Master Thesis

The relationship between gender, violence

and identity construction – A literature
review and focus group research among
female adolescents in Cuenca, Ecuador.

Promotor: Prof. Dr. Paul Enzlin

Student: Sofie Maenhout

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Master thesis July 2010
Master in human of sexuality
Schedule

I. Statement of the problem

II. Literature review

III. Analyses

IV. Conclusion

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Statement of the problem

• Family or personal relationships are not always equally

satisfactory. The boundary between attachment and
destruction can be very thin.
• Violence is a common phenomenon in every country.
Ecuador, like other countries, suffers from this problem.
• An additional problem in Ecuador is the fact that
speaking about violence in a familial context is
considered taboo. This taboo is partly maintained by
cultural “ beliefs” or “myths” that normalize violence
(Jerves et al., 2009).

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Statement of the problem

• Many communities have boundaries concerning the

forms of violence that are tolerated, often in the context
of discipline constituted by social institutions like family
or marriage. Impermissible forms of violence are
categorized under the definition “abuse” (Engly, 2006).
• In Ecuador too many boundaries shape social reality.
Cultural beliefs, like masculinity allow violence to exist
(Villasenor Farias and Castañeda- Torres, 2003).

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Literature review

This gender related concepts are contribution factors in the

victimization of female adolescents:

- machismo
- patriachal society
- the exposure to parental violence
- an uncertain romantic relation ship style
- a passive coping style

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Literature review

• Female adolescents in poor families in Cuenca are

forming an inferior identity construction because
existing assumptions of patriarchal traditions and
subjugation of women.
• Teenage pregnancies in Cuenca are strongly be
associated with partner violence.
• A lack of scientific information is adapted for
adolescents.

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Method: Qualitative research

• Using three focus groups in the private school CEDFI in

Cuenca in Ecuador.
• Three focus groups were conducted with different age
segments, from the age nine until eleven, twelve until
fourteen, and fifteen until nineteen.
• With guidance of three cases studies of family violence
(concerning physical, psychological and sexual
violence), the focus group was inquired on their
attitudes towards domestic and sexual violence.

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Analyses of focusgroup discussions

• The Grounded Theory

1. Intends to collect the codes in categories

2. Assignment of domains
3. Development of a theoretical structure

Hierarchical code structure a theoretical model

(explaining the relationship between identity, gender and violence).

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Maxqda

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Code structure

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 Results
• 12 domains from the code structure:
a) an insecure romantic relationship style
b) communication
c) relation skills
d) lack of responsibility
e) gender concepts
f) patriarchal society
g) using power
h) respectful treating
i) inferior identity construction
j) defensive strategies (nature of resilience)
k) effects
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Associations between domains

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1) gender-concepts -> identity
construction
• Gender concepts that are living in the community have
a strong influence on the identity construction of female
adolescents
• Machismo expresses itself as superiority over women
• A girl expressed this as follows:
“Men seem superior to women. They all think it is
justifiable.”

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1) gender-concepts -> identity
construction
• Women are, in this case, regarded as a sex object.
The participants described this as follows:
“A macho must have someone for pleasure, just as sex
object. But men who think in such way, are disgracing
themselves.”
Men in this society ask sexual activity as testimony for
love.
“They have crazy hormones, if you give them a hug,
they want more. A girl must ‘give’ sex as a testimony for
love. In my opinion having sex isn’t good proof for love.”

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1) gender-concepts -> identity
construction
• Such macho forms are tolerated by most female
adolescents.
• This illustrates the following statement:
• “Some females accept machismo. They accept that they
can be abused. They agree to the idea that men are
superior towards woman. The men think they can do
everything”.
• Superior masculinity (gender concepts) are internalized
by the women.
• Some girls often act out of oppression.
• “If they are forced out of love, they will reform (for fear of
loss)”
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1) gender-concepts-> identity
construction

• A lack of self-esteem and confidence, according to this

adolescent group, is at the base of tolerating violence
• This view is reflected in the following phase. She has
not much confidence. If you love yourself, you don’t
accept such things.
• Women do have the responsibility to choose their
partner.
• “The majority is just like Emillio, there is a certain
variation. It’s up to our selves to choose.”

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1) gender-concepts-> identity
construction
There are also gentle men (loving knights). They are
much friendlier and more introverted. They know how to
communicate.

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1) gender-concepts  identity
construction
Conclusion:
Gender concepts in Cuenca are probably internalized
by
female adolescents. Internalization of the feeling that
men are superior towards women, is leading these
women to a feeling of oppression.

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2) Identity Construction  insecure
romantic relationship style

• Some female adolescents, some girls do not dare to

stand up for their rights out of fear of losing their
husbands. ”She must be strong in her decisions. She
can not be influenced ... ".
• The importance of self-esteem is recognized too. "It is
necessary to have self-esteem so such things aren’t
tolerated ".
• They say that if she has a sense of self, she may not
return the man who assaulted her. They will feel more
capable.

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2) Identity Construction  insecure
romantic relationship style
“She must understand that he does not love her. She
should leave him making her more capable.
He will feel nothing, because he requires it.”
• If the boy manipulates the girl and pressures her for
sex, it raises, according the girls from the focus groups,
bad and pessimistic feelings:
• "She feels forced, because otherwise he will leave her,
if she doesn’t get the help from a friend, she needs to
inform the parents of an other friend.”

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2) Identity Construction  insecure
romantic relationship style
• A lack of confidence leads to the fact that they allow such things.
They create an inferior
identity construction.
• An inferior identity construction has an impact on the
form of an uncertain romantic relationship style.
• For example, it is stated that they always will
doubt, if they remain in a position which allows abuse.
The fear is always in return, it will happen again. "Some people don’t learn
from their mistakes .... I
mean that they always will be doubt, the fear that it will happen again ....

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2) Identity Construction  insecure
romantic relationship style
• Depending on who has positive experiences, one can determine
what may or may not.
• But to understand what is wrong, you should have a life with
positive experiences. This is the reason why an inferior
identity construction is maintained. A lack of positive experiences
may lead to insecure attachment. Resulting in an uncertain
relationship. An additional problem is the following:
"I will say, if they want love, why not. Many times some girls think no. Why should
they store, that's our fault. I don’t think the girl will leave because she will
always serve him. He should respect the truth.”

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3) Uncertain romantic relationship style
 relational skills
• An uncertain romantic relationship style is associated
with relational skills.
"There is a feeling of insecurity. Do he love her or not?
This uncertainty rise up from a lack of love and affection.
Some girls said that love is blind. Some girls accept some
things, but it must be say, that some decisions aren’t
respected.

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3) Uncertain romantic relationship style
 relational skills
• Some girls are feeling so inferior that they sacrifice their
own desires for the other person.
• According the participants, there is no insight that their
partner doesn't love and respect them.
The said love is blind, and they forget their own value.
In such issue, the boy say he doesn’t love her. If he love her,
he needs to wait for to start a sexual relationship (and not
obligate out of respect). She need to leave him, if he doesn’t
respect her decisions. “

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3) Uncertain romantic relationship style
 relational skills
• An insecure attachment in the past can lead to an uncertain
romantic relationship style.
• An uncertain romantic relationship style is associated with
avoidance or anxiousness to establish themselves in
relationships.
• It isn’t easy when someone has an uncertain
romantic relationship style to change to a different lifestyle:
• "How can they decide if you spent all your life for the
television ? They don’t know, what it is, to take an other style
of live.
• An unsecure romantic relation style, from the preoccupied
type is often associated with jealousy.”

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4) Insecure romantic relationship style
 communication skills
• An uncertain romantic relationship style in female
adolescence leads to the fact, that they are feeling
insecure to stand up for their opinion.
• An uncertain romantic relationship style is associated
with a lack of communication skills.
• “It seems mainly a lack of communication, because they
don’t know what happens with the other partner. They
fall into miscommunication. They need to have an
agreement.”

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4) Insecure romantic relationship style
communication skills
• Furthermore the female adolescents state that they feel
more comfortable when they can talk in a group solely
existing out of women about intra-family and sexual
violence.
"It's good sign, we can just talk with women. With the men
there, I’ll be feeling ashamed. I would likely be less
loquacious.

• The conclusion of this part is that some girls feel too

insecure to talk with men about violence. However, there is
a desire to share their values and
feelings with the men.

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5) Relational skills ⇔ communication
skills
• Communication happens with two persons in a
relationship. Relational skills and communication skills
are in interaction with each other.
• "Melissa had a responsibility too, because she wasn’t
communicative at all. She’s little innocence, but there
was a lack of communication between the two people.
If he needed to be together with someone else, I think
it’s better to talk about it. They should talk about having
al or nothing sexual relations, but follow the female
adolescents, it have more to deal with love….

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5) Relational skills ⇔ communication
skills
• “For me, it has more to do with love and not with
principles or values. They can say, what they desire
from a girlfriend, but the other can’t have one specific
live moment, for not having sexual relations.
But they love to do something. It doesn’t have to with
principles.”

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6) Communication skills  the power
of resilience
• “If you indicate that it is necessary to communicate
about certain issues, in order to achieve an agreement.
This is a strategy to prevent violence.
• I think it is bad, but not justifiable. They don’t have time
together. He must say how he feels, to prevent this.
• Saying ‘no” is an important strategy to defend.

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6) Communication skills  power of
resilience
• "First I would say no, then I would speak to my parents
so they can complain. If the decision isn’t
respected, they can not tolerate violence from their
partner.
• I think she shouldn’t go back, because she can’t accept
violence from her partner.
• Skills to communicate are important for resilience.

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7) Relational skills  type of resilience
• A lack of experiencing love during childhood, can lead
to a weak resilience.
– As example: I know a girl, who had everything on material
resources. The parents were always working. She always said:
my mother isn’t here, my father isn’t here. I’m home alone.
She’s usually sleeping, if they come home at night. She lives
alone, without feelings, she has no brothers or sisters. She isn’t
loved or gets parental care. It’s a bad education for her, if the
parents don’t guide her.
– They forget negative interaction in their relation. I guess a lot of
times, we’re blinded by love. We have a wrong vision of the
others. They forget negative reactions in relations.
– On this way it will always come back.
– Don’t react on thing who goes wrong in a relation, is a sign of
passive coping, to have consequences for resilience”.
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8) Strength of resilience ⇔
consequences: victimization
• A weaker resilience is an interaction with traumatically
experiences from the victims of the female
adolescents. “It's a typical couple, but the
problem is having a trauma after what happened.”
• If just they want to act something out. They really love
each other, but they are searching for a reason
to act out, and to beat him, like her. Intimate partner
violence follows female adolescents described in a
cycle.

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9) Lack of respectful threatens ⇔
relationship skills
• According to the female adolescent, valuing the other
person (relational skills) is associated with a lack of
respectful acting.
• "In this sight is having confidence, and giving respect to
each others.

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 10) Lack of acting respectful ⇔
communication skills
• Female adolescents say when you obligated someone,
there is no love. The importance is that they understand
each other.
• Understanding as a part of communication skills.
• There is an interaction with a lack of respectful acting.
• They just have such a lack of respect. They must have
an argument about the sexual and don’t have
experience as obligation.

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11) Lack of responsibility 
Consequences: victimization
• According to the female participants, if a boy doesn’t
respect a girl, a violent relation will be come back. Or
just only the habit in their relationship.
• “For me it is important to take care, it is necessary, that
they love each other, and don’t push the other person”.

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12) Lack of responsibility⇔ lack of
respect
• The female adolescents believe that when there is love
in their relationship, it involves respect in the
relationship.
• That is illustrated by the following sentence:

"If they assume there is love in the relationship, there is

respect between the two partners. If the boy
doesn’t respect his girl, there would be violence.”

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13) Lack of responsibility  relational
skills
• If there was a lack of responsibility by the parents in the
past there could be problems with their relational skills
in the future.
• According to the female adolescents it is very important
to build up their own love, if someone his whole live is
build up out of parental tasks. There’s parentification.

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13) Lack of responsibility  relational
skills

• “ As a child, living by taking care. I know a case in a

family, where the mum died, a girl of 15 years. She had
four younger brothers, she gave up her own youth.
When she will be 20 years old, she will want to get her
time back, but she will never be able.”

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14) Lack responsibility 
communication skills
• If the parents don’t take any responsibility, it has,
according the female participants, consequences for the
future:
• "She lives alone, without feelings. She has no brothers
or sisters. She doesn’t receive any love or care from her
parents.
It is a bad way for her parents, the parents aren’t
guiding her.

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 15) Lack of responsibility ⇔ using
power
• Some female adolescents think that if the partner isn’t
confidential, the cause is loneliness, because they don’t
spend time to invest in the relation. The solution: they
need help.
• "He feels lonely, because he doesn’t spend time with
his girlfriend to invest in the relationship, he
should seek help and go to a person who can help and
decide what to do.”
• Loneliness is no justification for such behavior. In this
case interaction is situated between a lack of
responsibility and power.

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15) Lack of responsibility ⇔ using
power
• Lack of responsibility in a relationship, also shows
abuse of power. According the female adolescents they
say that such a man presses his girl to start with sexual
relationships, because the feeling is right.
• “If the boy knows that a girl loves him, it’s easy for him
to benefit. Why I said that, because he has the right to
express his love. He know if she love him, we can use
it”.

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16) Gender Concepts ⇔ power abuse

• According the female participants, boys and girls think

about "sexuality" in a complete other way. Some female
adolescents have counterproductive premarital sex.
• "It is wrong to have sex before marriage".
• They associated sex with love.
A young girl said the following:
“For us means giving your body at someone, that you
love each other, but the only thing, what he wants, is let
you go. This marks is by girls associated with love.
Some boys associated with values and love are
important for female adolescents.

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16) Gender Concepts ⇔ power abuse

• That values and love for the female adolescents are

important comes back in the following statement: "In a
serious relationship, one must show that you love each
other to show that the person is worth it. For me it is
something very special, I just want to
do with someone whose heart and soul I love.”
"According to the female adolescents,
Unfortunately the boys did not think the same. They
agree that he only wants sex and not
her. I think she should terminate the relationship with him
and realize that everything he
will of her is a sexual relationship and not a serious
relationship”
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17) Patriarchal community  power
abuse
• A patriarchal society tolerates boundary behavior in the
community.
• Macho-men in the Cuenca society use the excuse that
the flesh is weak.

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17) Patriarchal community  power
abuse

• Regarding the violence, besides tolerating it, female

adolescents also have a strong apathy against violence

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17) Patriarchal community  abuse

• The concepts "tolerance" and "apathy" lead to power

abuse. Other abuse is often perpetrated by confidence
persons”

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17) Patriachal community  gender
concepts
• "A girl was raped by her grandfather.
“The parents don’t live here, because they are migrated. She
was abused by her grandfather, who profited from the situation.”
The position is that parents are migrated or
the counselors, who often have an educational role in a
powerful position.

According to the oldest female adolescents exist sexual abuse

is more prevalent in the countryside.

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18) Patriarchal society  gender
concepts

• Female adolescents recognize that women often

sacrifice their selves for the men in Cuenca.
• I guess it has a lot to do with the community and family.
At least the female adolescents mean that women from
a lower social class, don’t have enough future
perspectives.

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• Education is a necessary process for the future and its
consequences.

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Common theory building

• The existing gender concepts, an asymmetric male-

female relationship, is internalized by female
adolescents.
• Cuenca characterizes itself as a patriarchal society that
generally accepts machismo.
• The Cuencan society defines itself by an apathetic
attitude toward violence.
• Not all men however are considered to be macho by
nature, there are considered to be several types of men.
The choice is up to the woman herself.

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Common theory building

• Girls that opt for a macho men could be deficient in self-

worth and self-confidence.
• This inferior identity construction is associated with an
uncertain romantic relationship style.
• A preoccupied romantic relationship style forces the
girls to completely sacrifice themselves for their partner.
• This uncertain romantic relationship style often involves
not having the courage to stand up for their own
opinions and thus a lack of communication skills.

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Common theory building

• Lack of communication often encourages to be treated

disrespectful. This leads to the habitude and tolerance
of sexual and domestic violence towards female
adolescents.
• Open transparent communication would be an
important part in the preventing domestic and sexual
violence.

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Common theory building

• Lacks of responsibility taken by parents are possible to

have serious implications for the future of the
adolescents.
• Open transparent communication would be an
important part in preventing sexual and domestic
violence.
• In some families in Cuenca a strong form of
parentification is noticeable, making it difficult for
adolescents to build their life on their own.

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Common theory building

• The abuse of power by a trusted person is more

common with adolescents with a difficult situation, such
as the ones that have migrated parents.
• Women of lower education are particularly vulnerable to
violence because they would sacrifice themselves
quicker for their husbands.

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Conclusion

• This study showed that female adolescents internalize

existing gender relates concepts, the superiority of
machismo and a asymmetrical relationship.
• Based on that they create an inferior identity
construction, resulting in the fact that they are less
evolved in terms of communication and relational skills,
opposite their partner, making themselves more
susceptible to violence.
• Preventing programs should therefore take extra care
into increasing assertiveness and communication
skills among female adolescents.

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• None of the above pictures is associated with personal
stories.

• Thank you for your help and collaboration in this project!

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