Hoisting and Rigging

HOISTING and RIGGING
Safety Manual
Construction Safety Association of Ontario

21 Voyager Court South
Etobicoke, Ontario M9W 5M7 Canada
(416) 674-2726
1-800-781-2726
Fax (416) 674-8866
info@csao.org
www.csao.org
In the past, members of the public have used printed information that was outdated by subsequent
improvements in knowledge and technology. We therefore make the following statement for their
protection in future.
The information presented here was, to the best of our knowledge, current at time of printing and is
intended for general application. This publication is not a definitive guide to government regulations or
to practices and procedures wholly applicable under every circumstance. The appropriate regulations
and statutes should be consulted. Although the Construction Safety Association of Ontario cannot
guarantee the accuracy of, nor assume liability for, the information presented here, we are pleased to
answer individual requests for counselling and advice.
© Construction Safety Association of Ontario, 1995
REVISED May 1997

REVISED April 2001
REVISED January 2007
ISBN-13: 978-0-919465-70-1
2
TABLE of CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Section 1: Hoisting and Rigging Hazards 3

Procedures and Precautions 5
Determining Load Weights 14
Weights of Common Materials 15
Section 2: Fibre Ropes, Knots, Hitches 19

Fibre Rope Characteristics 20
Inspection of Fibre Rope 21
Working Load Limit (WLL) 22
Care, Storage, Use 25
Knots and Hitches 28
Section 3: Hardware, Wire Rope, Slings 32

Wire Rope 33
Sling Configurations 45
Sling Angles 51
Centre of Gravity 53
Sling WLLs 55
Sling Types 62
Rigging Hardware 75
Hoisting Tips 76
Section 4: Rigging Tools and Devices 87

Jacks 89
Blocking and Cribbing 92
Rollers 93
Inclined Planes 94
Lever-Operated Hoists 95
Chain Hoists 95
Grip-Action Hoists or Tirfors 97
Electric Hoists and Pendant Cranes 99
Winches 101
Anchorage Points 102
Section 5: Introduction to Crane Operations 107

Responsibilities 109
Basic Types and Configurations 111
Hazards in Crane Operating Areas 126
Working near Powerlines 130
Factors Affecting Crane Capacity 136
Setup Summary 159
Machine Selection 160
Signalling 162
3
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of this Manual
This manual is intended as a working guide for training workers and supervisors in the fundamentals
of safe rigging and hoisting.
The information covers not only ropes and knots but hoisting equipment from cranes to chainfalls
and rigging hardware from rope clips to spreader beams. Equally important is the attention paid at
every point to correct procedures for inspection, maintenance, and operation.
Knowledge of the equipment and materials with which we work is one of the most important
factors in occupational health and safety. Each item has been designed and developed to serve a
specific purpose. Recognizing its capabilities and limitations not only improves efficiency but
minimizes hazards and helps prevent accidents.
This manual identifies the basic hazards in rigging and hoisting, explains the safeguards necessary
to control or eliminate these hazards, and spells out other essential safety requirements.
The information should be used in conjunction with the applicable regulations by contractors,
supervisors, operators, riggers, and others delivering or receiving instruction in the basics of safe
rigging and hoisting.
Health and Safety Law

Occupational Health and Safety Act
Safety legislation for Ontario construction in general consists of the Occupational Health and
Safety Act, which came into force on 1 October 1979. Its purpose is to protect workers against
health and safety hazards on the job.
The Occupational Health and Safety Act is based on the “internal responsibility” concept for
management and workers. This encourages both groups to work out solutions to health and safety
problems with the guidance of the Ministry of Labour.
The Act provides us with the framework and the tools to achieve a safe and healthy workplace. It
sets out the rights and duties of all parties in the workplace. It establishes procedures for dealing
with job-site hazards and provides for enforcement of the law where compliance has not been
achieved voluntarily.
Over the years the Act has been revised to meet the changing requirements of Ontario’s
workplaces.
1
Regulations
There are various regulations under the Act for construction in particular.
The most extensive are the Regulations for Construction Projects (Ontario Regulation 213/91).
There are also special regulations for controlled products under the Workplace Hazardous
Materials Information System (WHMIS) and for designated substances such as asbestos.
Construction regulations are generally based on health and safety problems that have recurred
over the years. In many cases, the regulations have been proposed jointly by management and
labour groups as a means of controlling or eliminating problems that have historically resulted in
fatalities, lost-time injuries, and occupational diseases.
The Regulations for Construction Projects have been periodically revised over the years.
Review Ontario’s Occupational Health and Safety Act, Regulations for Construction Projects, and
other applicable health and safety regulations to make sure that you know what to expect from
others on the job – and what others expect from you.
2
Section 1
Hoisting and Rigging Hazards
n Procedures and Precautions

n Determining Load Weights
n Weights of Common Materials
3
Section 1
Hoisting and Rigging Hazards

All too often we read of crane and rigging accidents that cause death and extensive property
damage.
Most crane and rigging accidents can be prevented by field personnel following basic safe hoisting
and rigging practices.
The single most important precaution in rigging and hoisting is to determine load weight
before attempting any lift.
Labour and management both have a responsibility to ensure the safety of all parties involved in
hoisting and rigging. Major rigging operations must be planned and supervised by competent
personnel to guarantee that the best methods and most suitable equipment are employed.
It is imperative that all workers who prepare, use, and work with or around hoisting and rigging
equipment are well trained in both safety and operating procedures. All hoisting equipment should
be operated only by trained personnel.
This section
• identifies common hazards and causes of hoisting and rigging accidents

• specifies the procedures and precautions necessary for the safe rigging, lifting, and landing of
loads
• explains methods of determining load weight
• provides weight tables for common construction materials.
4
Procedures and Precautions
Remember: The single most important precaution in hoisting and rigging is to determine the
weight of the load before attempting to lift it.
At the same time, riggers must also

• determine the available capacity of the equipment being used
• rig the load so that it is stable (unless the centre of gravity of the load is directly below the hook,
the load will shift)
• make allowances for any unknown factors.
In addition, riggers must be aware of common hazards, factors that reduce capacity, the inspection
and use of slings, and safe practices in rigging, lifting, and landing loads.
Common Hazards
Working Load Limit (WLL) not known. Know the working load limits of the equipment and tackle
being used. Never exceed these limits.
• Defective components. Examine all hardware, equipment, tackle, and slings before use.
Destroy any defective components. Equipment merely discarded may be picked up and used
by someone unaware of its defects.
• Unsafe equipment. Do not use any equipment that is suspected to be unsafe or unsuitable until
its suitability has been verified by a competent person.
• Hazardous wind conditions. Never carry out any hoisting or rigging operation when winds
create hazards for workers, the general public, or property. Assess load size and shape to
determine whether high winds may cause problems. In particular, avoid handling loads that
present large wind-catching surfaces. Even though the weight of the load is within the normal
capacity of the equipment, high or gusting winds may prevent proper control during the lift.
Wind-loading can be critical to how the load is rigged, lifted, and landed, with consequences for
the safety of everyone involved. When winds reach 25-30 mph, consider limiting hoisting
operations.
• Hazardous weather conditions. When the visibility of riggers or hoist crew is impaired by snow,
fog, rain, darkness, or dust, strict supervision must be exercised and, if necessary, the lift should
be suspended. At sub-freezing temperatures, supervision must ensure that no part of the
hoisting device or tackle is shock-loaded or impacted, since brittle fracture of the steel may
result.
• Electrical contact. One of the most frequent killers of riggers is electrocution caused by an
electrical arc or contact between the hoist, load line, or load and a live overhead powerline.
When a crane is operating near a live powerline and the load, hoist lines, or any other part of the
hoisting operation could encroach on the minimum permitted distance (see table below), specific
measures described in the Construction Regulation must be taken. For example, constructors
must have written procedures to prevent contact whenever equipment operates within the
minimum permitted distance from a live overhead powerline. The constructor must have copies
of the procedure available for every employer on the project.
5
Keep the Minimum Distance from Powerlines
Minimum
Normal phase-to-phase voltage rating
distance
ER !
750 or more volts, but no more than 150,000 volts 3 metres
G
DAN OP!
Over 150,000 volts, but no more than 250,000 volts 4.5 metres
ST
More than 250,000 volts 6 metres
Beware:
The wind can blow powerlines, hoist lines, or your load. This can cause them to cross
the minimum distance.
This crane boom could reach within
• Hoist line not plumb. The working load limits of hoisting equipment apply only to freely-
suspended loads on plumb hoist lines. If the hoist line is not plumb during load handling, side
loads are created which can destabilize the equipment and cause structural failure with no
warning.
Wrong. The hoist line must be plumb at all times.
• Factors that Reduce Capacity

The working load limits of all hoisting and rigging equipment are based on almost ideal
conditions seldom achieved in the field. Riggers must therefore recognize the factors that can
reduce the capacity of equipment.
• Swing. The rapid swinging of suspended loads subjects equipment to additional stresses that
can cause collapse. The force of the swinging action makes the load drift away from the
machine, increasing the radius and side-loading the equipment. The load must always be kept
directly below the boom point or upper load block.
• Condition of equipment. The rated working load limits apply only to equipment and hardware
in good condition. Any equipment damaged in service should be taken out of service and
repaired or destroyed.
6
• Dynamic forces. The working load limits of most rigging and hoisting equipment are
determined from static loads and the appropriate design factor is applied to account for
dynamic motions of the load and equipment. To ensure that the working load limit is not
exceeded during operation, allow for wind loading and other dynamic forces created by the
normal operational movements of the machine and its load. Always avoid the sudden
snatching, swinging, and stopping of suspended loads. Rapid acceleration and deceleration
can only increase the stresses on both the machine and the tackle.
• Weight of tackle. The rated loads of most hoisting equipment do not generally account for
the weight of hook blocks, hooks, slings, equalizer beams, and other parts of the lifting tackle.
Their combined weight must be subtracted from the load capacity of the equipment to
determine the maximum allowable load to be lifted.
All rigging equipment

must be counted as part of the load.
Everything
below the
boom point
is load.
Slings
After the hoist rope, the sling is the most commonly used piece of rigging equipment. Observe the
following precautions with slings.
• Never use damaged slings. Inspect slings regularly to ensure their safety. Check wire rope slings
for kinking, wear, abrasion, broken wires, worn or cracked fittings, loose seizings and splices,
crushing, flattening, and rust or corrosion. Pay special attention to the areas around thimbles
and other fittings.
• Slings should be marked with an identification number and their maximum capacity on a flat
ferrule or permanently attached ring. Mark the capacity of the sling for a vertical load or at an
angle of 45°. Ensure that everyone is aware of how the rating system works.
7
• Avoid sharp bends, pinching, and crushing. Use loops and thimbles at all times. Corner pads
that prevent the sling from being sharply bent or cut can be made from split sections of large-
diameter pipe, corner saddles, padding, or blocking.
Ensure that Slings are Protected at All Sharp Corners on Heavy Items
For heavy
structural
members.
Radius of contact
should be equal to
1 rope lay.
• Never allow wire rope slings, or any wire rope, to lie on the ground for long periods of time or on
damp or wet surfaces, rusty steel, or near corrosive substances.
• Avoid dragging slings out from underneath loads.
• Keep wire rope slings away from flame cutting and electric welding.
• Never make slings from discarded hoist rope.
• Avoid using single-leg wire rope slings with hand-spliced eyes. The load can spin, causing the
rope to unlay and the splice to pull out. Use slings with Flemish Spliced Eyes.
• Never wrap a wire rope completely around a hook. The sharp radius will damage the sling.
8
• Avoid bending the eye section of wire rope slings around corners. The bend will weaken the
splice or swaging. There must be no bending near any attached fitting.
• Ensure that the sling angle is always greater than 45°. When the horizontal distance between the
attachment points on the load is less than the length of the shortest sling leg, then the angle is
greater than 60° and generally safe.
NO!
Never Wrap a Rope Around a Hook
If L is greater than S then sling angle is OK.
Check on Sling Angle
SEVERE BENDING
Do Not Permit Bending Near Any Splice or Attached Fitting
9
• Multi-leg slings. Do not assume that a multi-leg bridle sling will safely lift a load equal to the
safe load on one leg multiplied by the number of legs. There is no way of knowing that each leg
is carrying its fair share of the load. With slings having more than two legs and a rigid load, it is
possible for some of the legs to take practically the full load while the others merely balance it.
Carrying Full Load

Balancing
As a result, when lifting rigid objects with three- or four-leg bridle slings, make sure that at least
two of the legs alone can support the total load. In other words, consider multi-leg slings used on
a rigid load as having only two legs. Where the load is flexible and can adjust itself to the sling legs,
assume that each leg can take its own share of the load.
When using multi-leg slings to lift loads in which one end is much heavier than the other, the
tension on the most heavily loaded leg is much more important than the total weight. The sling
must be selected to suit the most heavily loaded leg rather than the total weight.
The tension in the most

heavily loaded legs is
more important than the
total weight.
10
• When using choker hitches, do not force the eye down towards the load once tension is applied.
Rope damage is the invariable result.
• Whenever two or more rope eyes must be placed over a hook, install a shackle on the hook with
the shackle pin resting in the hook and attach the rope eyes to the shackle. This will prevent the
spread of the sling legs from opening up the hook and prevent the eyes from damaging each
other under load.
If you force the eye down.
Let the eye ride higher and keep this angle

approx. 45° or more.
Get severe loading inslings

because of low sling angles.
Incorrect – Cutting Correct – Use Incorrect – Shackle Correct – Shackle pin

action of thimbles in pin bearing cannot turn.
eye splice the eyes. on running
on running line can
line. work
loose.
11
Rigging, Lifting, and Landing Loads
• Rig loads to prevent any parts from shifting or dislodging during the lift. Suspended loads should
be securely slung and properly balanced before they are set in motion.
• Keep the load under control at all times. Where personnel may be endangered by a rotating or
swaying load, use one or more taglines to prevent uncontrolled motion.
Whenever 2 or more ropes are to be Use Tag Lines to Control All Loads
Placed Over a Hook – Use a Shackle
• Loads must be safely landed and properly blocked before being unhooked and unslung.
• Lifting beams should be plainly marked with their weight and designed working loads and should
only be used for their intended purpose.
• Never wrap the hoist rope around the load. Attach the load to the hook by slings or other rigging
devices adequate and suitable to the load being lifted.
• The load line should be brought over the load’s centre of gravity before the lift is started.
• Keep hands away from pinch points as slack is being taken up.
• Wear gloves when handling wire rope.
• Make sure that everyone stands clear when loads are being lifted, lowered, and freed of slings.
As slings are being withdrawn, their hooks may catch under the load and suddenly fly loose.
12
• Before making a lift, check to see that the sling is properly attached to the load.
• Never work under a suspended load.
• Never make temporary repairs to a sling. Procedures for proper repair should be established and
followed.
• Secure the unused legs of a multi-leg sling before it is lifted.
No Yes
Do not make
lifts when loose
equipment is
not secured.
Secure unused
sling legs.
.
Secure All Unused Sling Legs
• Never point-load a hook unless it is designed and rated for such use.
• Make sure that the load is free before lifting and that all sling legs are taking the load.
• When using two or more slings on a load, ensure that they are all made from the same material.
• Prepare adequate blocking before loads are lowered. Blocking can help prevent damage to
slings.
• Operators: Avoid impact loading caused by sudden jerking during lifting and lowering. Take up
slack on the sling gradually. Avoid lifting or swinging the load over workers below.
13
Determining Load Weights
The most important step in any rigging operation is determining the weight of the load to be
hoisted.
This information can be obtained from shipping papers, design plans, catalogue data, manufacturer’s
specifications, and other dependable sources. When such information is not available, it is necessary
to calculate the load weight.
Let’s take steel as our example.
On erection plans, the size of steel beams is usually supplied together with their weight per length
and the length of the member. Consequently it’s easy to compute the weight of any member to be
lifted.
Where angle, plate, or built-up members are involved, however, the weights must be calculated.
Memorizing one basic weight and two formulas will give the rigger a reasonably accurate estimate
of weight.
The basic weight is that of 1 square foot of steel an inch thick – about 40 pounds. So two plates
of steel each measuring 1 1/2” by 3’ by 6’ would weigh a total of
2 x 1.5 x 3 x 6 x 40 = 2,160 pounds
WEIGHT = 40 lbs.
STEEL
The weights of angles can also be figured with results close enough for safe job use. An angle is
a structural shape which can be considered a bent plate with some additional metal at the centre
for strength and a lesser amount of metal at the tips for ease of rolling. If the angle is flattened out,
the result is a plate.
For example, a 5 by 3 by 1/4 inch angle would flatten out to approximately an 8 by 1/4 inch plate.
This should weigh 40 pounds x 8/12 x 1/4 or 6.65 pounds per foot.
14
CIRCUMFERENCE
Weights of any structural shape can be computed in this manner by
separating the parts or flattening them into rectangles which, in turn,
become parts of multiples of a square foot of steel an inch thick.
Plates, however, are often rolled into tanks or other shapes. You
must determine the square foot area of such parts before you
calculate their weight.
This requires learning the two simple formulas for computing the
circumference and the area of a circle. The circumference (or
distance around the edge of a circle) is found by multiplying the
diameter by 3.14.
A stack 6 ft. in diameter would have

a circumference of 6 ft. x 3.14, or
18.84 ft. To compute the weight of
this stack, if it were 30 ft. high and
made of 3/8 in. plate, mentally unroll
it and flatten it out (Fig. 1.1). This
gives a plate 18.84 ft. wide by 30 ft.
long by 3/8” thick. The weight is:
18.84 x 30 x 3 x 40 = 8,478 Ibs.

8
radius (r) = diameter divided by 2

area = π r2 (π = 3.14)
The second formula gives the area of circular objects.
AREA = 3.14 x diameter x diameter

2 2
Thus, if the stack had an end cap 3/8” thick and 6 ft. in diameter, it would have a surface area:
AREA = 3.14 x 6 x 6 = 28.3 sq. ft.

2 2
and would weigh
28.3 x 3 x 40 = 425 Ibs. (Figure 1.2)
8
15
For other materials the weights are normally based on their weight per cubic foot, so you have to
determine how many cubic feet of material (the volume) you are hoisting in order to estimate the
weight.
Load Weight Determination

Figure 1.2
For example, suppose you have a bundle of spruce lumber to hoist and the bundle is 12 ft. long,
3’ high and 4’ wide. (Fig. 1.3) The weight per cubic foot from Table 1.2 is 28 lbs., so the weight of
this bundle is 12 x 3 x 4 x 28 = 4,032 Ibs.
Load Weight Determination

Figure 1.3
The time taken to calculate the approximate weight of any object, whether steel, plates, columns,
girders, castings, bedplates, etc., is time well spent and may save a serious accident through
failure of lifting gear. The following tables of weights of various materials (Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3)
should enable any rigger to compute the approximate weight of a given load. When in doubt, do
not hesitate to seek advice from an engineer or foreman on the job.
16
Table 1.1 – APPROXIMATE WEIGHT PER FOOT OF LENGTH
OF ROUND STEEL BARS AND RODS
Diameter Weight (Lbs.) Diameter Weight (Lbs.)

(Inches) Per Ft. of Length (inches) Per Ft. of Length
3/16 .094 1 3/8 5.05

1/4 .167 1 1/2 6.01
5/16 .261 1 5/8 7.05
3/8 .376 1 3/4 8.18
7/16 .511 1 7/8 9.39
1/2 .668 2 10.68
9/16 .845 2 1/8 12.06
5/8 1.04 2 1/4 13.52
3/4 1.50 2 3/8 15.06
7/8 2.04 2 1/2 16.69
1 2.67 2 5/8 18.40
1 1/8 3.38 2 3/4 20.20
1 3/16 3.77 2 7/8 22.07
1 1/4 4.17 3 24.03
Table 1.2 –WEIGHTS OF MATERIAL (Based on Volume)
Approximate Approximate
Weight Weight
Material Material
Lbs. Per Lbs. Per
Cubic Foot Cubic Foot
METALS TIMBER, AIR-DRY

Aluminum 165 Cedar 22
Brass 535 Fir, Douglas, seasoned 34
Bronze 500 Fir, Douglas, unseasoned 40
Copper 560 Fir, Douglas, wet 50
Iron 480 Fir, Douglas, glue laminated 34
Lead 710 Hemlock 30
Steel 490 Pine 30
Tin 460 Poplar 30
MASONRY Spruce 28
Ashlar masonry 140-160 LIQUIDS
Brick masonry, soft 110 Alcohol, pure 49
Brick masonry, common (about Gasoline 42
3 tons per thousand) 125 Oils 58
Brick masonry, pressed 140 Water 62
Clay tile masonry, average 60 EARTH
Rubble masonry 130-155 Earth, wet 100
Concrete, cinder, haydite 100-110 Earth, dry (about 2050 Ibs.
Concrete, slag 130 per cu. yd.) 75
Concrete, stone 144 Sand and gravel, wet 120
Concrete, stone, reinforced Sand and gravel, dry 105
(4050 Ibs. per cu. yd.) 150 River sand (about 3240 Ibs.
ICE AND SNOW per cu. yd.) 120
Ice 56 VARIOUS BUILDING
Snow, dry, fresh fallen 8 MATERIALS
Snow, dry, packed 12-25 Cement, portland, loose 94
Snow, wet 27-40 Cement, portland, set 183
MISCELLANEOUS Lime, gypsum, loose 53-64
Asphalt 80 Mortar, cement-lime, set 103
Tar 75 Crushed rock (about 2565 Ibs
Glass 160 per cu. yd.) 90-110
Paper 60
17
Table 1.3 – WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS (Based on Surface Area)
Approximate Approximate
Weight Weight
Material Material
Lbs. Per Lbs. Per
Square Foot Square Foot
CEILINGS FLOORING
(Per Inch of Thickness) (Per Inch of Thickness)
Plaster board 5 Hardwood 5
Acoustic and fire resistive tile 2 Sheathing 2.5
Plaster, gypsum-sand 8 Plywood, fir 3
Plaster, light aggregate 4 Wood block, treated 4
Plaster, cement sand 12 Concrete, finish or fill 12
ROOFING Mastic base 12
Three-ply felt and gravel 5.5 Mortar base 10
Five-ply felt and gravel 6.5 Terrazzo 12.5
Three-ply felt, no gravel 3 Tile, vinyl inch 1.5
Five-ply felt, no gravel 4 Tile, linoleum 3/16 inch 1
Shingles, wood 2 Tile, cork, per 1/16 inch 0.5
Shingles, asbestos 3 Tile, rubber or asphalt 3/16 inch 2
Shingles, asphalt 2.5 Tile, ceramic or quarry 3/4 inch 11
Shingles, 1/4 inch slate 10 Carpeting 2
Shingles, tile 14 DECKS AND SLABS
PARTITIONS Steel roof deck 1 1/2” – 14 ga. 5
Steel partitions 4 – 16 ga. 4
Solid 2” gypsum-sand plaster 20 – 18 ga. 3
Solid 2” gypsum-light agg. plaster 12 – 20 ga. 2.5
Metal studs, metal lath, 3/4” – 22 ga. 2
plaster both sides 18 Steel cellular deck 1 1/2” – 12/12 ga. 11
Metal or wood studs, plaster – 14/14 ga. 8
board and 1/2” plaster both sides 18 – 16/16 ga. 6.5
Plaster 1/2” 4 – 18/18 ga. 5
Hollow clay tile 2 inch 13 – 20/20 ga. 3.5
3 inch 16 Steel cellular deck 3” – 12/12 ga. 12.5
4 inch 18 – 14/14 ga. 9.5
5 inch 20 – 16/16 ga. 7.5
6 inch 25 – 18/18 ga. 6
Hollow slag concrete block 4 inch 24 – 20/20 ga. 4.5
6 inch 35 Concrete, reinforced, per inch 12.5
Hollow gypsum block 3 inch 10 Concrete, gypsum, per inch 5
4 inch 13 Concrete, lightweight, per inch 5-10
5 inch 15.5 MISCELLANEOUS
6 inch 16.5 Windows, glass, frame 8
Solid gypsum block 2 inch 9.5 Skylight, glass, frame 12
3 inch 13 Corrugated asbestos 1/4 inch 3.5
MASONRY WALLS Glass, plate 1/4 inch 3.5
(Per 4 Inch of Thickness) Glass, common 1.5
Brick 40 Plastic sheet 1/4 inch 1.5
Glass brick 20 Corrugated steel sheet, galv. – 12 ga. 5.5
Hollow concrete block 30 – 14 ga. 4
Hollow slag concrete block 24 – 16 ga. 3
Hollow cinder concrete block 20 – 18 ga. 2.5
Hollow haydite block 22 – 20 ga. 2
Stone, average 55 – 22 ga. 1.5
Bearing hollow clay tile 23 Wood Joists – 16” ctrs. 2 x 12 3.5
2 x 10 3
2x8 2.5
Steel plate (per inch of thickness) 40
18
Section 2
Fibre Ropes, Knots, Hitches
n Fibre Rope Characteristics

n Inspection of Fibre Rope
n Working Load Limit (WLL)
n Care, Storage, Use
n Knots
n Hitches
19
Section 2
Fibre Ropes, Knots, Hitches
Fibre rope is a commonly used tool which has many applications in daily hoisting and rigging
operations.
Readily available in a wide variety of synthetic and natural fibre materials, these ropes may be used as
• slings for hoisting materials

• handlines for lifting light loads
• taglines for helping to guide and control loads.
There are countless situations where the rigger will be required to tie a safe and reliable knot or
hitch in a fibre rope as part of the rigging operation.
Fastening a hook, making eyes for slings, and tying on a tagline are a few of these situations.
This section addresses the correct selection, inspection, and use of fibre rope for hoisting and
rigging operations. It also explains how to tie several knots and hitches.
Characteristics
The fibres in these ropes are either natural or synthetic. Natural fibre ropes should be used
cautiously for rigging since their strength is more variable than that of synthetic fibre ropes and they
are much more subject to deterioration from rot, mildew, and chemicals.
Polypropylene is the most common fibre rope used in rigging. It floats but does not absorb water.
It stretches less than other synthetic fibres such as nylon. It is affected, however, by the ultraviolet
rays in sunlight and should not be left outside for long periods. It also softens with heat and is not
recommended for work involving exposure to high heat.
Nylon fibre is remarkable for its strength. A nylon rope is considerably stronger than the same size
and construction of polypropylene rope. But nylon stretches and hence is not used much for
rigging. It is also more expensive, loses strength when wet, and has low resistance to acids.
Polyester ropes are stronger than polypropylene but not so strong as nylon. They have good
resistance to acids, alkalis, and abrasion; do not stretch as much as nylon; resist degradation from
ultraviolet rays; and don’t soften in heat.
All fibre ropes conduct electricity when wet. When dry, however, polypropylene and polyester have
much better insulating properties than nylon.
20
Inspection
Inspect fibre rope regularly and before each use. Any estimate of its capacity should be based on
the portion of rope showing the most deterioration.
Check first for external wear and cuts, variations in the size and shape of strands, discolouration,
and the elasticity or “life” remaining in the rope.
Untwist the strands without kinking or distorting them. The inside of the rope should be as bright
and clean as when it was new. Check for broken yams, excessively loose strands and yarns, or an
accumulation of powdery dust, which indicates excessive internal wear between strands as the
rope is flexed back and forth in use.
If the inside of the rope is dirty, if strands have started to unlay, or if the rope has lost life and
elasticity, do not use it for hoisting.
Check for distortion in hardware. If thimbles are loose in the eyes, seize the eye to tighten the
thimble (Figure 2.1). Ensure that all splices are in good condition and all tucks are done up (Figure
2.2).
If rope or eye Whip rope to Check for To secure

stretches – tighten up Tucks splice –
thimble will rock. thimble in eye. popping use
free. whipping.
Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2
21
Defective or damaged fibre rope should be destroyed or cut up so that it cannot be used for
hoisting.
Design Factors
Fibre rope must have a design factor to account for loads over and above the weight being
hoisted and for reduced capacity due to:
- wear, broken fibres, broken yarns, age, variations in size and quality
- loads imposed by starting, stopping, swinging, and jerking
- increase in line pull caused by friction over sheaves
- decreases in strength caused by bending over sheaves
- inaccuracies in load weight
- getting wet and drying out, mildew and rot
- strength reductions caused by knots
- yarns weakened by ground-in dirt and abrasives.
The design factor for all fibre rope is 5. For hoisting or supporting personnel, the design factor
is 10.
The design factor does not provide extra usable capacity. Working load limits must never be
exceeded.
Working Load Limits
Working load limits (WLLs) can be calculated as shown in Figure 2.3.
WLL = Breaking Strength

Design Factor
= Breaking Strength
5
For example, a rope rated at 1500 Ibs. breaking

strength has a working load limit of 300 Ibs.
1500 lbs. = 300 lbs.

5
Figure 2.3
The tables in Figure 2.4 are for purposes of illustration only. Check manufacturer’s ratings for the
WLL of the rope you are using, which may well differ from what is shown in these tables.
WLLs are for the common three-strand fibre ropes generally used for rigging. Figures are based on
ropes with no knots or hitches.
22
Sample Working Load Limits of Fibre Ropes
APPROXIMATE WORKING LOAD LIMITS OF NEW FIBRE ROPES – POUNDS

3 Strand Ropes
Design Factor = 5
Nominal Rope
Diameter Manila Nylon Polypropylene Polyester Polyethylene
(Inches)
3/16 100 200 150 200 150

1/4 120 300 250 300 250
5/16 200 500 400 500 350
3/8 270 700 500 700 500
1/2 530 1,250 830 1,200 800
5/8 880 2,000 1,300 1,900 1,050
3/4 1,080 2,800 1,700 2,400 1,500
7/8 1,540 3,800 2,200 3,400 2,100
1 1,800 4,800 2,900 4,200 2,500
1 1/8 2,400 6,300 3,750 5,600 3,300
1 1/4 2,700 7,200 4,200 6,300 3,700
1 1/2 3,700 10,200 6,000 8,900 5,300
1 5/8 4,500 12,400 7,300 10,800 6,500
1 3/4 5,300 15,000 8,700 12,900 7,900
2 6,200 17,900 10,400 15,200 9,500
APPROXIMATE WORKING LOAD LIMITS OF NEW

BRAIDED SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPES – POUNDS
Design Factor = 5
Nominal Rope
Nylon Cover Nylon Cover Polyester Cover
Diameter
Nylon Core Polypropylene Core Polypropylene Core
(Inches)
1/4 420 – 380

5/16 640 – 540
3/8 880 680 740
7/16 1,200 1,000 1,060
1/2 1,500 1,480 1,380
9/16 2,100 1,720 –
5/8 2,400 2,100 2,400
3/4 3,500 3,200 2,860
7/8 4,800 4,150 3,800
1 5,700 4,800 5,600
1 1/8 8,000 7,000 –
1 1/4 8,800 8,000 –
1 1/2 12,800 12,400 –
1 5/8 16,000 14,000 –
1 3/4 19,400 18,000 –
2 23,600 20,000 –
Figure 2.4
Caution: These tables are for purposes of illustration and comparison only.
Check manufacturer’s ratings for the WLL of the specific fibre rope you are using.
23
When load tables are not available, the following procedures work well for new nylon,
polypropylene, polyester, and polyethylene ropes.
Since rope on the job is rarely new, you will have to judge what figures to use.
If you have any doubt about the type of rope or its condition, don’t use it. There is no substitute
for safety.
MANILA ROPE
- Change the rope diameter into eighths of an inch.

- Square the numerator and multiply by 20.
Example:
(a) 1/2 inch manila rope = 4/8 inch diameter.
WLL = 4 x 4 x 20 = 320 Ib.
(b) 5/8 inch manila rope
WLL = 5 x 5 x 20 = 500 Ib.
(c) 1 inch manila rope = 8/8 inch diameter.
WLL = 8 x 8 x 20 = 1280 Ib.
NYLON ROPE

Example:
1/2 inch nylon rope = 4/8 inch diameter.
WLL = 4 x 4 x 60 = 960 Ib.
POLYPROPYLENE ROPE

Example:
1/2 inch polypropylene rope = 4/8 inch diameter.
WLL = 4 x 4 x 40 = 640 Ib.
POLYESTER ROPE

Example:
1/2 inch polyester rope = 4/8 inch diameter.
WLL = 4 x 4 x 60 = 960 Ib.
POLYESTER ROPE

Example:
1 inch polyethylene rope = 8/8 inch diameter.
WLL = 8 x 8 x 35 = 2240 Ib.
24
Care
• To unwind a new coil of fibre rope, lay it flat with the inside end closest to the floor. Pull the inside
end up through the coil and unwind counterclockwise.
• After use, recoil the rope clockwise. Keep looping the rope over your left arm until only about 15
feet remain. Start about a foot from the top of the coil and wrap the rope about six times around
the loops. Then use your left hand to pull the bight back through the loops and tie with a couple
of half-hitches to keep the loops from uncoiling ( Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5
• Remove kinks carefully. Never try to pull them straight. This will severely damage the rope and
reduce its strength.
• When a fibre rope is cut, the ends must be bound or whipped to keep the strands from
untwisting. Figure 2.6 shows the right way to do this.
Figure 2.6
25
Storage
• Store fibre ropes in a dry cool room with good air circulation – temperature 10-21°C (50-70°F)
humidity 40-60%.
• Hang fibre ropes in loose coils on large diameter wooden pegs well above the floor (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7
• Protect fibre ropes from weather, dampness, and sunlight. Keep them away from exhaust gases,
chemical fumes, boilers, radiators, steam pipes, and other heat sources.
• Let fibre ropes dry before storing them. Moisture hastens rot and causes rope to kink easily. Let
a frozen rope thaw completely before you handle it. Otherwise fibres can break. Let wet or frozen
rope dry naturally.
• Wash dirty ropes in clean cool water and hang to dry.
Use
• Never overload a rope. Apply the design factor of 5 (10 for ropes used to support or hoist
personnel). Then make further allowances for the rope’s age and condition.
• Never drag a rope along the ground. Abrasive action will wear, cut, and fill the outside surfaces
with grit.
• Never drag a rope over rough or sharp edges or across itself. Use softeners to protect rope at
the sharp comers and edges of a load.
• Avoid all but straight line pulls with fibre rope. Bends interfere with stress distribution in fibres.
• Always use thimbles in rope eyes. Thimbles cut down on wear and stress.
• Keep sling angles at more than 45°. Lower angles can dramatically increase the load on each
leg (Figure 2.8). The same is true with wire rope slings.
26
• Never use fibre rope near welding or flame cutting. Sparks and molten metal can cut through the
rope or set it on fire.
• Keep fibre rope away from high heat. Don’t leave it unnecessarily exposed to strong sunlight,
which weakens and degrades the rope.
• Never couple left-lay rope to right-lay.
• When coupling wire and fibre ropes, always use metal thimbles in both eyes to keep the wire
rope from cutting the fibre rope.
• Make sure that fibre rope used with tackle is the right size for the sheaves. Sheaves should have
diameters at least six – preferably ten – times greater than the rope diameter.
Figure 2.8
27
Knots
Wherever practical, avoid tying knots in rope. Knots, bends, and hitches reduce rope strength
considerably. Just how much depends on the knot and how it is applied. Use a spliced end with a
hook or other standard rigging hardware such as slings and shackles to attach ropes to loads.
In some cases, however, knots are more practical and efficient than other rigging methods, as for
lifting and lowering tools or light material.
For knot tying, a rope is considered to have three parts (Figure 2.9).
Bight
End
Standing Part
Figure 2.9
The end is where you tie the knot. The standing part is inactive. The bight is in between.
Following the right sequence is essential in tying knots. Equally important is the direction the end
is to take and whether it goes over, under, or around other parts of the rope.
There are overhand loops, underhand loops, and turns (Figure 2.10).
Overhand Loop Underhand Loop Turn
Figure 2.10
WARNING – When tying knots, always follow the directions over and under precisely. If one part
of the rope must go under another, do it that way. Otherwise an entirely different knot – or no knot
at all – will result.
Once knots are tied, they should be drawn up slowly and carefully to make sure that sections
tighten evenly and stay in proper position.
28
Bowline
Never jams or slips when properly tied. A universal knot if properly tied and untied. Two interlocking
bowlines can be used to join two ropes together. Single bowlines can be used for hoisting or hitching
directly around a ring.
Bowline on the Bight
Used to tie a bowline in the middle of a line or to make a set of double-leg spreaders for lifting pipe.
Bowline
29
Pipe Hitch
Reef or Square Knot

Can be used for tying two ropes of the same diameter together. It is unsuitable for wet or slippery
ropes and should be used with caution since it unties easily when either free end is jerked. Both
live and dead ends of the rope must come out of the loops at the same side.
Two Half Hitches Two

Half
Two half hitches, which can be quickly tied, are reliable Hitches
and can be put to almost any general use.
Running Bowline
The running bowline is mainly used for hanging objects
with ropes of different diameters. The weight of the
object determines the tension necessary for the knot to
grip.
Make an overhand loop with the end of the rope held

toward you (1). Hold the loop with your thumb and
fingers and bring the standing part of the rope back so
that it lies behind the loop (2). Take the end of the rope
in behind the standing part, bring it up, and feed it
through the loop (3). Pass it behind the standing part at
the top of the loop and bring it back down through the
loop (4).
Running Bowline
30
Figure-Eight Knot
This knot is generally tied at the end of a rope to temporarily prevent the strands from unlaying.
The figure-eight knot can be tied simply and quickly and will not jam as easily as the overhand knot.
It is also larger, stronger, and does not injure the rope fibres. The figure-eight knot is useful in
preventing the end of a rope from slipping through a block or an eye.
To tie the figure-eight knot, make an underhand loop (1). Bring the end around and over the
standing part (2). Pass the end under and then through the loop (3). Draw up tight (4).
Figure Eight Knot
31
Section 3
Hardware, Wire Rope, Slings
n Wire Rope
n Sling Configurations
n Sling Angles
n Centre of Gravity
n Sling WLLs
n Sling Types
n Rigging Hardware
n Hoisting Tips
32
Section 3
Hardware, Wire Rope, Slings
The rigger must be able to rig the load to ensure its stability when lifted. This requires a knowledge
of safe sling configurations and the use of related hardware such as shackles, eyebolts, and wire
rope clips.
Determining the working load limits of the rigging equipment as well as the weight of the load is a
fundamental requirement of safe rigging practice.
Do not use any equipment that is suspected to be unsafe or unsuitable until its suitability has been
verified by a competent person.
The working load limits of all hoisting equipment and rigging hardware are based on almost ideal
conditions seldom achieved in the field. It is therefore important to recognize the factors such as
wear, improper sling angles, point loading, and centre of gravity that can affect the rated working
load limits of equipment and hardware.
This section describes the selection and safe use of various types of slings and different kinds of
rigging hardware. Subjects include factors that can reduce capacity, inspection for signs of wear,
calculating safe sling angles, and requirements for slings and hardware under the Regulations for
Construction Projects.
Wire Rope
Selection
In selecting equipment, we must consider not only how to get the job done as economically as
possible but also how to eliminate hazards to personnel, public, and property for as long as the
rope will be used and under all anticipated conditions of exposure and operation.
Although nothing can take the place of experience in making these decisions, it is possible to
summarize some of the main points to consider.
Many factors influence the selection of wire rope. Rope strength, although of major importance, is
only one factor. Pay attention to the other factors such as size, grade, type, and construction that
are specified by equipment or rope manufacturers who base their recommendations on actual
working conditions.
33
Always consider six basic requirements when selecting wire rope:
1. The rope must possess enough strength to take the maximum load that may be applied, with a
design factor of at least 5 to 1 – and 10 to 1 when the rope will be used to carry personnel.
Wire ropes that are supplied as rigging on cranes must possess design factors as follows:
n live or running ropes that wind on drums or pass over sheaves

= 3.5 to 1 under operating conditions
= 3.0 to 1 when erecting the boom
n pendants or standing ropes

= 3.0 to 1 under operating conditions
= 2.5 to 1 when erecting the boom
2. The rope must withstand repeated bending without failure of the wires from fatigue.
3. The rope must resist abrasion.
4. The rope must withstand distortion and crushing.
5. The rope must resist rotation.
6. The rope must resist corrosion.
Types of Construction
The number of wires in a rope is an important factor in determining a rope’s characteristics. But
the arrangement of the wires in the strand is also important.
Basic Types
The four basic constructions are illustrated in Figure 1 :
1. Ordinary – all wires are the same size.
2. Warrington – outer wires are alternately larger and smaller.
3. Filler – small wires fill spaces between larger wires.
4. Seale – wires of outer layer are larger diameter than wires of inner layer.
On ropes of Ordinary construction the strands are built in layers. The basic seven-wire strand
consists of six wires laid around a central wire. A nineteen-wire strand is constructed by adding a
layer of twelve wires over a seven-wire strand. Adding a third layer of eighteen wires results in a
37-wire strand.
In this type of construction the wires in each layer have different lay lengths. This means that the
wires in adjacent layers contact each other at an angle. When the rope is loaded the wires rub
against each other with a sawing action. This causes eventual failure of the wires at these points.
34
BASIC WIRE ROPE CONSTRUCTIONS
Figure 1
35
Wire Rope Inspection
It is essential to have a well-planned program of regular inspection carried out by an experienced
inspector.
All wire rope in continuous service should be checked daily during normal operation and inspected
on a weekly basis. A complete and thorough inspection of all ropes in use must be made at least
once a month. Rope idle for a month or more should be given a thorough inspection before it is
returned to service.
A record of each rope should include date of installation, size, construction, length, extent of
service and any defects found.
The inspector will decide whether the rope must be removed from service. His decision will be
based on:
1. details of the equipment on which the rope has been used,

2. maintenance history of the equipment,
3. consequences of failure, and
4. experience with similar equipment.
Conditions such as the following should be looked for during inspection.
Broken Wires
Occasional wire breaks are normal for most ropes and are not critical provided they are at well
spaced intervals. Note the area and watch carefully for any further wire breaks. Broken wire ends
should be removed as soon as possible by bending the broken ends back and forth with a pair of
pliers. This way broken ends will be left tucked between the strands.
Construction regulations under The Occupational Health and Safety Act establish criteria for
retiring a rope based on the number of wire breaks.
Worn and Abraded Wires

Abrasive wear causes the outer wires to become “D” shaped. These worn areas are often shiny in
appearance (Figure 2). The rope must be replaced if wear exceeds 1/3 of the diameter of the wires.
Reduction in Rope Diameter

Reduction in rope diameter can be caused by abrasion Section
through
of outside wires, crushing of the core, inner wire failure, worn
or a loosening of the rope lay. All new ropes stretch portion
slightly and decrease in diameter after being used.
Enlarged
view of
single strand
When the surface wires are worn by 1/3 or

more of their diameter, the rope must be
replaced.
Figure 2
36
Snagged wires resulting from drum crushing
Rope that has been jammed after jumping off

sheave
Rope subjected to drum crushing. Note the

distortion of the individual wires and displacement
from their original postion. This is usually caused
by the rope scrubbing on itself.
Localized crushing Drum crushing
of rope
With no more than 2 layers on drum, With more than 2 layers on drum, there is danger
use any kind of rope. of crushing. Use larger rope or IWRC rope.
CRUSHED, JAMMED AND FLATTENED STRANDS

Figure 3
37
Rope Stretch
All steel ropes will stretch during initial periods of use. Called “constructional stretch”, this condition
is permanent. It results when wires in the strands and strands in the rope seat themselves under
load. Rope stretch can be recognized by increased lay length. Six-strand ropes will stretch about
six inches per 100 feet of rope while eight-strand ropes stretch approximately 10 inches per 100
feet. Rope stretched by more than this amount must be replaced.
Corrosion
Corrosion is a very dangerous condition because it can develop inside the rope without being seen.
Internal rusting will accelerate wear due to increased abrasion as wires rub against one another.
When pitting is observed, consider replacing the rope. Noticeable rusting and broken wires near
attachments are also causes for replacement. Corrosion can be minimized by keeping the rope
well lubricated.
Crushed, Flattened or Jammed Strands

These dangerous conditions require that the rope be replaced (Figure 3). They are often the result
of crushing on the drum.
High Stranding and Unlaying

These conditions will cause the other strands to become overloaded. Replace the rope or renew
the end connection to reset the rope lay (Figure 4).
HIGH STRANDING
Figure 4
38
Bird Caging
Bird caging is caused by the rope being twisted or by a sudden release of an overload (Figure 5 ).
The rope, or the affected section, must be replaced.
Multi-strand rope “birdcages” because of torsional unbalance.

Typical of buildup seen at anchorage end of multi-fall crane application.
A birdcage caused by sudden release of tension

and resulting rebound of rope from overloaded condition.
These strands and wires will not return to their original positions.
A birdcage which has been forced through a tight sheave.
BIRD CAGING
Figure 5
39
Kinks
Kinking is caused by Ioops that have been drawn too tightly as a result of improper handling (Figure
6). Kinks are permanent and will require that the rope, or damaged section, be taken out of service.
Core Protrusion
Core protrusion can be caused by shock loads and/or torsional imbalance (Figure 7). This condition
requires that the rope be taken out of service.
Electrical Contact
Rope subjected to electrical contact will have wires that are fused, discoloured or annealed and
must be removed from service.
An open kink like this is often caused by improper handling and uncoiling as shown.
These ropes show the severe damage resulting from the use of kinked ropes.
Local wear, distortion, misplaced wires, and early failure are inevitable.
ROPE KINKS
Figure 6
Core protrusion as a result

of torsional unbalance
created by shock loading
Protrusion of IWRC
from shock loading
CORE PROTRUSION
Figure 7
40
Figure 8 illustrates examples of rope damage, while Table 6 identifies likely causes of typical faults.
Narrow path of wear resulting in fatigue fractures caused

by working in a grossly oversized groove or over small Breakup of IWRC from high stress. Note nicking of wires in
support rollers. outer strands
Two parallel paths of broken wires indicate bending Wire fractures at the strand or core interface, as distinct
through an undersize groove in the sheath. from crown fractures, caused by failure of core support.
Fatigue failure of wire rope subjected to heavy loads over

small sheaves. In addition to the usual crown breaks, there Wire rope shows severe wear and fatigue from running
are breaks in the valleys of the strands caused by strand over small sheaves with heavy loads and constant
nicking from overloading. abrasion.
Wire rope that has jumped a sheave. The rope is deformed

Rope failing from fatigue after bending over small sheaves. into a curl as though bent around a round shaft.
Mechanical damage due to rope movement over sharp

edge under load. Rope break due to excessive strain.
TYPICAL ROPE DAMAGE

Figure 8
41
Rapid appearance of many broken wires.
A single strand removed from a wire rope subjected
to “strand nicking”. This condition is the result of
adjacent strands rubbing against one another and is
usually caused by core failure due to continued
operation of a rope under high tensile load. The
ultimate result will be individual wire breaks in the
Wear and damage on one side of rope. valleys of the strands.
TYPICAL ROPE DAMAGE

Figure 8 (continued)
TABLE 6
FAULT POSSIBLE CAUSE FAULT POSSIBLE CAUSE
Accelerated Wear Severe abrasion from being dragged over the Broken Wires or Improper alignment.
ground or obstructions. Undue Wear on Damaged sheaves and drums.
Rope wires too small for application or wrong One Side of Rope
construction or grade.
Poorly aligned sheaves.
Large fleet angle.
Worm sheaves with improper groove size or Broken Wires Near Rope vibration.
shape. Fittings
Sheaves, rollers and fairleads having rough wear
surfaces.
Stiff or seized sheave bearings. Burns Sheave groove too small.
High bearing and contact pressures Sheaves too heavy.
Sheave bearings seized.
Rope dragged over obstacle.
Rapid Appearance Rope is not flexible enough. Rope Core Charred Excessive heat.
of Broken Wires Sheaves, rollers, drums too small in diameter.
Overload and shock load.
Excessive rope vibration. Corrugation and Rollers too soft.
Rope speed too high. Excessive Wear Sheave and drum material too soft.
Kinks that have formed and been straightened
out.
Crushing and flattening of the rope. Distortion of Lay Rope improperly cut.
Reverse bends. Core failure.
Sheave wobble. Sheave grooves too big.
Pinching and Sheave grooves too small.

Crushing
Rope Broken Off Overload, shock load. Rope Chatters Rollers too small.
Square Kink.
Broken or cracked sheave flange.
Strand Break Overload, shock load. Rope Unlays Swivel fittings on Lang Lay ropes.
Local wear. Rope dragging against stationary object.
Slack in 1 or more strands.
Crushing and Nicking Rope struck or hit during handling.
Corrosion Inadequate lubricant. High Stranding Fittings improperly attached.

Improper type of lubricant. Broken strand.
Improper storage. Kinks, dog legs.
Exposure to acids or alkalis. Improper seizing.
Kinks, Dog Legs, Improper installation. Reduction in Broken core.

Distortions Improper handling. Diameter Overload.
Corrosion.
Severe wear.
Excessive Wear Kinks or bends in rope due to improper handling Bird Cage Sudden release of load.
in Spots in service or during installation.
Vibration of rope on drums or sheaves.
Crushing and Overload, shock load. Strand Nicking Core failure due to continued operation under high
Flattening Uneven spooling. load.
Cross winding.
Too much rope on drum.
Loose bearing on drum.
Faulty clutches.
Rope dragged over obstacle.
Stretch Overload. Core Protrusion Shock loading.

Untwist of Lang Lay ropes. Disturbed rope lay.
Rope unlays.
Load spins.
42
Procedures and Precautions with Wire Rope
• Ensure that the right size and construction of rope is used for the job.
• Inspect and lubricate rope regularly according to manufacturer’s guidelines.
• Never overload the rope. Minimize shock loading. To ensure there is no slack in the rope, start
the load carefully, applying power smoothly and steadily.
• Never use frozen ropes.
• Take special precautions and/or use a larger size rope whenever
- the exact weight of the load is unknown
- there is a possibility of shock loading
- conditions are abnormal or severe
- there are hazards to personnel.
• Use softeners to protect rope from corners and sharp edges.
• Avoid dragging rope out from under loads or over obstacles.
• Do not drop rope from heights.
• Store all unused rope in a clean, dry place.
• Never use wire rope that has been cut, kinked, or crushed.
• Ensure that rope ends are properly seized.
• Use thimbles in eye fittings at all times.
• Prevent loops in slack lines from being pulled tight and kinking. If a loop forms, don’t pull it out-
unfold it. Once a wire rope is kinked, damage is permanent. A weak spot will remain no matter
how well the kink is straightened out.
• Check for abnormal line whip and vibration.
• Avoid reverse bends.
• Ensure that drums and sheaves are the right diameter for the rope being used.
• Ensure that sheaves are aligned and that fleet angle is correct.
• Sheaves with deeply worn or scored grooves, cracked or broken rims, and worn or damaged
bearings must be replaced.
• Ensure that rope spools properly on the drum. Never wind more than the correct amount of rope
on any drum. Never let the rope cross-wind.
43
Slings
General
Slings are often severely worn and abused in construction. Damage is caused by:
• failure to provide blocking or softeners between slings and load, thereby allowing sharp edges
or comers of the load to cut or abrade the slings
• pulling slings out from under loads, leading to abrasion and kinking
• shock loading that increases the stress on slings that may already be overloaded
• traffic running over slings, especially tracked equipment.
Because of these and other conditions, as well as errors in calculating loads and estimating sling
angles, it is strongly recommended that working load limits be based on a design factor of at least
5:1.
For the same reasons, slings must be carefully inspected before each use.
Sling Angles
The rated capacity of any sling depends on its size, its
configuration, and the angles formed by its legs with the
horizontal.
For instance, a two-leg sling used to lift 1000 pounds

will have a 500-pound load on each leg at a sling angle
of 90°. The load on each leg will go up as the angle goes
down. At 30° the load will be 1000 pounds on each leg!
See Figure 9.
Keep sling angles greater than 45° whenever possible.

The use of any sling at an angle lower than 30° is
extremely hazardous. This is especially true when an
error of only 5° in estimating the sling angle can be so
dangerous.
Sling Configurations
Slings are not only made of various material such as
wire rope and nylon web. They also come in various
configurations for different purposes. Common
configurations are explained on the following pages.
Figure 9
44
Sling Configurations
The term “sling” covers a wide variety of configurations for fibre ropes, wire ropes, chains and
webs. Correct application of slings commonly used in construction will be explained here because
improper application can be dangerous.
The Single Vertical Hitch (Figure 10) supports a load by a single vertical part or leg of the sling.
The total weight of the load is carried by a single leg, the sling angle is 90° (sling angle is measured
from the horizontal) and the weight of the load can equal the maximum working load limit of the
sling and fittings. End fittings can vary but thimbles should be used in the eyes. The eye splices on
wire ropes should be Mechanical-Flemish Splices for best security.
SINGLE VERTICAL HITCH

Figure 10
The single vertical hitch must not be used for lifting loose material, lengthy material or anything
difficult to balance. This hitch provides absolutely no control over the load because it permits
rotation. Use single vertical hitches only on items equipped with lifting eyebolts or shackles.
Bridle Hitch (Figs 11, 12, 13.). Two, three or four single hitches can be used together to form a
bridle hitch for hoisting an object with the necessary lifting lugs or attachments. Used with a wide
assortment of end fittings, bridle hitches provide excellent load stability when the load is
distributed equally among the legs, the hook is directly over the load’s centre of gravity and the
load is raised level. To distribute the load equally it may be necessary to adjust the leg lengths with
turnbuckles. Proper use of a bridle hitch requires that sling angles be carefully measured to ensure
that individual legs are not overloaded.
Sorting Hooks
Figure 11
45
3-LEG BRIDLE HITCH
Figure 12
Because the load may not be distributed evenly when a four-leg sling lifts a rigid load, assume that
the load is carried by two of the legs only and “rate” the four-leg sling as a two-leg sling.
NOTE: Load may be

carried by only 2 legs
while the other legs
merely balance it.
4-LEG BRIDLE HITCH

Figure 13
The Single Basket Hitch (Figure 14) is used to support a load by attaching one end of the sling to
the hook, then passing the other end under the load and attaching it to the hook. Ensure that the
load does not turn or slide along the rope during a lift because both load and rope can be damaged.
46
NOTE: The capacity of the basket hitches
is affected by their sling angles.
SINGLE BASKET HITCH

Figure 14
The Double Basket Hitch (Figure 15) consists of two single basket hitches passed under the load.
They must be placed under the load so that it is balanced. The legs of the hitches must be kept
far enough apart to provide balance but not so far apart that low angles are created and the legs
pull in toward the centre. The angle between the load and the sling should be approximately 60°
or greater to avoid slippage. On smooth surfaces, both sides of the hitch should be snubbed
against a change of contour to prevent the rope from slipping as load is applied. Otherwise use a
double wrap basket hitch.
RIGHT To prevent
legs from To prevent
slipping slippage keep
angle 60°
or more.
WRONG Legs will

slide
together.
60° or more
DOUBLE BASKET HITCHES

Figure 15
The Double Wrap Basket Hitch (Figure 16) is a basket hitch wrapped completely around the load
and compressing it rather than merely supporting it, as does the ordinary basket hitch. The double
wrap basket hitch can be used in pairs like the double basket hitch. This method is excellent for
handling loose material, pipe, rod or smooth cylindrical loads because the sling is in full 360°
contact with the load and tends to draw it together.
47
This hitch
compresses
the load and
prevents it
from slipping
out of the
slings. Pair of Double Wrap Basket Hitches
DOUBLE WRAP BASKET HITCH

Figure 16
The Single Choker Hitch (Figure 17) forms a noose in the rope. It does not provide full 360°
contact with the load, however, and therefore should not be used to lift loads difficult to balance
or loosely bundled. The single choker can also be doubled up to provide twice the capacity or to
turn a load. (Doubling a single choker hitch is not the same as using a double choker hitch.)
Not recommended
when loads are long.
“Doubled” Choker
Use a “Doubled” Choker
to turn loads
NOTE: Choker hitches are not suited to long loose bundles.
Chokers do not provide full support for loose loads – material can fall out.
SINGLE CHOKER HITCHES
48
The Double Choker Hitch (Figure 18) consists of two single chokers attached to the load and
spread to provide load stability. Like the single choker, the double choker does not completely grip
the load. But because the load is less likely to tip, the double choker is better suited for handling
loosely bundled items.
DOUBLE CHOKER HITCHES

Figure 18
A Double Wrap Choker Hitch (Figure 19) is formed by wrapping the sling completely around the
load and hooking it into the vertical part of the sling. This hitch is in full 360° contact with the load
and tends to draw it tightly together. It can be used either singly on short, easily balanced loads or
in pairs on longer loads.
This hitch
compresses the
load and prevents
it from slipping
out of the sling.
Pair of Double Wrap Chokers
DOUBLE WRAP CHOKER HITCHES

Figure 19
Endless Slings or Grommet Slings (Figure 20) are useful for a variety of applications. Endless
chain slings are manufactured by attaching the ends of a length of chain with a welded or
mechanical link. Endless web slings are sewn. An endless wire rope sling is made from one
continuous strand wrapped onto itself to form a six-strand rope with a strand core. The end is
tucked into the body at the point where the strand was first laid onto itself. These slings can be
used in a number of configurations, as vertical hitches, basket hitches, choker hitches and
combinations of these basic arrangements. They are very flexible but tend to wear more rapidly
than other slings because they are not normally equipped with fittings and thus are deformed when
bent over hooks or choked.
49
NOTE: Ensure that the splice is always clear
of the hooks and load.
Endless or
Grommet
Sling in
Vertical Hitch
Conffiguration
Load
Endless Sling
in Choker
Hitch
Configuration
ENDLESS OR GROMMET SLINGS

Figure 20
Braided Slings (Figure 21) are usually fabricated from six to eight small-diameter ropes braided
together to form a single rope that provides a large bearing surface, tremendous strength, and
flexibility in every direction. They are easy to handle and almost impossible to kink. The braided
sling can be used in all the standard configurations and combinations but is especially useful for
basket hitches where low bearing pressure is desirable or where the bend is extremely sharp.
6-Part Braided Sling 8-Part Braided Sling
BRAIDED SLINGS
Figure 21
50
Sling Angles
The loading in any type of sling is affected by the angle of the legs. If possible, keep leg angles greater
than 45° from the horizontal. Sling angles approaching 30° are extremely hazardous and must be
avoided at all costs. The sharp increase in loading at low angles is clearly shown in Figure 22.
LOAD PER SLING LEG PER 1000 LBS OF TOTAL LOAD
SLING ANGLE IN DEGREES (TO HORIZONTAL)
EFFECT OF SLING ANGLE ON SLING LOAD

Figure 22
51
Low sling angles also create large, horizontal compressive forces in the load which may be
sufficient to cause buckling, especially in long, flexible loads.
Some load tables list sling angles as low as 15° but the use of any sling at an angle less than 30°
is extremely dangerous. Not only are the loads in each leg high at these low angles but an error in
measurement as little as 5° can affect the load in the sling drastically. Data in Figure 23 illustrates
the effect of a 5° error in angle measurement on the sling load. Notice that there is a 50% error in
the assumed load at the 15° sling angle.
Figure 23
EFFECT OF SLING ANGLE

MEASUREMENT ERROR ON LOADS
Assumed Assumed Actual Angle

Actual Load
Sling Load (is 5° Less Than Error %
(Pounds Per Leg)
Angle (Pounds Per Leg) Assumed Angle)
90° 500 85° 502 0.4

75° 518 70° 532 2.8
60° 577 55° 610 5.7
45° 707 40° 778 9.1
30° 1,000 25° 1,183 18.3
15° 1,932 10° 2,880 49.0
52
Centre of Gravity
It is always important to rig the load so that it is stable. The load’s centre of gravity must be directly
under the main hook and below the lowest sling attachment point before the load is lifted (Figure 24).
Unstable
hook is not above
C of G. Load will shift
until C of G is
below hook
Unstable
C of G is above Stable – Hook
lift points. is above center
of gravity.
EFFECT OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY ON LIFT

Figure 24
Centre of gravity is the point around which an object’s weight is evenly balanced. The entire weight
may be considered concentrated at this point. A suspended object will always move until its centre
of gravity is directly below its suspension point. To make a level or stable lift, the crane or hook
block must be directly above this point before the load is lifted. Thus a load which is slung above
and through the centre of gravity will not topple or slide out of the slings (Figure 25).
53
Load in
this leg
is critical
Unstable Stable
The load can topple because the Attachments are
attachments are below the C of G. above the C of G.
EFFECT OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY ON LIFT

Figure 25
An object symmetrical in shape and uniform in composition will have its centre of gravity at its
geometric centre. With odd-shaped objects, the centre of gravity can be more difficult to locate.
Often the rigger must guess where it lies, rig accordingly, signal for a trial lift and then, by watching
the suspended load, determine the centre of gravity more exactly, adjusting hook, load and sling
suspension for the best balance and stability. The centre of gravity will lie somewhere along a line
drawn vertically from the hook down through the load.
Remember that when the centre of gravity is closer to one sling attachment point than the other,
the sling legs must be of unequal length, which means that their angles and loads will also be
unequal.
When a lifted load tilts and rigging is not corrected, the tension will sharply increase on one sling
leg and decrease on the other. If any load tilts more than 5° after it is lifted clear of the ground it
should be landed and rigged over again.
It is equally important to ensure that the support points of a load (i.e. where the slings are attached
to the load) lie above its centre of gravity. Under suspension, an object’s centre of gravity will
always seek the lowest level below the point of support. This knowledge is especially important for
lifting pallets, skids or the base of any object since they all have a tendency to topple. But this type
of load will be inherently stable if the attachments are above the centre of gravity.
54
Working Load Limits
Knowledge of working load limits (WLLs) is essential to the use of ropes, slings, and rigging
hardware. As indicated in previous sections, the working load limit should be stamped, pressed,
printed, tagged, or otherwise indicated on all rigging equipment.
Field Calculation Formula

The field calculation formula can be used to compute the working load limit of a wire rope in tons
of 2,000 pounds. The formula applies to new wire rope of Improved Plow steel and a design factor
of 5.
WLL = DIAMETER x DIAMETER x 8

(where DIAMETER = nominal rope diameter in inches)
OR
WLL = D2 x 8
SINGLE VERTICAL HITCH
Examples:
(a) 1/2 inch diameter rope

WLL = 1/2 x 1/2 x 8 = 2 tons
(b) 5/8 inch diameter rope

WLL = 5/8 x - 5/8 x 8 = 3.125 tons
(c) 1 inch diameter rope

WLL = 1 x 1 x 8 = 8 tons
55
Sling Angle and WLL
Sling angles are crucial in determining working load limits (WLLs) for many sling configurations. In
tables of WLLs, capacities are given for bridle and basket hitches at angles of 60° 45°, and 30°.
Measuring these angles can be difficult on a construction site since the measuring tools required
are generally not available.
There are, however, two angles you can easily determine before consulting tables. The first is a 90°
angle formed by two legs of a bridle or basket hitch at the crane hook or master link (Figure 26).
This corresponds to a 45° sling angle.
90° angle at hook

corresonds to 45°
sling angle
45° SLING ANGLE

Figure 26
The second angle easy to identify is a 60° sling angle (Figure 27). For a bridle hitch, a 60° sling
angle can be recognized when the distance between the attachment points is equal to the length
of a sling leg; for a basket hitch, when the distance between the points where the sling first
contacts the load is equal to the length of one inclined leg of the sling.
When L = S,
sling angle is 60°
60° SLING ANGLE

Figure 27
56
Estimating Sling WLLs
Because it is difficult to remember all load, size, and sling angle combinations provided in tables,
some general rules can be used to estimate working load limits for common sling configurations.
Each rule is based on the working load limit of a single vertical hitch of a given size and material
and on the ratio H/L.
H is the vertical distance from the saddle of the hook to the top of the load. L is the distance,
measured along the sling, from the saddle of the hook to the top of the load (Figure 28).
If you cannot measure the entire length of the sling, measure along the sling from the top of the
load to a convenient point and call this distance I. From this point measure down to the load and
call this distance h. The ratio h/l will be the same as the ratio H/L (Figure 28).
H/L h/l
Figure 28
H/L or h/l will apply equally to the following rules for different sling configurations. The efficiencies
of end fittings must also be considered to determine the capacity of the sling assembly.
REMEMBER: the smaller the sling angle, the lower the working load limit.
57
Bridle Hitches (2-Leg) (Figure 29)
WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x H/L x 2
When sling legs are not of equal

length, use smallest H/L ratio.
DETERMINING CAPACITY OF 2-LEG BRIDLE HITCHES

Figure 29
Bridle Hitches (3- and 4-Leg) Figures 30 and 31

Three- and four-leg hitches are rated equally to account for the possibility of unequal load
distribution in a four-leg hitch.
WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x H/L x 3
Three-leg hitches are less susceptible to unequal distribution since the load can tilt and equalize
the loads in each leg. However, lifting an irregularly shaped, rigid load with a three-leg hitch may
develop unequal loads in the sling legs. To be safe, use the formula for a two-leg bridle hitch under
such circumstances.
When legs are not

of equal length,
use smallest
H/L ratio.
WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x H/L x 3
DETERMINING CAPACITY OF 3-LEG BRIDLE HITCH

Figure 30
58
When legs are not of
equal length, use
smallest H/L Ratio.
NOTE: Load may be carried by only 2 legs, while

third and fourth legs merely balance it. Therefore:
DETERMINING CAPACITY OF 4-LEG BRIDLE HITCH

Figure 31
Remember that the rated capacity of a multi-leg sling is based on the assumption that all legs are
used. If this is not the case. de-rate the sling assembly accordingly and hook all unused legs to the
crane hook so they will not become snagged during the lift.
Single Basket Hitch Figure 32
For vertical legs – WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x 2

For inclined legs – WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x H/L x 2
Inclined Legs Vertical Legs

WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x H/L x2 WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x 2
DETERMINING CAPACITY OF SINGLE BASKET HITCH

Figure 32
59
Double Basket Hitch
For vertical legs:

WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x 3
For inclined legs:

Double Wrap Basket Hitch

Depending on configuration, WLLs are the same
as for the single basket or double basket hitch.
DETERMINING CAPACITY OF DOUBLE BASKET

HITCH WITH INCLINED LEGS
Single Choker Hitch

For sling angles of 45° or more –
WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x 3/4
Sling angles of less than 45° are not recommended. When this angle is greater than 45°
If they must be used the formula is: WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x 3/4
WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x A/B
When this angle is less than 45°

WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x A/B
DETERMINING CAPACITY
OF SINGLE CHOKER HITCH
Endless and Grommet Slings

Although grommet slings support a load with two legs, their working load limit is usually taken as
1.5 times the working load limit of a single vertical hitch. This reduction allows for capacity lost
because of sharp bends at the hook or shackle.
60
Double Choker Hitch
For sling angles of 45° or more (formed by the choker) –
WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x H/L x 3/4
Sling angles of less than 45° (formed by the choker) are not recommended. If they must be
used the formula is:
WLL = WLL (of Single Vertical Hitch) x A/B x H/L x 2.
When the choker angle is greater than 45°

WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x 3/4 x H/L x 2
When the choker angle is less than 45°

WLL= WLL (of single vertical hitch) x A/B x H/L x 2
DETERMINING CAPACITY OF DOUBLE CHOKER HITCH
Double Wrap Choker Hitch

Depending on configuration, working load limits are the same as for the Single Choker Hitch or the
Double Choker Hitch.
61
Types of Slings
Wire rope slings should be inspected frequently for broken wires, kinks, abrasion and corrosion.
Inspection procedures and replacement criteria outlined in the session on wire rope apply and
must be followed regardless of sling type or application.
All wire rope slings should be made of improved plow steel with independent wire rope cores to
reduce the risk of crushing. Manufacturers will assist in selecting the rope construction for a given
application.
It is recommended that all eyes in wire rope slings be equipped with thimbles, be formed
with the Flemish Splice and be secured by swaged or pressed mechanical sleeves or fittings.
With the exception of socketed connections, this is the only method that produces an eye as
strong as the rope itself, with reserve strength should the mechanical sleeve or fitting fail or loosen.
The capacity of a wire rope sling can be greatly affected by being bent sharply around pins, hooks
or parts of a load. The wire rope industry uses the term “D/d ratio” to express the severity of bend.
“D” is the diameter of curvature that the rope or sling is subjected to and “d” is the diameter of the
rope.
Wire Rope Slings

The use of wire rope slings for lifting materials
provides several advantages over other types of
sling. While not as strong as chain, it has good
flexibility with minimum weight. Breaking outer wires
warn of failure and allow time to react. Properly
fabricated wire rope slings are very safe for general
construction use.
On smooth surfaces, the basket hitch should be

snubbed against a step or change of contour to
prevent the rope from slipping as load is applied.
The angle between the load and the sling should be
approximately 60 degrees or greater to avoid
slippage. RIGHT
On wooden boxes or crates, the rope will dig into

the wood sufficiently to prevent slippage. On other
rectangular loads, the rope should be protected by WRONG
guards or load protectors at the edges to prevent Legs will slide
kinking. together.
Loads should not be allowed to turn or slide along

the rope during a lift. The sling or the load may
become scuffed or damaged.
To prevent
slippage,
keep angle
60° or more.
60° or more
62
WIRE ROPE SLINGS
6 x 19 Classification Group, Improved Plow Steel, Fibre Core
MAXIMUM WORKING LOAD LIMITS – POUNDS

(Design Factor = 5)
Single Single Single 2-Leg Bridle Hitch & Single Basket Hitch
Vertical Choker Basket with Legs Inclined
Rope Hitch Hitch Hitch
Diameter (Vertical Legs)
(Inches)
60° 45° 30°
3/16 600 450 1,200 1,050 850 600

1/4 1,100 825 2,200 1,900 1,550 1,100
5/16 1,650 1,250 3,300 2,850 2,350 1,650
3/8 2,400 1,800 4,800 4,150 3,400 2,400
7/16 3,200 2,400 6,400 5,550 4,500 3,200
1/2 4,400 3,300 8,800 7,600 6,200 4,400
9/16 5,300 4,000 10,600 9,200 7,500 5,300
5/8 6,600 4,950 13,200 11,400 9,350 6,600
3/4 9,500 7,100 19,000 16,500 13,400 9,500
7/8 12,800 9,600 25,600 22,200 18,100 12,800
1 16,700 12,500 33,400 28,900 23,600 16,700
1 1/8 21,200 15,900 42,400 36,700 30,000 21,200
1 1/4 26,200 19,700 52,400 45,400 37,000 26,200
1 3/8 32,400 24,300 64.800 56,100 45,800 32,400
1 1/2 38,400 28,800 76,800 66,500 54,300 38,400
1 5/8 45,200 33,900 90,400 78,300 63,900 45,200
1 3/4 52,000 39,000 104,000 90,000 73,500 52,000
1 7/8 60,800 45,600 121,600 105,300 86,000 60,800
2 67,600 50,700 135,200 117,100 95,600 67,600
2 1/4 84,000 63,000 168,000 145,500 118,800 84,000
2 1/2 104,000 78,000 208,000 180,100 147,000 104,000
2 3/4 122,000 91,500 244.000 211,300 172,500 122,000
If used with Choker Hitch multiply above values by 3/4.
For Double Basket Hitch multiply above values by 2.
Note: Table values are for slings with eyes and thimbles in both ends, Flemish Spliced Eyes and mechanical sleeves.
Caution: This table is for purposes of illustration and comparison only.

Check manufacturers’ ratings for the WLLs of the specific slings you are using.
63
WIRE ROPE SLINGS
6 x 19 Classification Group, Improved Plow Steel, IWRC

(Design Factor = 5)
Hitch Hitch Hitch
Rope (Vertical Legs)
Diameter
(Inches)
60° 45° 30°
3/16 650 480 1,300 1,100 900 650

1/4 1,150 860 2,300 2,000 1,600 1,150
5/16 1,750 1,300 3,500 3,000 2,500 1,750
3/8 2,550 1,900 5,100 4,400 3,600 2,550
7/16 3,450 2,600 6,900 6,000 4,900 3,450
1/2 4,700 3,500 9,400 8,150 6,650 4,700
9/16 5,700 4,200 11,400 9,900 8,050 5,700
5/8 7,100 5,300 14,200 12,300 10,000 7,100
3/4 10,200 7,650 20,400 17,700 14,400 10,200
7/8 13,750 10,300 27,500 23,800 19,400 13,750
1 17,950 13,450 35,900 31,100 25,400 17,950
1 1/8 22,750 17,000 45,500 39,400 32,200 22,750
1 1/4 28,200 21,200 56,400 48,800 39,900 28,200
1 3/8 34,800 26,100 69,600 60,300 49,200 34,800
1 1/2 41,300 31,000 82,600 71,500 58,400 41,300
1 5/8 48,600 36,400 97,200 84,200 68,700 48,600
1 3/4 55,900 41,900 111,800 96,800 79,000 55,900
1 7/8 65,400 49,000 130,800 113,300 92,500 65,400
2 72,600 54,500 145,200 125,700 102,700 72,600
2 1/4 90,300 67,600 180,600 156,400 127,700 90,300
2 1/2 111,800 83,700 223,600 193,600 158,100 111,800
2 3/4 131,100 98,200 262,200 227,000 185,400 131,100
If used with Choker Hitch multiply above values by 3/4.
Note: Table values are for slings with eyes and thimbles in both ends, Flemish Spliced Eyes and mechanical sleeves.

64
Chain Slings
Chain slings are suited to applications requiring flexibility and resistance to abrasion, cutting and
high temperatures.
Alloy steel chain grade 80 is marked with an 8, 80, or 800; grade 100 is marked with a 10, 100, or
1000. Alloy steel chain is the only type which can be used for overhead lifting.
As with all slings and associated hardware, chain slings must have a design factor of 5. In North
America, chain manufacturers usually give working load limits based on a design factor of 3.5 or
4. Always check with manufacturers to determine the design factor on which their working load
limits are based.
If the design factor is less than 5, calculate the working load limit of the chain by multiplying the
catalogue working load limit by the manufacturer’s design factor and dividing by 5.
CATALOGUE WLL x MANUFACTURER’S D.F. = WLL (based on design factor of 5)
5
Example – 1/2” Alloy Steel Chain

Catalogue WLL = 13,000 Ibs.
Design Factor = 3.5
13,000 Ibs x 3.5 = 9,100 Ibs.
5
This chain sling must be de-rated to 9,100 Ibs. for construction applications.
Wherever they bear on sharp edges, chain slings should be padded to prevent links from being
bent and to protect the load. Never tie a knot in a chain sling to shorten the reach. Slings can be
supplied with grab hooks or shortening clutches for such applications.
Inspect chain slings for inner link wear and wear on the outside of the link barrels (Figure 33).
Manufacturers publish tables of allowable wear for various link sizes. Many companies will also
supply wear gauges to indicate when a sling must be retired or links replaced. Gauges or tables
from a particular manufacturer should only be used on that brand of chain since exact dimensions
of a given nominal size can vary from one manufacturer to another.
Wear
Extreme Wear at Bearing Surfaces
Measure the remaining material

and discard if it is less than
allowed by manufacturer.
INSPECT ALL LINKS FOR WEAR AT BEARING SURFACES

Figure 33
A competent worker should check chain slings for nicks and gouges that may cause stress
concentrations and weaken links (Figure 34). If nicks or gouges are deep or large in area, or reduce
link size below allowable wear, remove the chain from service. Any repairs must be done according
to manufacturers’ specifications.
65
The depth of all chips, cuts, etc., must
not exceed that allowed by manufacturer.
INSPECT ALL LINKS FOR GOUGES, CHIPS AND CUTS

Figure 34
Never use repair links or mechanical coupling links to splice broken lengths of alloy steel chain. They
are much weaker than the chain links. Never use a chain if the links are stretched or do not move freely.
ALLOY STEEL CHAIN

(Design Factor = 5 per OH&S Regulations)
Chain
Hitch Hitch Hitch
Size
(Vertical Legs)
(Inches)
Sling
Angle
60° 45° 30°
1/4 2,800 2,100 5,600 4,850 3,959 2,800

3/8 5,680 4,260 11,360 9,838 8,032 5,680
1/2 9,600 7,200 19,200 16,627 13,574 9,600
5/8 14,480 10,860 28,960 25,079 20,475 14,480
3/4 22,640 16,980 45,280 39,212 32,013 22,640
7/8 27,360 20,520 54,720 47,388 38,687 27,360
1 38,160 28,620 76,320 66,093 53,958 38,160
1 1/4 57,840 43,380 115,680 100,179 81,786 57,840
Size by this diameter. If used with Choker Hitch multiply above values by 3/4.
Use only alloy steel chain.
Strength based on ISO Standards and adjusted to reflect a design factor of 5.
Discard if more than 10% wear at bearing surfaces.

66
Synthetic Web Slings
Web slings are available in two materials – nylon and polyester (Dacron). Nylon is resistant to many
alkalis whereas polyester is resistant to many acids. Consult the manufacturer before using web
slings in a chemical environment. Nylon slings are more common but polyester slings are often
recommended where headroom is limited since they stretch only half as much as nylon slings.
Synthetic web slings offer a number of advantages for rigging purposes.
– Their relative softness and width create much less tendency to mar or scratch finely machined,
highly polished or painted surfaces and less tendency to crush fragile objects than fibre rope,
wire rope or chain slings (Figure 35).
SYNTHETIC WEB SLINGS DO NOT DAMAGE OR CRUSH LOADS

Figure 35
– Because of their flexibility, they tend to mold themselves to the shape of the load (Figure 36).
WEB SLINGS MOLD THEMSELVES TO THE LOAD

Figure 36
– They do not rust and thus will not stain ornamental precast concrete or stone.
– They are non-sparking and can be used safely in explosive atmospheres.
– They minimize twisting and spinning during lifting.
– Their light weight permits ease of rigging, their softness precludes hand cuts, and the danger of
harm from a free-swinging sling is minimal.
– They are elastic and stretch under load more than either wire rope or chain and can thus absorb
heavy shocks and cushion loads. In cases where sling stretching must be minimized, a sling of
larger load capacity or a polyester sling should be used.
Synthetic web slings are available in a number of configurations useful in construction.
67
Endless or Grommet Slings – both ends of one piece of webbing lapped and sewn to form a
continuous piece. They can be used as vertical hitches, bridle hitches, in choker arrangements or
as basket hitches. Because load contact points can be shifted with every lift, wear is evenly
distributed and sling life extended (Figure 37).
ENDLESS OR GROMMET SLINGS

Figure 37
Standard Eye-and-Eye – webbing assembled and sewn to form a flat body sling with an eye at
each end and eye openings in the same plane as the sling body. The eyes may be either full web
width or tapered by being folded and sewn narrower than the webbing width (Figure 38).
TAPERED EYES
STANDARD EYE-AND-EYE SLINGS

Figure 38
Twisted Eye – an eye-and-eye with twisted terminations at both ends. The eye openings are at 90°
to the plane of the sling body. This configuration is available with either full-width or tapered eyes
(Figure 39).
68
TWISTED EYE SLINGS
Figure 39
In place of sewn eyes, web slings are available with metal end fittings. The most common are
triangle and choker hardware. Combination hardware consists of a triangle for one end of the sling
and a triangle/rectangle (choker attachment) for the other end. With this arrangement, choker and
basket as well as straight hitches may be rigged. Such attachments help reduce wear in the sling
eyes and thus lengthen sling life (Figure 40).
Choker Sling
Choker End Fitting
Triangle End Fittings
METAL END FITTINGS

Figure 40
69
Despite their inherent toughness, synthetic web slings can be cut by repeated use around sharp-
cornered objects and abraded by continually hoisting rough-surfaced loads.
Protective devices offered by most sling manufacturers can minimize these effects.
– Buffer strips of leather, nylon, or other materials sewn on the body of the sling protect against
wear (Figure 41A). Leather pads are most resistant to wear and cutting, but are subject to
weathering and deterioration. They are not recommended in lengths over six feet because their
stretch characteristics differ from those of webbing. On the other hand, nylon web wear pads
are more resistant to weathering, oils, grease and most alkalis. Moreover they stretch in the
same ratio as the sling body.
– Edge guards consist of strips of webbing or leather sewn around each edge of the sling (Figure
41B). This is necessary whenever sling edges are subject to damage.
– Sleeve or sliding tube wear pads are available for slings used to handle material with sharp
edges. The pads are positioned on the sling where required, will not move when the sling
stretches, adjust to the load and cover both sides of the sling (Figure 41C).
A – REGULAR. This is the type that is sewn on to give B – EDGE GUARD. A strip of webbing or leather is sewn
fixed protection at expected wear points. They can around each end of the sling. This is necessary for
be sewn anywhere on the sling, at any length on certain applications where the sling edges are
one side or on both sides. subject to damage.
C – SLEEVE. Sometimes called sliding sleeve or tube type wear pads,

these pads are ideal for handling material with sharp edges
because the sleeve doesn’t move when the sling stretches and
adjusts to the load. Sleeves cover both sides of the sling and can
be shifted to points of expected maximum wear.
WEB SLING
Figure 41
– Reinforcing strips sewn into the sling eyes double or triple the eye thickness and greatly
increase sling life and safety.
– Coatings provide added resistance to abrasion and chemicals as well as a better grip on
slippery loads. Coatings can be brightly coloured for safety or load rating.
– Cotton-faced nylon webbing affords protection for hoisting granite and other rough-surfaced
material.
The rated capacity of synthetic web slings is based on the tensile strength of the webbing, a design
factor of 5 and the fabrication efficiency. Fabrication efficiency accounts for loss of strength in the
webbing after it is stitched and otherwise modified during manufacture. Fabrication efficiency is
typically 80 to 85% for single-ply slings but will be lower for multi-ply slings and very wide slings.
Although manufacturers provide tables for bridle and basket configurations, these should be used
with extreme caution. At low sling angles one edge of the web will be overloaded and the sling will
tend to tear (Figure 42).
70
If the sling angle is too low,
the web can tear here.
EFFECT OF LOW SLING ANGLE ON WEBBING

Figure 42
Slings with aluminum fittings should never be used in acid or alkali environments. Nylon and
polyester slings must not be used at temperatures above 194°F (90°C).
Inspect synthetic web slings regularly. Damage is usually easy to detect. Cuts, holes, tears, frays,
broken stitching, worn eyes and worn or distorted fittings, and burns from acid, caustics or heat
are immediately evident and signal the need for replacement. Do not attempt repairs yourself.
Synthetic web slings must be labelled to

indicate their load rating capacity.
71
Metal Mesh Slings
Metal mesh slings, also known as wire or chain mesh slings, are well adapted for use where loads
are abrasive, hot or tend to cut fabric slings and wire ropes. They resist abrasion and cutting, grip
the load firmly without stretching and can withstand temperatures up to 550° (288°C). They have
smooth, flat bearing surfaces, conform to irregular shapes, do not kink or tangle and resist
corrosion (Figure 43).
CHAIN MESH SLINGS

Figure 43
For handling loads that would damage the mesh, or for handling loads that the mesh would
damage, the slings can be coated with rubber or plastic. See Table 7 for working load limits.
Note that there is no reduction in working load limit for the choker hitch. This is because the hinge
action of the mesh prevents any bending of individual wire spirals.
72
TABLE 7
METAL (WIRE OR CHAIN) MESH SLINGS

(Design Factor = 5)
Sling Hitch Hitch Hitch
Diameter (Vertical Legs)
(Inches)
60° 45° 30°
HEAVY DUTY CLASSIFICATION (10 GAUGE MESH)
2 1,500 1,500 3,000 2,600 2,100 1,500

3 2,700 2,700 5,400 4,700 3,800 2,700
4 4,000 4,000 8,000 6,900 5,600 4,000
6 6,000 6,000 12,000 10,400 8,500 6,000
8 8,000 8,000 16,000 13,800 11,300 8,000
10 10,000 10,000 20,000 17,300 14,100 10,000
12 12,000 12,000 24,000 20,800 17,000 12,000
MEDIUM DUTY CLASSIFICATION (12 GAUGE MESH)
2 1,350 1,350 2,700 2,300 1,900 1,350

3 2,000 2,000 4,000 3,500 2,800 2,000
4 2,700 2,700 5,400 4,700 3,800 2,700
6 4,500 4,500 9,000 7,800 6,400 4,500
8 6,000 6,000 12,000 10,400 8,500 6,000
10 7,500 7,500 15,000 13,000 10,600 7,500
12 9,000 9,000 18,000 15,600 12,700 9,000
LIGHT DUTY CLASSIFICATION (14 GAUGE MESH)
2 900 900 1,800 1,600 1,300 900

3 1,400 1,400 2,800 2,400 2,000 1,400
4 2,000 2,000 4,000 3,500 2,800 2,000
6 3,000 3,000 6,000 5,200 4,200 3,000
8 4,000 4,000 8,000 6,900 5,700 4,000
10 5,000 5,000 10,000 8,600 7,100 5,000
12 6,000 6,000 12,000 10,400 8,500 6,000
Note: Values for a single choker hitch are the same as values for a single vertical hitch.

73
Fibre Rope Slings
Fibre rope slings are preferred for some applications because they are pliant, grip the load well and
do not mar its surface. They should be used only on light loads, however, and must never be used
on objects that have sharp edges capable of cutting the rope or in applications where the sling will
be exposed to high temperatures, severe abrasion or acids.
The choice of rope type and size will depend on the application, the weight to be lifted and the
sling angle. Before lifting any load with a fibre rope sling, be sure to inspect the sling carefully. Fibre
slings, especially manila, deteriorate far more rapidly than wire rope slings and their actual strength
is very difficult to estimate.
Like other slings, fibre rope slings should be inspected regularly. Look for external wear and
cutting, internal wear between strands, and deterioration of fibres.
Open up the rope by untwisting the strands but take care not to kink them. The inside of the rope
should be as bright and clean as when it was new. Check for broken or loose yarns and strands.
An accumulation of powder-like dust indicates excessive internal wear between strands as the
rope is flexed back and forth during use.
Open Up Rope During Inspections
Proper Method of Opening Up the Rope
74
Rigging Hardware
Know what hardware to use, how to use it, and how its working load limits (WLL) compare with the
rope or chain used with it.
All fittings must be of adequate strength for the application. Only forged alloy steel load-rated hardware
should be used for overhead lifting. Load-rated hardware is stamped with its WLL (Figure 44).
Inspect hardware regularly and before each lift. Telltale signs include:
– wear
– cracks
– severe corrosion
– deformation/bends
– mismatched parts
– obvious damage.
Check for wear

and deformation.
Check for cracks

and twisting. Check for signs
of opening up.
Check for wear

and cracks.
Hook Inspection Areas
Figure 44 Figure 45
Hoisting Hooks
• Should be equipped with safety catches (except for sorting or grab hooks).
• Should be forged alloy steel with WLL stamped or marked on the saddle.
• Should be loaded at the middle of the hook. Applying the load to the tip will load the hook
eccentrically and reduce the safe working load considerably.
• Should be inspected regularly and often. Look for wear, cracks, corrosion, and twisting –
especially at the tip – and check throat for signs of opening up (Figure 45).
75
Safety Tip
Whenever two or more ropes are to be placed over a hook, use a shackle to reduce wear and tear
on thimble eyes.
Wire Rope Clips

Wire rope clips are widely used for making end terminations. Clips are available in two basic
designs: U-bolt and fist grip.
When using U-bolt clips, make sure you have the right type of clip. Forged alloy clips are
recommended. Always make certain that U-bolt clips are attached correctly. The U-section must
be in contact with the dead end of the rope. Tighten and retighten nuts as required by the
manufacturer.
To determine the number of clips and the torque required for specific diameters of rope, refer to
Figure 46. For step-by-step instructions on attaching clips, refer to Figure 47.
INSTALLATION OF WIRE ROPE CLIPS
Rope Minimum Amount of Rope Turn Torque in

Diameter Number Back from Thimble Foot-Pounds
(inches) of Clips (inches) Unlubricated Bolts
5/16 2 5 1/2 30
3/8 2 6 1/2 45
7/16 2 7 65
1/2 3 11 1/2 65
9/16 3 12 95
5/8 3 12 95
3/4 4 18 130
7/8 4 19 225
76
STEP 1
APPLY FIRST CLIP one base width from

dead end of wire rope. U-Bolt over dead end.
Live end rests in clip saddle. Tighten nuts
evenly to recommended torque.
STEP 2
APPLY SECOND CLIP as close to loop as

possible. U-Bolt over dead end. Turn nuts
firmly but DO NOT TIGHTEN.
STEP 3
APPLY ALL OTHER CLIPS. Space evenly

between first two and 6-7 rope diameters
apart.
STEP 4
Apply
Tension
APPLY TENSION and tighten all nuts to

recommended torque.
STEP 5
Apply
Tension
CHECK NUT TORQUE after rope has been in

operation.
Figure 47
77
Swivels
• Reduce bending loads on rigging attachments by allowing the load to orient itself freely.
• Should be used instead of shackles in situations where the shackle may twist and become
eccentrically loaded.
• Can provide approximate capacities shown in Figure 48. See manufacturer’s table for the exact
WLL of the swivel you are using.
SWIVELS (ALL TYPES)

– Weldless Construction
– Forged Alloy Steel
Stock Diameter Max. Working Load Limit

(Inches) (Pounds)
1/4 850
5/16 1,250
3/8 2,250
1/2 3,600
5/8 5,200
3/4 7,200
7/8 10,000
1 12,500
1 1/8 15,200
1 1/4 18,000
1 1/2 45,200
Figure 48
Shackles
• Available in various types (Figure 49).
• For hoisting, should be manufactured of forged alloy steel.
• Do not replace shackle pins with bolts (Figure 50). Pins are designed and manufactured to match
shackle capacity.
• Check for wear, distortion, and opening up (Figure 51). Check crown regularly for wear. Discard
shackles noticeably worn at the crown.
• Do not use a shackle where it will be pulled or loaded at an angle. This severely reduces its
capacity and opens up the legs (Figure 52).
• Do not use screw pin shackles if the pin can roll under load and unscrew (Figure 53).
78
Never replace a shackle pin
with a bolt
Screw pin anchor shackle Round pin anchor shackle Safety type anchor shackle
The load will bend the bolt

Screw pin chain shackle Round pin chain shackle Safety type chain shackle
Figure 49 Figure 50
Check for wear
Check for wear and straightness
Check that pin is always seated
Check that shackle is not “opening up”
Figure 51
Packings Hook Don’t use a screw pin shackle if the pin can roll
under load and unscrew.
Poor Practice Good Practice

Never allow shackle to Pack the pin with
be pulled at an angle – washers to centralize If load shifts, sling will
the legs will open up. the shackle. unscrew shackle pin
Figure 52 Figure 53
79
Eye Bolts
• For hoisting, use eye or ring bolts of forged alloy steel.
• Use bolts with shoulders or collars. Shoulderless bolts are fine for
vertical loading but can bend and lose considerable capacity
under angle loading (Figure 54). Even with shoulders, eye and
ring bolts lose some capacity when loaded on an angle.
• Make sure that bolts are at right angles to hole, make contact
with working surface, and have nuts property torqued (Figure 55).
• Pack bolts with washers when necessary to ensure firm, uniform
contact with working surface (Figure 55).
• Make sure that tapped holes for screw bolts are deep enough for
uniform grip (Figure 55).
• Apply loads to the plane of the eye, never in the other direction
(Figure 55). This is particularly important with bridle slings, which
always develop an angular pull in eye bolts unless a spreader bar
is used.
• Never insert the point of a hook in an eye bolt. Use a shackle
instead (Figure 55). Swivel Eye Bolt
• Do not reeve a sling through a pair of bolts. Attach a separate
sling to each bolt.
Correct Incorrect
Shoulderless eye and ring bolts are If shoulderless eye and ring bolts are pulled at an
designed for vertical loads only. angle as shown, they will either bend or break.
Results In
Shoulderless Eye Bolt Shoulderless Ring Bolt
Shoulderless Ring Bolt Shoulderless Eye Bolt
Figure 54
80
Correct for Shoulder Type Eye & Ring Bolts
Providing loads are reduced to account for angular loading.
Incorrect
Pack with
washers to
ensure that
shoulder is
firmly in
contact
with
surface.
Ensure that bolt Ensure that

is tightened tapped hole is
Shoulder must be in
Nut must be into place. deep enough.
full contact with surface.
properly torqued.
Correct Incorrect Orientation –

Orientation – When the load is applied to the
Load is in the eye in this direction, it will bend.
plane of the
eye. LOAD LOAD
RESULT
Correct – Use a shackle
Incorrect
Figure 55
Snatch Blocks
• A single or multi-sheave block that opens on one side so a rope can be slipped
over the sheave rather than threaded through the block (Figure 56).
• Available with hook, shackle, eye, and swivel end fittings.
• Normally used when it’s necessary to change the direction of pull on a line.
Stress on the snatch block varies tremendously with the angle between the lead
and load lines. With both lines parallel, 1000 pounds on the lead line results in
2000 pounds on the block, hook, and anchorage. As the angle between the lines
increases, the stress is reduced (Figure 57).
• To determine the load on block, hook, and anchorage, multiply the pull on the
lead line or the weight of the load being lifted by a suitable factor from the table
in Figure 19.33 and add 10% for sheave friction.
When Open
Figure 56
81
2000 POUNDS 1840 POUNDS
1000 POUNDS
1000 POUNDS
Figure 57
MULTIPLICATION FACTORS FOR

SNATCH BLOCK LOADS
Angle Between Lead Multiplication

and Load Lines Factor
10° 1.99
20° 1.97
30° 1.93
40° 1.87
45° 1.84
50° 1.81
60° 1.73
70° 1.64
80° 1.53
90° 1.41
100° 1.29
110° 1.15
120° 1.00
130° .84
135° .76
140° .68
150° .52
160° .35
170° .17
180° .00
82
Turnbuckles
• Can be supplied with eye end fittings, hook end fittings, jaw end fittings, stub end fittings, and
any combination of these (Figure 58).
• Rated loads are based on the outside diameter of the threaded portion of the end fitting and on
the type of end fitting. Jaw, eye, and stub types are rated equally; hook types are rated lower.
• Should be weldless alloy steel.
• When turnbuckles are exposed to vibration, lock frames to end fittings. This will prevent turning
and loosening. Use wire or manufacturer-supplied lock nuts to prevent turning (Figure 59).
• When tightening a turnbuckle, do not apply, more torque than you would to a bolt of equal size.
• Inspect turnbuckles frequently for cracks in end fittings (especially at the neck of the shank),
deformed end fittings, deformed and bent rods and bodies, cracks and bends around the
internally threaded portion, and signs of thread damage.
Turnbuckle End Fittings
Jaw and Eye Combination
Jaw and Jaw Combination
Hook and Hook Combination
Eye Jaw Stub Hook

(has reduced
capacity)
Hook and Eye Combination
Figure 58
Manufacturer-supplied lock nut Wire
Figure 59
83
Table 8 gives the working load limits for turnbuckles based on the diameter of the shank.
Note how the use of hook end fittings reduces capacity.
Table 8
TURNBUCKLES
– Weldless Construction
– Forged Alloy Steel
WLL of Any Combination

End Fitting, WLL of Any Turnbuckle
of Jaw End Fittings, Eye End
Stock Diameter Having a Hook End Fitting
Fittings and Stub End Fittings
(Inches) (Lbs)
(Lbs)
1/4 500 400

5/16 800 700
3/8 1,200 1,000
1/2 2,200 1,500
5/8 3,500 2,250
3/4 5,200 3,000
7/8 7,200 4,000
1 10,000 5,000
1 1/4 15,200 5,000
1 1/2 21,400 7,500
1 3/4 28,000 –
2 37,000 –
2 1/2 60,000 –
2 3/4 75,000 –
Figure 60 shows the areas of a turnbuckle that require special attention during inspection.
Check for cracks & bends
Check for thread

damage & bent rods
Check for thread

damage & bent rods
Check for thread

damage & bent rods
Check for cracks & deformations
INSPECTION AREAS
Figure 60
84
Spreader and Equalizer Beams
Spreader beams are usually used to support long loads during lifts. They eliminate the hazard of
the load tipping, sliding, or bending as well as the possibility of low sling angles and the tendency
of the slings to crush the load.
Equalizer beams are used to equalize the load in sling legs and to keep equal loads on dual hoist
lines when making tandem lifts.
Spreader and equalizer beams are both normally fabricated to suit a specific application. If a beam
is to be used which has not been designed for the application, make sure that it has adequate
width, depth, length, and material.
The capacity of beams with multiple attachment points depends on the distance between the
points. For example, if the distance between attachment points is doubled, the capacity of the
beam is cut in half.
Spreader Beam Equalizer Beams
Loads in A & B do not change

when beam angle changes.
Loads in C & D will change
if beam angle changes.
85
Hoisting Tips
• Never wrap a wire rope sling completely around a hook. The tight radius will damage the sling.
• Make sure the load is balanced in the hook. Eccentric loading can reduce capacity dangerously
(Figure 61).
Point Loading
CAPACITY IS SEVERELY REDUCED

Figure 61
• Never point-load a hook unless it is designed and rated for such use. Point-loading can cut
capacity by more than half.
• Never wrap the crane hoist rope around the load. Attach the load to the crane hook by slings or
other rigging devices.
• Avoid bending wire rope slings near attached fittings or at eye sections.
• Understand the effect of pull angle on beam load (Figure 62).
Angle of pull affects load on beam.
Angle Load on
of Pull Beam
90° 200 lbs
60° 187 lbs
45° 171 lbs
Figure 62
86
Section 4
Rigging Tools and Devices
n Jacks (ratchet, hydraulic)

n Blocking and Cribbing
n Rollers
n Inclined Planes
n Lever-Operated Hoists
n Chain Hoists
n Grip-Action Hoists (Tirfors)
n Electric Hoists and Pendant Cranes
n Winches
n Anchorage Points
87
Section 4
Rigging Tools and Devices
The Regulations for Construction Projects require that an inspection and maintenance program be
implemented to ensure that rigging equipment is kept in safe condition. Procedures must ensure
that inspection and maintenance have not only been carried out but have been duly recorded.
Rigging operations often involve the use of various tools and devices such as jacks, rollers, hoists,
and winches. Each has its own unique features, uses, and requirements for safe operation and
maintenance.
The construction regulations also require that the manufacturer’s operating instructions for such
tools and devices be available on site. The rigger must read and follow all of these instructions to
operate and maintain the equipment properly. The rigger must also read any warning information
which may be stamped, printed, tagged, or attached to the rigging device.
This section identifies some of the commonly used rigging tools and devices and explains
procedures for their safe operation and maintenance.
88
Jacks
While there are a great many types of jacks, the ratchet jack and heavy duty hydraulic jack are the
two types most commonly used in construction.
Ratchet jacks are usually limited to capacities under 20 tons because of the physical effort required
to raise such a load. They do, however, have a much longer travel than hydraulic jacks and can
therefore lift loads higher without having to re-block. Most ratchet jacks have a foot lift or “toe” near
the base to lift loads which are close to the ground. Lifts can be made from the “head” or the “toe”
of the jack. These jacks are often called toe jacks or track jacks (Figure 1).
Head
Lifts can be
made from the
head or the toe
Toe
RATCHET JACK
Figure 1
Do not use extensions or “cheaters” on the handles supplied with ratchet jacks. If cheaters are
necessary the jack is overloaded.
Hydraulic jacks are very popular in construction because they are quite compact and can lift very
heavy loads. They are readily available in capacities ranging from a few tons to 100 tons. Some
specialty units have capacities up to 1,000 tons. Lift heights are usually limited to approximately 8
inches or less but some can go as high as 36 inches (Figure 2).
SELF-CONTAINED HYDRAULIC JACK

Figure 2
89
Hydraulic jacks are also available in low profile models that can be positioned under a load close
to the ground (Figure 3). Also known as “button jacks”, these are useful for lifting a load high
enough to get a regular jack in place.
External Pump
Low Profile Jack
“BUTTON” JACK
Figure 3
Like ratchet jacks, hydraulic jacks are available with toe lifts (Figure 4).
HYDRAULIC JACK WITH TOE LIFT

Figure 4
The pumps powering hydraulic jacks may be contained in the jacks or be separate external power
units. Separate units may be hand-operated or electrically powered, but the self-contained pumps
are always hand-operated.
With all types of hydraulic jacks it is critical that no further force be applied after the ram has run
its full travel. The resultant high pressure in the hydraulic fluid can damage the seals and, in the
case of external power units, burst the hoses.
Most external power units are equipped, however, with pressure relief valves. At the factory one
valve will be set at the absolute maximum pressure while another will be adjustable to lower
settings by the user. Make sure you are familiar with the operation of this safety feature.
Most hydraulic jacks can be fitted with a gauge on the housing or at the pump to monitor hydraulic
pressure. When used with a given jack, the gauges can be calibrated to measure the approximate
load on the unit.
90
Hoses connecting pumps to jacks require careful attention. Make sure they are free of kinks and
cracks. Check the couplings, especially at the crimp. This area is prone to cracking and is often the
weak link in the hose assembly. Threads should also be checked for damage, wear, cross-threading
and tightness. Remember that these hoses have to withstand pressures up to 10,000 psi.
Don’t use hoses that are unnecessarily long. Shorter hoses will leave the area less congested and
reduce the chance of accidental damage.
The handles on jacks or hand-operated pump units are designed so that the rated capacity and
pressure can be obtained with little physical effort. Don’t use extensions or “cheaters” on the
handles. Again, if the load can’t be raised with the handle supplied the jack is overloaded.
Jacks should only be used in a true vertical position for lifting. Otherwise side-loading can cause
the piston to rub against the housing. If this happens, the piston will be scored and allow fluid to
leak at the seal which may cause the jack to slip.
Be extremely careful when using hydraulic jacks in welding areas or around corrosive chemicals.
Sparks or acids can cause pitting on the ram or damage hoses.
Hydraulic jacks are generally not equipped with check valves. But check valves can be installed in
the hoses of an external pump and are recommended. Alternatively, some hydraulic jacks have
retaining nuts that can be screwed against the housing to hold the load for a short time.
Jacks should never be used for long-term support of a load. Blocking is much more stable and
safe. Whenever possible, the load should be progressively blocked as jacking proceeds. This will
allow for the unexpected.
Always jack loads one end at a time. Never jack loads one side at a time as this will be far less
stable than jacking the ends.
If it is necessary to work or even reach under a load on jacks, place safety blocking under the load
as a precaution.
Make sure timbers used for blocking or cribbing are long enough to distribute the load over a large
enough area and provide sufficient stability. Crib height should not exceed the length of timbers
used.
All jacks should be thoroughly inspected periodically, depending on how they are used. For regular
use at one location they should be inspected every six months or more frequently if the lifts
approach capacity. Jacks sent out for special jobs should be inspected when received and when
returned. Jacks subjected to high loads or shock should be inspected immediately.
Because jack bases are relatively small, care must be taken to ensure that the floor or ground can
withstand the high pressures often associated with jacking operations. Blocking or matting under
the jacks will distribute the load over a greater area and reduce bearing pressure.
91
Jacks – Inspection
Whether ratchet or hydraulic, all jacks should be inspected before each shift or use. Check for:
• improper engagement or extreme wear of pawl and rack

• cracked or broken rack teeth
• cracked or damaged plunger
• leaking hydraulic fluid
• scored or damaged plunger
• swivel heads and caps that don’t function properly
• damaged or improperly assembled accessory equipment
Remember: When using jacks, always try to block as you go. Never use jacks for long-term
support. Block properly instead.
Blocking and Cribbing
Blocking or cribbing must
• be sufficient to support load

• be set on firm, level ground or floor
• be close together
Correct
• be dry and free of grease
• be stacked no higher than the length of the timbers used
• follow the jacking process
• distribute load over enough area to provide stability.
Note: In some cases, solid blocking may be required.
Incorrect
92
Rollers
Rollers can be used for moving loads horizontally or on slight inclines, provided the surface is firm
and even. Rollers may be aluminum or steel round stock, heavy steel pipe, or a manufactured
caster unit (Figure 5).
CASTER-TYPE ROLLER
Figure 5
Cylinder rollers are useful for short distances or where the load will have to negotiate corners. The
rollers can be placed on angles to swing the ends of the load, allowing turns in tight areas (Figure 6).
CYLINDER-TYPE ROLLERS
Figure 6
Cylinder rollers should be round, true and smooth to minimize the force required to move the load.
Caster rollers can be supplied in a number of configurations for flat surfaces, tracks, I-beams or
channels. They create very little friction and allow heavy loads to be moved with little force. In fact,
the rigger may sometimes require more friction to provide an extra measure of control.
The most important aspect in rolling is control of the load. Make sure that all equipment including
slings and hardware is sufficient to handle the loads that will be developed at each stage of the
operation. Always attach a second means of restraint such as a tirfor or winch to the load to allow
for the unexpected. The possibility of shock loads should be considered when sizing winches or
tirfors for back-up protection.
Check the condition of floors or ground before using rollers. Bearing pressure can be reduced by
using more rollers and large steel or aluminum plate to distribute the load. Make sure the joints in
the plates or skids are staggered. It is often necessary to assess the structure supporting floors.
Temporary shoring may be necessary.
93
Inclined Planes
The method used to calculate the required pull up an incline is only approximate. Though widely
used because of its simplicity, the method yields values higher than the actual force required. The
formula is more accurate for slight inclines (1:5) than steep inclines (1:1). Table 1 shows the
difference between the actual pull required and the pull calculated with friction of 5%.
TABLE 1
Actual Force versus Force Calculated by Simplified Method with 5% Friction
Simplified Method F = .250W

Actual Force F = .245W
Error: 2%

Error: 5%

Error: 12%
Simplified Method F = 1.05W

Error: 42%
For most applications the simplified method is adequate because the value used for friction is itself
only approximate.
Formula (5% Friction)

F = W x H/L + .05W
where
F = Required Force
H = Height
L = Length
W = Weight of Load
Table 2 lists some examples of coefficients of friction. Note that some of the combinations of
materials have a considerable range of values.
TABLE 2
Examples of Friction Coefficients
Steel on Steel 40-60%

Leather on Metal 60%
Wood on Stone 40%
Iron on Stone 30-70%
Grease Plates 15%
Load on Wheels or Rollers 2-5%
94
Lever-Operated Hoists or Come-Alongs
Come-alongs are a very portable means of lifting or pulling loads short distances. They can be
used vertically, horizontally or on an angle. Otherwise all points covered in the section on chain
hoists apply equally to come-alongs.
A come-along that requires the use of a cheater or the help of another worker to move a load is
inadequate for the job. Use a come-along with a larger capacity.
Lever-Operated Hoist – Safety Precautions

• Inspect for defects.
• Do not use cheater on hoist handle.
• Do not overload. Working load limit (WLL) should be marked on device.
• Do not apply the load to the tip of the hook.
• Do not use the hoist chain as a sling or choker.
• Make sure of your footing before operating the hoist.
• Do not leave the suspended load unattended.
• Keep hoist chain straight.
• Stand clear of load and pulling path of hoist chain.
• Keep upper and lower hooks in a straight line so that the frame is free to swivel.
• Do not use a hoist with a twisted, kinked, damaged, or worn chain.
• Ensure that anchorage and structure will support the load.
CHAIN HOISTS
Chain hoists are useful because the load can be stopped and kept stationary at any point. Because
of their slow rate of travel, chain hoists also allow precise vertical placement.
Chain hoists should be rigged so that there is a straight line between the upper and lower hooks.
They are intended for use in a vertical or near vertical position only. If rigged at an angle, the upper
hook can be damaged at the shank and the throat may open up. If the gear housing is resting
against an object while under load it can be damaged or broken (Figure 10).
Always make sure that the hoist is hanging freely.
95
Before using the hoist, inspect the chain for nicks, gouges, twists, and wear. Check the chain guide
for wear. Hooks should be measured for signs of opening up. Ensure that the hooks swivel freely
and are equipped with safety catches. If the hoist has been subjected to shock loads or dropped,
it should be inspected thoroughly before being put back in service. Check the load brake by raising
the load a couple of inches off the ground and watching for creep.
If the hoist chain requires replacement, follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. Different
manufacturers use different pitches for their load chain. Chain intended for one brand of hoist will not
mesh properly with the lift wheel of another brand and the hoist will not operate properly, if at all.
The load chain on chain hoists is case-hardened to reduce surface wear and is unsuitable for any
other use. Load chain will stretch 3% before failing, whereas Grade 8 alloy chain will stretch at least
15%. Load chains are too brittle for any other application. Any load chain removed from a hoist
should be destroyed by cutting it into short pieces. Never try to repair a load chain yourself.
Welding will destroy the heat treatment of the chain entirely.
Figure 10
WRONG RIGHT
Chain Hoist – Safety Precautions

• Inspect for wear and damage regularly.
• Do not overload.
• Do not leave a suspended load unattended.
• Do not stand under the load.
• Do not use the hoist chain as a sling or choker.
• Do not apply the load to the tip of the hook.
• Avoid hoisting on angles.
• Chain hoists must be used in the vertical position.
• Only one operator should pull on a single hand chain at one time.
• Ensure that load chain is properly seated in wheels or sprockets before lifting.
• Ensure that anchorage and structure will support the load.
• Maintain the chain hoist according to manufacturer’s specifications.
96
Grip Action Hoists or Tirfors
Grip-action hoists, commonly known by the trade name Tirfor, are useful for long lifts or pulls since
they act on a continuous length of wire rope. Like the come-along, they can be used in any
orientation. The tirfor can draw rope through the unit, as a come-along draws chain, or pull itself
along a fixed rope, as on a swingstage (Figure 11).
TIRFOR APPLICATIONS
Figure 11
Tirfors are available with capacities ranging from 3/4 to 3-1/2 tons. The rope can be reeved through
a block system to gain mechanical advantage and increase the capacity of the unit.
Tirfors are operated by two levers – one for forward motion, the other for reverse. The levers
operate two jaws which alternately grip and draw the rope through the unit. Figure 12 illustrates
the action of the jaws on the rope. A third lever releases both jaws to allow rope to be installed,
tensioned, or disengaged.
THE TIRFOR PRINCIPLE

Figure 12
97
Tirfors can be fitted with hydraulic rams to operate the levers. Up to four units can be operated
simultaneously from a single hydraulic power supply (Figure 13).
HYDRAULICALLY ACTUATED TIRFORS WITH COMMON POWER SOURCE

Figure 13
Another type of grip-action hoist uses discs to clamp and drive the rope in a continuous motion
(Figure 14). These are available with electric, air, or hydraulic motors. Disc type hoists provide
greater rope speed but less capacity than the jaw type.
DISC-TYPE HOIST OR PULLER

Figure 14
Tirfor ropes are specifically designed for the clamping and pulling forces applied to them. The
ropes are galvanized and unlubricated and have very tight diameter tolerance. No other rope
should ever be used on tirfors.
Handle tirfor rope carefully to ensure that it does not kink. Kinked rope will jam in the mechanism
and prevent the rope from passing through the hoist. Ropes must be kept free from dirt and oil to
ensure smooth, safe operation.
Like chain falls and come-alongs tirfors should be tested under load to ensure that the unit
functions properly in both directions and that there is no slippage.
98
Electric Wire Rope Hoists, Electric Chain Hoists, Pendant Cranes
Electric wire rope and electric chain hoists may be suspended from a fixed point or a trolley. The
trolley may be motorized but very often the hoist is moved by tugging gently on the pendant. These
units can only move along a fixed straight line (beam).
Pendant cranes, on the other hand, trolley along a bridge (east-west) which travels on rails (north-
south). Pendant cranes have greater capacity than the other hoists and usually have two or more
parts of line.
Apart from these differences, the devices are quite similar in operating procedures and
precautions. Hoist operators must adhere to the following points.
• Know and never exceed the working load limit of the hoisting equipment.
• Ensure that controls work properly without excessive play, delay or effort.
• Check pendant control cable for cuts, kinking, or signs of wear.
• Check hoist cables for fraying, kinking, crushing, and twisting between the cable and the drum.
• Look at the hoist drum for proper alignment and stacking of the cable.
• Inspect the hook for cracks, bending, or distortion, and the safety latch for proper operation.
• Don’t try to lengthen or repair the load chain or rope.
• Read and follow manufacturer’s instructions and all instructions and warnings on the hoist.
• Position the hoist directly over the load.
• After the hook is placed in the lifting ring, apply slight pressure to the hoist to ensure that the
lifting ring is seated in the bottom of the hook and that the hook is properly aligned.
• Between lifts, check whether the rope is properly seated on the drum.
• Ensure that the intended path of travel is clear of people and obstructions and that the intended
destination is ready to receive the load.
• Check brakes for excessive drift.
• Ensure proper clearance for movement.
• Position yourself on the pendant side of the hoist to get maximum clearance from the load and
to prevent entanglement of cables.
• Avoid sudden starts, stops, or reverses.
• Raise the load only high enough to avoid obstructions.
• Do not hoist loads over workers; wait until the area is vacated.
• Be alert for any variation in hoist operation and any possible malfunction.
• Do not leave a load suspended in the air. If a short delay is unavoidable, lock the controls.
• Do not allow unqualified personnel to operate hoists.
• Never operate hoist to extreme limits of chain or rope.
• Avoid sharp contact between two hoists, between hoist and end post, and between hooks and
hoist body.
• Never use the hoist rope or chain as a sling.
• Never use chain or rope as a ground for welding or touch a live welding electrode to the chain
or rope.
• Avoid swinging the load or hook when travelling the hoist.
• Pull in a straight line so that neither hoist body, load chain nor rope is angled around anything.
Some hoists are equipped with limit switches. Generally these devices stop the wind automatically
at its maximum allowable up position, down position and travel limits (if rail-mounted). Check limit
switches daily for correct operation.
99
Whenever the operator does not have a clear view of the load and its intended path of travel, a
signaller must direct operations. Signals for pendant cranes differ from those for mobile and tower
cranes since machine movements are different (Figure 15). Make sure that everyone involved
knows the signals required for pendant cranes.
STOP.
Arm extended, palm DOG EVERYTHING.
down, move hand Clasp hands in front
right and left. of body.
MOVE SLOWLY.
Use one hand to give
any motion signal and
place other hand
motionless in front of HOIST.
hand, giving the With forearm vertical,
motion signal. (HOIST forefinger pointing up,
SLOWLY SHOWN AS move hand in small
EXAMPLE). horizontal circles.
MULTIPLE
TROLLEYS.
LOWER. Hold up one finger for
With arm extended block marked “1”,
downward, fore–finger and two fingers for
pointing down, move block marked “2”.
hand in small Regular signals
horizontal circles. follow.
TRAVEL.
Arm extended TROLLEY TRAVEL.
forward, hands open Palm up, fingers
and slightly raised, closed, thumb
making pushing pointing in direction
motion in direction of of motion, jerk hand
travel. horizontally.
SIGNALS FOR PENDANT CRANES
Figure 15
100
Winches
Base-mounted winches, or tuggers, are a compact, versatile tool for many hoisting and pulling
operations. They are particularly useful in areas not accessible to mobile cranes or where there is
not enough headroom for a crane to operate. Figure 16 shows a tugger and snatch block
arrangement for hoisting. Make sure that the rope leaves the drum at a downward angle and that
the loose end is securely anchored.
Figure 16
The forces on snatch blocks and their anchorage points depend on the angle by which the direction
of pull is changed. The diagrams below indicate how snatch block loads vary with rope angle.
1000 POUNDS
1000 POUNDS
Wire rope used on tuggers should have an independent wire rope core to resist crushing as it is
compressed by successive layers of rope on the drum.
101
Anchorage Points
Hoists, winches, tirfors, and other rigging devices require secure anchorage points. Anchors may
be overhead, in the floor, or at lateral points in walls or other structures. The arrangement may
involve columns, beams, beam clamps, welded lugs, slings, or block and tackle. Whatever the
method, riggers must be certain of the loads involved and the anchorage required.
Load on Structure
The following examples illustrate how to calculate the load on the structure in two typical
applications.
Lead Line Load = Load + Parts of Line at Load
Lead Line Load A = 500 ÷ 1

= 500 Ib
Lead Line Load B = 6000 ÷ 4

= 1500 lb
Load on Structure = Load + Lead Line Load
Load on Structure A = 500 + 500

= 1000 Ib
Load on Structure B = 6000 + 1500

= 7500 Ib
102
Columns
Columns are generally not designed to withstand significant lateral forces. Anchorage points
should be placed at the base, near a connection to a beam or other lateral support (Figure 1).
Because the member is already in compression, the effect of a small deflection is amplified and the
column could buckle.
ANCHOR PLACEMENT ON COLUMNS

Figure 1
Beams
Load beams near column or other vertical support points to minimize bending (Figure 2). If the
beam is an I section, it may be necessary to weld stiffeners to the web to withstand the additional
shear force applied (Figure 3).
ANCHOR PLACEMENT ON BEAMS WEB STIFFENER

Figure 2 Figure 3
103
Beam Clamps
Beam clamps provide a very secure anchorage point if used correctly. They are commonly
available with capacities up to 12 tons and have various jaw widths. Figure 5 shows different types.
The jaws are usually designed for a range of flange widths. For example, one clamp might fit
flanges 4-1/2” to 9” wide. Clamps should never be used on flanges outside the range specified as
they will not afford sufficient grip on the member.
BEAM CLAMPS
Figure 5
Most beam clamps are designed for use at 90° to the flange. For applications requiring an angle
loading, make sure that the clamp is designed for it and that the beam can withstand it (Figure 6).
LOAD LOAD
IN LINE LOADING
Figure 6
Be particularly careful that the load does not deform the flange. This is most likely to occur with
light sections where the flange is wide and thin.
Beam clamps should be centred on the flange and properly seated.
Manufacturers are required to mark beam clamps with working load limits. But the ratings apply
only to the clamps. The capacity of the beam must be evaluated separately.
104
Slings
Slings are a common method of anchoring equipment to a structure. The double wrap basket hitch
is the preferred method since the load in the sling is shared on two legs and the double wrap
distributes the load on the member. It is also less prone to slippage than a single choker or single
basket hitch. Make sure that the sling is long enough to avoid sharp angles in the legs (Figure 7).
Avoid sharp angles here
LASHING AROUND COLUMN OR BEAM

Figure 7
The use of softeners will protect the member and the sling from damage and increase the radius
of bending in the sling. Figure 8 shows how strength diminishes as wire rope is bent around smaller
and smaller diameters.
STRENGTH EFFICIENCY OF WIRE ROPE

WHEN BENT OVER PINS OR SHEAVES OF VARIOUS SIZES
Figure 8
105
Welded Lugs
Lugs welded to a beam or column must be compatible with the member in metallic composition.
The appropriate welding rod must also be used. The lug should be welded on the centre line of the
flange, in line with the web (Figure 9). Keep loading in line with the lug. Avoid side loading.
LUG PLACEMENT ON I SECTION

Figure 9
Whatever the method of attachment, it is important to realize that the structure is usually not
designed for the additional loads applied. The only way to be sure is through evaluation by a
structural engineer.
106
Section 5
Introduction to Crane Operations
n Responsibilities
n Basic Types and Configurations
n Hazards in Crane Operating Areas
n Working near Powerlines
n Factors Affecting Crane Capacity
n Setup Summary
n Machine Selection
n Signalling
107
Section 5
Introduction to Crane Operations
Crane operation carries with it a greater potential for disaster than nearly any other activity on a
construction project. Crane accidents are often the most costly construction accidents when
measured either in lives or in dollars. All personnel involved in crane operations must understand
their jobs, their responsibilities, and their part in the overall safety of each lift.
Preparation begins with a clear definition of responsibilities. No single set of guidelines can cover
every detail of the many different types of crane operations. But this section spells out primary
responsibilities for the major parties involved – owners, operators, site supervision, and workers.
Responsibilities entail knowledge. Riggers must be trained and experienced. They must know how to:
• establish weights
• judge distances, heights, and clearances
• select tackle and hardware suitable to the load
• rig the load safely.
Signallers must be competent and capable of directing the crane and load to ensure safe, efficient
operation. Knowledge of the hand signals for hoisting is a must, as it is for operators.
The crane operator is generally responsible for the safety of the operation as soon as the load is
lifted clear of the ground. Whenever there is reasonable cause to believe that the lift may be
dangerous or unsafe, the operator must refuse to proceed until the concern has been reported to
the supervisor, any hazard has been corrected, and safe conditions have been confirmed.
This section includes information of use to riggers, operators, and others involved either directly or
indirectly in crane operations. The information covers major responsibilities, hazards and
safeguards in crane operating areas, factors that affect crane capacity, pinch points and other
hazards around equipment, considerations for safe setup, requirements for providing signallers,
and the international hand signals for hoisting.
108
Responsibilities
Crane Owner
The crane owner must ensure that
• safe, suitable equipment is provided to meet the requirements of the job
• operators are capable and aware of their responsibilities
• maintenance, repair, transport, assembly, and other personnel are trained and experienced to
handle their specific jobs
• training and upgrading are provided for all personnel
• responsibilities and authority are clearly designated for each crew
• a thorough equipment maintenance and inspection program is in operation, including logbooks
and other required documentation
• client and site supervision are capable and aware of their responsibilities
• equipment is maintained and inspected in accordance with manufacturer’s requirements and
applicable regulations.
Operator
The operator is generally responsible for the safety of the crane operation as soon as the load is
lifted. Operators must know:
• the particular model of crane they operate, its characteristics, functions, and limitations
• the information in the crane’s operating manual
• the crane’s load chart, including all notes and warnings, and how to calculate or determine the
crane’s actual net capacity in every possible configuration
• proper inspection and maintenance procedures to be followed in accordance with the guidelines
of manufacturer and owner
• any site conditions that may affect crane operation, including the presence of overhead
powerlines
• basic load rigging procedures.
In addition, the Operator must:
• inform the owner, in writing, of any problems with the machine, preferably in the machine’s
logbook
• record in the logbook all inspection, maintenance, and work done on the crane in the field
• check that the site is properly prepared for crane operation
• review plans and requirements with site supervision
• find out the load and rigging weight and where the load is to be placed.
109
[Although operators are NOT responsible for determining load weights, they become responsible
if they do so or if they lift the load without checking the weight with site supervision.]
• determine the number of parts of hoist line required

• check the load chart to ensure that the crane has enough net capacity for each planned lift
• select the best boom, jib, and crane configuration to suit load, site, and lift conditions
• assume responsibility for assembling, setting up, and rigging the crane properly
• follow the manufacturer’s operating instructions in accordance with the load chart
• consider all factors that may reduce crane capacity and adjust the load weight accordingly
• maintain communication with signallers
• ensure that the oiler is in a safe place during operation
• operate in a smooth, controlled, and safe manner
• shut down and secure the machine properly when leaving it unattended.
Site Supervision
Site supervision (foreman, rigger foreman, lead hand of the trade involved, etc.) has overall
responsibility for the lift and must therefore plan all phases of the operation. Specifically, site
supervisors must:
• supervise all work involving the crane

• determine the correct load weight and radius and inform the operator
• ensure that the rigging crew is experienced and capable of establishing weights; judging
distances, heights, and clearances; selecting tackle and lifting gear suitable to the loads; rigging
the load safely and securely
• supervise the rigging crew
• ensure that the load is properly rigged
• ensure that signallers are capable of directing the crane and load, including use of the
international hand signals where other forms of communication are not possible
• designate signallers and identify them to the operator
• ensure the safety of the rigging crew and other personnel affected by crane operations
• keep the public and all non-essential personnel clear of the crane during operation
• control the movements of all personnel in the area affected by the lift
• ensure all required precautions when the lift is near powerlines
• ensure that all personnel involved in the operation understand their jobs, responsibilities, and
their role in the overall safety of each lift.
110
Basic Types and Configurations
The evolution of the mobile crane has led to many types and designs to satisfy both the general
as well as the specific needs of construction and industrial operations. This manual is concerned
with mobile cranes used for construction purposes as well as industrial applications.
The basic operational characteristics of all mobile cranes are essentially the same. They include:
• Adjustable boom lengths

• Adjustable boom angles
• Ability to lift and lower loads
• Ability to swing loads
• Ability to travel about the job site under their own power.
Within the broad category of mobile cranes there have evolved the following basic types and
configurations:
• Boom Trucks
• Industrial Cranes
• Carrier-Mounted Lattice Boom Cranes
• Crawler-Mounted Lattice Boom Cranes
• Carrier-Mounted Telescopic Boom Cranes
• Crawler-Mounted Telescopic Boom Cranes
• Rough Terrain Cranes
• Mobile Tower Cranes
• Heavy Lift Mobile Cranes.
111
Boom Trucks
Unlike all other mobiles, these cranes are

mounted on carriers not designed solely for
crane service. They are mounted on a
commercial truck chassis that has been
specially strengthened to accept the crane.
They are, however, a type of mobile crane
with respectable capacity and boom length.
Included in this basic type of machine are

two common configurations.
Telescoping
Boom
Section
TELESCOPING BOOM
Boom sections are usually Base or Heel Section
telescoped either manually
or hydraulically.
Boom Elevating or Lift Cylinder

Swing Circle
Turret or Pedestal
Commercial Truck Chassis
Rear Stabilizers Front Stabilizers
Knuckle Boom or Articulating Boom
KNUCKLE BOOM
The boom articulates (folds) under hydraulic Hydraulic Cylinders
pressure and may or may not be equipped
with a powered drum and wire rope.
Swing Circle
Turret or Pedestal
Commercial Truck Chassis
Stabilizers
112
Industrial Cranes
These cranes are primarily intended for operation

in industrial locations where working surfaces are
significantly better than those found on most
construction sites.
Although these cranes will not be analyzed

specifically, their characteristics are basically
Telescopic Boom Sections
identical to those of telescopic boom mobiles,
which are covered in detail.
Base (Heel) Section
Boom
Elevating or Partial or 360° Swing
Lift Cylinders
Outrigger Rear Steer or Front

Equipped and Rear Steer
Telescopic Boom PICK AND CARRY

Sections
Telescopic Boom Sections
These cranes have

low centres of
gravity to permit
operation in narrow
Base (Heel) Section aisles or runways
without riggings. Base (Heel) Section
Fixed Boom
Partial or 360° Swing
Carry Deck
Carry Deck
Rear Steer or Front

Outrigger Rear Steer or Front and Rear Steer
Equipped and Rear Steer
CARRY DECK – ROTATING BOOM CARRY DECK – FIXED BOOM
113
Carrier-Mounted Lattice Boom Cranes
This “truck type” carrier must not be

confused with the ordinary commercial
truck chassis. It is specially designed for
crane service and the heavy loads these
cranes are required to withstand.
Carrier-mounted cranes are also

commonly referred to as “Truck Cranes”,
“Conventional Cranes”, “Friction Cranes”,
Boom Head or Tip Sheaves
“Mobile Cranes”, etc.
Auxiliary or
Whip Line
Boom Head or Tip Section
Headache Ball
or Overhaul Ball
Main Hoist Line or Deflector (Idler) Sheaves

Main Falls
Load Block or
Main Hook
Block
Auxiliary Hoist Line

The upperworks (superstructure)
Main Hoist Line of the crane refers to the crane
structure that lies above the
swing circle. It does not include
the carrier.
Lattice Boom Inserts

or Sections Boom Pendants (Stays)
Bridle
Live Mast
Boom Hoist Reeving

Boom Stops or Backstops
Heel, Base, Butt or Boom Foot Section
Counterweight
Swing Circle, Ring Gear, Roller Path or Turntable Carrier
Center Pin, Center of Rotation, Axis of Rotation
Mid-Point (Intermediate) Suspension

(Necessary when raising very
long booms off the ground.
They prevent the boom from
sagging excessively.) Jib Mast, Strut or Gantry
Jib Backstay Pendants
Bail Boom Pendants
Equalizer or Bridle Jib Forestay Pendants
Jib
Backhitch Gantry
Auxiliary, Jib or Whip Line
114
Carrier-Mounted Lattice Boom Cranes (continued)
Bridle
Live Mast
Boom Hoist Reeving
Boom Stops
Machine Deck (houses hoist machinery)
The entire rotating structure of

the crane above the swing
circle is called the upperworks,
Boom Foot Pins upper, superstructure or
& Lugs revolving superstructure.
Outrigger
Cylinder Boom Pendants
(Jack, Ram)
Equalizer,
Bridle, Outer Bail, or
Outrigger Pad, Floating Harness
Front Bumper Outrigger Float, Pontoon
Counterweight Beam
Inner Bail, Bridle

or Harness
Gantry or “A” Frame
Backhitch
Lattice Members
Outrigger Jack
Lattices or
Lacings
Main Chord Outrigger Box
Diagonal
The square frame at Pin Connection Lug
each end of a boom
insert is commonly
referred to as the
picture frame.
115
Crawler-Mounted Lattice Boom Cranes
Except for their base and method of load

rating, the upperworks of these machines
are identical to the carrier-mounted units.
Jib Tip Sheave

Jib or Whip Line
Jib Hook & Headache

Ball or Overhaul Ball
Jib Forestay Pendant or Forestay
Jib Tip Section
Jiib Mid Section

Jib Mast (Gantry)
Deflector (Idler) Sheave Jib Heel Section
Boom Tip Sheaves (Head Sheaves)
Jib Backstay Pendant or Backstay
Main Hoist Line

Boom Pendants
Main Block or Main Hook
Equalizer or Outer Bail
Boom Hoist Reeving
Inner Bail
Backhitch
Upperworks or superstructure
Gantry refers to the entire crane
structure above the
swing circle.
Boom Hoist Rope
Counterweight Ring Gear, Turntable, Swing Circle

Machine Deck
Illustration shows a unit

with traction shaft and
chain drive but hydrostatic
track drive systems are
also available.
Carbody, Truck Frame Lower Frame, Axle Track Carrier Roller

Track Shoe
Ring Gear
Drive Chain
Idler Roller
Tread Sprocket
Track Rollers, Traction Shaft Side Frame or Drive Sprocket
Support Rollers
116
Carrier-Mounted Telescopic Boom Cranes
These machines are also mounted on specially

designed carriers. They can be equipped with
a variety of jibs and boom extensions which
can be stowed on or under the heel section
of the main boom.
Main Boom Tip (Head)
#3 Power Telescoping
Section or Planed Section
Main Hoist Line

“A” Frame Jib
Jib Forestay Pendant

#2 Power Telescoping Section
Jib Mast or Gantry

Whip Line or Main Hook or Hook Block
Jib Line or
Boom Extension Tip
Auxiliary
or Head Sheave
Hoist Line
Jib Backstay Pendant
#1 Power Telescoping Section
Jib Hook &
Headache Ball
Removable Boom Extension
Main Boom Tip Sheave Main Boom Tip
Jib Line (Whip Line)

Main Hoist Lines
Heel, Base, or
Foot Section
Main Hoist Line
Main Hoist
Main Hook or Hook Block
Boom Hoist or Lift Cylinders Auxiliary Hoist
Counterweight
Upperworks
Carrier
Center Pin, Center of Rotation, Axis of Rotation Boom Foot Pins, Hinge Pins
Telescopic Jib
Boom Extension Tip Sheave
“A” Frame Jib
Jib Pendant
Boom Extension
Auxiliary or Whip Line
Deflection Sheave
Auxiliary Hook &
Headache Ball
117
Carrier-Mounted Telescopic Boom Cranes (continued)
Luffing jib can be raised or lowered independently

of the boom. In this case the crane’s auxiliary
winch is used as the jib hoist.
Jib Tip Section

Lattice Jib
Jib Heel or Base Section
Jib Forestay Pendant
Jib Mast or Gantry
Jib Backstay Pendant
118
Carrier-Mounted Telescopic Boom Cranes (continued)
Carrier-mounted telescopic boom cranes are

subdivided by the type of head section (boom
tip section) they are equipped with.
On full power
hydraulic booms
the end section
(tip or fly) extends
through its full
range as the
whole boom
extends.
FULL POWER BOOMS
PINNED BOOMS
…or fully extended

at all times. Its
length cannot be
On “pinned booms”, varied with the
the end (tip or fly) total boom length.
section is either fully
retracted at all times
(regardless of main
boom length)…
These sections
extend and retract
under power through
their full range.
119
Crawler-Mounted Telescopic Boom Cranes
The upperworks of these cranes are identical

to the carrier-mounted telescopic boom units.
Their bases and the method used to load rate
them differ, however.
Auxiliary Hoist Line
Boom Extension
Main Hoist Line Main Boom
Main Hoist
Auxiliary Hoist
Counterweight
Side Frame
Telescoping Boom Sections Crawler Tracks Carbody, Truck Frame
Base, Heel, or Foot Section
Swing Circle
Center Pin, Center of Rotation, Axis of Rotation
120
Rough Terrain Cranes
The rough terrain crane’s oversized tires

facilitate movement across the rough terrain
of construction sites and other broken ground.
Their short wheel base and crab-steering
improve maneuverability. In “pick and carry”
operations on rough terrain, however, they are
still subject to the same operating restrictions
that apply to other cranes.
Like carrier-mounted telescopic boom cranes,

rough terrain units are available with either full
power booms or pinned booms and the same
types of jibs and boom extensions. There are
two basic configurations.
FIXED CAB
Counterweight
Swing Circle
Operator’s Cab (Fixed)
Outrigger Beam
Outrigger Pads, Floats, Pontoons Outrigger Frame
121
Rough Terrain Cranes (continued)
ROTATING CAB
Boom Extension in
Stowed Position
Main Winch
Boom Hoist or Lify Cylinders
Auxiliary Winch
Counterweight
Operator’s Cab Rotates with Upperworks
Engine “On Carrier”
Outrigger Box
Pads, Floats, Pontoons Outrigger Beam
“A” Frame Jib in

Stowed Position
Operator’s Cab Rotates

with Upperworks
Engine
Cantilever Type
Outriggers
122
Rough Terrain Cranes (continued)
Like the carrier-mounted telescopic boom

cranes, rough terrain cranes can be equipped
with either full power booms or pinned booms
as well as with a variety of jibs and boom
extensions which can also be stowed on or
under the heel section of the main boom.
Boom Extension
in Stowed
Position
Boom Extension &

“A” Frame Jib in
Stowed Position
Boom Extension Mounted
“A” Frame Jib in Stowed Position
123
Heavy Lift Mobile Cranes
These cranes combine the best features of

derricks and lattice boom mobile cranes.
Typically they use very large extended
counterweights, masts and often roller rings
that move the boom’s fulcrum and the crane’s
tipping axis further away from the center of gravity.
Pendants Equalizer or
Bridle
Boom Hoist Reeving
Mast
Boom Pendants Counterweight

Pendants
Equalizer or Bridle
Boom Hoist
Reeving
Mast Counterweight
Counterweight
Pendants
Boom
Counterweight
Counterweight Roller Ring & Supports

Beam Carrier
124
Tower Cranes
Stewing ring
Fixed (non-stewing) tower
FIXED TOWER
CONFIGURATION
FIXED TOWER
WITH LUFFING BOOM
125
Hazards in Crane Operating Areas
Over 50% of all mobile crane accidents are the result of mistakes made when the crane was being
set up.
All of these accidents can be prevented by following the manufacturer’s recommendations for
assembly and dismantling, by using the correct components, and by observing the precautions
outlined in this section.
Remember: Improvising or taking shortcuts in assembly and setup can be fatal.
Use the checklist on the next page for reviewing the factors to consider in planning for crane and
hoisting operations.
126
PRE-JOB CHECKLIST
Whoever requires that a crane be used-project engineer, site superintendent, foreperson,
building owner, contractor, architect, or consultant – is as responsible for its safe operation as
the operator.
If a working area has not been adequately prepared for the crane, the operation will be unsafe,
regardless of machine capacity or operator skill. Consider the following factors.
• Can the machine get onto the site? Is the access road adequately graded and compacted?
Is the access ramp too steep?
• Will the machine have to travel over buried pipes, sewers, mains, etc., that might be
crushed?
• Is there room for the crane to maneuver in its designated position on site? Is there room to
erect or extend the boom? Can trucks hauling boom sections get into position and be
unloaded safely? Is there enough room and timber blocking to store boom sections
properly?
• Will an area be designated and roped off for use by the erection crew? Will it be large enough
for components to be stacked, handled, and assembled without endangering other site
personnel?
• Has the crane’s position been identified for every lift? What will the maximum operating
radius be? Will there be at least two feet of clearance between the counterweight and
nearest object? What obstacles or other hazards might be posed by existing buildings or
structures?
• Are operating areas graded, compacted, and levelled? Are they away from shoring
locations, excavations, slopes, trenches, embankments, etc., which could subside under
machine weight and vibration? Are operating areas over cellars, buried pipes, mains, etc.,
that may collapse?
• Will clearance and visibility be problems where other cranes, hoists, or equipment will be
operating? Will operators have a clear view of other equipment to avoid collisions and keep
hoisting ropes and loads from fouling? Will operators be provided with direct communication
to warn one another of impending danger? Will the overall lifting program be laid out,
controlled, and prioritized by one person in contact with all operators and each rigging
crew?
• Will crane operating areas be away from public traffic and access? Will signallers and
warning signs be provided when crane operations may overlap with public areas? Has
police cooperation been arranged to provide traffic and pedestrian control?
• Have operators been warned and have provisions been made to keep cranes from working
within a boom’s length of powerlines without
a) shutting off power
b) having the powerlines insulated, or
c) providing signallers to warn the operator when any part of the crane or load nears the
limits of approach specified by the Regulations for Construction Projects?
Voltage Rating of Powerline Minimum Distance
750 to 150,000 volts 3 metres (10’)

150,001 to 250,000 volts 4.5 metres (15’)
over 250,000 volts 6 metres (20’)
127
Mark the location of all underground services that could be crushed
by the weight of the crane.
Fence or barricade areas in which personnel could be trapped and crushed.
128
Danger Areas
WHENEVER THERE IS THE

DANGER OF PERSONNEL
BEING TRAPPED OR
CRUSHED BY THE
COUNTERWEIGHT WHEN
THE CRANE SWINGS,
THE AREA SHOULD
BE BARRICADED.
MIN. CLEARANCE OF 2 FEET
No unauthorized
personnel in
swing area
during operation
Between counterweight
and carrier
Machinery deck
Outrigger Between upper works

during lowering and carrier
Try to keep personnel

out of this area
KEEP THIS AREA CLEAR OF

UNNECESSARY PERSONNEL.
129
Working Near Powerlines
High voltage electrocution is the largest single cause OPERATORS
of fatalities associated with cranes. All can be Before setting up to operate, look up. If
prevented. The power company or utility may there are powerlines, advise your
consider (if given advance notification) shutting down supervisor. The presence of overhead
the line temporarily or moving the line. If it is not powerlines may require a written work
possible to have the line moved or the power shut off procedure.
the following procedures should be enforced by the
project supervisor and strictly followed by all
operators. SITE SUPERVISION
Where a crane, hoist line, or load can
1. KEEP YOUR DISTANCE. Surrounding every live cross into the minimum distance to an
powerline is an area where an electric arc is overhead powerline, the constructor
capable of jumping from the powerline to a must have written procedures in place to
conductor of electricity. So you must keep all of prevent the crane, hoistline, or load from
your equipment and its load at least the minimum encroaching on the minimum distance.
permitted distance away from the powerline (see
page 6 for distances). If there is a chance for any
part of the hoisting operation to encroach on that
distance, protective measures must be taken to
prevent this encroachment. You must take these
measures unless you have controlled the hazard by
de-energizing or moving the lines, or by re-routing
the electricity around the work.
Note: The only exception to these requirements

occurs under both of these conditions:
• the powerline cannot be de-energized or moved, or
The crane boom could reach
the electricity re-routed, and within the minimum distance.
• under the authority of the owner of the electrical
conductor, protective devices and equipment are
PRE-JOB PLANNING
installed and written procedures are implemented
The time to take care of powerline
that are adequate to protect equipment operators
problems is during pre-job planning after
from electrical shock and burn.
the first site survey is made by a
This absolute limit of approach varies according to contractor. Take care of the problem
local, provincial, state and federal laws or crane prior to the crane’s arrival to avoid job
manufacturer’s recommendations, but is generally as delays and prevent accidents.
shown:
2. Treat all powerlines as live until reliable information assures you that the lines are de-energized.
130
Working near Powerlines (continued)
3. Identify the voltage of the service by checking markings on the utility pole and calling the utility.
When equipment or its load can encroach on the minimum permitted distance from a powerline,
the constructor must have written procedures in place to prevent the equipment or its load from
encroaching on the minimum distance.
Limit of approach Limit of approach
Need Do not need

signaller signaller
4. Have powerlines moved, insulated, de-energized, or follow the precautions in the Construction
Regulation. Insulating or “rubberizing” powerlines offers some protection in case of brush
contact in some circumstances. Your local utility may provide this service.
5. Place enough warning devices (such as signs) near the hazard so that the equipment operator
can always see at least one of them. The operator must be able to see them under all possible
environmental conditions (e.g., night, rain, fog). Signs must be specific about the hazard. They
should state, for example, “Danger! Electrical powerlines overhead.” CSAO recommends that
you include the voltage on the sign.
6. The operator’s station (e.g., driver’s cab) must

have a sign (such as a sticker) warning of the
hazard. The machine may come with a warning
sticker in the cab. Make sure it’s still legible.
7. A competent worker must be designated as a

signaller to warn the operator when any part of the
equipment, load, or hoist line approaches the
minimum permitted distance to a powerline. The
signaler must be in full view of the operator and
have a clear view of both the equipment and the
electrical conductor.
Taglines
will
conduct
electricity
131
8. Avoid using tag lines. Unless it is necessary to

prevent the load from spinning into the
minimum distance to a powerline, the tag line
itself can be a hazard because it can swing into
Note: All ropes are capable of conducting
electricity, but dry polypropylene has better
insulating properties than most commercially-
available ropes.
Accidental contact
from powerline
swaying in the
9. Slow down the operating cycle of the machine wind
by reducing hoisting, booming, swinging, and
travel speeds.
10. Exercise caution when working near overhead lines having long spans as they tend to swing
laterally in the wind and accidental contact could occur.
11. Exercise caution when travelling the crane as uneven ground can cause the boom to weave
or bob into the lines.
12. Ensure that whenever cranes must repeatedly travel beneath powerlines a route is plainly
marked and “rider poles” are erected on each side of the crossing approach to ensure that
the crane structure is lowered to a safe height.
132
IF YOU MAKE ELECTRICAL CONTACT WITH A POWERLINE

• Stay on the equipment. Don’t touch the
equipment and the ground at the same
time. In fact, touching anything in contact
with the ground can be fatal. If a new hazard
develops that could be life-threatening,
such as a fire, use the “bailout procedure”
(next page).
• Keep others away. No one else should
touch the equipment or its load – including
buckets, outriggers, load lines, or any other
part of the machine. Beware of time-
delayed relays: Even after electrical contact DO NOT
trips the breakers, relays may still try to PANIC
restore power. They may come on

automatically two or three times.
• Break contact. If possible – while
remaining inside the machine – the operator
should try to break contact by moving the
equipment clear of the wires. This may be
impossible if contact has welded
conductors to the equipment.
• Call the local utility. Get someone to call
the local electrical utility for help. Stay on
the equipment until the utility shuts down
the line and confirms that the power is off.
• Report the contact. Report every incident
of electrical contact to the local electrical
utility – they’ll check for damage that could
cause the line to fail later.
When the powerline is rated at 750 volts or
Inspect the
more:
wire rope
1. report the contact to the inspection and the
crane for
department of the Electrical Safety damage
Authority within 48 hours. caused by
the electrical
2. provide notice in writing to the Ministry contact.
of Labour and to the joint health and
safety committee, health and safety
representative, and trade union.
• Inspect the crane. The crane must
undergo a complete inspection for possible
damage caused by electrical contact. The
electric cur-rent could take several paths
through the crane, damaging bearings,
electronic controls, valves, and the crane’s
cable. Wire rope should be replaced.
Damage to the wire rope – such as welding,
melting, or pitting – may not be visible.
133
BAILOUT PROCEDURE
If the operator decides to leave the machine, he must jump clear. He must never step down
allowing part of his body to be in contact with the ground while any other part is touching the
machine.
WRONG RIGHT (BUT STILL DANGEROUS)

The operator should never leave the
machine unless absolutely necessary.
HIGH VOLTAGE CONTACT will result in electrical

current flowing down the boom and through the
crane to ground. The ground will then be energized
with a high voltage near the crane and lower
voltage farther away.
Because of the hazardous voltage differential in the ground, the operator should jump with his feet
together, maintain balance and shuffle voltage slowly across the affected area. Do not take large
steps because it is possible for one foot to be in a high voltage area, and the other to be in a lower
voltage area. The difference between the two can kill.
134
Working Near Transmitters
When operating near radio, TV or microwave transmitters the crane boom and load can become
electrically charged. The boom acts like an antenna and becomes “hot”. The charge is not
electrically dangerous when compared with the effect of contacting electricity but it can cause
burns to personnel handling loads. The greatest danger to personnel exists when they “jump” from
the effect of this shock and fall or trip.
Grounding the crane will not likely have any effect. The only real solution is to insert a synthetic
web sling between the crane’s load block and the load. This will isolate the riggers from the crane
and protect them from burns. The crane operator will not be affected when in the machine but
should wear rubber gloves when getting on and off the crane.
135
Factors Affecting Crane Capacity
Capacities and other information included in the load charts for cranes are based on almost perfect
conditions seldom achieved under actual operation.
It is vital to know not only how to determine capacity correctly from the chart but also to recognize
the factors that can reduce a crane’s capacity below the chart ratings.
These factors, described on the following pages, include:
• poor machine condition

• variations in boom angle
• variations in load radius
• errors in boom angle indicators during critical lifts
• quadrants of operation
• sweep area
• tires not clear of the ground
• division of sweep area into quadrants
• improper use of outriggers
• soft footing
• crane not level
• sideloading
• increase in load radius
• rapid swing rate
• impact loading
• rapid acceleration or deceleration of load
• duty cycle operations
• high wind speeds.
The information concludes with an illustration of proper setup.
136
Poor Machine Condition
Load chart ratings apply only to cranes maintained in condition as good as new and as stipulated
by the manufacturer. The boom is one of the more critical elements of the crane and must be in
perfect condition at all times.
Sway
Check for
hydraulic
leaks.
Droop
Never use a boom section

with a bent lattice member;
the bent members draw in
the main chords.
Check telescopic booms for conditions such as:
• Sway
• Droop
• Cracks around the hinge pin
• Rust (could be sign of crack)
• Flaking or cracked paint
(could be sign of overload)
• Bulges, creases or waviness
of the plates in the boom
(could be signs of overload)
• Worn pads.
Picture frame
Check end fittings for cracks.
must be
square.
Check
sheaves.
Check condition of all pendants &

end fittings and look for broken
wires around the sockets.
Check all welds

for cracks and Welds can be the
corrosion. initiation point for
cracks.
Boom must be
straight and
not twisted.
Dents can reduce
boom strength
considerably.
Check condition
of all boom hoist
ropes and
If a chord is even slightly damaged or bent, sheaves.
don’t use it. Don’t try to repair it. Chords are
so vital to the strength of the boom that it is
not practical to attempt repairs.
137
Boom Angle
The capacities listed in the load chart are also based

on and vary with the boom angle of the machine.
On telescopic boom cranes the boom angle is the

angle between the base (bottom) of the heel section
of the main boom and the horizontal while the boom
is under load.
Boom
Angle
Boom
Angle
Because of boom and machine

deflection (and pendant stretch on
lattice booms) expect the boom angle
to lower somewhat from its unloaded
condition once a load is applied.
Expect even larger boom angle
reductions when the crane is “on
rubber” because of tire deflection.
138
Load Radius
The capacities listed in the load chart also depend on and vary with the crane’s load radius.
The load radius is the horizontal distance measured from the center of rotation of the crane (center
pin) to the load hook (center of gravity of the load) while the boom is loaded.
Unloaded Radius
Loaded Radius
Because of boom and machine deflection and pendant stretch, expect the load radius to increase
when the load is lifted off the ground. Expect even larger increases in radius when the crane is “on
rubber” because of tire deflection.
Load Radius Load Radius
139
Boom Angle Indicators and Critical Lifts
Boom angle indicators are required on all mobile cranes but they must not be relied on for accuracy
during critical lifts because:
• They can give as much as a 2° reading error in boom angle which can substantially affect the
gross capacity reading on the load chart.
• The indicators are mounted on the base section of the boom and may not register the deflection
of the extended sections under heavy load particularly if the wear pads are worn excessively.
Consequently the boom angle may actually be lower than the indicator reads.
For these reasons, using boom angle indicator readings during critical lifts can be misleading. Rely
on load radius (where possible) or if the boom angle must be used (for example when lifting from
a jib) assume the correct reading to be lower than what the indicator actually says.
Boom deflection
at tip
Increase in
load radius
Almost no deflection at base
140
Importance of Quadrants
The leverage and capacity of a crane change during rotation of the upperworks. Leverage and
capacity are also affected by the location of the tipping axis. For these reasons the crane’s stability
can change during operation.
To provide uniform stability, regardless of the position of the upperworks relative to the carrier, the
crane’s capacity is adjusted by the manufacturer according to the quadrant of operation.
These capacity changes are

identified in the load chart by
the quadrant of operation.
As the crane
swings from
“over the rear”…
Tipping Axis
to “over the side”…
Tipping Axis
to “over the front”, its C of G moves

closer and closer to the tipping
axis, thereby reducing its stability.
Tipping Axis
141
Sweep Area
The sweep area is the total area that the crane boom can swing over.
The sweep area is divided into operating areas called quadrants of operation. The crane’s capacity
is then based on the quadrants.
Sweep Area
142
Division of Sweep Area into Quadrants
The crane is said to be in a particular quadrant of operation when the load hook is located over
that portion of the sweep area.
Caution: Not every make and model of crane

can be operated in all of these quadrants.
The diagrams are for reference only. Consult
load charts to determine quadrants of operation
for particular makes and models.
“Over the Side”
Crane’s Quadrant
of Operation = “Over the Rear”
“Over the Front”
(Because the load
hook is above that
portion of the
sweep area.)
“Over the Side”
“Over the Front”

“Over the Side”
“Over the Side”

Crane’s Quadrant of Operation = “Over the Rear”
“Over the Side”

Crane’s Quadrant
of Operation =
“Over the Idler End”
“Over the Drive End”
“Over the Side”
143
Improper Use of Outriggers
The load chart ratings of carrier-mounted and rough terrain
mobile cranes apply to three base configurations:
• “On Outriggers”
• “On Tires”
• Partially Extended Outriggers
“On Outriggers”
Full chart ratings apply only when:
• all outrigger beams are fully extended, and
• all tires are clear of the ground.
Partially Extended Outriggers

In special circumstances a crane may be operated on outriggers
that are not fully extended. In this situation the crane must be
equipped with load charts coinciding with this partial extension
of the outriggers and there must be a method of measuring the
outrigger extension.
CRANE HAS “ON OUTRIGGERS” RATING
“ON TIRES” RATING

Crane does not have “on outriggers”
rating because rear outriggers are not
extended and set. This machine’s
capacity is limited to the “on tires”
load chart.
Outriggers not extended and set.

144
Improper Use of Outriggers (continued)
“ON TIRES” RATING

Full “on outrigger” ratings do not apply because
the carrier wheels are touching the ground.
PARTIALLY EXTENDED OUTRIGGERS

Load charts must be supplied for this partial
extension. Otherwise use “On Tires” rating.
“ON OUTRIGGER” RATING

Full “on outrigger” ratings apply because
• all beams are fully extended
• all tires are clear of the ground.
Tires should be just clear of the ground to keep ram length

as short as possible and thus minimize rocking action.
“On Tires”
Full chart ratings apply only when:

• tires are per manufacturer’s specifications
• tires are in good condition
• specified tire pressure is maintained, and
• crane speed does not exceed manufacturer’s
specifications.
For working “on rubber” some manufacturers recommend

extending the outrigger beams but keeping the rams
partially retracted so that the floats are just clear of the
ground.
145
Soft Footing
Load chart ratings apply only when the ground

conditions are firm enough to support the crane and
keep it level during the lift. If the ground is soft or
unstable, the tires, crawlers or outriggers will sink or
subside causing loss of capacity. In almost all
cases, heavy duty blocking having large bearing
areas will be necessary to prevent sinking and
provide a solid base for the crane.
Use solid blocking under all floats
Poor Float Poor Float Support Poor Float

Support Support
On soft ground or on
backfilled material, timber
or steel mats must be
used to prevent the crane
from sinking or setting.
146
Crane Not Level
All load chart ratings are based on the machine being

perfectly level in all directions. This applies to cranes
“on crawlers”, “on tires”, “on outriggers” and when
travelling with load.
One of the most severe effects of being out-of-level is

that side loads develop in the boom. Because of side
loads all mobile cranes lose capacity rapidly as the
degree of out-of-level increases.
A crane is
dead level
when the
hoist rope
is in line
with the
center line
of the
boom.
Dead Level As out-of-level increases,

No Side Load sideloading increases.
The following table for a particular lattice boom Similar information can be obtained from
crane indicates the possible capacity loss due to the manufacturers for all cranes.
being out of level. Machines that are used on barges are
provided with “list charts” that identify
crane capacity with barge list (expressed
Boom Chart Capacity Lost When
Crane Out of Level By
as degrees). Capacity loss due to barge
Length
and list is the same as capacity loss due to
Lift Radius 1° 2° 3° an out-of-level condition on ground.
Short Boom, 10% 20% 30%

Minimum Radius
Short Boom, 8% 15% 20%
Maximum Radius
Long Boom, 30% 41% 50%
Minimum Radius
Long Boom, 5% 10% 15%
Maximum Radius
147
Crane Not Level (continued)
Caution: If the crane is not level the load chart does

not apply. You must either level the crane by using
its outriggers or level the ground the machine is
resting on.
Even though the crane might have been properly
levelled during set-up, ground subsidence during
operation can cause an out-of-level condition.
Check level frequently.
It is also important to note that when a crane is set up

off level, swinging from the high side to the low side
increases the operating radius. It also increases the
load on the turntable, on the outriggers and on the
supporting frame structure.
Low Side Radius High Side Radius
Boom Topples
Swing Uphill Swing Uphill
Caution: A boom at maximum elevation (minimum radius) on the low side cannot be swung over
to the high side without risking collapse of the boom over the cab.
148
Sideloading
Load chart ratings apply only when the load is

picked up directly under the boom tip. If the load
is to either side of the boom tip, sideloading
occurs and decreases capacity. This applies to
both lattice and telescopic booms and is one of
the most common causes of boom failure. It
usually causes structural failure and always
occurs without warning.
Full boom
strength is only
achieved under
vertical loads.
Boom is
very weak
from the
side.
Strong
Weak
• Sideloading • Sideloading
occurs when the occurs when a load
crane is not level. is dragged or pulled
sideways.
This can buckle the

boom, damage the
swing mechanism or
overturn the crane if
the boom is at a
high angle.
149
Sideloading (continued)
• Sideloading occurs
whenever a load is
swung rapidly or when
the swing brake is
applied suddenly.
• Tilt-up operations can

cause sideloading of
the boom.
150
Increase of Load Radius
Load chart ratings apply only when the hoist line is vertical at all times and the load is freely
suspended during the lift. If the line is not vertical, regardless of the reasons, capacity is lost. In
addition to the examples relating to sideloading (see previous pages), the following conditions
produce non-vertical hoist lines which result in increased load radius and reduced capacity.
• Reaching beyond the vertical extends the load

radius and tends to draw the boom forward and
decreases the crane’s capacity. It will tip or fail
more easily and with a lower hook load than
listed in the load chart for the boom tip radius.
• Rapid swing causes increased load radius which

decreases stability and reduces capacity.
Chart Radius Increase
• Lifting inside the boom tip radius puts a load

component on the boom that acts to tip it
backward. After the load is clear of the
ground, it will swing out increasing the radius
and tend to tip the crane forward.
151
Increase of Load Radius (continued)
With Load – “Over Rear” With Load – “Over Side”

No Load With Load – “Over Rear”
No Load
• Working “on rubber” can also produce an increase of load

radius. When lifting a heavy load “over the rear”, “on rubber”
the crane will lean slightly toward the load. This is caused by
boom, tire and carrier deflection. This lean increases when
picking “over the side” “on rubber”. The lean will increase
operating radius so the load will swing outward once it
clears the ground. This outswing is dangerous to anything in
the path of the load. The increase in load radius may also
overload the machine. To overcome outswing, boom up as
the load is lifted to maintain a constant radius.
“Over the Side”

“Over the Rear”
• Swinging a load from “over the end” to “over the side” will
increase lean. This is especially noticeable when operating
“on tires”. Since tilt acts to increase load radius, it must be
compensated for when swinging the load. Swing slowly.
Change boom angle (raise or lower boom) while swinging to
maintain a constant radius and prevent inswing or outswing
of load.
152
Rapid Swing Rate
Load chart ratings apply only when the load is vertically in line with the boom tip at all times. Rapid
swing rates make this an impossible condition to meet.
Therefore, load chart capacities do not allow for fast swings. The swing rate must be adjusted to
keep the load directly below the boom tip at all times.
(1) START SWING (2) DURING SWING (3) STOP SWING
f f f
(1) When the swing is started the load (2) Rapid swinging of a load causes it (3) When the crane’s swing is stopped,
will lag behind the boom tip causing to drift away from the machine the load will keep going causing
sideloading and reducing capacity. increasing the load radius and sideloading and reducing capacity.
reducing capacity; the load will also
lag behind the boom tip causing
sideloading.
153
Rapid Swing Rate (continued)
Caution: On long boom mobile cranes, rapid swing

rates, rapid swing acceleration, or rapid application of
the swing brake can overturn the crane or collapse the
boom with or without load on the hook.
• Moving the dead weight of the boom at the start of a swing or trying to stop it at the end of a
swing causes the boom to sideload itself.
• The centrifugal force of the boom during a high speed swing creates a high forward tipping load.
• At high boom angles, the boom can collapse over the back of the machine if the boom is
accelerated or decelerated rapidly.
154
Impact Loading and Rapid Acceleration
or Deceleration of Load
Load chart capacities do not allow for sudden starting or stopping of the load, impact loading or
sudden machine movements.
The following situations create such conditions and reduce crane capacity below the chart ratings.
• Sudden release of a load • Sudden snatching

causes a rapid change in of a load causes
load and impact impact loading
loading. Crane will and the hoist
recoil initially, then rope or boom
full weight of load can fail.
will suddenly be
applied to the hook. Ease into all
The result can be loads to avoid
overturning or impact loading.
structural failure.
The same thing can
happen when a
frozen, caught or
stuck load is
pulled and
suddenly
breaks free.
• Sudden release
of a load causes
the boom to
recoil and
perhaps topple.
Place all loads

gently to allow
boom deflection
• Rapid hoist and pendant
acceleration stretch to
produces hook gradually return
loads higher to normal.
than the
actual load
weight.
155
Impact Loading and Rapid Acceleration
or Deceleration of Load (continued)
• Rapid stopping of the load

produces hook loads
higher thant the actual
load weight (see table).
Brakes • “Pick and Carry” operations subject the carrier and

applied boom to shock loads. In order to ensure that the chart
capacities are not exceeded, move the crane and load
Stopping as smoothly as possible.
distance
Load stops
• Don’t extract pilings, casings or similar loads by

Sudden brake application during lowering will increase yanking or jerking on them. The practice of pulling on
the hook load by the percentage shown according to the the load until the machine has tipped, then releasing
lowering speed and stopping distance. Note how rapidly the hoist line, allowing the machine to drop back and
the loads increase as the stopping distance decreases. catching the hoist line on a clutch or brake may break
the boom. If the piling or casing won’t dislodge with a
smooth, steady pull, use an extractor, pulling frame or
INCREASE IN HOOK LOADS similar device.
LINE STOPPING DISTANCE (FT)

SPEED • Demolition work can be particularly hazardous. Shock
FT/MIN. 10 6 2 loadings and sideloadings during work with demolition
balls and clamshell buckets can be severe. The
100 0.4% 0.7% 2.2% repetitive nature of such work imposes heavy demands
on all parts of the machine. Restrict demolition ball
150 1.0% 1.6% 4.9%
weights to not more than 50% of capacity (“on rubber”
200 1.7% 2.9% 8.6% capacities for truck cranes) at the maximum radius at
250 2.7% 4.5% 13.5% which you handle the ball, with the boom length you are
300 3.9% 6.5% 19.4% using. In addition to this requirement, ensure that the
350 5.3% 8.8% 26.4% ball weight never exceeds 50% of the available line pull.
400 6.9% 11.5% 34.5%
156
Duty Cycle Operations
Full load chart ratings may not apply when cranes are used in high speed production operations
(duty cycle operations) such as concrete placing, steel erection, draglining, clam, magnet or
grapple work.
The manufacturer will either specify in the load chart that lift crane ratings be reduced by a
percentage (usually 20%) for duty cycle operations or will supply a separate load chart for such
operations.
The capacity reduction is recommended because the speed of these operations produces
increases in crane loads from sideload, swing-out and impact as well as higher temperatures in
critical components such as brakes, clutches, pumps and motors.
The following are duty cycle operations:
• Draglining, Clam, Grapple and

Magnet Operations
• High Speed, High Volume

Concrete Placement
• High Speed, High Volume Steel Erection
157
High Wind Speeds
Almost all crane manufacturers specify in the load chart that chart ratings must be reduced under
windy conditions, and they may also recommend a shut-down wind velocity. In almost all cases,
when the wind speed exceeds 30 mph, it is advisable to stop operations.
Wind affects both the crane and the load, reducing the rated capacity of the crane. Never make a
full capacity lift if it is windy. Use a great deal of discretion even when lifting under moderate wind
conditions of 20 mph.
It is advisable to avoid handling loads that present large wind-catching surfaces. The result could
be loss of control of the load and crane even though the weight of the load is within the normal
capacity of the crane.
A 20 mph wind exerts a force of only 1 1/8 Ib/ft2 on a flat-surfaced load (the force on a 4 ft. by 8
ft. sheet of plywood = 36 Ibs.) so only loads having very large sail areas would require crane
capacity derating. At 30 mph, however, the wind exerts a force of 2.53 lb/ft2 of flat surface area
(equals 80 Ibs. on a sheet of 4 ft. by 8 ft. plywood). This wind force on the load at 30 mph is enough
to cause non-vertical hoist lines and loads that are very difficult to control.
Boom strength
is most affected
when the
wind is from
the side.
SAE XJ1093 specifies

that booms be designed
to withstand their full
rated load plus a side
load equal to 2% of the
rated load plus a 20
mph wind from the side.
Boom strength is
therefore adequate to
handle winds from the
side up to 20 mph but
no allowance is made
for the effect of the wind
on the load.
158
Setup Summary
A crane is properly set up for lifting when the following conditions are met.
For Cranes Operating “On Outriggers”
Boom angle, boom length and load radius are known

The hook is and the crane’s rated capacity is known.
directly above
the load’s C of G.
Rigging is
correct.
Outrigger pads are

on solid footing
or blocking.
Load weight is known.
All wheels are clear of ground.
All outrigger beams are extended as prescribed by manufacturer. Crane is level.
For Crawler-Mounted Cranes or When Lifting “On Rubber”
Boom angle, boom length and load radius are known

and the crane’s rated capacity is known.
The hook is
directly above
the load’s C of G.
Rigging is
correct.
Crane is set
Load weight up level on
is known. firm, stable
ground or
blocking.
159
Machine Selection
One basic requirement for any crane safety program is making sure that the right machine is
selected for the job. If crane characteristics do not match job requirements, unsafe conditions are
created before any work is done. Job site personnel are forced to “make do” and improvise in a
rush – a surefire recipe for accidents
CHECKPOINTS
No machine should be selected to do any lifting on a specific job until its size and
characteristics are considered against:
• the weights, dimensions, and lift radii of the heaviest and largest loads
• the maximum lift height, the maximum lift radius, and the weight of the loads that must be
handled at each
• the number and frequency of lifts to be made
• how long the crane will be required on site
• the type of lifting to be done (for example, is precision placement of loads important?)
• the type of carrier required (this depends on ground conditions and machine capacity in its
various operating quadrants: capacity is normally greatest over the rear, less over the side,
and non-existent over the front)
• whether loads will have to be walked or carried
• whether loads will have to be suspended for lengthy periods
• the site conditions, including the ground where the machine will be set up, access roads and
ramps it must travel, space for erection, and any obstacles that might impede access or
operation service availability and unit cost
• the cost of operations such as erection, dismantling, on- and off-site transport, and altering
boom length.
160
RESULTS
The selected machine should:
• be able to make all of its lifts in its standard configuration (that means having the capacity
and boom length to do all known tasks, with jib, extra counterweight, and special reeving
held in reserve for any unexpected problems)
• have at least a 5% working margin with respect to the load capacity of every lift
• be highly mobile and capable of being routed with a minimum amount of tearing down
• have enough clearance between load and boom and adequate head room between the load
and whatever rigging is required to make the lift.
The crane must be

matched to:
Lift Height (H)
Lift Weight
Lift Radius (R1 R2 R3)
THE CRANE MUST BE PROPERLY MATCHED TO THE JOB
161
Those responsible for equipment selection must ensure that the crane is going to be safe and
reliable for as long as it will be used, and under all anticipated conditions to which it will be
exposed during operation.
Certain equipment considerations and requirements apply to all cranes. These requirements can
be specified in purchase orders and rental agreements. Machines should be rented only from
reputable suppliers. Note that all cranes of the same model number may not have the same
capacity rating. The correct rating should be determined from the manufacturer through the serial
number.
Any changes in counterweight and boom inserts made by the owner should be checked. After such
changes, capacities and other data in the load chart may no longer apply.
A machine designed, manufactured, inspected, tested, and maintained in accordance with

Canadian Standards Association Standard Z150-1998 Mobile Cranes should meet the
requirements of all major codes and regulations.
Signalling
Signalling is an important part of crane operation,
but is often not treated with the respect it
deserves. Signallers must be used whenever:
• the operator cannot see the load
Telephone or “hardline”
• the operator cannot see the load’s landing area communications are
best but…
• the operator cannot see the path of travel of the
load or of the crane
• the operator is far enough away from the load to
make the judgment of distance difficult
• the crane is working within a boom’s length of
the approach limits to powerlines or electrical
equipment.
2-way radios can be of value for

Where loads are picked up at one point and almost all signalling operations.
lowered at another, two signallers may be required
– one to direct the lift and one to direct the
descent.
Hand signals should be used only when the

distance between the operator and the signaller is
not great and conditions allow for clear visibility.
The international hand signals for hoisting appear
on the following page.
Telephone or radio communications between

operator and signaller can be extremely effective.
162
HAND SIGNALS FOR HOISTING OPERATIONS
1 2 3 4
Load Up Load Down Load Up Slowly Load Down Slowly

5 6 7 8
Boom Up Boom Down Boom Up Slowly Boom Down Slowly

9 10 11 12
Boom Up Load Down Boom Down Load Up Everything Slowly Use Whip Line
13 14 15 16
Use Main Line Travel Forward Turn Right Turn Left

17 18 19 20
Shorten Hydraulic Boom Extend Hydraulic Boom Swing Load Stop

21 22 23
No response
should be made
to unclear signals.
Close Clam Open Clam Dog Everything
163
Notes
164
Notes
165
CONSTRUCTION SAFETY ASSOCIATION OF ONTARIO
21 Voyager Court South, Etobicoke, Ontario M9W 5M7 Canada
(416) 674-2726 • 1-800-781-2726 • Fax (416) 674-8866
info@csao.org • www.csao.org
ISBN-13: 978-0-919465-70-1 M035

Hoisting and Rigging

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Hoisting and Rigging

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HOISTING and RIGGING

Construction Safety Association of Ontario

© Construction Safety Association of Ontario, 1995

REVISED May 1997

Section 1: Hoisting and Rigging Hazards 3

Section 2: Fibre Ropes, Knots, Hitches 19

Section 3: Hardware, Wire Rope, Slings 32

Section 4: Rigging Tools and Devices 87

Section 5: Introduction to Crane Operations 107

Health and Safety Law

Hoisting and Rigging Hazards

n Procedures and Precautions

Hoisting and Rigging Hazards

• identifies common hazards and causes of hoisting and rigging accidents

At the same time, riggers must also

Wrong. The hoist line must be plumb at all times.

• Factors that Reduce Capacity

All rigging equipment

Never Wrap a Rope Around a Hook

If L is greater than S then sling angle is OK.

Check on Sling Angle

Do Not Permit Bending Near Any Splice or Attached Fitting

Carrying Full Load

The tension in the most

If you force the eye down.

Let the eye ride higher and keep this angle

Get severe loading inslings

Incorrect – Cutting Correct – Use Incorrect – Shackle Correct – Shackle pin

Let’s take steel as our example.

2 x 1.5 x 3 x 6 x 40 = 2,160 pounds

A stack 6 ft. in diameter would have

18.84 x 30 x 3 x 40 = 8,478 Ibs.

radius (r) = diameter divided by 2

The second formula gives the area of circular objects.

AREA = 3.14 x diameter x diameter

AREA = 3.14 x 6 x 6 = 28.3 sq. ft.

Load Weight Determination

Load Weight Determination

Diameter Weight (Lbs.) Diameter Weight (Lbs.)

3/16 .094 1 3/8 5.05

Table 1.2 –WEIGHTS OF MATERIAL (Based on Volume)

METALS TIMBER, AIR-DRY

Fibre Ropes, Knots, Hitches

n Fibre Rope Characteristics

• slings for hoisting materials

If rope or eye Whip rope to Check for To secure

Working Load Limits

Working load limits (WLLs) can be calculated as shown in Figure 2.3.

WLL = Breaking Strength

For example, a rope rated at 1500 Ibs. breaking

1500 lbs. = 300 lbs.

APPROXIMATE WORKING LOAD LIMITS OF NEW FIBRE ROPES – POUNDS

3/16 100 200 150 200 150

APPROXIMATE WORKING LOAD LIMITS OF NEW

1/4 420 – 380

- Change the rope diameter into eighths of an inch.

- Change the rope diameter into eighths of an inch.

- Change the rope diameter into eighths of an inch.

- Change the rope diameter into eighths of an inch.

- Change the rope diameter into eighths of an inch.

Overhand Loop Underhand Loop Turn

Bowline on the Bight

Reef or Square Knot

Two Half Hitches Two