CONTINUUM FLUID MECHANICS

Motion

A body is a collection of material particles. The point X is a material point and it

is the position of the material particles at time zero.
x3
Definition: A one-to-one one-parameter mapping X3 x(X, t )

x = x(X, t ) X x
X2 x2
is called motion. The inverse t =0 x1
X1
X = X(x, t ) Figure 1. Schematic of motion.

is the inverse motion. X k are referred to as the material coordinates of particle x , and x
is the spatial point occupied by X at time t.

Theorem: The inverse motion exists if the Jacobian, J of the transformation is nonzero.
That is

∂x ∂x k
J = det = det ≠ 0.
∂X ∂X K

This is the statement of the fundamental theorem of calculus.

Definition: Streamlines are the family of curves tangent to the velocity vector field at
time t .

Given a velocity vector field v , streamlines are governed by the following

equations:

dx 1 dx 2 dx 3
= = for a given t.
v1 v2 v3

Definition: The streak line of point x 0 at time t is a line, which is made up of material
points, which have passed through point x 0 at different times τ ≤ t .

Given a motion x i = x i ( X, t ) and its inverse X K = X K (x, t ) , it follows that the

material particle X 0k will pass through the spatial point x 0 at time τ . i.e.,

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 X 0k = X 0k ( x 0 , τ) .

Thus, the equation for the streak line of x 0 at time t is given by

x i = x i ( X 0 (x 0 , τ), t ) for fixed t .

Deformation Rate Tensors

Suppose a motion x = x(X, t ) is given.

Definition: Deformation Gradient

∂x k
dx k = dx K = x k ,K dX K . (1)
∂x K

∂x k
x k ,K = is referred to as the deformation gradient tensor.
∂X K

∂X K
X K ,k = is the (inverse) deformation gradient tensor.
∂x k

Definition: Deformation Tensors

An element of arc in the deformed body is given as

ds 2 = dx k dx l δ kl . (2)

The distance from the origin in the un-deformed body is given by

dS 2 = dX K X L δ KL (3)

Using the deformation gradient, (1) may be restated as

ds 2 = x k ,K dX K x l ,L dX L δ kl = C KL dX K X L , (4)

where C KL = δ kl x k ,K x l , L is the Green deformation tensor.

Similarly, (3) may be rewritten as

dS2 = X K ,k X L,l δ KL dx k dx l = c kl dx k dx l , (5)

where c kl = X K ,k X L ,l δ KL is the Cauchy deformation tensor.

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Definition: Strain Tensors

The change in the square of arc length during the deformation is given by

ds 2 − dS 2 = (C KL − δ KL )dX K dX L = 2E KL dX K dX L , (6)

Here, we introduced the Lagrangian strain tensor

2E KL = C KL − δ KL . (7)

Similarly, (6) may be restated as

ds 2 − dS 2 = (δ kl − c kl )dx k dx l = 2e kl dx k dx l , (8)

where the Eulerian strain tensor is defined as

2e kl = δ kl − c kl . (9)

Partial and Total Time Derivatives

Let A be any scalar or tensor quantity. The partial time derivative is defined as

∂A ∂A
= . (10)
∂t ∂t x
The material derivative (total time derivative) is defined as

dA ∂A ∂A ∂A ∂x i
= = + . (11)
dt ∂t X ∂t ∂x i ∂t x

Definition: Velocity

∂x i dx i
vi = = = x& i . (12)
∂t x dt

Definition: Acceleration

dv i ∂v i ∂v
ai = = + vj i . (13)
dt ∂t ∂x j

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Definition: Path lines

The curve in space along which the material point x travels is referred to as the
path line of the material particle X .

The equation for the path line of x is

x = x(X, t ) for fixed X . (14)

If the velocity field is known, then equations

dx i
= v i (x, t ) for i = 1,2,3 (15)
dt

must be solved for evaluating the path lines.

Deformation Rate Tensor

Material derivatives of dx k and deformation gradients are given as

d d
(dx k ) = ( x k ,K dX K ) = v k ,K dX K = v k ,l dx l (16)
dt dt

d ∂ dx k
( x k ,K ) = = v k , K = v k ,l x l , K (17)
dt ∂X K dt

Theorem: The material derivative of the square of the arc length is given by

d
(ds 2 ) = 2d kl dx k dx l (18)
dt

1
where d kl = ( v k ,l + v l ,k ) is the Eulerian deformation rate tensor.
2

Proof:
d d dx dx
(ds 2 ) = (δ kl dx k dx l ) = δ kl ( k dx l + dx k l )
dt dt dt dt

Now using (16), we find

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 (ds 2 ) = δ kl (v k ,m dx m dx l + v l , m dx m dx k ) = v k ,m dx m dx k + v l ,m dx m dx l
d
dt .
= ( v k ,l + v l , k )dx k dx l = 2d kl dx k dx l

Relationships between Deformation Rate Tensors and Deformation Strain Tensors

From (4), recall that ds 2 = C KL dX K dX L . Taking the material derivative, we find

d & dX dX = C
& X X dx dx
(ds 2 ) = C KL K L KL K ,k L ,l k l (19)
dt

Equation (18) implies that

d
(ds 2 ) = 2d kl dx k dx l = 2d kl dx k ,K x l ,L dX K dX L (20)
dt

From (7), it follows that

& = 2E& .
C (21)
KL KL

From (19)-(21), we find

& = 2E& = 2d x x
C (22)
KL KL kl k , K l , L

and

& X X = 2E& X X
2d kl = C (23)
KL K ,k L ,l KL K ,k L ,l

Equations (22) and (23) show the relationship between the deformation rate tensor d kl
and the material derivative of Green's deformation tensor and Lagrangian strain tensor.

Rivlin-Ericksen Tensors

Definition: The Rivlin-Ericksen tensor of order n is defined as

dn
n
(ds 2 ) = A (knl ) dx k dx l . (24)
dt

Clearly,

A (k1l) = 2d kl . (25)

The Rivlin-Ericksen tensor satisfies the following recurrence relationship:

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 d (n)
A (knl +1) = A kl + A (km
n)
v m ,l + A (lnm) v m , k (26)
dt

For example,

A (k2l) = 2d& kl + 2d km v m ,l + 2d lm v m ,k (27)

The Rivlin-Ericksen tensors are important tensors for certain viscoelastic materials.

Lemma: The material derivative of the Jacobian is given by

d
J = Jv k ,k . (28)
dt

Time Rate of Change of Volume Element

Noting that

dv = JdV , (29)

It follows that

d dJ
dv = dV = v k , k JdV ,
dt dt

or

d
dv = v k ,k dv . (30)
dt

Reynolds Transport Theorem

The material derivative of an integral taken over a material volume is given as

d ∂f
∫∫∫
dt v
fdv = ∫∫∫ dv + ∫∫ fv ⋅ ds .
v
∂t s
(31)

Proof:

d d df dJ
∫∫∫
dt v
fdv = ∫∫∫ f JdV = ∫∫∫ ( J + f )dV
dt V V
dt dt

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Using (30), we find

d df
∫∫∫
dt v
fdv = ∫∫∫ ( + v k ,k f )JdV = ∫∫∫ (f& + v k ,k f )dv
V
dt v

∂f ∂f
Noting that f& = + vk , we find
∂t ∂x k

d ⎛ ∂f ∂ ⎞
∫∫∫
dt v
fdv = ∫∫∫ ⎜⎜ +
v ⎝
∂t ∂x k
( v k f ) ⎟⎟dv
⎠

Using the divergence theorem (25) follows.

Spin and Vorticity

Spin tensor is defined as:

1
ω kl = ( v k ,l − v l , k ) (32)
2

Vorticity vector is defined as:

ζ i = ε ijk ω kj = ε ijk v k , j (33)

Angular velocity vector is defined as

1
ωi = ζi . (34)
2

In vector notation, we have

1
ζ = ∇× v , ω = ∇× v (35)
2
Note that

(∇v) T = d + ω , ( v i , j = d ij + ω ij ) (36)

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