The students had multiple
opportunities to divest themselves A GRAMMAR OF FILM
ofthe passive consumption of
entertainment glitz and glamour,
and to recognize the underlying
messages about society, culture, and
dominant ideologies within the
film text of Inherit the Wind. We had
read the book; we had seen the film;
and we had deconstructed both.
Ultimately, it was time for me
to relinquish my authority as
teacher and to invite my students
to become experts. I designed an
assessment called "Film Trailers
as Assessment" and posted the
project description on our class
blog: <http://societyissuesidentity.
blogspot.com/2OO9/o4/filn1-
trailer-as-composition.html>.
Over a series of five days, with
significant co-teaching from
our school librarian, M.J. Waite,
students created and shared their
film trailers. Some are posted
on the class blog at <http://
society issuesidentity.blogspot.
com/20 O 9/04/film-trailers-for-
inherit-wind-student.html>. I've
included others in a professional
development blog I created: <www.
mediasuper market.blogspot.com>.
The results ofthe students'
efforts were impressive. For
example. Laurel combined keen
observation of metaphors into her
film trailer: <www.youtube.com/
watch?v=EiNNw4pL9rs>. Brad
studied the genre of film trailers
and mastered it: <www.youtube.
com/watch?v=qpNhlCuf6ws>.
Within the classroom Nelly May
reconciled her personal views
of religion in a way that further
grounded her beliefs: <www.youtube.
com/watch?v=Oo4.bsAfckEU>.
Maude called upon the drama
and quick camera angles of
films she had seen to create her
own film: <www.youtube.com/
watch?v=oXv4Np6YDc8>.
18 Knowledge Quest Film in Education
CAMERA TECHNIQUES
Shot IS a single
run
camero. This is the basic unit from
which a film is constructed. The length
(or durotion) of a shot depends upon:
purpose: to help the viewer to
recognize setting or place, to
show action, to show reaction
• pace (or tempo) of the
sequence in which it occurs
Sequence
S e q u e n c e is a group of
shots that depict one action, or t
seem to belong with or depend
upon each other. Sequences can
range from a few to many shots.
(for short scenes) a group of shots that
• depict an event in the story
• occur in one place
A scene is generally a larger
unit than a sequence.
TYPES OF SHOTS
Long Shot IS a distonce
shot in which a setting, and not a
character, is the emphasis. This is
generally used to establisti the place
in which action will occur, hence
the term "establishing shot." A long
shot is often used at the beginning
of a scene or sequence, and may be
combined with a panning movement
of the camera to show a wider area.
Midshotisamiddl •distance shot
that focuses our attention on a particular
subject. With a midshot, the camera is
close enough to pick up detoil though
qh away to be able to follow
as the subject moves. The midshot is
commonly used to show qction, such as a
fight scene, q wqlk down q dork qlley, or
a glimpse ot a villain coming into view.
v _ - I O S e - U p is a close shot of on object
or person. A close-up focuses the viewer's
ottention on particular details. Close-ups of
objects may serve as the introductions to
new scenes, may offer a new fact, or may
shift locotion in the story. Close-ups of a
person hove q number of different functions:
• The close-up can imply thot the person on
wham we are focusing is q moin chqrqcter
• The first close-up of a character (in a
sequence of shots)
1 we know who is watchinq qn even
A close-up is most commonly used to
show the reaction of a character.
CAMERA MOVEMENTS
IS q movement trom q
stqtionory position to side-to-side.
IS a movement up or down
from a stationary position.
occurs when the camera
moves to follow q moving object or person.
The comerá is mounted on a moving device,
such as a rail piqtform, a dolly, or o vehicle.

outwoids away from a subject. The
speed of a camera movement (which
can range fram very fast to very slow)
can dramatically aller its effect.
MOVING FROM ONE
SHOT TO ANOTHER
C^-Ut is the ending of a shot. If the
cut is a jerky movement that seems
a little inconsistent with the next
shot, it is called a jump cut.
Fade In or O u t offers an image
that appears or disappears gradually. It
brightens to full-strength over a full second,
or darkens to fade out. The fade is often
used OS a division between scenes.
Dissolve oc< :urs when one miage
fades in while another fades out so that for
a few seconds the two are superimposei
In p o i n t is an image that starts
the scene. Sometimes this inpoint is
used to smooth the transition between
scenes and make a visual link (a
related object or shape) with the
o u t p o i n t of the previous she
CAMERA ANGLES
filming a shot, a decision is made
)out the o n g l e at which the
I directed at a subiect;
this influences the viewer's impression
A character filmed from a l O W O n g l e Editing S p e e d (ortempo) of
will seem strong, powerful, toll, proud,
a particular sequence can involve fast
etc.; in contrast, if a high O n g l e editing, also known as fast cutting, in
is used the subject will appear weak,
which the shots are one to two seconds
insignificant, vulnerable, or small. The
long. Fast editing generates excitement
viewer's impression of a structure or object
and anticipation as, for example, in
can be manipulated in a similar way.
an emotional courtroom scene. In slow
editing, shots ore three to ten seconds
A distorted ongle may be used
long. These lingering shots hove the
to make a scene more frightening, or to
opposite effect of the fast edit, and calm
moke the viewer feel anxious or seasick.
and relax the viewer. An example of the
slow edit is when the star-crossed lovers
A crone ongle, where
pause and reveal : feelings.
the camera moves up and away,
is often used to end films.
CAMERA TERMS
L d itl n g is the process of assembling
S o r t rOCUS is a slightly blurred sho
and splicing together the various shots that
to moke the subject seem more attractive
comprise a film. Underlying the editing
romantic, nostalgic, or dieamlike.
process is a technique that can be called
p O i r i n g , in which a story is built up by
When a hondheld comero
alternating one set of shots with another.
is chosen, the tripod and dolly are
deliberately abandoned. The director
• To depict a conversation or
wants to create a sense of anxiety or
confrontation between two characters
confusion, recreating the chaos of real
the shots alternate from one to
human life. A typical held shot follows
the other; angles may be used to
suggest inferiority or superiority.
behind, and the shot implies danger.
• Shots of a character alternate with shots
of what the character sees. The first shot iting together
of the character is the point of view. of 0 large number of shots with no
intention to create a continuous reality.
• In cross-cutting, a sequence of shots
A montage is often used to compress
alternates between two different locations
time because numerous events ore
(for exomple, the townspeople yelling
chronicled in fast succession. Sound
in dismay while the defense attorney
or narration con enhance montages'
approaches town on the train). The
cohesion to setting and characterization.
sequence builds to a climax and ends
with the two things coming together.
Volume 38, No. 4 | March/April 2010 19
 A GRAMMAR OF FILM continued
SOUND TECHNIQUES
Sound effects are added after filming. They
need to be added because the original set
did not allow clear and audible recognition
of necessary audio elements. Sounds that
are added later are numerous: lighthouse
sirens, car tires s Torses hooves
on a cobblestone street, a child crying ir
the background, or a cell phone ringing
D i a l o g u e iso conversation
between characters.
Commentary or narration,
also called v o i c e - o v e r , layers
additional commentary and insight into
characterization and conflicts. Often,
a voice-over is the inner voice of the
protagonist as she or he debates over
life choices. The narrator is invisible in
this case. Viewers react differently to
commentary depending on several factors.
Pace, or the speed of delivery, can imply
a circumstance, t-or example, faster tall
"otagonist is in jeopardy.
Tone of dialogue reveals the emotion
of the characters. Characters might
be rude, shy, aggressive, threatening.
passive, eager, quizzical, or sarcastic.
Clarity (enunciation) can create
a particular effect. Words that
are inaudible suggest confusion
woras that ar ilicit in sound can
suggest power and authority.
20 Knowledge Quest | Film in Education
Dialect creates a direct effect on LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
the way that audiences react. Non
Because films are no more than
recorded light, directors give special
viewers might otherwise readily accept
attention to lighting techniques.
a character. Dialectical nuances open
up to audiences new interpretations
or h i g h k e y lighting, the scene is
of people and their experiences.
ooded with bright illumination, giving it a
Background noise makes heerful feel and a happy atmosphere.
a scene seem more realistically close to
ow key. llumination is low
viewers' authentic experiences. When
and soaked with shadows, creating
we hear horns blaring, birds singing,
an ominous or melancholy mood.
children crying, or trains clattering, we
associate these sounds with our own lives,
S p o t l i g h t s cast intense
thus allowing us to bel
beams on the subject.
Laugh tracks are added
A strong light from behind, called
to reinforce comedie action.
b a c k l i g h t i n g , separates the
subject from the background. It can
Music is used most often to add
also create a silhouette effect when the
emotion to scenes. Usually the audience
subject is not illuminated from the front.
instinctively understands the feelings
the filmmaker wants to evoke with a
S i d e l i g h t odds solidity and
certain style of music. Some of the
depth, accentuating features and
most common uses of music are:
sometimes hiding facial marks.
building suspense: scai
THE ESSENCE OF ACTING
The actor's primary goal is to perform
suqqestinq romance: ec
determined actions that inspire
establishing the location or setting:
an audience to willfully suspend disbelief. We
many types of music are associated
want to identify with the actors as real human;
with certain parts of the world
with conscious desires like our own. Emotions,
adding humor: music can add a comic the human equivalent of animals' instincts,
element to a production if the music arise from the ego, or our subconscious
is funny or doesn't fit the action desires to become fulfilled. An actor locates
motives for the character's actions as a
• setting a pace: music can set the pace fo
means to achieve the connection with the
action, such a 'toon or rock video
ego. Desires, action, and performance ore
intermingled as one in the actor's world.
Actors see themselves as experiencing
r e a l e v e n t s . The characters'past,
ego, and discourse with real people
and reql things mqnifest in moments.
Actors reconcile their real and ortificiql
selves by constantly questioning their
behaviors, reasoning, qnd conditions
I m p r o v i s a t i o n istheoct
of mqking something up as you
go qlong. Some fomous qctors ore
remembered for their spontaneous
additions to scripts during filming.
The director's influence is key;
nearly every decision mode by the qctor is
reinforced or scripted by the director. Some
directors like to control octors' decisions
OS much OS any other element of the film.
COSTUMES
Costume designers
work closely with q theatrical, film, or
television company production team to
reseorch, design, and create costumes.
Costumes must be designed to be in line
with the team's overall i d e o l o g y
and time period.
Costume costs must stay within the
production budget, so costume designers
need o good knowledge of t O D r i C S ,
lighting techniques, and
production processes.
Costume designers often lead a team of
people including d r e s s m o k e r s
and milliners.
COLOR
In the U.S. filmmokers embed
Western social codes of color to
create choracter and mood.
Kea: excitement, energy, possion,
desire, speed, strength, power,
heat, love, aggression, danger, fire,
blood, war, violence, aggression,
oil things intense ond passionate
YellOW: ¡oy, hoppiness, optimism,
ideqiism, imagination, hope, sunshine,
summer, gold, philosophy, dishonesty,
cowardice, betrayol, jealousy,
covetousness, deceit, illness, hozard
b l u e : peace, tranquility, calm, stobility,
harmony, unity, trust, truth, confidence,
conservotism, security, cleanliness, order,
loyalty, sky, water, cold, technology,
depression, appetite suppressant
O r a n g e : energy, balance,
warmth, enthusiasm, vibrant, expqnsive,
flomboyant, demanding of attention
v a r e e n : nature, environment, heolthy,
good luck, renewql, youth, vigor,
spring, generosity, fertility, jeolousy,
inexperience, envy, misfortune
r U r p l e : royqity, spirituality, nobility,
spirituality, ceremony, mysterious,
transformation, wisdom, enlightenment,
cruelty, arrogance, mourning
v ^ r a V : security, reliability,
intelligence, staid, modesty, dignity,
maturity, solid, conservotive, practical,
old oge, sadness, boring
Brown: earth. tieartti, tnome.
outdoors, reliability, comfort, endurance,
stobility, simplicity, comfort
White: reverence, purity.
simplicity, cleanliness, peoce, humility,
precision, innocence, youth, birth,
winter, snow, good, sterility, morriqge
(Western cultures), deoth (Eqstern
cultures), cold, clinical, sterile
b l a c k : power, sexuqiity,
sophistication, formqiity, elegqnce,
weolth, mystery, feqr, evil, qnonymity,
unhappiness, depth, style, evil,
sadness, remorse, anger, underground,
good technical color, mourning,
death (Western cultures).
ired4success.com/
colorsymbolism.htm
SPECIAL EFFECTS
Computer Animation:
To "animate" is literally "to give
life to." "Animating" is moving
something that can't move itself.
Animotion adds to g r a p h i C S
the dimension of t i m e , vastly
increosinq the qmount of informqtion
An qrtistic piece of qnimqtion will
probably require different tools than
an onimotian intended to simulate
reality. Computer-ossisted
a n i m a t i o n usually refers to
two- and two-and-a-half-dimensionol
systems that computerize the traditional
hand-drown animation process.
Volume 38, No. 4 | March/April 2010 21
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