LOVELY PROFESSIONAL

UNIVERSITY
term Paper Of SURVEYING
Topic :- PRINCIPLES OF
SURVEYING

Submitted to:-
MrPolurajuSir
Submitted
by:-
Name :- NITISH
SHARMA
Roll No. :-
RB5803A18
Trade :- B.tech
–MBA(CE)
Reg. No. :- 10805210
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As I began to reflect on magnitude of this project,

I was overwhelmed by guidance and support
extended by Teachers and friends.
I would acknowledge
that our H.O.D. encouragements whose contents
made me believe in me.
I would express my
sincere gratitude thanks to ever helping mam.
Last but not the least, my heart goes out to my
friend, teacher, “Mr.Poluraju sir” and my family
whose encouragement, knowledge and supports
makes to do this project presentable.

Tha
nking you

NIT
ISH SHARMA
CONTENT:-
1.OBJECT.
2.ABSTRACT.
3.INTRODUCTION OF PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING.
4.THE SURVEY PROCEDURE.
5.PLANNING.
6.COLLECTING MEASUREMENT.
7.PROCESSING MEASUREMENTS.
8.SURVEY TYPES.
9.TECNIQUES UNDER WATER SURVEYS.
10.MEASUREMENTS.
11.BUILDING SURVEYING.
12.SURVEYING EQUIPMENT.
13.RESULT.
14.CONSCLUSION.
15.REFERENCES.
Basic Survey Principles:-

Object:-
The aim of surveying is to prepare a map to show the relative positions of the objects on the
surface of earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale. It shows the natural features a
country, such as town, village, road, railways, rivers etc. Maps may also include details of
different engineering works, such as road, railways, irrigation canals etc.

Abstract:-
Generally we do surveying to drawn a map of work place. By surveying we find out the
relative position of different objects by measuring the horizontal distance between them.
Introduction:-

The basic principle of surveying is to be able to work out the position of a point from some
other point or points, positioning from the known features to the unknown ones.

To start a survey all you do is to measure the distance between two points on the site then
draw this to scale on a piece of paper, your site plan. By measuring the distance from these
two points to other points on the site the other points can be plotted relative to the two initial
points on your plan. You can draw up a network of points joined by distance measurements
on your site plan, to scale, as they are on the seabed. That’s it.

Four problems complicate this simple idea:

Sites are three-dimensional so we need to deal with differences in height or depth

Your measurements will have mistakes in them

Your measurements are not perfect

Site plans get complicated when there are lots of points and measurements

The simple survey described above works well enough for sites that are flat, as soon as there
are any significant differences in depth then it stops working. We need to be able to account
for the differences in depth.

Expect to make mistakes in your measurements. Previous surveys have shown that between
5% and 15% of measurements made underwater are wrong so we need to add procedures to
find these measurements.All measurements are not perfectly accurate, they are all plus or
minus a bit where only the size of the 'bit' differs. As we will see later, this measurement error
affects the accuracy with which we can position artefacts and ship's structure on our site.

Where we have lots of points to position on a site the number of points and measurements can
get too large to deal with easily. To get around this problem we set up a network of points
around the site from which we position artefacts and structure. The control point network is a
cornerstone of surveying, it looks like yet more work but in fact makes surveying easier.

The Survey Procedure:-

All survey work follows a simple four-step procedure:

1. Planning
2. Collecting Measurements
3. Processing Measurements
4. Drawing Up

Each step is discussed in detail below:

Planning:-

The actual amount of time the team will spend on site and underwater is usually very short. It
is essential that any work is well planned before it is started so work on site is efficient, safe
and problem-free.

The level of detail and accuracy required more or less define the techniques that can be used,
these should be specified in the research design. The equipment available and the experience
of the team also limit the techniques that can be used but the overriding factor may be the site
type.

Collecting Measurements:-

By the time you come to start recording the site the plan should have been explained to all
involved. This is the point where teamwork and communication become very important. If the
team are well briefed before work and de-briefed afterwards then the team leader can deal
with problems as they are found.

Any recording forms that have measurements on them should be well looked after. The forms
are the primary record of your work and should be kept even after they have been processed.
Keeping a notebook with day to day accounts, speculations and ideas about the site is often
useful, the notes can be handy later on when the measurements are being processed.

To be efficient the team needs to be well trained and well practised. If any team member
needs a refresher then the survey techniques to be used can be practised on dry land
beforehand.

Processing Measurements:-

In the processing stage the measurements that have been collected are used to calculate the
positions of the points or detail we are trying to record. Often this process is done while
drawing up the site plan if the points are to be plotted by hand.

For some methods distance measurements are corrected for differences in depth. Depth
measurements should be corrected for changes in the height of tide during recording. At this
stage any mistakes need to be identified and repeat measurements requested.
Drawing Up

With sketches or measurements collected from your site you can start to create the site plan.
The plan may be drawn by hand or drawn on a computer. Computer generated plans are more
useful as printed copies can easily be made, they can be printed at different scales and the
level of detail shown can vary as the work progresses.

If the site has not been recorded before then the sketches or assessment survey results can be
turned into a site plan. In doing this you are likely to find that something has been missed and
additional work is required.

If a recording survey is being done then the first step is to position the control points around
the site on the site plan. Measurements may be needed from the control points to a couple of
the main features on the site to align previous site plan with the control points. With the
control in place the features can then be added to the plan as they are recorded and processed.

Survey Types

Surveys on archaeological sites can be loosely divided into these types:

• Assessment
• Recording
• Detail and structure
• Monitoring
• Topographic

The end product of each of these types of survey is the same, the site is recorded to known
level of detail and known precision.

Assessment Surveys

An assessment survey is one that aims to get a rough idea of the extents and layout of a site,
it's like a sketch with measurements. These surveys are used to provide information for rapid
assessments of sites, by necessity they must be done quickly. The aim is to get enough
information about the site as quickly as is possible. These surveys are sometimes done in
advance of a pre-disturbance survey to provide information for planning survey work and
control point positions.

Recording Surveys :-

The most typical type of survey is a recording survey, these include pre-disturbance and
excavation surveys. This type of survey requires careful planning, recording and processing
so takes time to do correctly. The first step for a recording survey is to set up a set of control
points around and inside the site, these points are used as the framework for the survey. Once
the control points are in place they can be used to position artefacts or structure or for helping
to record details of the seabed.

The foundation of a survey is the network of control points installed on the site, this is the
foundation on which the other survey work is built. Permanent, fixed points called control
points or control stations are placed around the outside of the site, if the site is large then
points may also be installed through the middle as well. The site should be totally covered
with simplest possible network of high quality measurements between control points, simple
networks are easier to install and position. A single point is not enough to set up position
control on a site, a minimum of four points is required. It is essential that the control point
network be surveyed accurately, in most cases the control points should be surveyed to greater
accuracy than the detail.

The positions of larger features can be recorded by measuring their positions relative to a
number of control points. If more than one point on the feature is positioned then the
orientation of the feature can also be determined. Over short distances where the highest
accuracy is not required offsets and ties can be used, over longer distances or where the high
accuracy or position quality is important then DSM or acoustic positioning is used.

Recording Detail and Structure :-

Where a feature consists of a number of artefacts in a small area then positioning each
separately becomes more difficult and can become less accurate. To record a small area to a
high resolution then drawing frames or photography are used

Recording the remains of ship's hulls or buildings can be difficult. The remains may be too
large to record using drawing frames but too detailed to record by positioning only a few
points. Offsets can be useful in recording simple shapes but complex shapes can sometimes
only be captured accurately using close-range photogrammetry. Recording the remains of
harbours and civil engineering works can be difficult because of the size of the task,
techniques used for recording topography are sometimes the most useful.

Monitoring Surveys :-

Monitoring surveys are a special kind of recording survey where only selected parts of a site
are recorded, these surveys are done to monitor changes in the site over time. Not all the site
need be re-surveyed each time, only small parts thought most likely to indicate change. A
typical example would be to monitor the position, attitude and remains of a stern post on an
exposed site or the depth of burial of a site under mud.

Recording Topography :-

A topographic survey aims to record the shape of the seabed and usually involves recording
the seabed type. The same principles are used for recording topography as for other types of
 survey, what makes this type different is the need to record over a wide area. Recording the
shape of the seabed usually involves recording the depth or height of the seabed at known
positions. If the measurements are made at regular intervals over the site then a plan can be
produced showing the depths as contours.

Techniques : Underwater Survey Techniques:-

There are a number of techniques that can be used underwater for recording sites. The
techniques vary in accuracy, complexity and cost so not all techniques are applicable for all
recording tasks :

Setting up
Positioning Recording Recording Recording
Method Assessment survey
artefacts detail structure Topography
control

Sketching  

Radial  

Offsets & ties    

3D Trilateration   

Drawing frames   

Photogrammetry  

Photomosaics   

Acoustic positioning     
systems

Sketching It is essential to study the site before starting any further survey work and
generating a sketch is a good way to do this.
Radial Surveys For a radial survey a diver records the position of features on a site using
a distance and bearing back to a single control point. This technique is
very simple, quick and can be done by a single diver. The technique is
not accurate enough for pre-disturbance or excavation surveys but gives a
 good enough idea of the site for an assessment.
Offsets and Ties Offsets and ties are used to position features relative to a baseline running
through the site. An offset measurement positions a feature using a single
measured distance at right angles to the baseline from a known point, a
tie uses two or more measurements from known points on the baseline to
position the feature.
3D Trilateration Three-dimensional trilateration or Direct Survey Method (DSM) uses
distance and depth measurements to position features on a site. The
technique is similar to 2D trilateration with the exception that distances
are measured directly to features and the processing deals with any
difference in depth.
Drawing Frames Drawing frames are used to record very small areas of the site in detail. A
frame is placed over the area to be recorded and the diver draws visible
features on a scale drawing or directly on to the drawing frame.
Close-Range Close-range three-dimensional photogrammetry is a very accurate way of
Photogrammetry recording complex structures. A number of photographs are taken of the
structure from different viewpoints and processed in a computer program.
The program then constructs a three-dimensional model of the structure
to scale.
Photomosaics If a series of overlapping photographs are taken of a site then they can be
joined together to form a single large photograph. The photographs can
be of the seabed taken vertically downwards or of the side of a structure.
Since the tools to do this have become more widely available this
technique is being used more often. Sufficiently good results can be
obtained with a digital camera and the graphics processing software
available found on most computers.

Like close-range photogrammetry and drawing frames, this technique is

effective for small areas but must be used in conjunction with a control
point network.
Acoustic Acoustic positioning systems are widely used for survey work in the
Positioning offshore industry. These systems effectively replace the tape measures
Systems (APS) and dive computers used for DSM with distances measured with sound
pulses. A diver fitted with suitable hardware can be positioned within an
array of acoustic beacons, on the surface the archaeologists can then see
where the diver is.

Measurements:-

Distance measurements, tape measures and

Distance measurements
recommendations for use
Depth measurements, depth gauges and recommendations
Depth measurements
for use
 Measurement errors, types of errors, mistakes and
Measurement errors
adjustments

Building surveying:-

Building surveying emerged in the 1970s as a profession in the United Kingdom by a group
of technically minded General Practice Surveyors.Building surveying is a recognized
profession in Britain and Australia. In Australia in particular, due to risk mitigation and
limitation factors, the employment of surveyors at all levels of the construction industry is
widespread. There are still many countries where it is not widely recognized as a profession.

Services that building surveyors undertake are broad but can include:

• Construction design and building works

• Project management and monitoring
• Property Legislation advice
• Insurance assessment and claims assistance
• Defect investigation and maintenance advice
• Building surveys and measured surveys
• Handling planning applications
• Building inspection to ensure compliance with building regulations
• Pre-acquisition surveys
• Negotiating dilapidations claims.

Building surveyors also advise on many aspects of construction including:

• design
• maintenance
• repair
• refurbishment
• restoration

Clients of a building surveyor can be the government agencies, businesses and individuals.
Surveyors work closely with architects, planners, homeowners and tenants groups. Building
surveyors may also be called to act as an expert witnesses. It is usual for building surveyors to
earn a college degree before undertaking structured training to become a member of a
professional organisation.

With the enlargement of the European community, the profession of the building surveyor is
becoming more widely known in other European states, particularly France, where many
English-speaking people buy second homes.
Surveying equipment:-

A German engineer surveying during the First World War, 1918

As late as the 1990s, the basic tools used in planar surveying were a tape measure for
determining shorter distances, a level to determine height or elevation differences, and a
theodolite, set on a tripod, to measure angles (horizontal and vertical), combined with the
process of triangulation. Starting from a position with known location and elevation, the
distance and angles to the unknown point are measured.

Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer require a reflector or prism (used to return the
light pulses used for distancing) to return distance measurements, are fully robotic, and can
even e-mail point data to the office computer and connect to satellite positioning systems,
such as a Global Positioning System (GPS). Though real-time kinematic GPS systems have
increased the speed of surveying, they are still horizontally accurate to only about 20 mm and
vertically accurate to about 30–40 m.

Total stations are still used widely, along with other types of surveying instruments. However,
GPS systems do not work well in areas with dense tree cover or constructions. One-person
robotic-guided total stations allow surveyors to gather precise measurements without extra
workers to look through and turn the telescope or record data. A faster but expensive way to
measure large areas (not details, and no obstacles) is with a helicopter, equipped with a laser
scanner, combined with a GPS to determine the position and elevation of the helicopter. To
increase precision, beacons are placed on the ground (about 20 km apart). This method
reaches precisions between 5–40 cm (depending on flight height).

Result:-
By this we measure horizontal distance and angular measurement. It shows the natural
features a country, such as town, village, road, railways, rivers etc. Maps may also include
details of different engineering works, such as road, railways, irrigation canals etc

Conclusion:-
It uses to find out the error and distance between two horizontal points. Through this we draw
the map of any village, river etc.

Reference:-
1. Google.com

2. Wikipedia.com