Professional Documents
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J. Schonek
Foreword
Jacques Schonek
Today, residual current devices (RCD) are recognised as the most effective
means of protecting life and property against electrical hazards in low-
voltage systems.
Their selection and optimum use require sound knowledge of the principles
and rules governing electrical installations and in particular system earthing
arrangements as well as existing technologies and their performance
levels.
All these aspects are dealt with in this "Cahier Technique", with in addition
numerous answers provided by Schneider Electric technical and
maintenance departments to frequently asked questions.
Contents
1 Introduction p. 4
2 The risks of electrical currents 2.1 Electrisation of persons p. 4
2.2 Fire hazards p. 6
2.3 Damage to equipment p. 7
3 Protection against the risks 3.1 Installation rules p. 8
of electrical currents 3.2 Detection of insulation faults p. 9
4 RCD operating principle and description 4.1 Operating principle p. 11
4.2 Applications p. 11
4.3 Main characteristics p. 12
4.4 Technology p. 13
4.5 Constraints due to the current sensor p. 15
4.6 Special applications p. 17
5 Conclusion p. 22
Appendix 1: Calculation of touch voltages p. 23
Appendix 2: Types of converters and fault-current waveforms p. 25
Appendix 3: Leakage currents for different system earthing arrangements p. 28
Appendix 4: RCD thresholds and power system voltages p. 30
Bibliography p. 31
Compared to other energy sources, electricity current devices) are recognised by international
has many advantages, but also many risks. It is standardisation organisations as an effective
used on a daily basis by the general public and means to protect life and property.
many accidents still occur, resulting in burns, This document will present the subject in three
fires and electrocution. steps:
Strict installation rules have been set up by c a description of the risks related to electrical
international (IEC, CENELEC) and national currents,
(e.g. NFPA in the USA and UTE in France,) c an overview of the protection techniques
organisations. employed to limit those risks,
Dependable protective devices have been c an in-depth presentation of how RCDs
designed by carefully analysing the risks and operate.
consequences of equipment failures or incorrect
use. Among these devices, RCDs (residual
A B C1 C2 C3
10 000
5 000
AC-4.1
AC-4.2
2 000
AC-4.3
1 000
500
AC-1 AC-2 AC-3 AC-4
200
100
50
Body current
20
Is (mA)
10
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 2 000 10 000
1 000 5 000
Threshold = 30 mA
AC-1 : Perception
AC-2 : Involuntary muscular contractions
AC-3 : Difficulty in breathing
AC-4 : Serious pathophysiological effects
AC-4.1 : probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing up to about 5 %
AC-4.2 : probability of ventricular fibrillation up to about 50 %
AC-4.3 : probability of ventricular fibrillation above 50 %
Total body
impedance
6 000
5 000
4 000
10 V CA
5 000
25 V
50 V
2 000
100 V
225 V
1 000
775 V 1 000 V
600
0 Frequency (Hz)
50 100 250 500 1 000 2 000
Fig. 3 : Total body impedance ZT as a function of the frequency and the touch voltage.
Electricity 41%
Accident 7%
Other 7%
Cigarette 6%
Leakage
current
Carbonised
insulation
and dust Small
discharges
RB RA RB
IMD
RB RB
Id Id
N N
PE PE
Ud
RB RA
RB RA
4.2 Applications
Additional protection against direct contacts provides a cost-effective compromise between
An RCD can detect low leakage currents that safety and continuity of service.
could flow through the body of a person. It thus Downstream of an RCD, it is possible to supply a
provides additional protection if the normal number of loads or circuits as long as the
protection means fail, e.g. old or damaged leakage current does not trip the RCD. For a
insulation, human error, etc. This can also be given leakage current, a reduction in the
referred to as ultimate protection because it can threshold makes it necessary to increase the
interrupt the current even if the other devices number of protective devices.
have failed. Protection against indirect contacts
Use of a 30 mA RCD on all circuits supplying An RCD is the only solution to protect against
socket-outlets up to 20 A is now mandatory, as indirect contacts on a TT system because the
per IEC 60364-4-41, Electrical installations in dangerous fault current is too low to be detected
buildings, Protection for safety - Protection by overcurrent protective devices. It is also a
against electric shock. simple solution for the TN-S and IT systems. For
Note that an RCD does not limit the example, when the supply cable is very long, the
instantaneous current flowing through the body, low fault current makes it difficult to set the
but does limit the time the current flows. Note overcurrent protective devices. And when the
also that for a direct contact with a 230 V phase length of the cable is unknown, calculation of the
conductor, the flowing current would be fault current is impossible and use of an RCD is
approximately 150 mA. RCDs with 10 or 30 mA the only possible solution.
sensitivities let the same current through. Under these conditions, the RCD operating
The two sensitivities provide equivalent threshold must be set to somewhere between a
protection. However, the 30 mA threshold few amperes and a several tens of amperes.
Type In I∆
∆n Standard values of break time (s) and non-actuating time (s)
at a residual current (I∆
∆) equal to:
5 A, 10 A
A A I∆
∆n 2 I∆
∆n 5 I∆
∆n 20 A, 50 A
100 A, 200 A
500 A
General Any value Any value 0.3 0.15 0.04 0.04 Maximum
break times
S u 25 > 0.030 0.5 0.2 0.15 0.15 Maximum
break times
0.13 0.06 0.05 0.04 Minimum non-
actuating times
Fig. 9 : Standardised values of maximum break times and non-actuating times as per IEC 61008.
4.4 Technology
RCD classification depending on supply effectiveness of these devices for residential and
mode: similar uses (standards EN 61008 and 61009).
"Without auxiliary source" or "Functionally "Without auxiliary source" or "functionally
independent of line voltage". dependent on line voltage".
In this type of device, the tripping energy is In this type of device, tripping requires an
supplied by the fault current. This highly auxiliary source of energy that is independent of
dependable supply mode is recommended for the fault current. The source is generally the
residential or similar applications where the user protected circuit. When the circuit is energised,
is not aware of the dangers of electricity. Many the RCD is supplied. If there is no voltage, the
countries, particularly in Europe, recognise the RCD cannot operate, but there is no danger.
Fig. 12 : Examples of RCDs "without auxiliary source" and "with auxiliary source".
N RCD RCD
PE
toroid
toroid
Fig. 16 : Toroid N supplies the same information as Fig. 18 : The toroid must be installed far enough from
toroid G. bends in cables to avoid nuisance tripping.
b) tr tc b) tr tc
Discrimination No discrimination
Ifault Ifault
Fig. 21 : The time delay of an upstream RCD (a) must take into account the non-actuating time tr and the
disconnection time tc of the downstream RCD (b).
RCD RCD
Vigicompact Vigirex
tr = 60 ms tr = 200 ms
RCD
Vigirex RH RCD
tr = 15 ms Vigicompact
tc = 30 ms tr = 60 ms
tf = 45 ms tf < 140 ms
Fig. 22 : Two examples of time discrimination between a Vigicompact circuit breaker with add-on RCD and a
Vigirex relay (Merlin Gerin). Note that these times are much shorter than the authorised actuating times in figure 9.
Da (A)
long cables
1 Cp
RCD
2
3
Db (B)
RCD
Variable-speed drives
Flow off of
For combinations of RCDs and variable-speed
current generated
Surge arrester drives using frequency conversion, it is
by lightning
necessary to simultaneously take into account a
number of constraints:
c leakage currents when energising,
Fig. 25 : Depending on local regulations, in an c continuous leakage currents at 50/60 Hz,
installation containing a surge arrester, the RCD may c continuous HF leakage currents,
be placed at A (S-type or immunised RCD) or at B c special current waveforms for faults at the
(standard RCD) drive output,
c current with a DC component for faults on the
Use of an RCD with a narrow operating range DC bus.
(0.7 I∆n to I∆n) reduces this constraint.
A narrow operating range is available from "si"
(super-immunised) or Vigirex RCDs from Merlin
Gerin.
c Transient leakage currents
These currents appear when energising a circuit
with a capacitive unbalance or during a
common-mode overvoltage (see Fig. 26 ).
For example, measurements carried out when
starting a workstation equipped with a capacitive
filter revealed a transient leakage current with
following characteristics: Device with
v amplitude of the first peak: 40 A capacitive filter
v oscillation frequency: 11.5 kHz
v damping time (66 %): 5 periods
RCDs with a certain non-actuating time avoid N
nuisance tripping caused by this type of
waveform. Examples are "si" type RCDs
(I∆n = 30 mA and 300 mA), Vigirex and S-type
RCDs (I∆n ≥ 300 mA). Fig. 26 : Leakage current caused by the capacitance
c High-frequency leakage currents distributed throughout the cables or flowing through the
High-frequency leakage currents (a few kHz up input capacitors of devices (dotted lines).
to a few MHz) are caused by the chopping
technique used by variable-speed drives or the
electronic ballasts of fluorescent lighting. Certain
conductors are subjected to high voltage a
M
gradients (approx. 1 kV/µs), which generate a
major current spikes through the stray N
capacitance of circuits.
Leakage currents of a few tens or hundreds of
mA can flow (common mode) and be detected
by the RCD, as shown in figure 27 for a
variable-speed drive. Fig. 27 : RCD disturbance caused by high-frequency
Unlike the 50 Hz - 60 Hz leakage currents for leakage currents.
which the algebraic sum is zero, these HF
Non-priority
loads
3L
3L
N
3L
3L
3L
3L
N
Automatic
N
bypass switch
AC bypass circuit
3L
N
Fig. 29 : When loss of AC power is detected, contactor K closes to recreate the TT system downstream of the UPS.
At a time when electricity has come to play an c For the protection of persons against indirect
increasingly dominant role in residential, contacts, an RCD is:
commercial and industrial applications, it is v compulsory for the TT system,
useful to review and quantify electrical hazards v necessary for the IT system if there are several
and provide information on residual-current earth electrodes,
devices (RCD).
v recommended for very long circuits on TN and
As for all devices, they have their strong and
IT systems.
weak points. Not yet fully perfected, they
nonetheless play an increasingly important role c RCDs also provide protection against:
in the protection of life and property. All v fires of electrical origin. They are the only
industrialised countries make extensive use of effective means to limit fire hazards caused by
RCDs, with a variety of system earthing tracking currents, whatever the SEA,
arrangements, in both industry and housing. v destruction of machines in the TN system.
The following are the most important points to be Modern RCDs continue to progress in terms of
retained from installation standards and current reliability and immunity to interference
practice. phenomena that are not insulation faults.
c For the protection of persons against direct The purpose of this document is to further
contacts, an RCD is not only very useful, but knowledge of RCDs and thereby contribute to
often an additional measure required by the safety of life and property.
standards, whatever the SEA. It is the ultimate
line of defence in the protection of human life.
This section indicates briefly how touch voltages For more information, see Cahier Technique
due to insulation faults are calculated, depending publication no. 172, Earthing systems in LV.
on the SEA.
TN system
A Id
U0
N
D
PE
C B
Rd
Ud
0.8 Uo Uo 0.8 Uo
Ud = if RPE = Rph and Rd = 0 Id = ⇒
2 RAB + Rd + RCD Rph +RPE
In a 230/400 V system, the touch voltage Ud is therefore 92 V. This voltage is greater than the
conventional touch voltage limit UL and represents a danger, i.e. the circuit must open.
In general, given the level of the fault current Id, opening can be initiated by the overcurrent-
detection devices.
When the resistance values Rph and RPE are high or unknown, RCD protection is required.
PE
Ud
Rb Ra
Uo Ra
Id ≈ Ud = Uo
Ra + Rb Ra + Rb
In a 230/400 V system, the touch voltage is approximately 115 V (if Ra=Rb). This voltage is
greater than the conventional touch voltage limit UL and represents a danger, i.e. the circuit
must open.
If the earth resistance is approximately 10 Ω, the fault current is approximately 11 A.
In general, opening cannot be initiated by the overcurrent-detection devices.
Use of an RCD is therefore mandatory.
Fig. 31 : Touch voltage for insulation faults on a TT system.
IT system
If
U0
3
2
N 1
N
PE
Insulation Surge
monitoring limiter
If If
Cf Cf Cf Cf
device
(IMD)
Rb
If
Even with high leakage capacitances of approximately 1 µF, the leakage current If for the first
fault is less than 0.1 A.
The result is a harmless touch voltage of approximately one volt. Disconnection is not
necessary for the first fault.
If a second fault occurs, the situation is that of the TN system.
Standard EN50178 (Electronic equipment for semiconductor assemblies. It also indicates the
use in power installations) indicates the types of corresponding fault-current waveforms.
RCD to use in combination with different
2
IL IL Id
L
Id
N
PE t t
Single-way connection
with back - e.m.f. ioad
3
IL IL Id
L1
L2
L3
Id t t
N
PE
Three-phase star connection
4
IL Id
IL
L
Id
N
t t
PE
Two-pulse bridge connection
5
IL IL Id
L
Id
N
t t
PE
Two-pulse bridge connection
half-controlled
t t
N
PE
Two-pulse bridge connection
terminal connection between phases
7 IL IL Id
L1
L2 Id
L3
t t
N
PE
Six-pulse bridge connection
(Three-phase bridge connection)
8
IL IL Id
L
Id
N t t
PE
A.C. power controller
phase control
9
IL IL Id
L
Id
N t
PE
A.C. power controller
multi-cycle control
Fig. 33 (continuation of page 25) : Fault currents corresponding to different semiconductor assemblies.
Circuits no. 8 and 9 must be protected by type An insulation fault is possible if a braking resistor
AC, A or B RCDs. is connected to the DC circuit (DC bus). An
internal insulation fault is highly unlikely.
Circuits no. 1, 4 and 5 must be protected by type
v Power supplies for DC circuits
A or B RCDs.
Examples include welding equipment, battery
Circuits no. 2, 3, 6 and 7 must be protected by chargers, electronic devices (PLCs, regulators,
type B RCDs. telephone exchanges, etc.), excitation windings
of DC motors, electromagnet coils.
Examples of loads requiring type A or B The maximum power rating is 3 kW (for higher
RCDs: ratings, the supply is generally three-phase).
c Equipment with single-phase diode rectifiers Remark. Most of the time, these devices have an
(circuit no. 4) isolating transformer upstream of the rectifier. In
v Examples include pumps, fans, air- this case, an insulation fault between the DC
conditioners, lifting and handling equipment, lifts, circuit and earth does not cause a fault current. It
packing machines, special machines (textile, is thus possible, for example, to operate with one
machine tools, etc.). battery pole earthed.
Power ratings are 0.37 to 2.2 kW for v Switch-mode power supplies
230 V/50 Hz (for higher ratings, the supply is Examples include computer hardware, stereo and
generally three-phase). video equipment, etc.
Difference between zero-sequence currents The current measured by the RCD is equal to:
in TT/TN and IT systems iT = i1 - i2
Consider the simplified diagram of a device where i1 = (V1 - V2) C ω
supplied by a phase and neutral, in the TN
system. The capacitors C are connected i2 = V2 C ω
between the live conductors and earth to make
the device immune to power system What is more, it is clear that:
disturbances. V1 = V sinωt
2π
V2 = V sin(ωt - )
3
Calculation of iT:
V1
i1 iT = i1 - i2 = (V1 - 2V2) C ω
a
N C
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤
iT = V C ω ⎢sinωt - 2sin ⎜ ωt - ⎟ ⎥
PE C ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦
⎣
⎡ ⎛ 2π 2π ⎞⎤
iT = V C ω ⎢sinωt - 2 ⎜ sinωt cos - sin cosωt⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 3 3 ⎠⎦
⎛ 3 ⎞
Fig. 36 : Device connected to a TN system. iT = V C ω 2 ⎜ sinωt + cosωt⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
This expression can be written as:
The current measured by the RCD is equal to:
i1 = V1 C ω iT = V C ω 2 a (cosα sinωt + sinα cosωt)
For an IT system, if the first fault is assumed to iT = V C ω 2 a sin(ωt + α)
occur on phase 2, the simplified diagram is that where identication gives:
shown below.
a cosα = 1
3
a sinα =
2
V1
3
N
a
i1
( )
hence: a 2 cos2α + sin2α = 1+
4
i2 C
7
C As a result: a=
PE 2
a
iT = V C ω 7sin(ωt + α )
V2
The absolute value of the leakage current is
7 ≈ 2,6 times higher for the first fault on an IT
Fig. 37 : Device connected to an IT system.
system than on a TN system.
In the United States, certain circuits supplying For direct contact with a conductor, e.g. a
socket-outlets and not equipped with a PE damaged extension cord, the touch voltage in
conductor are protected by a GFCI (ground-fault the USA is 120 V. The impedance of the human
circuit interrupter) which is a residual-current body at 120 V is higher than at 230 V and
device. This is required by article 210-8 of NEC, amounts to approximately 2200 Ω (median
680-10, 511-10. If residual-current protection is value). The current that would flow in the body
provided, it is built into the socket-outlets and the would therefore be 120 V/2200 Ω = 54.5 mA.
sensitivity used is 5 mA. A 30 mA RCD would operate in 300 ms for a
The decision to use a sensitivity of 5 mA current of 54.5 mA (< 2 I∆n) according to the
(± 1 mA) is not discussed anywhere in detail, actuating-time tables in the IEC standards. The
however a number of factors explain the person in question would be severely affected by
decision. a current flowing through the body for this
Note that 120 V distribution in the TN-S system relatively long time.
significantly reduces the risks. If a solid In a system with a 120 V phase-to-neutral
insulation fault occurs in a device and if the voltage, a 5 mA RCD is therefore better because
resistance of the phase conductors (size, length) the tripping time for the same 54.5 mA current
is equivalent to that of the return conductors (PE (> 5 I∆n) is only 40 ms. In this case, tripping is
or metal conduit), the touch voltage of the as fast as a 30 mA RCD on a 230 V system.
exposed conductive parts (ECPs) on the faulty The 5 mA sensitivity used in the USA for
device is equal to approximately half the phase protection against direct contacts in socket-
voltage, i.e. 60 V. outlets would therefore appear suitable for the
This 60 V voltage is close to the 50 V voltage two-phase TN-S systems (240 V phase-to-
recognised as being not dangerous phase) used in the USA.
(conventional touch voltage limit). Consequently, For a three-phase system (230 V phase-to-
the standardisation organisation in the USA neutral), the 30 mA sensitivity is better suited to
considers that given the characteristics of provide protection against direct contacts, with
LV distribution in North America, additional devices installed in switchboards or, where
protection against direct contacts is not as applicable, in socket-outlets.
necessary as in three-phase 230/400 V systems
where the touch voltage of the ECPs of a faulty
device is twice as high.
This explains why, in the USA, protection against
direct contacts is not mandatory on
switchboards, but only on the socket-outlets of
certain circuits.
xxxxx 02-06