of Sub-Soil: Soils, in general, are all compressible. Thus.. settlement of soil cannot
be prevented. Unequal settlement is due to (i) the uneqia resistance of the soil, (ii) unequal loading per
unit area of the foundation soil t (iii) eccentric loading on the soil. This results in formation of cr-ac-ks in-
thestructure.

Limited settlement is not a source of danger, provided if it is uniform and takes place foa small depth. The
small settlement, which may takes place, should be such that the relative positions of the various parts of
the structure should remain unaltered.
Precautions to be taken

(i) Pressure intensity under the foundation shall not exceed safe bearing capacity of soil.

(ii) Line of action of the resultant load should act on the centroid of the foundation area.

(iii) Foundation has to be placed on a firm soil or hard rock.

(iv) Loading on foundation should be axial. If loading is eccentric, it should be within the permissible
limits.

2. Lateral Escape of Soft Soil from Underneath the Foundation: This is liable to occur when the soil is
very soft and particularly in the river banks.

Precaution: The soil should be confined to the required area by driving Sheet Piles.

3. Shrinkage of Sub-Soil: A structure might have been constructed over a soil in which the sub-soil is
saturated with water. After the construction, if the water is drained away, the sub-soil will shrink. This
results in a considerable settlement.

Precautions: Foundation level should extend deeper than any probable cutting nearby. This may become a
cause for the draining of sub-soil water. Also, the soil moisture content is to be maintained constant so
that changes due to shrinkage do not occur.

4. Sliding of the Soil: Sliding of the soil occurs, when a building is built on a ground of sloping strata.
The weight of the building may cause the sloping strata to become detached and to slide.

Precaution: Sliding of the soil strata should be prevented by providing retaining walls.

5. Compression of Mortar Joints of Foundation Masonry: Mortar joints of the foundation masonry may
sink or compress, leading to unequal compression of masonry. Due to this, the super structure is subjected
to distress leading to cracks.

Precautions: Mortar should be stiff, consistent with workability. Also, use of thin mortar joints, uniform
and limited construction height of masonry per day (i.e., not more than 1.5 m) and curing of mortar joints
for at least two weeks are the other remedies.

6. Excessive Settlement of Sub-Soil: Foundations placed on slopes and that are subjected to movement of
water may laterally yield, causing excessive settlement and reduction of shearing resistance.

Precautions: Adequate lateral support by driving Piles should be provided. Proper drainage arrangements
may also be provided.

7. Lateral Pressure on Super Structure: This may happen due to the thrust of a sloped roof and arch at the
end of a wall or wind, tending to cause the wall to overturn. When the area of base is too small, the wall
tilts causing unequal settlement in the foundation.

Precaution: A sufficient base area should be provided below the walls and columns.
8. Weathering and Atmospheric Actions: Roots of trees and shrubs may consume more underground
moisture causing settlement and weathering. Atmospheric agents such as sun, wind and rain may cause
moisture movements.resulting in foundation settlement.

Precautions: Trees and shrubs may be grown away from the building. Foundation settlement may be
avoided by providing adequate drainage arrangements and sun shades in buildings.

4. Explain the types of foundations.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations are broadly classified as shown in the Table below:

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS (Open Foundations)

A Shallow Foundation is a type of foundation in which depth is equal to or less than its width. It is built
by open excavation of the soil. Hence, it is also known as Open Foundation. The base of the structure is
enlarged or spread to provide good and individual support to the load.

This type of foundation is provided for structures of moderate height, built on sufficiently firm dry
ground. This foundation is practicable up to a depth of 3 m to 4 m. It is generally convenient above the
water-table.

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

(i) Spread Foundations

(ii) Raft or Mat Foundations

(I) SPREAD FOUNDATIONS

Spread foundation is the foundation in which the load of the structure is spread over a large area. Intensity
of the soil pressure induced should be less than the safe bearing capacity of the soil. Spread foundation is
constructed of masonry, plain concrete or reinforced cement concrete. This is the cheapest type of
foundation, largely used for ordinary buildings.

The different types of spread foundations are explained below:

1. Wall Footings

Wall Footing is provided throughout the length of the wall in case of load bearing wall. It is used where
soil of good bearing capacity is available at a depth of equal to or less than 3 m from Ground Level.

The wall footings are of two types:

Simple Footing: See Fig. 2. It is provided to carry light loads. It has one projection (offset) on either side
of the wall. The depth of concrete bed is about twice the offset.

In this, lime or plain cement concrete (1:3:6 or 1:4:8 mix) is used in the foundation bed. The wall may be
of brick or stone masonry.

It is used in small residential buildings such as tiled houses, pump house, watchman cabin, etc.

Stepped Footing:

When the foundation width is considerably more than the thickness of the wall, then the footings should
be stepped for transmission of the load. In such case, the foundation is called Stepped Footing. Also,
stepped footings may be provided when the ground has a slope. The reason is that it may become
uneconomical to provide a simple footing at the same level on the sloping ground.

In each stepping, the projection (offset) of the step should be about one-fourth of the

length of the brick. The footings may be two or more steps of brick or stone

masonry. At the bottom of the steps, a concrete bed is provided. Using R.C.C.
concrete bed, buildings of maximum number of floors up to three may be built.

2. Isolated or Column or Individual Footings

A footing that supports a single column to transfer the load of the structure safely 1 soil bed is known as
Isolated or Column or Individual Footing.

Footing may be square, rectangular or circular in shape in plan, depending upon shape of the column and
constrains of space. Square footings are economical hi square and circular columns. Under rectangular
column, rectangular footings considered to be more appropriate.

Column footings may be Simple, Stepped or Sloped. In the case of heavy loa columns, steel
reinforcement is provided in both the directions in the concrete bed.

Main Reinforcement Rods: These are placed parallel to the width of foundation be.r.

Distributors: These are placed perpendicular to the main rods.

Simple Footing:.

If the load on the column is light, a spread is given under the base of the column. This spread is defined as
Simple Footing.

Stepped Footing: See Fig. 5. For heavy loaded column, the total width of the footing may be very high.
This is attained in three or four steps. This arrangement is called Stepped Footing.

Sloped Footing: See Fig. 6. Concrete can be moulded to any shape. Therefore, a concrete footing may be
constructed as a sloping one to provide sufficient spread under the column. This arrangement is called
Sloped Footing.

3. Combined Footings
A footing which supports two or more columns is termed as Combined Footing. Combined footings are
proportioned such that the center of gravity of the loads of the structure coincides with the center of
gravity of the foundation. By this arrangement, the load of the two columns will be evenly distributed to
the soil. Therefore, the combined footings have either a Rectangular Shape or Trapezoidal Shape in plan.

See Fig. 7. If the column loads are equal

carries greater load (P > Q), then Rectangular

Rectangular Combined Footing:

(P Q), or the interior column

Combined Footings are used.

Trapezoidal Combined Footing: See Fig. 8. If the column loads are unequal and the external column near
the property (boundary) line is heavily loaded, Trapezoidal Combined Footings are used.
Combined footings are used under the following circumstances:

• When the space between two columns is so small that separate footings for individual columns will
overlap.

• Very often, a column is to be provided near the edge (boundary) of some property. It may not be
permissible to extend the footing beyond a certain limit. In such a case, the load on the footing will be
eccentric. This will result in uneven distribution of load to the sub-soil. Alternatively, a common footing
to support the edge column and an interior column close to it may be provided.

• When the bearing capacity of the soil is so low that individual column footing is of uneconomic size.

4. Continuous Footing

See Fig. 9. In continuous footing type, a single continuous R.C.C. slab is provided as the foundation of
two or three or more columns in a row.

This footing prevents

differential settlement in

the structure.

Also, it is suitable at location liable to earthquake.

ii RAFT or MAT FOUNDATIONS

Mat is like a large spread footing, covering the entire building area. All building loads are supported on a
common mat. This is the common foundation provided for all the columns of the building. The mat
reduces the possibility of differential (unequal) settlement and provides a condition of uniform settlement.
Also, it is more economical.

Raft or Mat foundations are used

(i) when the load of the structure is heavy;

(ii) when bearing capacity of the soil is very low and the soil having a tendency to yield; Due to low
bearing capacity, large isolated footings are necessary. If the loads transmitted by the columns need large
footings, requiring aplan area more than half the area covered by the building, mat foundation is prdvtded.

(iii) when the columns occur closely.

See Fig. 10. It shows a mat foundation with the Mat (Raft), Main Beams, Secondary

Beams and Columns. Columns transmit the loads to the Main Beams. Main Beams

transmit the loads to Secondary Beams. Secondary Beams transmit loads to the Mat.

The Mat ultimately transmits the load to the sub-soil.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS

The design and construction of Deep Foundations to transfer the load of the super structure through weak
soils, to deep load bearing strata is a challenging job for a civil engineer.

When the soil available at a reasonable depth of less than, say, 3 to 6 meters is not having the desired
bearing capacity, deep foundation is used. A foundation is said to be a Deep Foundation, when its depth is
more than the width of the foundation. Deep foundations transmit the load of a structure through weak
soils to strong soil beds or rock beds available at great depth.

General forms of deep foundations are: (i) Piles (ii) Piers and (iii) Well.

(I) PIL FOUNDATIONS

Pile: In some cases, the soil at a site may have a very low bearing capacity for great depths (6 m or more).
It may be impracticable to improve the strength of such soils by compaction. In such cases, a pile
foundation is used to transmit the weight of the structure to a stratum of good strength or to rock.

Pile is a R.C.C. column member (or a timber column member), driven into the ground to a suitable depth
to transfer the load on it to.a deeper and harder layers of the soil or rock. Generally, part of the load on the
pile is taken by friction offered by the surrounding soil. The remaining part of the load is transmitted to
the hard stratum up to which it is sunk.
Piles are installed by driving by hammer or by any other suitable means. The piles are usually placed in
groups to provide foundations for structures. Te pile groups may be subjected to vertical loads or
horizontal loads or a combination of vertical and horizontal loads.

A pile occupies less space. It is not liable to big settlements.

Piles are best used under the following Conditions or Situations:

• Loads to be transmitted to the sub-soil are very large and concentrated.

• Providing mat foundation may not be economical.

• When foundation soil is loose and hard stratum is available at about 10 m depth.

• Considerable rise or fall of sub-soil water level occurs seasonally.

• When the structure is tall and heavy, but deep bed of sandy soil is available.

• When there are possible future constructions of deep sewers / canals close to the site.

• When the foundation is to be carried below the maximum possible scour depth.

• To prevent any excessive settlement.

• The top soil is of expansive nature.

• Sea-shore or river bed construction or foundations in marshy (moist) areas.

CLASSIFICATION OF PILES: Piles are classified on the basis of

1. Their Material Compositions

2. Installation Methods

3. Their Functions

4. Ground Effects

1. Classification Based on Material Compositions

Under this classification, piles are further classified as Steel, Concrete, Composite or Timber Piles.

Steel Piles: Steel piles are made in three forms:

Rolled Steel H-Section Piles, Box Piles and Tube Piles. There can be no restriction on length due to high
strength. However, steel piles may be affected by corrosive agents like salt, moisture, acid or oxygen.

To prevent the steel pile from corrosion, its thickness may be increased or encased in concrete or
chemical coating with paint is applied.

See Fig. ii. In this, H-Section pile having wide flanges is used. The pile projects slightly above the ground
level and functions as a column. Due to its small cross section, it can be driven into the soil easily.

Box pile is rectangular or octagonal. It is filled with

concrete. When H-Section pile is difficult to be

driven, box file is preferred. Tube pile can be sunk

into the ground easily. It is filled with concrete.

Concrete Piles

Concrete Pile is stronger and more durable than steel piles. It is not subjected to decay by

termite like timber piles. Concrete piles may be either Cast-in-situ or Pre-cast.

Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles: These piles are cast in the site itself. Standard types of cast-in-situ piles are:
Simplex Pile, Raymond Pile, etc.

Simplex Cast-in-situ Concrete Pile: See Fig. 12.

A bore is dug into the ground by inserting a

Casing. The reinforcement made of Main

Reinforcement Rods and Lateral Reinforcement

Rods (called Stirrups) are placed into the ground.

Then the bore is filled with cement concrete.

In the case of Raymond Pile, the casing is kept in position inside the ground, after placing the concrete.
Hence, it is called Cased Cast-in-situ Pile.

In the case of Simplex Pile, the casing is withdrawn from the bore after placing the concrete as shown in
Fig. 12. Hence, it is called Uncased Cast-in-situ Concrete Pile.

Pre-cast Concrete Piles: These piles are cast in a yard and transported to the site, where they have to be
driven. Concrete pile is pre-cast to specified lengths and shapes with reinforcement. The reinforcement is
provided to enable the pile to resist the bending moment developed during lifting and transportation.

Pre-cast piles may be square. circular or octagonal in section. Often Square Piles with corners chamfered
are used. See Fig. 13.
A Solid Cast Iron Shoe is provided at the lower end of the pile to prevent the lower end from breaking,
particularly when it strikes a boulder under ground. The pile shoe should be coaxial with the pile and
firmly fixed to the concrete.

The depth to which the pile has to be driven should be determined by preliminary borings. This will
prevent over driving of piles.

Composite Piles: A composite pile is made up of two different materials driven one above the other. Steel
and concrete combination or timber and concrete combination of composite piles are in use. Timber pile
or steel pile is provided below the ground water level. Concrete pile is provided above the timber or steel
piles.

Timber Piles: Timber Piles are the oldest types of piles, made from tree trunks.

2. Classification Based on Installation Methods

Based on installation techniques, piles are classified as Cast-in-situ piles and Driven piles.

Cast-in-situ Piles: These piles are explained above in detail.

Driven Piles: Driven piles may be made of Concrete, Steel or Timber. These are explained above in
detail.

3. Classification Based on Functions

End-bearing Piles: See Fig. 14. Where the top soil is soft or too weak to support the super structure, piles
are used to transmit the load directly to the underlying bed rock or hard stratum. Such piles are called
End-bearing Piles. End-bearing piles are resting on a very hard stratum. These are also known as Load
Bearing Piles.

The soil through which these piles have passed are not assumed to resist the loads. The soil is only
expected to provide lateral support to the piles. Bearing piles act as columns and hence are designed as
columns.

Two or more piles support one column. These piles form one group. They are provided with a common
thick concrete top, called Pile Cap.

Column of the structure is resting on the pile cap. The pile cap distributes the load equally to the piles.

The types of end-bearings piles are

Concrete Piles, Steel Sheet Piles and

Timber Piles.
Friction Piles: See Fig. 15. If the bed rock is not existing at a reasonable depth below the ground level, the
load is transferred through friction along the pile length. Such piles are called Friction Piles.

In these, Skin Friction or the frictional resistance is developed

between the surface of the piles and

the sand particles surrounding them.

Skin Friction is responsible for transferring the load along the length of the piles.

Friction piles are used where deep bed of sand is available. Since friction piles do not rest on hard
stratum, they are also known as Floating Piles.

The frictional resistance of the surrounding soil against the downward movement of the pile can be
increased by providing a longer pile, a greater diameter for the pile, a rough lateral surface to the pile and
by providing piles in group.

Types of friction piles are: Cement Concrete Piles, Steel Piles, Timber Piles and Composite Material
Piles.

Under-reamed Piles

In expansive soils such as black cotton soil, very soft clay, filled up earth, etc., building often cracks due
to relative ground movements. This differential settlement is caused by alternate swelling and shrinking
of the soil due to changes in its moisture content.

To avoid differential settlements, the structure is anchored to a depth where the volumetric change of soil
due to seasonal variations is negligible. This can be economically obtained in shallow as well as deep
layers of expansive soil by using Under-reamed Pile.

Load is transferred to a hard strata having sufficient bearing capacity to take the load. In fact, the building
structure is anchored to the ground by using under-reamed piles.

See Fig. 16. Under-reamed Pile is a cast-in- situ pile with reinforcement in the form of Main Vertical
Rods and Lateral Stirrups.

These piles are provided with Bulb-shaped Enlargement called Under-ream near its bottom end. If the
pile is subjected to heavy loads, more than one bulb can be provided.

A pile having only one bulb near its bottom is known as Single Under-reamed Pile. Single under-reamed
piles can be used successfully for one and two storey buildings.

Piles having two bulbs are called Double Under-reamed Piles. With one additional bulb, bearing capacity
is increased by 50%.

So, by increasing number of bulbs, very high capacity piles (called Multiple Under-reamed Piles) can be
constructed for supporting multi-storey buildings and heavy structures.

Air Gap is provided between the ground level

and the bottom of the Capping Beam.

4. Classification Based on Ground Effects in granular soils, there is a tendency for compaction. In clays,
heaving of ground

surface often results. Piles used to compact soils are called Compaction or Displacement Piles. These
piles displace substantial volume of soil during installation.

Driven piles installed in pre-driiled holes are called Non-displacement Piles. These piles are used to
prevent the movement of earth slopes and to safeguard the foundation from damage due to scour.

DOUBLE UNDER-REAMED PILE

(ii) PIER FOUNDATIONS

Piers are large diameter massive shafts with or without broad base at the bottom. Piers are installed by
placing R.C.C. concrete-in-situ, after drilling deep hole into the ground. Hence, piers are also known as
Drilled Piers.

Types of piers: 1. Broad Based Pier, 2. Straight Shafted Pier and 3. Extended Straight Shaft Pier.

1. Broad Based Pier or Belied Pier: See Fig. 17. Drilled piers which are provided with a broad base
at the bottom of the straight shaft are known as Broad Based Pier or Belied Pier. The bell may be
angled as shown or may have the shape of a dome.
2. Straight Shafted Pier: In this, the shaft is taken through the upper soil layers. The end of the shaft is
placed on a firm ground or rock.

3. Extended Straight Shaft Pier or Socketed Pier: In this, the straight shaft is extended into the underlying
rock layer.

Advantages of drilled piers over other types of deep foundations and their uses

• Vibration and heave of soil are not caused as in driven pile installation.

• Equipments used in the construction of drilled piers produce less noise. Therefore, piers are quite
suitable for areas near hospitals and educational institutions.

• Drilled piers are used in the area where it is difficult to install pile foundation.

• Inspection and physical test of the soil or rock along the sides and at the bottom of the pier shaft is
possible.

fiji) WELL FOUNDATION

See Fig. 18. Well foundation is not a solid structure like pier. It is hollow inside, resembling a well. It has
no top or bottom cover.

A Well Curb of steel or R.C.C. is constructed in a yard. It is placed where the well has to be sunk.

The soil from inside the curb is dug. The well is gradually driven down till the required depth of reaching
a hard stratum. The soil inside the well is removed and the well is made to sink.

After installing the curb in place, a Masonry Steining is constructed above it.

Then, the bottom of the well is plugged with concrete. It is known as Bottom Plug. The hollow portion
above the bottom plug is filled with sand. It is known as Top Plug. The whole well is then covered with a
Well Cap.
Uses

• A well foundation is provided in soils which are sandy and soft for great depths. This foundation is
meant for heavily loaded structures on low bearing capacity soils.

• Well foundations are used underwater such as bridges, docks, etc. Bridges/docks have to resist large
lateral forces and are located in shallow running water in rivers with heavy scour. Well sinking is a
specialised operation demanding considerable skill. It is believed that the famous Taj Mahal is founded
on brick wells.

• These are used in the areas, having large boulders for shore protecting structures, where large lateral
stresses are to be encountered.

5. Explain the Types of Bonds In Brick Masonry.

Following are the types of bonds in brick works:
1. Stretcher Bond
2. Header Bond
3. English Bond
4. Flemish Bond
5. Raking Bond
6. Zig-Zag Bond
7. Garden Wall Bond
1. Stretcher Bond:
In this type of bond, all the bricks are said with their length parallel to longitudinal direction of the wall. Since
Stretchers alone are visible in elevation, it is known as stretcher bond

2. Header Bond:
In this type of bond, all the bricks are laid with their length perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the wall.
This is suitable for one brick wall and also used for the construction of curved walls

3. English Bond:
This is the most commonly used bond for all wall thicknesses. This bond is considered to be the strongest.
Following are the features of an English bond:
1. This bond consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers
2. The queen closer is placed next to the quoin header to break the continuity of the vertical joints
3. Each alternate header is centrally placed over a stretcher
4. If the thickness of the wall is an even number of half brick, the wall presents the same appearance on both
the faces
5. If the thickness of the wall is an odd number of half brick, the same course will present stretchers on one
face and header on the other
6. The hearting of thicker walls consists of only headers
4. Flemish Bond:
In this type of bond, alternately stretchers and headers are laid in each courses. Appearance of this bond is better that
the English bond
The special features of this bond:
1. In each course, stretchers and headers are alternately placed in both the facing and backing.
2. The queen closer in placed next to the quoin header in alternate courses, to break the continuity of the
vertical joints.
3. Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it.
4. This bond presents the same appearance both in the facing and backing.
5. Bats are used for walls equal to odd.

5. Raking Bond:
In this type of bond, the bonding bricks are kept at an inclination to the direction of the wall. The raking course is
generally provided between the two courses. This bond used in thick walls
Raking bonds are of two types:
1. Diagonal Bond
2. Herring – Bone Bond
We can explain these bonds as follows:
1. Diagonal Bond: In this bond, the bricks are laid diagonally. The angle of inclination is so selected that
there is minimum breaking of the bricks. The triangular pieces of bricks are required near the sides.
 2. Herring – Bone Bond: In this bond, bricks are laid at an angle of 45 degrees from the center in both the
directions.

6. Zig-Zag Bond:
This bond is similar to herring-bone bond, except that the bricks are laid in zig-zag fashion. This band is commonly
used for making ornamental panels in the brick flooring.

7. Garden Wall Bond:

This type of bond is used for the construction of garden walls, boundary walls, compound walls , where the
thickness of the all is one brick and the height does not exceed two meters.
Garden wall bonds are of two types:
1. Garden Wall English Bond
2. Garden Wall Flemish Bond
These Bonds can be explained as follows:
1. Garden Wall English Bond: In this bond, the header course is provided only after three to five stretcher
courses.
 2. Garden Wall Flemish Bond: In this bond, each course contains one header after three to five stretchers
continuously placed throughout the length of the course.

6.Explain the Classification of Stone Masonry?

Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction it can be classified as follows:
1. Rubble Masonry
I. Random rubble masonry
a. Coursed
b. Un coursed
II. Square Rubble masonry
a. Coursed
b. Un coursed
III. Polygonal Rubble Masonry
IV. Flint Rubble Masonry
V. Dry Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry
I. Ashlar Fine
II. Ashlar rough tooled
III. Ashlar Rock or Quarry Faced
IV. Ashlar Chamfered
V. Ashlar Block in Course
1. Rubble Masonry:
In this type of masonry, stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used. The stones as obtained from quarry are taken
in use in same form or they are broken and shaped in suitable sizes by means of hammer as work proceeds.
I. Random Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, the stones used are of widely different sizes. This is the
roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry.
In coursed random rubble masonry, the masonry work is carried out in courses such that the stones in a
particular course are of equal heights
 In un coursed random rubble masonry courses are not maintained regularly. The larger stones are laid first
and the spaces between them are then filled up by means of spalls and sneeks.

II. Square Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry stones having straight led and sides are used. The stones
are usually squared are brought to a hammer driven or straight cut finish.
In the coursed square rubble masonry, the work is carried out in courses of varying depth

In the Un coursed square rubble masonry, the different sizes of stones having straight edges and sides are
arranged on face in several irregular pattern

III. Polygonal Rubble Masonry: In this type of rubble masonry, the stones are hammer dressed. The stones
used for face work are dressed in an irregular polygonal shape. Thus the face joints are seen running in a
irregular fashion in all directions.
IV. Flint Rubble Masonry: IN this type of rubble masonry, stones used are flints or cobbles. There are
irregularly shaped modules of silica. The stones are extremely hard. But they are brittle and therefore they
break easily. The face arrangement may be either warsed or un coursed.

V. Dry Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, mortar is not used in the joints. This type of construction is
the cheapest and requires more kill in construction. This may be used for non-load bearing walls such as
compound wall etc.

7. Distinguish between Stone Masonry and Brick Masonry:

S.No Stone Masonry Brick Masonry

1. Cost of stone masonry work is more, Cost of brick masonry is comparatively less.
because it requires more skilled labor.
Due to various sizes and shapes stone,
2. complicated lifting devices are required in Bricks having regular shape and uniform size, it can
the construction. be moved easily by manual labor. Hence no
complicated lifting.
3. In the case of stone masonry mortars In the case of brick masonry any mortar car be used.
other than cement will not be having any
bond with the stone surface.
4. The dead weight is more because it is The dead weight is less.
comparatively heavy, for the same reason,
it is suitable for under water construction.

5. Stone Masonry is stronger than brick Brick masonry is weaker than stone masonry.
masonry.
6. Thinner walls are not possible. Thinner walls are possible.
7. The Mortar joints are thick, hence Mortar joints are thin and uniform due to the uniform
pointing is necessary. size and shape and hence the structure becomes more
durable and less consumption of mortar.
 8. Stones are more water tight Brick work is less water tight than stone work.
9. Plastering is not necessary. Bricks absorb moisture from atmosphere and
dampness can enter the building hence plastering is
essential, it is an extra expenditure to brick work.

10. By stone masonry architectural and Bricks are used, due to their light weight, in residential
massive effects can be developed. Hence and commercial building works.
it is used for constructing temples,
monumental works, bridges etc.

8. Explain the Types of Flooring:

1. Mud and Muram Flooring
2. Brick Flooring
3. Stone flooring
4. Concrete Flooring
5. Granolithic Flooring
6. Terrazzo Flooring
7. Mosaic Flooring
8. Marble Flooring
9. Wood or timber Flooring
10. Asphalt Flooring
The types of flooring can be explained as follows:
1. Mud and Muram Flooring:
Mud flooring:
Method of Construction: The floor bed should be well prepared and a 250mm thick layer of selected moist
earth is evenly spread out and is rammed well so as to get a consolidated thickness of 150mm. No water is
used during the process of ramming. In order to prevent formation of cracks after drying, chopped straw in
small quantity is mixed with the moist earth before ramming. Upon the bed, a thin coat of cement, cow
dung plaster is applied evenly and wiped clean by hand.
Muram flooring:
Method of construction: In this type of floor, a hard bed is prepared by laying 25cm thick layer of hand
packed rubble boulders and then wetted and rammed hard. Upon this hard bed, a 15cm thick layer of
muram with course pieces at the bottom and finer at the top is laid. Over this layer of muram another 25mm
thick layer of powdered muram is spread. Water should then be sprinkled on the entire surface and rammed
well. Finally over the dry hand surface a thin coat of cement plaster is applied evenly and wiped cleanly by
hand.
Suitability: Mud floors are generally used for unimportant buildings particularly in villages.
 Advantages: They are cheap, hard, fairly impervious and easy in construction and maintenance.
2. Brick Flooring:
Method of construction: In this type of flooring the sub grade is compacted properly to the desired level. 10
to 13 cm thick layer of lean cement concrete or lime concrete is laid over the prepared sub grade. This
forms the base course, over which bricks are laid in desired pattern on 12mm thick mortar bed in such a
way that all the joints are fill with mortar.

Suitability: Brick floors are suitable for warehouses, stones and go downs or in places where bricks are
available economically.
Advantages: This floor is cheap, non slippery, durable, sufficiently hard and easily repairable.
Disadvantages: It is water absorbent

3. Stone flooring:
Method of construction: The sub grade is prepared by laying 100mm to 15 mm thick layer of cement or line
concrete over a bed of well consolidated earth. The stone slabs may be of square or rectangular usually 300
x 300mm, 450 x 450mm, 600 x 600mm or 450 x 600mm size. The thickness of stone varies from 20mm to
40mm. The selected stone should be hard, durable and of good quality and of uniform thickness and the
surface. They should be finely chisel dressed on surface and should have their edges true and parallel from
side to side. When the stone slabs are properly ser, mortar in the joints are raked out to a depth of 20mm
and flash pointed with cement mortar 1:3.
Suitability: This type of flooring is suitable for go downs, sheds, stores, bus, shelter, schools, hospitals etc.
Advantages: Where stones are available in plenty, this floor is economical. It is hard, durable, easy to
construct and having good resistance to wear and tear.
4. Cement Concrete flooring:
Method of construction: This flooring is commonly used for residential, commercial and even industrial
buildings.
The floor consists of two components
a) Base Concrete
b) Wearing Surface
The above components can be explained as follows:
a) Base Concrete: The base course is laid or a well compacted soil, compacted properly and leveled to
rough surface. The base course consists of 7.5 to 10cm thick cement concrete. The top surface of
the concrete base is roughly finished to develop good bond between the base and topping.
b) Wearing Surface: After the base concrete has hardened, its surface is brushed with stiff broom and
cleaned thoroughly. The entire surface is divided into square of rectangular panels not exceeding
2.5m in length. Cement concrete 1:2:4 of thickness 25mm to 40mm is then laid in alternate panels.
The top surface is beaten and made in a uniform line and level and finally it is smoothened by
trowelling. The surgace is kept under curing for 10 days.
Suitability: Suitable for residential, commercial, industrial and public building of all types.
Advantages: It is cheap and durable easy to maintain and it is fire resistant.

5. Granolithic Flooring:
Method of construction: In this flooring the sub – base preparation and concrete base laying is done
in a similar manner, as explained for cement concrete flooring. A finishing layer is given above is made
of very rich concrete mix with hard stone chips called granolithic finish. To improve wearing qualities,
sand may be replaced by crushed granite powder. The surface may be finished smooth with a steel
 trowel. The floor area may be divided into panels of size 600 x 600mm or 600 x 450mm using threads, if
desired.
Suitability: This type of flooring is mostly suitable for industrial floors.
Advantages: It is durable, cheap, resistance to abrasion and does not wear easily.

6. Terrazzo Flooring:
Method of construction: In this flooring the sub – base preparation and concrete base laying is done in
a similar manner, as explained for cement concrete flooring. The top layre may have about 40mm
thickness, consisting of (1) 34mm thick clement concrete layer laid over the base concrete and (2)
about 6 mm thick terrazzo is a specially prepared concrete surface consisting of white cement with
marble chips of different colors in 1:2 proportion laid in a thin layer over a concrete base course. Even
though this flooring is expensive, it is decorative and has good wearing properties.
Suitability: This type of flooring is suitable for hospitals, public buildings, living room and bathroom
of residential buildings etc.
Advantages: It provides an attractive, clean and durable surface.
Disadvantages: It is more expensive.

7. Mosaic Flooring:
Method of Construction: Mosaic flooring is made of small pieces of broken tile of china glazed or of
cement, or of marble, arranged in different pattern. These pieces are cut to desired shapes and sizes. This
floor is normally laid over a hard bed of cement concrete. The top surface of concrete base is cleaned and
wetted. On a small portion of the floor, a layer of rich cement, mortar 1:3 is evenly spread in a thickness
 of nearly 1cm and mosaic tiles are laid with hand and set properly in desired pattern. Dry cement either
ordinary or colored is sprinkled and pressed in the joints. The process is continued for the whole floor.
The joints of the tiles are then rubbed with a carborundum stone. After the tiles are set, the surface is
completely polished with mosaic polishing machine.
8. Marble Flooring:
Method of Construction: This flooring is laid over the prepared sub grade which is cleaned, wetted and
mopped properly. A layer of cement mortar 1:4 is spread in average thickness of abour 20mm. Marble
slabs are laid in these bedding mortar, pressed and leveled. The marble slabs may be rectangular or
square in shape and their thickness vary from 20 to 40mm. The joints between two slabs must be very
thin. The cement that oozes out of the joints is cleaned. The paved area is cured for minimum seven days
Suitability: Suitable for places of worship and for public buildings which require rich appearance,
kitchen, bathrooms, operation theatre of hospitals etc.
Advantages: It is attractive and easily maintained
Disadvantages: It requires high initial cost.

9. Wood or Timber Flooring:

Method of construction: Timber flooring is used for dancing halls, auditoriums etc there are two types of
timber floors.
I. Suspended Type
II. Solid type
The types mentioned above can be explained as follows:
I. Suspended Type Timber Flooring: Where the problem of dampers is acute, the timber flooring is
provided above the ground level. In such a case, sleeper walls are constructed at center to center
distance of 1.2 to 1.8m. Wall plates are provided along the sleeper walls. The bridging joints of
timber are nailed to the wall plates at their ends.
 II. Solid Type Flooring: When the problems of dampers is not acute, timber floors may be supported
on the ground all along. In this type of flooring, base concrete is first laid in 15 to 20cm
thickness. Over it a layer of mastic asphalt is applied. Wooden block flooring is then laid over it.
Suitability: Suitable for dancing halls, auditorium, carpentry halls, in hilly areas, where timber is
available cheaply and in areas where temperature is very low.
Advantages: It provides a non – slippery platform and is easy to repair.
Disadvantages: This flooring is not commonly used for residential building due to its cost. Dampers
prevention should be carried out before its construction.
10. Asphalt Flooring:
Method of Construction: Mastic is melted and clean sand is mixed with it and laid in one or two layers on
the base of concrete with trowel. A uniform level surface can be obtained by quick trowelling before the
mastic losses in plasticity and before it gets hardened.
Suitability: It is suitable for use under wide range of service conditions from light domestic buildings to
heavy duty commercial and industrial buildings, storage houses, foot paths etc.
Advantages: Mastic asphalt flooring is dustless, joint less and impervious. The flooring is easily cleaned
and resistant to acids.
9. Explain the Classification of Roofs:
The roofs are classified into the following three categories
1. Pitched or Sloping Roofs.
2. Flat Roofs or Terraced Roofs.
3. Curved Roofs.
Pitched roofs have sloping top surface. These are suitable in those areas where rainfall/snowfall is very heavy.
Flat roofs are considered suitable for building in hot regions, where rainfall is moderate and where snowfall is not
there.
Curved roofs have their top surface curved. Such roofs are provided to give architectural effects. They are more
suitable for public building like libraries, theatres, recreation centers etc.
Pitched roofs have three types namely
1. Single Roofs.
2. Double or Purlin Roofs.
3. Trussed Roofs.
Flat terraced roofs have two types such as
1. Madras Terrace roof.
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete Slab Roof.
Trussed roofs have six types and they are
1. King – Port Truss.
2. Queen – Port Truss.
3. Mansard Truss.
 4. Bel – Fast Truss.
5. Steel Truss.
6. Composite Truss.
Reinforced Cement Concrete Slabs:
Reinforced cement concrete slabs are becoming very common in the construction of modern buildings. Cement
concrete is weak in tension and hence to over come this deficiency, steel is provided in the concrete. Thus cement
concrete and steel are combined to form reinforced cement concrete construction.
There are two types of reinforced cement concrete slabs
1. Simple R.C.C. Slab.
2. Tee – Beam Slab.

The two types of slabs can be explained as follows:

1. Simple R.C.C. Slab: A simple slab is suitable for covering small spans of room which do not carry heavy
loads. In this roof, the R.C.C. slab bends downward causing tension at the bottom fibers. Due to this steel
bar reinforcements is placed at the bottom of the slab, keeping a minimum clear cover of 15mm. Half of
these bars are bent up near the ends to take up negative bending moment. The thickness of the slabs
depends on the type of concrete used, the span, the floor loads etc. It may vary from 80mm to 150mm.

2. Tee – Beam Slab: When the width of the room becomes more, the depth of slab increases and hence
simple R.C.C. slab becomes uneconomical. In Such cases, the floor structure consist of R.C.C. beams and
slabs cast monolithically. The Tee – Beams act as intermediate supports and the slabs is laid continuously
over these beams. The beams are supported by columns. Thus the load from the slab is transmitted to the
beams and then from beams to columns.

10. Explain the Classification of Lintels:

Lintels are classified into the following types, according to the materials of their construction.
1. Timber Lintels.
2. Stone Lintels.
3. Brick Lintels.
4. Brick Lintels.
 5. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels.
The Lintels mentioned above can be briefly explained as follows
1. Timber Lintels: Timber lintels are the oldest type of lintels, though they are not commonly used now-a-
days, except in hilly areas. The sound and hard timber like teak is used to span over the opening and
masonry is constructed over it. As the timber is easily liable to catch fire, only good quality timber with a
coat of suitable preservative should be used as lintels. The ends of the lintels rest on a mortar base on the
walls for a minimum width of 15cm.

2. Stone Lintels: Stone lintels are used in stone masonry structures. This consists of a simple stone slab of
greater thickness. Stone lintels can also be provided over opening in brick walls. Dressed stone lintels give
good architectural appearance. The lease thickness of the stone lintel is about 7.5cm and as a thumb rule
thickness is taken as at least 1/10 of the length of the opening.

3. Brick Lintels: Brick lintels are not structurally strong and they are used for small opening, generally not
exceeding 1 meter span and light loads. They are built up with hard well burnt, copper - colored, free from
cracks and with sharp and straight edges bricks. The depth of the lintel varies from 10cm to 20 cm
depending upon the span. A centering or temporary support is required to construct a brick lintel.

4. Steel Lintels: Steel Lintels are provided where the opening is large and the super imposed loads are also
heavy. It consists of rolled steel joints or channels sections.
 5. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels: Reinforced cement concrete lintels have replaced practically all
other types of lintels because of their strength, rigidity, fire resistance and ease in construction. These can
be used on any span. Hence we can see about the reinforced cement concrete slabs.

11. Explain the Types of Stresses and Strains

Tensile Stress: When an external force produces elongation of the body in its direction. It is termed as a tensile
force.
P = External tensile load.
R = Resistance induced in material of the body.
A = Cross sectional area of the body.

Tensile Strain: Let due to the application of the load the length of the member increases from ‘1’ to (1+di).
The ratio of the increase in length of the original length is called “tensile strain”

Compressive Stress: When an external force causes shortening of the body in the direction of force. It is termed as
the compressive force.
P = External Compressive load.
R = Resistance induced in material of the body.
A = Cross sectional area of the body.

Compressive Strain: Let due to the application of the load, the length of the member decreases from ‘1’ to (1-di)
the ratio of the decrease in length to the original is called as compressive strain
Shear Stress: When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting
section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off across the section, then this tangential force is termed as
shear force and the stress induced is called as shear stress.

Shear Strain: If the block does not fail in shear, a shear deformation occurs. Let the horizontal displacement of the
upper face of the block be ‘dl’. The ration of the transverse displacement to the distance from the lower face is
called shear strain.

Hence shear strain is the angle in radian through which a body is distorted by a shear force.
Volumetric Strain: The change in volume of an elastic body due to external force in unit origingal volume is called
as the volumetric strain

Lateral Strain: When a Material is subjected to Uni – axial stress within the elastic limit, it deforms not only
longitudinally but also laterally. Under tension the lateral dimension diminishes and under compression they
increase. The lateral deformation per unit original lateral dimension is call lateral strain.

12.explain the classification of beams

It is classified as follows:
1. Simply Supported Beam.
2. Rigidly Fixed Beam.
3. Cantilever Beam.
4. Over Hanging Beam.
5. Continuous Beam.
The types of beams mentioned above can be explained as follows.
1. Simply Supported Beam: If the ends of a beam are supported freely by columns or walls then it is called
simply supported beam. In such cases the moment is not induced at supports because it allows rotation.
 2. Rigidly Fixed beam: If the two ends of a beam are rigidly fixed in walls then it is called fixed beam. In such
cases, the moments are induced at supports because it will not allow rotation.

3. Continuous Beam: If a beam is fixed in one end and the other end is free then it is called cantilever beam.
In such cases, the moment is induced in fixed end only.

4. Over Hanging Beam: If a beam having its end portion extended beyond the support, it is called over
hanging beam.

5. Continuous Beam: If a beam is supported on more than two supports, then it is known as continuous beam.
They may or may not be a overhanging beam.

13. Explain plastering and methods of plastering?

Plastering is a process of covering rough surfaces of walls and ceilings with a thin plastic material called plaster or
mortar to obtain an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable surface.
Mortar for Plastering
Three types of mortar which can be used for the process of plastering are
1. Lime Mortar
2. Cement Mortar
3. Water – Proof Mortar
Methods of Plastering
The plaster may be applied either in one, two or three coats.
Cement Plaster is usually applies in a single coat. But in certain cases when thickness of plaster is more than 15mm
or it is desired to have fines finish, plaster is applied in two coats. The usual proportion is cement and 3 sand.
Following is the procedure for carrying out the plaster in cement mortar
1. The background is prepared. The joints are racked out to a depth of 20mm. The surface is cleaned, washed
with cleaned water and kept wet for 6 hours before plastering.
2. If the surface is uneven a preliminary coat is applies to make it even.
3. To get uniform thickness of plaster dots are formed with mortar in vertical lines at 2m intervals. To fix a
dot, a small quantity of plaster is laid on the surface making roughly a square of 15cm x 15cm. another dot
is fixed vertically below at a distance of about 2 meters. The two dots are plumbed by means of a plumb
bob. After fixing the dots, a vertical strip of mortar known as screed. Sufficient number of screeds should
be prepared to obtain the uniform thickness of the plaster. The cement mortar is placed between the
successive screeds and the surface is properly finished.

Question banks
PART-A
1. Define foundation?
2. Define wall footing?
3. State the methods to improve bearing capacity of soil?
4. Define stress and strain?
5. State hooke’s law
6. What are the types of modulus?
7. Define young’s modulus, modulus of rigidity & bulk modulus?
8. Illustrate the types of bridges?
9. What are types of dams?
10. Explain the basics of interior design and landscaping?
11. Write down the relation between Young’s modulus and shear modulus.

12. Write down the relation between Young’s modulus and bulk modulus.

13. Write down the relation between Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and shear modulus.

PART-B
1. Explain shallow foundation?
2. Explain deep foundation?
3. Explain types of dams with neat diagrams?
4. Explain types of bridges with neat diagrams?
5. A bar of 30mm diameter is subjected to pull of 60 KN . The extension on a gauge length of 200mm is
0.9mm and the change in diameter is 0.0039mm .calculate the Poisson’s ratio and values of the three moduli

6. explain the basics of interior design and landscaping?