Best Practice Guidelines for

Selection and Optimization

of Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors are the most widely used machines in the hydrocarbon
industry to achieve desired gas compression through volume reduction. Selection and
optimization of centrifugal compressors for hydrocarbon services have always been
a great challenge for machinery engineers. The prime objective of this paper is to aid
the prospective buyers of centrifugal compressors, particularly machinery engineers
in selection and optimization of centrifugal compressors in the context of emerging
trends and challenges.

C
entrifugal compressors for hydrocarbon
applications are specified in API 617
which covers general mechanical design,
rotordynamics, mechanical and general
hydraulic performances, auxiliaries, warranties,
etc but, unfortunately, does not deal with some
other significant aspects of compressor selection
such as compressor operating envelope flexibility,
aero-mechanical considerations and gas dynam-
ics. These aspects greatly influence proper selec-
tion and optimization of centrifugal compressor
T and, therefore, should be addressed adequately.
E Optimizing Margins on Process Duties
All process duties should be critically examined
C and assessed individually to eliminate over mar-
gins on compressor duty as over margins may take
H the efficiency at most prevailing operating condi-
tions far away from best efficiency point increas-
N ing operating cost as well as overall cost of the
machine. Therefore, all likely variations in process
O conditions should be clearly identified and agreed
between machinery engineers and end users. This
L would entail proper evaluation of factual data like
O maximum and minimum mass flows, suction pres-
sure, suction temperature, pressure ratio and the
G gas compositions to be compressed, thus eliminat-
ing unrealistic process duties resultant of con-
Y servative margins. Margins added to the higher
duties to cover uncertainties in process require-
ments and gas properties should be limited to a
minimum as far as possible provided real process
duties are fully developed. However, due consid-
eration should be given to the margins to enable
the control system to restore equilibrium condi-
tions after a disturbance has occurred.
The following guidelines can be taken into ac-
count while evaluating correct margins on process
conditions:
• For applications where the pressure ratios can be
defined fairly precisely and mass flow rates are
established accurately based on process heat-mass
balance sheets such as refrigeration compressor
services, a maximum of 10 percent margin should
be applied to capacity.
• For applications where pressure ratio is heavily
dependent on flows such as recycle duties, a
maximum of 5 percent margin should be applied
to both capacity and the head.
• Pass-in side stream pressures, within the compres-
sor, must be estimated properly before arriving at
the final figure. This pressure should be below the
amount anticipated in service to minimize the risk
of the compressor generating high pressure back-
ing out the side stream flow. At the preliminary
stage and in the absence of fairly precise data, a
value of 95 percent of the anticipated absolute
pressure should be used. However, the compres-
sor manufacturer should be given ample freedom
in setting the intermediate pressure levels to facili-

Centrifugal
Compressors 54 HYDROCARBON ASIA, JULY-SEPT 2009 Visit our website at: http://www.safan.com
 tate the selection of the most economic machine. increase in head should be avoided even though
• Pass-out side streams should be specified at val- vendors exhibit experience to design the compressor
ues above that anticipated. At the preliminary with the heads in the range of 4500 to 6000 m. This
stage and in the absence of fairly precise data, a is due to the fact that impellers with considerably
value of 105 percent of the anticipated absolute high head may lead low pressure rise to surge,
pressure should be used. narrowing operating range between the design point
• The compressor vendor should be given free- and surge and reduced flow instabilities.
dom to optimize compressor selection by fixing Once the head per impeller stage has been estab-
intermediate pressures for intercoolers or lished, the number of impellers can be estimated by
multistage compressors. dividing total head generated by the compressor
• Also, requirements for pre-commissioning test by head limit per impeller stage. However, at pre-
runs on-site or off-site using a substitute gas such liminary estimation, maximum number of impeller
as air, nitrogen, CO2, CO2 / Helium mixture, fuel stages per casing should be limited to eight in case of
gas etc should be identified with regards to exces- single flow compressor, and ten in case of double
sive power or discharge temperature. An alter- flow and back-to-back compressors.
nate is to carry out pre-commissioning with the Machinery engineers are cautioned of suction
compressor under vacuum. temperatures considered for the calculation of head
Apart from the above, machinery engineers should as actual gas inlet temperature at impeller eye
also consider any possible performance deficit on would be above to that of specified. Therefore,
account of following: impeller stage head must be calculated with high-
I. Inaccuracies in performance measurement by est possible inlet temperature.
the OEM. Despite
the fact that PTC 10
permits no negative
tolerance on head
and flow, it permits
an allowance for in-
accuracies in the in-
strumentation.
II. Result of machine Figure 1. Maximum Number of Impellers per Casing
deterioration due to
wear of the internal leakage controls, process Allowable Mach Numbers
fouling, erosion etc. Apart from the mechanical strength, impeller tip
In case margins to the capacity and head are more speed is also governed by sonic considerations and,
than the values advised above, the extreme point therefore, Mach number inside an impeller must be
should be considered above the rated point and be restricted. Mach number is defined as ratio of tip
achieved by increasing the speed up to 105 percent of circumferential velocity or local gas velocity to the
the rated speed for variable speed drives. In this case, velocity of sound in the local gas. In centrifugal
the power capability of the driver should be checked compressors two Mach numbers, referred as circum-
so that power requirements can be met for above ferential Mach number and sometimes also called
rated speed. machine Mach number (occurs at the impeller tip)
and inlet Mach number (occurs at the eye of the
Head per Impeller Stage / Number of impeller), are considered.
Impeller Stages Inlet Mach number is complex to calculate and
For preliminary estimations, one should consider therefore circumferential Mach number is used
maximum head per impeller in the range of 3200 to which is easier to calculate. It has to be mentioned
3300m for molecular weights in the range of 28 to 30. that circumferential Mach number can be used to
However, for higher or lower molecular weight get a rough indication about the stage criticality and
gases, this value should be corrected. As a rule of provides information about impeller exit velocity to
thumb, lower the head by 35m per unit increase in the diffuser. On the other hand, inlet Mach number
molecular weight and increase the head by 65m per is quite important for gas dynamics considerations
unit decrease in molecular weight. These head limits at impeller eye and, therefore, compressor manu-
should be carefully evaluated and any significant facturers must indicate this Mach number.

HYDROCARBON ASIA, JULY-SEPT 2009 55

 Machinery engineers are cautioned about the
use of different reference locations for the calcu-
lation of inlet Mach number as some compressor
manufacturers calculate inlet Mach number with
reference to the tip of the impeller while others
use the root mean square diameter of the impeller
as the reference point. As the impeller eye diam-
eter increases with increase in flow, the inlet
Mach number is not only influenced by the cir-
cumferential Mach number but also by the hub
ratio (ratio of hub diameter to tip diameter) and
flow coefficient.
Also, the ratio of inlet Mach number to the cir-
cumferential Mach number can be used to validate
stiffness of the impeller. A high ratio indicates
outside diameter is close to the tip diameter result-
ing in very limited space for the gas to develop a
smooth radial flow and therefore reduces the over-
all operating envelope.
The inlet Mach number should be limited to a
maximum of 0.85 [inlet Mach number up to 0.95
have been validated] as a higher inlet Mach number
results in a narrow operating range and reduced
efficiency. For high flow, high molecular weight
gases at low inlet temperature applications such as
propane refrigeration (MW = 44), a high inlet Mach
number is often encountered. In such cases where
high inlet Mach number is inevitable the problem
of narrow operating envelope can be overcome by
using Inlet Guide Vanes to pre-rotate /swirl the in-
flow approaching the impeller resulting in reduced
inlet velocity and therefore reduced inlet Mach
number. This will result in wider operating enve-
lope and improved efficiency.
Flow Coefficients and Head Coefficients
It is always desirable to use the smallest possi-
ble machine; a higher flow coeffi-
cient means larger suction flow rate
for a given impeller diameter and
therefore the smaller the machine.
The expression for flow coefficient
represents the linear effect of tip
speed and the square of impeller
diameter for specific flow rate. This
implies that the flow coefficient is
an optimization between impeller
speed and diameter. Since the first
impeller has the largest diameter
and flow coefficient, the first
impeller dictates the compressor
speed. Lower limit of flow coeffi- Figure 2. Compressor Polytropic Efficiency vs. Flow Coefficient for 2D & 3D Impellers
cient for a particular impeller type
Centrifugal
Compressors 56 HYDROCARBON ASIA, JULY-SEPT 2009
is dictated by the width of the impeller passage
and very low value causes excessive wall friction
or leakage losses and efficiency falls rapidly,
whereas higher limit is dictated by impeller shape
or its Mach number and at high values, due to
high turbulence losses in impeller flow channels
(particularly in absence of insufficient guiding
such as IGVs), efficiency is deteriorated. At first
estimation, flow coefficients for closed impeller
should be considered within the range of 0.05
and 0.08. For open impeller assume flow coeffi-
cient as 0.1.
Another aspect of impeller shape is characterized
by head coefficient or pressure coefficient. This coef-
ficient is a function of the impeller vane tip angle, the
outlet gas velocity and the stage efficiency. At pre-
liminary stage of estimation the head coefficient
should be in the range of 0.46 and 0.54.
Right Choice of Impellers
Selection of right impellers for each intended ap-
plication is a key factor for compressor perform-
ance. Application of 3D impeller design has allowed
design of centrifugal compressors for high flow and
high inlet eye diameters with relatively higher effi-
ciency in comparison to that of 2D impeller design.
This is due to the capability of 3D impellers to match
large incoming flow field with optimum incidence
angle. However, due care should be taken for opt-
ing a complete set of 3D impellers as this will
require more axial length in comparison to 2D
impellers. This will lead to increased compressor
rotor dynamics instabilities and obviously the
compressor cost, due to larger casing size.
As an alternate approach, a combination of 3D and
2D impellers for multistage compressors, 3D impeller
at first stage or first few stages and rest of 2D impellers,
Visit our website at: http://www.safan.com
 should be considered (in the case of side stream
applications, 3D impeller at incoming stream should
also be considered, if flow coefficients at incoming
streams are high). This would lead to better overall
efficiency, reduced rotor dynamic instability and
optimized compressor cost as compared to that pro-
vided with complete set impellers of 3D design.
The following guidelines can be taken into account
for preliminary flow coefficients versus impeller type:
• For 2D impellers flow coefficient should not
exceed 0.10 for first stage.
• For 3D impellers flow coefficient should not
exceed 0.15 for first stage.
• Last stage flow coefficient should not be less
than 0.01 for both the impellers.
If calculations show evidence that flow coeffi-
cients fall outside of the above range, speed of rota-
tion and / or impeller diameter should be adjusted.
However, any limitation on allowable circumfer-
ential velocities and Mach numbers must be evalu-
ated before making any decision.
Rotordynamic Considerations and
Reliability
One of the most important factors influencing
overall compressor reliability is the rotordynamic
stability and its response to the unbalance forces.
API 617 covers requirements of rotordynamic sta-
bility and response and compressor manufactur-
ers should be regulated to satisfy all the
requirements of this standard without exception
as a minimum.
Figure 3. Flow coefficients & Impeller Shapes Vs Efficiency (Courtesy Rolls – Royce Energy Systems, Inc.)
Centrifugal
Compressors 58 HYDROCARBON ASIA, JULY-SEPT 2009
However, following additional requirements can
be added on top of the requirements of API 617 to
enhance to reliability of the compressor:
• The unfiltered vibrations measured during me-
chanical run tests should be limited to a maxi-
mum of 20µm peak-to-peak [ API 617 requires
“peak-to-peak amplitude of unfiltered vibration
of the machine, assembled with the balanced
rotor, operating at its maximum continuous
speed or at other speed within the specified
operating speed range, measured on the shaft
adjacent and relative to each radial bearing,
shall not exceed the following value or 25µm (I
mil), whichever is less] :
A = 25.4√ (1200/N)
It is to be noted that most of the mechanical run-
ning tests are carried out in a vacuum and therefore
this vibration limit should be lowered at this test
state. This will require tight manufacturing toler-
ances and sound balancing of individual rotor com-
ponents and rotor assembly during fabrication to
ensure improved reliability of the machine in field.
• For drive through compressors or compressors
with long strings, train torsional analysis as per
API 617 should always be specified.
• In the case of synchronous motors or when in-
duction / synchronous motors with variable
speed drive are required, a steady – state tran-
sient analysis should be specified.
• Reference and compressor manufacturer’s past
Visit our website at: http://www.safan.com
 experience of similar applications should be
evaluated for aero-dynamics induced “cross –
coupling forces” encountered causing exces-
sive vibrations and instabilities in the shop and
field, if any.
Shop Performance Testing
Performance test methods, acceptance criterion
and allowable test deviations for centrifugal com-
pressors are specified in ASME PTC 10. This test
code defines two test types called Type – 1 and Type
– 2. Type – 1 test is conducted on specified or very
close to the specified gas with a limited deviation
between test and specified operating conditions.
This test is rarely done because of complexities
associated with testing with a specified gas. Also,
most of the compressor manufacturers do not have
the capability to conduct this test or they are in
locations where flammable and/or toxic gases can-
not be used. This test must meet the requirements
of Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 of ASME PTC – 10 for
permissible deviations from specified operating
conditions and test observations.
Type – 2 test permits the use of a substitute gas,
usually inert or non – flammable, and extends the
permissible deviations between test and specified
operating conditions. This test must meet the re-
quirements of Table 3.2 of ASME PTC – 10 with
respect to volume reduction, flow coefficient, ma-
chine Mach number and Reynolds number, as com-
pared to the specified gas conditions.
Selecting test gas for Type – 2 test is a long-standing
bone of contention between end user and compres-
sor manufacturer as this test is based on similarity
between test condition volume reduction and
specified condition volume condition. Selection of
appropriate test gas is the key factor for this test
because test gas properties directly affect test vol-
ume reduction. Also, test gas selected must not
cause any operating condition exceeded such as
discharge temperature and maximum continuous
operating speed. The following guidelines can be
considered while selecting test gas for Type – 2 test:
• The molecular weight is the determining factor
for test gas selection as any significant difference
in molecular weights of specified gas and test gas
would result in objectionable test speed. If test
gas molecular weight is too low as compared to
that of specified gas, the test speed may exceed
the maximum continuous speed of the compres-
sor. Therefore, test gas molecular weight should
be very close to or higher than that specified gas.
• Value of isentropic index “k” of test gas should
be as close as possible to that of the specified gas
in order to achieve comparable volume reduc-
tion and inlet Mach number during the test.
• If at preliminary stage of estimation and in ab-
sence of any firm data, the test gas should be
considered such that test speed would be a mini-
mum 80% of the rated speed. However, in some
of the cases, this condition may not be practical
especially with test gas R-134a when used for
refrigeration gases like ethylene. However 100 %
CO2 or a mixture of 50% CO2 and R-134a can
meet this condition but the test discharge tem-
perature can be high and / or test speed may be
above maximum continuous speed.
Before finalizing the Type – 1 or Type – 2 tests,
extensive discussions should be done with the
compressor manufacturer as early in the project as
possible to ensure that the objectives of the tests
can be met without any hassle.
Conclusion
Selection and optimization of centrifugal com-
pressors in critical hydrocarbon services requires
proper consideration of all possible aspects of de-
sign and hydraulic performances apart from those
specified in API 617 and, therefore, should not be left
as the compressor manufacturer’s responsibility
alone. This is due to the fact that compressor selec-
tion and optimization is based on extensive assess-
ment of complex aero – mechanical design and design
compromises occur quite often.
This publication thanks Mr. Ajay
Giri for providing this article. Mr.
Giri graduated from the Institute
of Engineering & Technology,
Rohilkhand University Bareilly, In-
dia [B. Tech. (Mechanical Engineering)] and has
nine years of experience on selection, specifica-
tions and detailed engineering of turbo-
machineries. Currently he is working with Jacobs
Engineering Singapore as a Rotating Equipment
Engineer where he has recently executed engi-
neering and procurement of refrigeration cen-
trifugal compressors of drive power of 9 MW.
Prior to his current appointment he worked
with Bechtel Corporation Inc. as a Mechanical
Engineer where he had been responsible
for selection, specification and detailed engi-
neering of various turbo-machineries.
HA Enquiry Number 07/09-03
HYDROCARBON ASIA, JULY-SEPT 2009 59