Reinforced Concrete Frame Buildings

AT RISK:
The Seismic Performance of

Reinforced Concrete Frame Buildings
with Masonry Infill Walls
A Tutorial Developed by a committee of the

World Housing Encyclopedia
a project of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
and the International Association for Earthquake Engineering
First Edition, November 2006

AT RISK:
The Seismic Performance of
A Tutorial Developed by a committee of the

World Housing Encyclopedia,
a project of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
and the International Association for Earthquake Engineering
C. V. R. Murty
Svetlana Brzev
Heidi Faison
Craig D. Comartin
Ayhan Irfanoglu
First Edition November 2006
Publication Number WHE-2006-03

© 2006 Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, California 94612-1934.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the
prior written permission of the publisher, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 499 14th St., Suite
320, Oakland, CA 94612-1934.
This report is published by the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, a nonprofit corporation. The
objective of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute is to reduce earthquake risk by advancing
the science and practice of earthquake engineering by improving understanding of the impact of
earthquakes on the physical, social, economic, political, and cultural environment, and by advocating
comprehensive and realistic measures for reducing the harmful effects of earthquakes.
The printing of this tutorial has been supported by the Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology-Virginia Tech Partnership for Reduction of Seismic Vulnerability, with funding from the
U.S. Agency for International Development.
This tutorial was written by a committee of volunteer authors, all of whom participate in EERI and
IAEE’s World Housing Encyclopedia project. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed herein are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of their organizations.
Copies of this publication may be ordered from either:

National Information Center of Earthquake Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Kanpur 208016 INDIA
Fax: (91-512) 259-7794
E-mail: nicee@iitk.ac.in
Or
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
499 14th Street, Suite 320
Oakland, CA 94612-1934 USA
Telephone: 510/451-0905
Fax: 510/451-5411
E-mail: eeri@eeri.org
Web site: www.eeri.org
ISBN: 1-932884-22-X
EERI Publication Number WHE-2006-03
Production coordinators: Marjorie Greene, C. V. R. Murty, Svetlana Brzev and Heidi Faison
Layout: Marjorie Greene, Heidi Faison
Cover: Five story RC frame residential building with unreinforced masonry infills that collapsed about
50 km from the epicenter during the M7.7 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake. The building had parking in
half of the ground story, with apartments in the other half. Most residential buildings are currently
constructed this way in India and many other countries, without formal design for gravity or seismic
loading. The typical column size in such buildings is 230 mm by 450 mm with 90 degree hook ends
in the ties. The same beam-slab reinforcement detail is repeated at all floor levels; the building in the
photo shows a vertical split in the middle of the building due to this generic reinforcement detailing at
all floor levels. Such poor detailing results in lapping of all beam and slab rebars at the same location in
plan at all floors of the building. This is a dangerous practice that can result in building collapse in an
earthquake. Photo: C.V.R. Murty
ii
Acknowledgments
The World Housing Encyclopedia (WHE) project owes its origins to the vision of Chris Arnold, who
originally proposed the idea to the EERI Endowment Fund.
This tutorial has been developed and reviewed by an international team of experts. Primary authors
are C.V.R. Murty (India), Svetlana Brzev (Canada), Heidi Faison (U.S.A.), Craig D. Comartin
(U.S.A.) and Ayhan Irfanoglu (U.S.A). Additional input was provided by Ahmet Yakut (Turkey),
Durgesh Rai (India) and Marjorie Greene (U.S.A.). Authors are particularly grateful to Andrew
Charleson (New Zealand) who provided many useful suggestions as a reviewer. In addition,
Randolph Langenbach (U.S.A.) provided useful suggestions regarding the emphasis on alternative
systems. Authors of all the various WHE housing reports cited in this tutorial provided much useful
information in their reports, for which all the authors are very grateful:
Ascheim, M. (U.S.A.) Jaiswal, K. (India)
Bostenaru, M.D. (Romania) Jarque, F.G. Mexico)
Brzev, S. (Canada) Mejia, L. (Colombia)
Comartin, C. (U.S.A.) Pao, J. (Canada)
Elwood, K. (Canada) Rodriguez, M. (Mexico)
Faison, H. (U.S.A.) Sandu, I. (Romania)
Farsi, M. (Algeria) Sheu, M.S. (Taiwan)
Gomez, C. (Chile) Sinha, R. (India)
Goyal, A. (India) Spence, R. (U.K.)
Gulkan, P. (Turkey) Yao, G. (Taiwan)
Yakut, A. (Turkey)
The web site and WHE database have been designed by a team from John A. Martin and Associates
of Los Angeles, CA, as a primarily pro bono effort: Farzad Naeim, Team Leader; Mark Day, Project
Manager, Lead Designer, and Website Programmer; Scott Hagie, Database Interface and Web Server
Programmer; Kostas Skliros, Software Engineer and Lead Database Developer.
This project would not be possible without the dedication of over 190 earthquake engineering
professionals from around the world who have volunteered their time and expertise to contribute
information on housing construction in their countries and to review information provided by
others. This tutorial is dedicated to all these contributors, whose names are listed on the next two
pages.
C. V. R. Murty
Editor-in-Chief
November 2006
iii
WORLD HOUSING
ENCYCLOPEDIA
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief Managing Editor
C.V.R. Murty Marjorie Greene
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
India U.S.A.
Vanja Alendar Heidi Faison

University of Belgrade Nabih Youssef & Associates
Serbia U.S.A.
Qaisar Ali Jorge Gutierrez

NWFP University of Eng. & Technology University of Costa Rica, Dept. of Civil Engineering
Pakistan Costa Rica
Chris Arnold Andreas Kappos

Building Systems Development University of Thessaloniki
U.S.A. Greece
Marcial Blondet Marjana Lutman

Catholic University of Peru Slovenian National Bldg.& Civil Eng. Institute
Peru Slovenia
Jitendra Bothara Kimiro Meguro

National Society for Earthquake Technology University of Tokyo, Institute of Industrial Science
Nepal Japan
Svetlana Brzev Ofelia Moroni

British Columbia Institute of Technology University of Chile
Canada Chile
Andrew Charleson Farzad Naeim

University of Wellington John A. Martin & Associates
New Zealand U.S.A.
Shel Cherry Jelena Pantelic

University of British Columbia The World Bank
Canada U.S.A.
Craig Comartin Virginia Rodriguez

CD Comartin Inc. Universidad Nacional de San Juan
U.S.A. Argentina
Dina D’Ayala Laura Samant

University of Bath Consultant
United Kingdom U.S.A.
Dominic Dowling Baitao Sun

University of Technology, Sydney Insitute of Engineering Mechanics
Austraila China
iv
WORLD HOUSING ENCYCLOPEDIA
CONTRIBUTORS
Abdibaliev, Marat Davis, Ian Lutman, Marjana Skliros, Kostas

Agarwal, Abhishek Deb, Sajal K. Maki, Norio Smillie, David
Ahari, Masoud Nourali Desai, Rajendra Malvolti, Daniela Sophocleous, Aris
Ait-Méziane, Yamina DIaz, Manuel Manukovskiy, V. Sanchez, De la Sotta
Ajamy, Azadeh Dimitrijevic, Radovan Martindale, Tiffany Spence, Robin
Al Dabbeek, Jalal N. Dowling, Dominic Meguro, Kimiro Speranza, Elena
Alcocer, Sergio Eisenberg, Jacob Mehrain, Mehrdad Sun, Baito
Alemi, Faramarz Eisner, Richard Mejía, Luis Gonzalo Syrmakezis, Kostas
Alendar, Vanja Ellul, Frederick Meli, Roberto P. Taghi Bekloo, Nima
Ali, Qaisar Elwood, Kenneth Moin, Khalid Talal, Isreb
Alimoradi, Arzhang Faison, Heidi Mollaioli, Fabrizio Tanaka, Satoshi
Al-Jawhari, Abdel Hakim W. Farsi, Mohammed Moroni, Ofelia Tassios, T. P.
Almansa, Francisco López Feio, Artur Mortchikchin, Igor Tomazevic, Miha
Al-Sadeq, Hafez Fischinger, Matej Mucciarella, Marina Tuan Chik, Tuan
Ambati, Vijaya R. French, Matthew A. Muhammad, Taj Norhayati
Ambert-Sanchez, Maria Gómez, Cristian Muravljov, Nikola Tung, Su Chi
Ansary, Mehedi Gordeev, Yuriy Murty, C. V. R. Upadhyay, Bijay
Arnold, Chris Goretti, Agostino Naeim, Farzad Kumar
Arze L., Elias Goyal, Alok Naito, Clay J. Uranova, Svetlana
Aschheim, Mark Greene, Marjorie Ngoma, Ignasio Valluzzi, Maria Rosa
Ashimbayev, Marat U. Guevara-Perez, Teresa Nienhuys, Sjoerd Ventura, Carlos E.
Ashtiany, Mohsen Ghafory Gülkan, Polat Nimbalkar, Sudhir Vetturini, Riccardo
Astroza, Maximiliano Gupta, Brijbhushan J. Nudga, Igor Viola, Eugenio
Awad, Adel Gutierrez, Jorge A. Nurtaev, Bakhtiar Wijanto, Sugeng
Azarbakht, Alireza Hachem, Mahmoud M. Olimpia Niglio, Denise U. Xu, Zhong Gen
Bachmann, Hugo Hashemi, Behrokh Hosseini Ordonez, Julio Yacante, María I
Baharudin, Bahiah Irfanoglu, Ayhan Ortiz R, Juan Camilo Yakut, Ahmet
Bassam, Hwaija Itskov, Igor Efroimovich Osorio G., Laura Isabel Yao, George C.
Bazzurro, Paolo Jain, Sudhir K. Ottazzi, Gianfranco Zhou, Fu Lin
Begaliev, Ulugbek T. Jaiswal, Kishor S. Palanisamy, Senthil Kumar
Belash, Tatyana Jarque, Francisco Garcia Pantelic, Jelena
Benavidez, Gilda Kante, Peter Pao, John
Benin, Andrey Kappos, Andreas Papa, Simona
Bento, Rita Kaviani, Peyman Parajuli, Yogeshwar Krishna
Bhatti, Mahesh Khakimov, Shamil Pradhan, Prachand Man
Bin Adnan, Azlan Khan, Akhtar Naeem Pundit, Jeewan
Blondet, Marcial Khan, Amir Ali Quiun, Daniel
Bogdanova, Janna Kharrazi, Mehdi H. K. Rai, Durgesh
Bommer, Julian Klyachko, Mark Reiloba, Sergio
Bostenaru Dan, Maria Kolosova, Freda Rodriguez, Virginia I
Bothara, Jitendra Kumar Koumousis, Vlasis Rodriguez, Mario
Brzev, Svetlana Krimgold, Fred Samant, Laura
Cardoso, Rafaela Kumar, Amit Samanta, R. Bajracharya
Castillo G., Argimiro Lacava, Giuseppe Samaroo, Ian
Cei, Chiara Lang, Kerstin Sandu, Ilie
Chandrasekaran, Rajarajan Lazzali, Farah Saqib, Khan
Charleson, Andrew Leggeri, Maurizio Sassu, Mauro
Chernov, Nikolai Borisovich Levtchitch, Vsevollod Schwarzmueller, Erwin
Cherry, Sheldon Lilavivat, Chitr Shabbir, Mumtaz
Choudhary, Madhusudan Liu, Wen Guang Sharpe, Richard
Cleri, Anacleto Loaiza F., Cesar Sheth, Alpa
Comartin, Craig Lopes, Mário Sheu, M.S.
D’Ayala, Dina Lopez, Walterio Singh, Narendrapal
D’Ercole, Francesco Lopez M, Manuel A. Singh, Bhupinder
Lourenco, Paulo B. Sinha, Ravi

vi
World Housing Encyclopedia
Tutorial
About the Tutorial
This document is written for building of earthquake ground shaking is
professionals with two key objectives: considered to be a challenge even in
1) to improve the understanding highly industrialized countries with
of the poor seismic performance of advanced construction technology.
reinforced concrete frame buildings Keeping these challenges in mind, this
with masonry infill walls, and 2) to document proposes two alternative
offer viable alternative construction building technologies characterized
technologies that can provide a higher by a higher level of seismic safety at
level of seismic safety. Causes for the a comparable cost and construction
unsatisfactory seismic performance complexity to RC frame construction;
of these RC frame buildings lie in (a) these technologies are confined masonry
the poor choice of a building site, (b) construction and RC frame construction
the inappropriate choice of building with RC shear walls .
architectural forms that offer poor
seismic performance, (c) the absence Considering the enormous number of
of structural design for expected existing RC frame buildings with infills
earthquake behavior, (d) the lack in regions of moderate to high seismic
of special seismic detailing of key risk across the world, this document also
structural elements, (e) inadequately discusses some generic seismic retrofit
skilled construction labor, (f) poor strategies for these structures that may
quality building materials, and (g) the reduce associated risks.
absence of construction supervision.
The problem is aggravated further by It is important that all those involved
the use of unreinforced masonry infill in the construction process understand
walls, usually made of clay bricks or how these buildings perform during
hollow clay tiles. The effect of infills earthquakes, what the key challenges
is usually not accounted for in the are related to their earthquake safety,
design, however these walls may and what construction technology
significantly affect the way in which alternatives might be more appropriate.
the building responds to earthquake Authors of this document believe
ground shaking and may even cause that better understanding of these
the building to collapse (as reported critical issues will result in improved
often after several major earthquakes construction and retrofit practices for
worldwide). buildings of this type, reducing life and
property losses in future earthquakes.
In general, achieving satisfactory
seismic performance of RC frame
buildings subjected to several cycles
vii
About the WHE
The World Housing Encyclopedia
(WHE) is a project of the
Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute and the International
Association for Earthquake
Engineering. Volunteer earthquake
engineers and housing experts from
around the world participate in this
web-based project by developing
reports on housing construction
in their countries. In addition,
volunteers prepare tutorials on
various construction materials and
donate time on various special
projects, such as the creation of
the World Adobe Forum and the
collection of information on various
temporary housing alternatives.
All information provided by the
visit
www.world-hous-
volunteers is peer-reviewed. Visit
ing.net for more in- www.world-housing.net for more
formation on the World information.
Housing
Encyclopedia
viii
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS 7

Building Shape 7
Non-Symmetric Layout 9
Masonry Infill Walls 10
Out-of-plane seismic resistance of masonry infills 12
Short and Captive Columns 13
Modifications of Existing Buildings 15
Alterations 15
Vertical Additions 15
Adjacent Buildings: Pounding Effect 16
Soft and Weak Stories 17
How to Avoid Soft Stories 19
Strong Beam—Weak Column Failure 20
3. DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS 23

On Ductility 23
Beams 24
Failure modes 24
Location and amount of horizontal rebars 24
Stirrups 27
Columns 27
Failure modes 27
Vertical rebars 27
Horizontal ties 28
Beam-Column Joints 30
Masonry Infill Walls 33
Non-Structural Elements 34
4. CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS 37

Material Quality 37
Selection and Control of Materials 38
Preparation, handling and curing of concrete 38
Selection and control of steel 39
Workmanship 40
Inspection 42
ix
5. ALTERNATIVES TO RC FRAMES WITH INFILLS
IN REGIONS OF HIGH SEISMIC RISK 43

Why are the Alternatives Needed 43
The Alternatives 43
Confined Masonry Buildings 44
Background 44
Advantages 45
RC Frame Buildings with RC Shear Walls 46
Background 46
Advantages 48
6. RETROFITTING RC FRAME BUILDINGS 51

Introduction 51
Vulnerability Assessment 52
Ways to Strengthen Existing RC Frame Buildings 52
Installation of New RC Shear Walls or Steel Braces 53
Jacketing 56
Strengthening of Existing Masonry Infills 60
Strengthening RC Frame Buildings with Open Ground Floor 60
Short-term Goal = Prevent Collapse 61
Long-term Goal = Ensure Good Earthquake Behavior 62
How Seismic Retrofit Affects Structural Characteristics 62
Retrofitting RC Frames with Masonry Infills: Implementation Challenges 63
7. CONCLUSIONS 65
Technical Challenge 65
Stakeholders 65
Closing Comments 66
8. REFERENCES 67
NOTE:
Throughout the document KEY POINTS and DESIGN TIPS have been
placed in the margins--these points are targeted at building owners and
public officials who may not be as interested in some of the technical
details in the text. KEY POINTS are in gold ellipses; DESIGN TIPS are in
blue hexagons.
KEY POINT DESIGN TIP

1. Introduction
Reinforced concrete is one of the the underside of slabs, slender
most widely used modern building vertical elements (columns), and
materials. Concrete is an “artificial flat vertical elements (walls). In
stone” obtained by mixing cement, most cases, all these elements
sand, and aggregates with water. are cast monolithically— that is,
Fresh concrete can be molded beams and columns are cast at the
into almost any shape, giving it construction site in a single operation
an inherent advantage over other in order to act in unison. Fresh
materials. It became very popular concrete is poured into wood or
after the invention of Portland steel forms placed around the steel
cement in the 19th century; however, reinforcement for different elements
its limited tension resistance in buildings. Such buildings are
initially prevented its wide use in called monolithic (or cast-in-place)
building construction. To overcome RC buildings, in contrast to precast
poor tensile strength, steel bars are RC buildings, wherein each of the
embedded in concrete to form a elements is cast separately (often
composite material called reinforced in a factory environment) and then
concrete (RC). The use of RC assembled together at the building
construction in the modern world site. In monolithic RC buildings, the
stems from the wide availability of connection between the elements is A large number
achieved by providing continuous of RC buildings are be-
its ingredients - reinforcing steel
ing built worldwide without
as well as concrete. Except for the reinforcement bars that pass from one
engineering input
production of steel and cement, the element to another. The intersection
production of concrete does not between a beam and a column, known
require expensive manufacturing as beam-column joint, plays a vital
mills. But, construction with role in the capacity of these buildings
concrete does require a certain to resist lateral loads.
level of technology, expertise and
workmanship, particularly in the In RC frames the integral action of
field during construction. Despite beams, columns and slabs, provides
this need for sophistication and resistance to both gravity and lateral
professional inputs, a large number loads through bending in beams
of single-family houses or low-rise and columns. RC frames built in
residential buildings across the earthquake-prone regions should
world have been and are being possess ductility, or the ability to
constructed using RC without sustain significant deformations under
any engineering assistance. Such extreme loading conditions; this
buildings, in seismic areas, are aspect will be discussed in Chapter
potential death traps. This is the 3. Frames that are designed to resist
motivation behind developing this mainly the effects of gravity loads
tutorial. most often are called non-ductile (or
gravity) frames.The non-ductile RC
A typical RC building (shown in frame with or without infill walls is a
Figure 1) is generally made of a very common building construction
number of plate-like horizontal technology practiced around the globe
elements (slabs), rib-like horizontal (Figure 2).
elements (beams) connected to

Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
These three-dimensional RC frames than 110 reports describing housing

(i.e., beam-column-slab systems) are construction from 37 countries
Non-ductile made functional for habitation by (see www.world-housing.net).
frames are not building walls called infill walls. Along with masonry, reinforced
designed to resist These walls are built at desired concrete seems to be the material
earthquakes but are very of choice for housing construction
locations throughout the building,
commonly built in seis-
usually in the vertical plane defined -- the database currently contains
mic regions
by adjoining pairs of beams and 26 reports (approximately 25% of
columns. One popular material all reports) describing RC concrete
used for making walls across the frame construction in Algeria,
world is burnt clay brick masonry Chile, Colombia, Cyprus, Greece,
in cement mortar. Lately, the use India, Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Malaysia,
of cement blocks, hollow cement Mexico, Palestinian Territories,
blocks and hollow clay tiles is on Syrian Arab Republic, Taiwan,
the rise across the world. In some Turkey, Uzbekistan, Venezuela,
cases, the masonry infill walls Serbia, Romania, and the USA.
are also reinforced with steel
bars passing through them in the This construction is extensively
vertical and horizontal directions practiced in many parts of the
and anchoring into the adjoining world, especially in developing
Of the 37 beams and columns. countries. At this time, RC
countries rep- frame construction comprises
resented to date in With the rapid growth of urban approximately 75% of the building
the WHE database, 23 population , RC frame construction stock in Turkey, about 80% in
have submitted reports
has been widely used for residential Mexico, and over 30% in Greece
on seismically vulnerable
construction in both the developing (Yakut, 2004). Design applications
concrete construction; range from single-family dwellings
this includes many of and industrialized countries. As
of this writing (October 2006), in countries like Algeria and
the most populous
countries in the global database of housing Colombia, to high-rise apartment
the construction in the World Housing buildings in Chile, Canada, Mexico,
Encyclopedia (WHE) contains more Turkey, India, and China. High-
Figure 1. A typical RC frame building with masonry infills and its

components (source: C.V.R. Murty).

Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 2. This Algiers, Algeria, cityscape has many reinforced concrete frame buildings, like many
other cities around the world (photo: S. Brzev)
rise apartment buildings of this southern Europe, North Africa,

type have a rather high population Middle East and southeast Asia.
density, in some cases a few Recent earthquakes across the world,
hundred residents per building. including the 1999 Izmit and Ducze
Examples of RC frame construction earthquakes in Turkey, the 2001 Bhuj
from various countries are shown in earthquake in India, the 2001 Chi Chi
Figures 3 and 4. earthquake in Taiwan, and the 2003 Construction
Boumerdes earthquake in Algeria, with concrete requires
The extensive use of RC revealed major seismic deficiencies an advanced level of tech-
construction, especially in nology, expertise and
in these buildings, some of which
workmanship
developing countries, is attributed led to catastrophic collapses causing
to its relatively low initial cost a death toll measured in thousands.
compared to other materials such One of the major causes of seismic
as steel. The cost of construction vulnerability associated with these
changes with the region and buildings is that, in the developing
strongly depends on the local countries, a large number of the
practice. As an example, a unit area existing RC frame buildings have
of a typical residential building been designed by architects and
made with RC costs approximately engineers who may not have formal
US$100--$400/m2 in India, US$250/ training in the seismic design and
m2 in Turkey and US$500/m2 in construction and have been built by
Italy (Yakut, 2004). inadequately skilled construction
workers.
RC frame construction is frequently
used in regions of high seismic
risk, such as Latin America,

Because of the high occupancy considered to be at risk since the

associated with these buildings, as building codes did not include
well as their ubiquitous presence requirements for special seismic
throughout the world, significant detailing of reinforced concrete
Unless fatalities and property losses can structures until the 1970’s when
careful
be associated with their potential several earthquakes demonstrated
attention is paid
poor earthquake performance. the need for more ductile design.
to many design and
Thus, special care is required to The WHE database documents the
construction issues,
these buildings can understand the challenges that damage to older RC frame buildings
experience damage or earthquakes pose and ensure in major earthquakes that shook the
collapse in major that appropriate features are USA in the past 50 years, including
earthquakes incorporated in the architectural the 1964 Anchorage, Alaska, the
and structural design and 1971 San Fernando, California and
construction of RC frame buildings. the 1994 Northridge, California
Figure 5 depicts the construction earthquakes. These earthquakes
of a modern RC frame building in revealed the vulnerability of RC
Mexico. Key considerations related frame buildings, and prompted the
to the construction of RC frames development of modern seismic
will be discussed later in this retrofitting technologies (Faison,
document. Comartin and Elwood, 2004).
In an ideal world, it would be best
The estimated number of to strengthen all these buildings
vulnerable RC frame buildings to protect them from the effects of
in seismic zones across the future earthquakes and minimize
world is staggering, including fatalities and property losses.
Engineers However, in a pre-earthquake
have used past both developing and highly
industrialized countries. In situation, it is unlikely that funding
earthquake failures to
learn how to improve industrialized countries, thousands is going to be available to retrofit
RC frame perfor- of older RC frame buildings are a significant number of these
Figure 3. Low-to-midrise RC frame construction: Turkey (top left; from Gulkan et al.2002;
Colombia (top right; from Mejia 2002); Taiwan (bottom left; from Yao and Sheu 2002); India
(bottom right; from Jaiswal et al. 2002)

Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 4. Examples of RC
highrises in Canada (left;
from Pao and Brzev 2002),
and Chile (right; from Mo-
roni and Gomez 2002). RC
shear walls provide resis-
tance to earthquake effects
in these buildings while col-
umns are designed to resist
gravity loads.
buildings in any one community. comparable costs and construction

Consequently, there is a need to complexity; some alternatives will be
develop strategies and policies proposed later on in this document
for prioritizing buildings to be (see Chapter 5) .
retrofitted according to their
New RC frame
importance and funding resources.
construction should
The WHE database contains several be avoided unless
reports describing the retrofitting designed by a qualified
techniques for RC frame buildings engineer due to its high
in countries like the USA, Mexico, collapse risk
Algeria, India, Greece, Colombia,
Chile, Italy, Romania, Taiwan,
Turkey, etc. Some generic seismic
retrofit strategies suitable for RC
frame structures are discussed in
this document.
Considering the high seismic

vulnerability associated with the RC
frame buildings, it is necessary to
consider viable alternatives to RC
frame construction, which provide
a higher level of seismic safety at
Figure 5. An example of RC frame construction from Mexico (source: Rodriguez and Jarque
2005): column reinforcement placement (left) and the completed frame with infills (right).


2. Conceptual Design and Planning
Considerations
Building Shape
The behavior of a building during This is because buildings with
an earthquake depends on several simple geometry offer smooth and
factors, including whether its shape direct load paths for the inertia
is simple and symmetric. Some forces induced during earthquake
buildings in past earthquakes have shaking to flow to the foundation
performed poorly due to highly (see Figure 7b).
irregular shapes (see Figure 6). Since
the building shape is determined • One way to reduce irregularity
very early in the development of a is to separate the building into
project, it is crucial that architects simple blocks separated by air Build-
and structural engineers work gaps (also known as separation ings with
together during the planning stages joints). This type of design simple shapes
to ensure that unfavorable features allows the simply configured perform
are avoided and a good building buildings to act independently,
better in
configuration is chosen. Key earthquakes
thereby avoiding high stress
issues in understanding the role of concentrations at reentrant
building configuration are outlined corners that often lead to damage.
below. For example, a building with an
L-shaped plan can be divided into
• Buildings with simple geometry two rectangular plan buildings
in plan typically perform better using a separation joint at the
during strong earthquakes junction (see Figure 8). But, the
than buildings with re-entrant consequence of this separation
corners from plans with U, V, joint is that the two parts of the
H and + shapes (see Figure 7a). building may pound (or crush)
Figure 6. A building with a very

irregular shape suffered extensive
damage in the 2001 Bhuj, India
earthquake (source: EERI 2001).

Avoid
buildings with
vertical setbacks
and varying story
heights
Figure 7. Influence of building shape: a) Buildings with simple shapes permit the
shaking induced inertia forces to flow directly to the foundation and hence perform well
in earthquakes; b) buildings with irregular shapes force the inertia forces to bend at each
re-entrant corner, which results in damage at these corners and hence poor earthquake
beahvior of the building as a whole (source: Murty 2005).
Figure 8. Separation joints help simplify building plans (source: Murty 2005).
each other during earthquakes tend to incur damage or collapse

if not separated with a that is initiated in the irregular
sufficient gap. story. Buildings on sloping
ground that have columns with
• Vertical irregularities may unequal height along the slope,
have a negative effect on often exhibit damage in the short
building performance during columns (see Figure 9c).
Properly
an earthquake. Buildings with
connect all
vertical setbacks (such as hotel • Discontinuities in elements that
structural ele- are needed to transfer earthquake
ments along the buildings with a few stories
wider than the rest) cause a loads from the building to the
load path
sudden change in earthquake ground are also of concern.
resistance at the level of For example, buildings are
discontinuity (see Figure 9a). vulnerable if they have columns
Buildings that have fewer that hang or float on beams at an
columns or walls in a particular intermediate story and do not
story or with an unusually tall follow through all the way to the
story (see Figure 9b) exhibit foundation (see Figure 9d). Also,
soft or weak story behavior and buildings that have reinforced

Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
concrete walls designed to

carry the earthquake loads to
Non-Symmetric
the foundation but that are Layout
discontinuous in between
are vulnerable (see Figure Buildings with irregular shapes
9e). When these walls are lack regularity/symmetry in plan ,
discontinued at an upper level, which may result in twisting under
the building is very likely to earthquake shaking (see Figure Buildings
sustain severe damage during 10). For example, in a propped with bent load
strong earthquake shaking. overhanging building (see Figure 11) paths perform poorly
in earthquakes
the overhanging portion swings on
the relatively slender columns under
it. It is important to minimize twisting
Ensure that
buildings have
symmetry in plan
and in elevation
Figure 9. Sudden changes in load path lead to poor performance of buildings in

earthquakes: a) setbacks; b) weak or flexible stories; c) sloping ground; d) hanging or
floating columns; e) discontinuous structural members (source: Murty 2005).
Structural
members (e.g.
columns and
walls) should not
be discontinued at
lower levels of
the building
Figure 10. Examples of vertical irregularities (from Bangladesh)

that can induce undesirable torsional effects (source: M. A. Noor).

ncil, New
of a building during an earthquake. It is, of course, important to pay
Twist in buildings, called torsion attention to aesthetics during the
by engineers, causes structural design process. However, this should
elements (e.g. walls) at the same not be done at the expense of good
floor level to move horizontally by building behavior and adequate
different amounts. As a result of earthquake safety. Architectural
torsion, columns and walls on the features that are detrimental to the
Ensure that earthquake performance of buildings
architectural side that moves more experience
more damage (see Figure 12). must be avoided. When irregular
elements do not
alter the structural
architectural features are included,
response of the Many buildings have been severely a considerably higher level of
building affected by excessive torsional engineering effort is required in the
effects during past earthquakes. structural design.
It is best to minimize (if not
completely avoid) this twist by
ensuring that buildings have
Masonry Infill Walls
symmetry in plan (i.e., uniformly
In some parts of the world, especially
distributed mass and uniformly
in developing countries, masonry
placed vertical members that resist
walls are used as infill walls in both
horizontal earthquake loads). It is
the interior and exterior RC frames
best to locate earthquake resisting
(see Figure 13). The material of the
frames symmetrically along the
masonry infill is the main variant,
exterior perimeter of a building;
ranging from cut natural stones (e.g.,
such a layout increases building
granite, sandstone or laterite) to man-
resistance to torsion/twisting.
Figure 11. A building with ground floor open on one-side twists during
earthquake shaking (source: Murty 2005).
Locate
earthquake-
resisting frames
symmetrically Figure 12.
along exterior Vertical members
perimeter of of buildings
building
that move more
horizontally
sustain more
damage (source:
Murty 2005).
10
made bricks and blocks (e.g., burnt Some builders mistakenly believe that
clay bricks, solid & hollow concrete the presence of masonry infill in the
blocks, and hollow clay tiles), as frame panels improves earthquake
shown in Figure 14. performance, however the evidence
from past earthquakes proves this The effects of
It is particularly challenging statement is usually wrong (see Figure infill walls must be
to design these buildings to 15). It can only be true if the building considered in the
achieve satisfactory earthquake has been carefully designed by an structural design
performance. Performance of such engineer so the infill walls provide the
buildings in past earthquakes bracing without failing the frame. A
has revealed that the presence of bare frame (without infills) must be
masonry infill walls is typically able to resist the earthquake effects
detrimental forthe seismic (see Figure 16a). Infill walls must be
performance of the building. uniformly distributed in the building
Masonryinfill walls should not be (see Figure 16b). Masonry infills
used UNLESS they are specifically should not be discontinued at any
designed by an engineer to: intermediate story or the ground story
level; this would have an undesirable
• Work in conjunction with the effect on the load paths (see Figure
frame to resist the lateral loads, 16c).
or
• Remain isolated from the frame.
Figure 13. Typical brick

infill wall construction
in Turkey: masonry infill
walls are added after the
frame construction is
complete (source: Gulkan
et al. 2002).
(a)
In many parts
of the world,
masonry walls are used
as infill walls
b
Figure 14.(a) Assortment of infill
masonry units from Peru; (b) Typical
hollow clay tile from Peru (photos:
H. Faison)
a
11
a b
Figure 15. RC frame building with masonry infills in Algeria (after the 2003 Boumerdes
earthquake): (a) masonry infill walls fail in both directions; (b) Masonry infill wall failure
showing diagonal cracking due to compression strut action (photos: S. Brzev)
Infill walls act as diagonal struts and In this manner, masonry infill walls
increase the stiffness of a RC do not affect the frame performance
frame building. The increase in and frame displacements are not
Masonry infill the stiffness depends on the wall restrained. Another advantage of
walls significantly
thickness and the number of the isolated masonry infill is that the
affect the seismic per-
frame panels with infills, and can walls remain undamaged, thereby
formance of a frame
building be quite significant in some cases reducing post-earthquake repair costs.
(up to 20 times that of the bare RC
frame). The increased stiffness of From the point of view of controlling
the building due to the presence weather conditions inside the
of infills reduces the ability of the building, the gaps need to be sealed
frame to flex and deform. In ductile with an elastic material; these
RC frames, masonry infills may provisions may be expensive and
Con- prevent the primary frame elements require good construction details to be
fined ma- (i.e., columns and beams) from executed with precision.
sonry is a viable responding in a ductile manner --
alternative to RC instead, such structures may show Overall, based on the poor earthquake
frames with infills for
a non-ductile (brittle) performance. performance of non-ductile RC frame
low-rise buildings
This may culminate with a sudden buildings and also load-bearing
and dramatic failure. masonry buildings, confined masonry
construction is emerging as a better
However, most RC frame buildings alternative for low-rise buildings
with masonry infill walls are not in developing countries (Brzev
designed and engineered to account 2006, Blondet 2005). This type of
for the effect of the infill walls on construction is much easier to build
building performance, which is why than ductile frames with isolated
this tutorial recommends avoiding infills.
Infill walls this construction and either
must be uni- confining the masonry or using RC
formly distribut- shear walls (see the discussion in Out-of-plane seismic
ed in a building Chapter 5). resistance of masonry infills
When ductile RC frames are The difficulty in isolating masonry

designed to withstand large infill walls from RC frames is that
displacements without collapse, such walls become susceptible to
masonry infills should be isolated collapse in the out-of-plane direction,
from the frame by a sufficient gap. that is, in the direction perpendicular
12
a b c
Figure 16. Infill walls influence the behavior of a RC frame: (a) a bare frame; (b)
infill walls must be uniformly distributed in the building; and (c) if the inflls are
absent at the ground floor level this modifies the load paths, which is detrimental to
earthquake performance (source: C.V.R. Murty).
to the wall surface. This is frame buildings that have columns

particularly pronounced when of different heights within one story
the story height is large or when suffered more damage in the shorter
the column spacing is large. Once columns than in the taller columns
masonry walls crack, continued located in the same story. Short
shaking can easily cause collapse in columns are stiffer, and require a
the heavy infill blocks and pose a larger force to deform by the same
serious life safety threat to building amount than taller columns that are
inhabitants. more flexible. This increased force
generally incurs extensive damage
on the short columns, as illustrated
Short and Captive by earthquake damage photos (see
Columns Figure 19).
Some columns in RC frames may be There is another special situation in Avoid build-
considerably shorter in height than buildings when the short-column ing designs that
other columns in the same story effect occurs. Consider a masonry have short or captive
(see Figure 17). Short columns occur wall of partial height with a window columns
in buildings constructed on a slope above it (see Figure 20). The upper

or in buildings with mezzanine portion of the column next to the
floors or loft slabs that are added window behaves as a short column
in between two regular floors (see due to the presence of the infill
Figure 18). In past earthquakes, RC wall, which limits the movement
Figure 17. A building with short

columns at the basement level in
Cyprus (source: Levtchitch 2002).
13
Figure 18. Examples of

common building types
with short columns
(source: Murty 2005).
a b
Figure 19. Captive column damage from (a) 2003 Bourmerdes, Algeria earthquake
(photo: M. Farsi), and (b) 2001 Bhuj earthquake in India. (source: EERI)
of the lower portion of the column. horizontal motion and thereby attracts
These columns are called captive a larger force as compared to a regular
In past columns because they are partially column. As a result, short column
earthquakes, in RC restrained by walls. In many cases, sustains more damage. The damage
frame buildings with col-
other columns in the same story in these short columns is often in the
umns of different heights
are of regular height, as there are form of X-shaped cracking, which is
within one story, the short
columns suffered more no walls adjoining them. When the characteristic for shear failure.
damage floor slab moves horizontally during
an earthquake, the upper ends In new buildings, the short column
of all columns undergo the same effect should be avoided during the
displacement. However, the stiff architectural design stage itself.
walls restrict horizontal movement In existing buildings, the infills in
of the lower portion of the captive the short column region should be
column, so the captive column isolated from adjoining columns
displaces by the full amount over the by providing adequate gaps for the
short height adjacent to the window columns to swing back and forth
opening. On the other hand, regular without interfering with the infill
columns displace over the full height. masonry walls; this is essential
Since the effective height over which because the columns may not have
a short column can freely bend is been designed to resist the large shear
small, it offers more resistance to forces that these short columns will
attract.
14
Figure 20. Captive columns are common in RC buildings when

partial height walls adjoin columns and the walls are treated as non-
structural elements (source: Murty 2005).
There may be a limited number of for in the original design and/or are
unavoidable situations that require undertaken without involvement of
the use of short columns. Such qualified professionals, there is an
buildings must be designed and increased risk of earthquake damage.
built to minimize their vulnerability
to increased seismic damage. These Vertical Additions
short columns should be recognized
at the structural analysis stage
In some cases, additional stories
itself; the problem of short columns
are added on top of the existing RC
becomes obvious when such
frame building without taking into
members attract large shear forces.
account the load-bearing capacity Building altera-
of the existing structure. Building tions can detrimental-
Modifications of owners usually decide to build these ly affect its performance
additional stories when additional in an earthquake
Existing Buildings living space is needed and municipal
ordinances are lax about height limits.
Alterations In some cases, these extensions are
performed without building permits.
Building alterations are common in Unfortunately, the plans for future
RC frame buildings with infill walls. building additions do not always
For example, in Algeria, India, account for the additional loads on the
and Turkey, typical modifications foundations or the additional forces to
include enclosing of balconies to be imposed on the existing RC frame.
increase room sizes, or demolishing
interior walls to expand existing In some countries, low-rise one- to
apartments. In some cases, columns three-story buildings are provided
or bearing walls are removed in with the starter reinforcement bars
order to expand the apartment projecting from the columns at the
size; alternatively, new stairs are roof level for the future construction
connected by perforating the slabs; of additional stories. In general,
in some cases, walls are perforated unprotected starter bars usually
to create openings. When these become extensively corroded if the
alterations have not been accounted construction of the expanded building
15
portion does not continue within Adjacent Buildings:

a few years. Since the bottom
portions of columns experience Pounding Effect
high stresses during earthquakes,
a weak plane forms in the new When two buildings are located too
story that makes it susceptible close to each other, they may collide
to collapse. An example of a during strong shaking; this effect is
vulnerable building addition in known as pounding. The pounding
Cyprus is shown in Figure 21. effect is more pronounced in taller
buildings. When building heights
do not match, the roof of the shorter
building may pound at the mid-height
of the columns in the taller building;
this can be very dangerous, and can
lead to story collapse (see Figure 22
and Figure 23).
Figure 21. An example of an existing RC frame building in Cyprus showing weak

columns, incomplete frame and a heavy rigid parapet wall (source: Levtchitch
2002).
Figure 22. Pounding can occur in adjacent buildings located very close to
each other due to earthquake-induced shaking (source: Murty 2005).
16
a b
Figure 23. (a) Pounding between a six-story building and a two-story building in
Golcuk, Turkey causing damage in the column of the six-story building, (b) Detail of
pounding damage in a six-story building shown in figure (a). (source: Gulkan et al.
2002).
earthquakes across the world. For

Soft and Weak example, during the 1999 Turkey,
Stories 1999 Taiwan, 2001 India and 2003
Algeria earthquakes, a significant
The most common type of vertical number of these buildings collapsed.
irregularity occurs in buildings that In many instances, the upper portion
have an open ground story. An open of an open ground story building
ground story building has both (above the ground story level) moves
columns and masonry infill walls in as a single rigid block; this makes
the upper stories but only columns the building behave like an inverted
in the ground story (see Figure pendulum, with the ground story
24). Simply put, these buildings columns acting as the pendulum
look as if they are supported by rod while the rest of the building
chopsticks! Open ground story acts as a rigid pendulum mass. As a
buildings have consistently shown consequence, large movements occur
poor performance during past locally in the ground story alone,
thereby inducing large damage in
Figure 24. Typical building with a soft ground story

in India (source: EERI 2001).
17
the columns during an earthquake above, i.e., the relative horizontal

(see Figure 25). Soft stories can also movement at the ground story
occur in the intermediate floors of level is much larger than the
a building, and cause damage and stories above. This flexible ground
collapse at those levels see Figure story is called a soft story (see
26.) Figure 24).
The following two features are (b) Relatively weak ground story
characteristic of open ground story in comparison to the stories
buildings: above, i.e., the total horizontal
earthquake force (load) resisted
(a) Relatively flexible ground story at the ground story level is
in comparison to the stories significantly less than the stories
Figure 25. Excessive

deformations in the ground story
alone are not desirable since the
columns in the ground story
become stressed well beyond the
level anticipated in the design
Figure 26. An example of a building

collapse due to an intermediate
soft story in the 2001 Bhuj, India
earthquake. (source: EERI 2001)
18
above. Thus, the open ground How to Avoid Soft Stories

story is a weak story. Soft story
Architects and structural designers buildings are
Open ground story buildings are can use the following conceptual extremely suscep-
often called soft story buildings, even design strategies to avoid undesirable tible to earthquake-
though their ground story may be performance of open ground story induced damage and
both soft and weak. Generally, the buildings in earthquakes: often collapse
soft or weak story usually exists at
the ground story level (Figure 27), • Provide some shear walls at the
but it could exist at any other story open story level: this should be
level, too. possible even when the open
ground story is being provided to
offer car parking (see Figure 28a).
a c
b
Figure 27. Building collapses due to the soft story effect: (a) A low-rise concrete building collapse in the 2003
Bourmerdes, Algeria earthquake (photo: S. Brzev); (b) A weak-story mechanism developed at the first floor of
the building in a mixed-function building -- the ground floor was used for commercial purposes and lacked the
stiffness provided by the infill walls at the upper floors (source: Gulkan et al. 2002); (c) Soft story collapse in the
1999 Chi Chi Taiwan earthquake (source: Yao and Sheu 2002).
c
Figure 28. The building needs to be designed to take into account the effect of the
open story on performance. This might include (b) providing walls in all possible
panels in the open story, or (c) choosing an alternative structural system e.g. RC
shear walls, to resist lateral earthquake loads (source: Murty et al. 2006)
19
• Select an alternative structural avoided, ensuring that forces can

system (e.g. RC shear walls) to safely be transferred between these
provide earthquake resistance: elements.
when the number of panels in
the ground story level that can Reports from past earthquakes
be filled with masonry walls is throughout the world have confirmed
insufficient to offer adequate that buildings designed contrary to the
lateral stiffness and resistance in strong column-weak beam approach
Avoid the ground story level, a ductile often fail in earthquakes.
completely frame is not an adequate choice.
open stories--
In such cases an alternative When the strong column-weak beam
use alternative
design system, like a RC shear wall, is approach is followed in design,
strate- required to provide earthquake damage is likely to occur first in beams.
resistance (see Figure 28b). When beams are detailed properly
so that ductile behavior is ensured,
the building frame is able to deform
Strong Beam—Weak significantly despite progressive
damage caused by the consequent
Column Failure yielding of beam reinforcement. In
a major earthquake, this type of
In a reinforced concrete frame damage takes place in several beams
building subjected to earthquake throughout the structure; however,
ground shaking, seismic effects are this is considered to be “acceptable
transferred from beams to columns damage” because it is unlikely to cause
down to the foundations. Beam-to- sudden building collapse (see Figure
column connections are also critical 29a). In contrast, columns that are
in ensuring satisfactory seismic weaker in comparison to beams suffer
performance of these buildings. The severe localized damage at the top and
currently accepted approach for the bottom of a particular story (see Figure
seismic design of reinforced concrete 31b); this can cause the collapse of an
frames is the so-called strong column- entire building, in spite of the columns
weak beam approach. The guiding at stories above remaining virtually
design principles associated with undamaged.
this approach are summarized
below: These vulnerable structures are
characterized by relatively small
Properly (a) Columns (which receive forces column dimensions compared to the
designed concrete from beams) should be designed beam dimensions and are known as
frame buildings will to be stronger in bending “strong beam-weak column” structures
experience damage than the beams, and in turn (see Figure 30). Failures of small, weak
in many beams during foundations (which receive columns have been reported after
strong shaking, but this forces from columns) should
type of damage does earthquakes around the world (see
be designed to be stronger Figure 31 and Figure 32). For example,
not usually lead to
collapse
than columns. Columns can be several reinforced concrete buildings
made stronger in bending than collapsed due to this effect in the 1999
the beam by having a larger Turkey earthquake (see Figure 32).
cross-sectional area and a large Even when complete building collapse
amount of longitudinal steel does not occur, damage is often too
than the beam.. extensive, making repair unfeasible.
Such buildings are usually demolished
(b) Connections between beams after an earthquake.
and columns as well as columns
and foundations must be
designed such that failure is
20
Beam to
column connec-
tions are critical to
satisfactory building
performance
Figure 29. Two distinct design approaches result in significantly

different earthquake performances (source: Murty 2005).
Columns
should be
stronger than
beams
Figure 30. The beams must be designed to act as the weak links in a RC
frame building. This can be achieved by designing columns to be stronger
than beams (source: C.V.R. Murty).
21
Figure 31. Collapse of a multistory RC frame building due to weak column-strong

beam design in the 2001 Bhuj, India earthquake. (photo: C. V. R. Murty)
Buildings
with weak columns
and strong beams ex-
perience damage in their
columns first, which then
collapse
Figure 32. Multiple-story collapse in a six-story building due to strong

beam-weak column design in the 1999 Turkey earthquake (source: Gulkan
et al. 2002)
22
3. Detailing Considerations
On Ductility
Earthquake shaking causes structures can be made to behave
vigorous movement underneath in a ductile manner when designed Steel and
the building and thereby transmits to take advantage of ductile steel concrete are com-
energy to the building. The properties. bined to take advantage
philosophy of earthquake-resistant of each material’s best
design is to make the building However, one of the key challenges attributes
absorb this energy by allowing associated with the earthquake-
the damage at desired locations resistant design of reinforced
of certain structural elements. concrete structures is to ensure
This damage is associated with that members behave in a ductile
significant deformations, and manner and that the damage occurs
extensive yielding (stretching) of at predetermined locations. This
steel reinforcement in reinforced can be achieved by applying the
concrete members. This behavior is Capacity Design Approach which can
known as ductile behavior. Ductility be explained by using the chain
denotes an ability of a structure to analogy (see Figure 33). Consider
sustain significant deformations a chain made of brittle links; when
under extreme loading conditions. pulled, the failure of any of the
Achieving ductility in RC members links causes a brittle failure of the
is particularly challenging due to chain. However, when a ductile
the different behavior of concrete link is introduced in the chain, a Earthquake-
and steel: concrete is a brittle ductile mode of failure can take resistant design
material, which crushes when place if the ductile link is made to aims to ensure that
subjected to compression and cracks be the weakest of all and fails first. damage occurs at specific
when subjected to tension; on the In order for the ductile failure to locations
other hand, steel shows ductile take place in this kind of structure,
behavior when subjected to tension. the brittle links must be stronger in
As a result, reinforced concrete comparison to the ductile link.
Figure 33. Capacity Design

Method can ensure that the
chain fails in a ductile manner
23
The ductile behavior of RC characterized by diagonal

frame buildings in earthquakes cracking in the end regions of
is desirable since it helps secure the beams, is always brittle and
the safety of building inhabitants. must be avoided by providing
Ductile behavior is ensured by closely spaced closed-loop
carefully designing the beams, stirrups.
columns and joints, so that even
if a devastating earthquake takes Brittle modes of failure are
place, collapse is prevented. This is undesirable and must be avoided
in spite of extensive damage, which by skillful design and detailing
may be characteristic for the ductile of horizontal reinforcement and
Ductile struc-
failure mechanism. The main stirrups, as discussed in this section.
tures absorb earth-
quake energy through lo- strategy is to prevent premature
calized damage, thereby and brittle modes of failure from Location and amount of
preventing collapse occurring before the desired ductile horizontal rebars
mode of failure. As a result, the
ductile structure can absorb a Horizontal rebars should be
significant amount of energy. provided along the length of the
beam to resist flexural cracking
Ductile detailing is the process of on the faces of the beam that are
ensuring that the above principles subjected to tension. Unlike the
are employed while proportioning case of gravity loads where the load
the RC frame members direction is always known, lateral
and providing the required forces change direction during
reinforcement. This is achieved by earthquake ground shaking. As
choosing suitable dimensions and a result, both the top and bottom
arrangement of reinforcement bars beam faces may be subjected to
in the beams, columns, and joints, tension and require horizontal
as discussed below. reinforcement (see Figure 34). The
behavior of a beam is different
Beams under different loadings. The
undeformed beam with no load has
no tension at any face of the beam.
Failure modes
However, under gravity loading
when the direction does not change
Beams may experience one of the (condition B), the bottom face at the
following two modes of failure: center of the beam is in tension (see
the red polygon that is now larger
(a) Flexural failure (brittle or than its original rectangle in (A),
ductile); brittle failure occurs while the top face is in compression
when there is too much (see the blue polygon that is now
horizontal reinforcement in smaller than its original rectangle
Beams, the tension zone of the beam, in (A). On the other hand, for
columns and joints
while ductile failure occurs if earthquake shaking in one direction
can be carefully de-
signed so that collapse beams are designed conversely (condition C), the top face at the
is prevented even in a with relatively less steel in the one end of the beam is in tension
devastating tension area. and the bottom face at the same
earthquake end is in compression (see red and
(b) Shear failure; this occurs blue polygons). At the same time,
when the amount (size and/ due to reverse bending at the other
or spacing) of stirrups is end, the top face is in tension while
not adequate. This failure, the bottom face is in compression.
24
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
When the direction of the load is Since it is not practical to use very
reversed, the situation in the beam long rebars in construction, it is
is just the opposite. Any portion of generally necessary to use smaller
the beam that is expected to be in rebar lengths and join them so that
tension (red polygons) must have they can span the full distances
horizontal rebars to resist cracking required. To ensure that the rebar
of the concrete. Under earthquake is strong enough when it is joined
loading, both beam faces require with other pieces, the bars must
rebars, unlike gravity loading overlap by a specified distances,
where the load direction does not depending on the bar diameter.
change and tension develops only This overlapping length is called a
Brittle beam
on one side. Thus, different sections lap splice. Splicing must be avoided
failures due to
of the beam need reinforcement in regions where horizontal bars are shear or flexure
depending on the loading expected to yield in tension. Top must be avoided
condition. bars should be spliced in the middle
one-third of the effective span (see
In general, it is a good seismic Figure 35). Splicing should be done
design practice to provide a for an adequate length and the
minimum of two bars (with spliced length shall be enclosed by
the total area not less than the closely spaced stirrups. In general,
design area of steel obtained seismic codes prescribe that no
from calculations) at the top and more than 50% of the bars shall be
bottom faces along the full length spliced at any section.
of the beam. At the beam ends, the
amount of bottom steel shall be at
least equal to half of that provided
on the top.
Condition A:
no loading
Closely
spaced stir-
rups should be
provided near the
beam ends and at
the lap splices
Condition B: gravity loading Condition C: earthquake loading
Figure 34. Beam behavior under different loading conditions: (A) no loading;
(B) gravity loading; (C) earthquake shaking in one direction; the reinforcement
requirement at different locations of the beam depends on the loading condition
(source: H. Faison).
25
Figure 35. Stirrups must be closely spaced at the beam ends and lap splices (source:
Murty 2005).
Figure 36. RC beams must have stirrups with 135° hooks around the
horizontal bars (source: Murty 2005).
26
Stirrups earthquake energy and sustain

damage in the process. This resistance
Stirrups prevent brittle shear is determined, amongst other factors,
failure in RC beams by restraining by the total cross-sectional area of
diagonal shear cracks, protecting vertical steel rebars. Shear failure
the concrete from bulging outwards is brittle and must be avoided in
due to flexure; stirrups also columns by providing closely spaced
provide confinement and prevent transverse ties that enclose all the
the buckling of the compressed vertical bars.
horizontal bars by providing
Tall and slender columns often Use square
confinement.
tend to be weaker than the framing or circular col-
beams, particularly when the column umns rather than
All closed stirrups should have 135° rectangular col-
hooks provided on alternate sides in width in the direction of framing is
umns
adjacent stirrups. Such stirrups do small. To prevent the undesirable
not open during strong earthquake “weak column-strong beam” effect
ground shaking (see Figure 36) (discussed in Chapter 2), seismic
since the stirrup ends are embedded design codes require the columns to
in confined core. Simply put, these be stronger than the beams. Since
stirrups act like the metal straps columns are often wider than the
around wooden water barrels. The beams framing into them and have a
water inside the barrel exerts a larger amount of steel reinforcement
pressure that pushes the wooden than beams, the column width in the
slats of the barrel outwards. The direction of frame action should be
metal straps that wrap around generally equal to or greater than
the barrel resist this pressure and the width of beams framing into
prevent the barrel from bursting. them. Also, circular columns with
Similarly, the stirrups in the beam spiral reinforcement tend to show
resist the pressures from within superior earthquake performance
the beam, and keep the concrete over rectangular columns of the
core intact. The stirrup spacing same cross-sectional area. However,
in any portion of the beam should spiral reinforcement is not common
be determined from design in design practice, particularly in
calculations. In general, seismic columns of rectangular or square
codes prescribe closely spaced shape. Further, the entire length of
stirrups provided near the column spiral must be made from a single bar.
faces over a length equal to twice Also, the ends of the spiral need to Closed-
the beam depth. be securely anchored into the beam- loop vertical
column joints or beam-slab system. stirrups should
be provided
Columns Vertical rebars throughout the
beam length
Failure modes Vertical rebars resist axial loads and

bending moments developed in the
RC columns can experience two column due to gravity loading as well
failure modes, namely axial-flexural as due to earthquake shaking. Vertical
failure and shear failure. The bars should be distributed on all the
column resistance due to axial- sides of the column. It is preferred
flexural effects is ideally limited to use a larger number of smaller
by making the columns stronger diameter bars instead of a fewer bars
than the beams (as discussed in with large diameter, even if they have
Chapter 2). As a result, the beams,
rather than columns, absorb the
27
the same total cross-sectional area. Several earthquakes have revealed

Not more than 50% of bars should column failures due to ties that
be spliced at any one location (see are spaced too far apart, do not
Figure 37). Lap splices shall be have 135° hooks, or are otherwise
Extended
column starter provided only in the middle half inadequately designed (see Figure
bars intended of the member length – it is not 40).
for future building recommended to place lap splices
extension will become in the top or bottom region of the The ties should be ended with a
extensively corroded column (see Figure 38). 135° hook with sufficient length
after a few years extension at the end of the bar to
and should be
Horizontal ties ensure proper confinement of the
avoided
concrete within the stirrup. These
lengths are usually prescribed by
While vertical loads and bending
relevant national standards. The
moments on columns are resisted
hooks must be embedded within
by the vertical rebars, lateral
the concrete core so that the ties will
earthquake forces are resisted
not pop open during earthquake
by closely spaced closed-loop
shaking and compromise the
horizontal ties (see Figure 39). The
integrity of the concrete core. If the
horizontal ties should be designed
length of any side of column and
to restrain the development of
hence the hoop is too large, then a
diagonal shear cracks. Furthermore,
cross tie should be added to prevent
horizontal ties hold together the
the hoop from bulging outwards
vertical rebars and prevent them
(see Figure 41). Ties should be
from excessive buckling, and
provided with closer spacing at
confine the concrete core within the
the two ends of the column for at
column. By confining the concrete
least the length prescribed by the
core, the ties help prevent crushing
relevant national standards.
of the column core so that it can
continue to resist the vertical loads.
Longitudinal
rebar lap splices
should only occur at
the midheight of the
column
Figure 37. Inadequate splice length and location for future construction--100%
splices at the bottom of the column base (source: Mejia 2002).
28
Horizontal
closed ties confine
the concrete core intact
Figure 38. Ties must be in columns so that the
closely spaced at the top building does not lose its
and bottom ends of column vertical load
and at lap splices (source: carrying capacity
Murty 2005).
All column,
joint, and
beam ties must
have 135°
hooks
Figure 39. Steel reinforcement in columns must have ties with

135° hooks around the vertical bars (source: Murty 2005).
29
a b c
Figure 40. Examples of column failure: (a) buckling of vertical column rebars due to inadequately spaced
horizontal ties in India (source: EERI 2001); (b) severe damage of a ground-floor column due to improper
confinement of concrete and lapping of large number of longitudinal bars, India. (source: Jaiswal et al. 2002),
(c) typical infrequent horizontal ties with 90° hooks, which were unable to confine the concrete core, India
(135° hooks should have been used instead) (source: Jaiswal et al. 2002).
Joints must
have enough con-
crete strength to trans-
Figure 41. Additional cross-ties
mit loads between the
beams and columns are required in the horizontal
direction at regular intervals to
keep the concrete in place and to
prevent the vertical column rebars
from buckling (source: Murty
2005).
Beam-Column Joints region. When either the column is not

wide enough or the concrete strength
Beam-column joints are the areas in the joint region is too low, there
Both beam is insufficient grip of concrete on the
and column longi- where the beams and columns
intersect (see Figure 42a). During steel rebars; this causes the rebars to
tudinal rebars must be
enclosed by hoop ties in earthquake ground shaking, beam- slip and lose its capacity to carry load.
the joint region column joints might sustain severe If these opposing pull-push forces
damage if due attention is not are too large for the joint to resist,
given to their design and detailing. geometric distortion may occur in the
Earthquake forces cause the beam- joint region resulting in the formation
column joint to be pulled in one of diagonal shear cracks (see Figure
direction at the top rebar and in the 42c).
opposite direction at the bottom
rebar (see Figure 42b). These forces Significant stress demand posed on
are resisted by bond between the steel bars and concrete in the
the concrete and steel in the joint
30
a b c
Figure 42. Beam-column joints: (a) intersection of beams and columns known as beam-column joints; and
(b) push-pull forces on joints cause compression and tension forces which result in irreparable damage in
joints under strong earthquake shaking; c) distortion of joint causes diagonal cracking and crushing of
concrete (source: C.V.R. Murty).
beam-column joint region mandates volume of the confined concrete

that special attention be paid to in the beam-column joint region,
the design and detailing of these the better the seismic performance
regions. When the beam-column of beam-column joints.
joints are unable to transfer internal
forces from beams to columns, they In exterior joints wherein beams
are likely to fail prematurely in a terminate at columns, horizontal
Consider
brittle fashion, thereby jeopardizing beam bars need to be anchored into using cross
the safety of the entire RC frame the column to ensure proper gripping ties to prevent
building (see Figure 43). of these bars in the joint region. This vertical bar buckling
is typically done by bending the when rectangular
Two important factors to be rebars into 90° hooks (see Figure columns are
ensured in the beam-column joint 46). In interior joints, the beam bars necessary
design are: should be continuous through the
joint. Moreover, these bars must be
(a) The steel bars should not be placed on the inside of the column
discontinued in the joint region; reinforcement cage (composed of
this applies to both interior and vertical rebars and horizontal ties)
exterior joints (see Figure 44); and without any bends (see Figure
and 47).
(b) The vertical rebars in columns
must be held together by means
of closely spaced closed-loop
transverse ties within the beam-
column joint region (see Figure
45). Laboratory experiments
have shown that the larger the
31
Figure 43. Shear failure of a RC beam-

column joint during the 1985 Mexico
City Earthquake, due to beam bars
placed outside the column cross-section
(source: EERI 2000).
Figure 44. Improper

reinforcement detailing of a
beam-column joint in India:
discontinuous beam rebars at
the beam-column junction;
these rebars are required to
be continuous and provide
confinement to the concrete
in the joint region (note the
absence of beam-column ties)
(source: Jaiswal et al. 2002).
Figure 45. Closely spaced

closed-loop transverse ties
must be provided within the
beam-column region (source:
Murty 2005).
Figure 46. Details

of anchorage of beam
bars in exterior joints
32
Figure 47. Details of joint reinforcing showing the importance placing the horizontal
beam rebars on the inside of the column reinforcement cage (source: Murty 2005).
Masonry Infill Walls plane performance of masonry

infills without interfering
As discussed in Chapter 2, there with the frame members.
are two distinct approaches related It is suggested to provide
to masonry infill walls in RC frame practical columns, that is, lightly
buildings. These are: reinforced RC columns of small
cross-section with vertical
• To isolate the infills from the steel bars loosely inserted into
frame (must be designed as the beam at the top end, at
ductile frames), and regular intervals along the wall
• To integrate the infills into the length and at the wall ends.
frame (must be designed as This provision is illustrated in
infilled ductile frames). Figure 48. Isolating infills is
not an easy task. It is difficult
Each of these approaches requires to maintain the gap between
different detailing and design practical columns and the
approaches for masonry infill walls. frame columns, and ensure that
When masonry infill walls are to be outside weather conditions do
isolated from the adjoining frame, not affect the building interior.
two simple ways of ensuring the
out-of-plane stability of masonry When masonry infill walls are to
infill walls that are separated from be integrated with the adjoining
the RC frame are: frame, horizontal steel anchors
(dowels) need to be provided to tie
(a) To break the large masonry the wall to the framing columns;
infill wall panels into smaller these anchors need to be provided
ones; this can be accomplished at regular spacing in order to
by providing stiff members ensure force transfer between the
made of wood or lightly wall and the frame (see Figure 49).
reinforced concrete in vertical, When the wall panel length is large,
diagonal and/or horizontal a practical column is required to
directions, and improve the out-of-plane resistance
of the masonry infill wall. Again, it
(b) To provide reinforcement in the is not easy to reinforce the masonry
infill walls; the reinforcement walls--made of solid clay bricks. It
should be provided at regular has been observed that reinforcing
spacing in the vertical and bars tend to corrode, dilate in size
horizontal direction. Design and crack the masonry walls. In
codes in some countries (e.g., some projects, stainless steel bars
Indonesia) contain provisions are used to avoid this problem. But,
on how to improve the out-of- in general, no positive connection
33
a b
c d
Figure 48. Practical columns provided to isolate masonry infills in Indonesian practice: (a) partial height infills, (b)
full height infills, (c) close-up details of a practical column, and (d) close-up details of anchoring practical columns into
the beam above, but without offering any resistance to lateral deformation of the building frame (source: Murty et al.
is provided between infills and the (see Figure 50a). Sometimes, the forces
frame; they are simply built flush to are not as much a concern for the
the frame surface. non-structural elements as are relative
floor displacements. For instance,
when the sewage pipes pass from one
Non-Structural floor to another, they need to have
Elements the capability to move laterally by
different amounts at the different floor
Parts of buildings that resist and levels and still remain in function (se
Many Figure 50b).
non-structural transfer the forces generated by
elements, like stairs, earthquake ground shaking are
may alter the building re- called structural elements (e.g., The way non-structural elements
sponse to an earthquake beams, columns, walls, and slabs), are installed within the structural
and incur excessive dam- while building contents and some system could have significant
age if not accounted other elements are called non- - often detrimental - effect on the
for in the structural structural elements. Just as in the performance of a structural system.
design case of structural elements, non- For instance, infill walls built
structural elements also need to be integrally with the columns and
designed to resist the earthquake beams are often treated as non-
effects (induced forces and structural elements, and not much
relative displacements). Further attention is paid to their effect on the
on, adequate connections are building. However, in reality, these
required to safely transfer all the walls are structural elements, as they
forces generated in non-structural foul with the lateral movement of
elements to the structural elements the columns and significantly alter
34
Figure 49. Details of anchors between infill and frame when the masonry wall needs to
be integrated with the building frame (source: Murty et al. 2006).
a b
Figure 50. Design of non-structural elements should account for the following:
(a) lateral forces transferred to structural elements, and (b) relative lateral
movements up the building height (source: C.V.R. Murty).
the behavior of the building (see disconnected from the rest of the
the discussion on infill walls in structural system of the building, and
Chapter 2). In all cases, no addition, rendered non-structural. For example,
attachment, removal of material or in staircase areas of buildings, the
alteration of any kind that would inclined staircase slabs and beams
change the behavior of a structural offer large stiffness and interfere
element from its original design with the otherwise symmetric
intent should be allowed. Design shaking of the building. In such
and installation of all non-structural cases, isolating the diagonal members
elements must meet the applicable to simply rest on and slide in the
specifications and codes (see Figure horizontal direction (see Figure 52)
51). will significantly improve building
performance.
In some cases, very stiff and
strong structural elements can be
35
Figure 51. Examples of poor construction practices: (a) unacceptable installation of

pipes in column reinforcement cages, and (b) unacceptable installation of electrical
conduits by damaging an existing RC beam (photos: A. Irfanogulu).
Figure 52. Diagonal slabs and beams in staircases attract large seismic forces,
and thereby incur damage: the provision of a sliding support is effective in
limiting the magnitude of seismic forces (source: C.V.R. Murty).
36
4. Construction Considerations
Construction quality has a (b) Appropriate and good quality
significant bearing on ductile materials, acceptable by the
seismic performance of buildings applicable material codes, are Proper de-
sign, construction
– poor construction leads to poor used in the construction;
and maintenance are all
earthquake performance. Therefore, (c) The construction is carried out critical to the good perfor-
making a competent earthquake as per procedures laid out in the mance of a building in an
resistant structure requires the codes of practice, accompanied by earthquake
successful completion of all steps competent, thorough, and honest
involved in the making of the inspection.
building, namely:
It is significantly easier and cheaper to
• Design: conceptual build a quality construction the first
development of a rational time, than to build a poor construction
design based on prevalent and then bear the costs, inconvenience
codes of practice; and delays related to replacing the
• Construction: physical poorly constructed or defective
construction, i.e., structural elements or systems. The
implementation of the following aspects of construction
conceived design; and have well-established practices that
• Maintenance: inspection, are enumerated in relevant national
maintenance, monitoring, and standards and are summarized below:
remodeling over the building’s
lifetime. • material quality,
• workmanship, and
The above process is like the • inspection.
making of a chain: to have a strong
chain, all of the links must be For more in-depth discussion on
sufficiently strong. Similarly, to this topic, readers are referred to
build a good building, all steps in the publication, Built to Resist
the construction stage also must be Earthquakes, which addresses design
performed as per the minimum and construction issues for architects,
specifications laid out in the design. engineers and inspectors (ATC/
Issues associated with the design of SEAOC 1999). The following sections
a typical reinforced concrete frame summarize in bullet form some of
building are covered earlier in this the major points in understanding
document, while the construction- construction quality.
related issues are summarized Material quality,
below; issues associated with the workmanship and inspec-
maintenance are not dealt with in tion--all are equally important
Material Quality for earthquake safety
this document.
Selection and use of appropriate
The physical construction of a and good quality materials is
RC building can be considered a prerequisite for successful
successful only if: construction.
(a) The building is built according
to the structural drawings
produced during the design
stage;
37
Selection and control of end, when necessary, aggregate

materials should be washed with clean
water and drained/dried to
The elements used in the concrete remove any dirt, dust, and
mix, that is, cement, aggregate, organic material (see Figure 53).
water, and any additives to the
mix, need to be properly selected • Clean water should be used in
and utilized. Several major points preparation of the concrete mix.
The
addressing material selection Inadequate performance can
concrete
include: result from using salt water,
mix used for
construction
dirty or muddy water, or water
must be pre- • A competent civil or materials with organic material in the
pared by an engineer must develop preparation of the concrete mix.
engineer the concrete mix design or Inappropriate water could result
the proportioning of the in rapid deterioration of the
ingredients comprising the concrete and corrosion of the steel
concrete. It is important not reinforcement.
to alter the proportions of the
ingredients once the mix has Preparation, handling, and
been designed by an engineer. curing of concrete
• Code-specified cement must Concrete is prepared best in a concrete
be used. Attention must to be batch plant where it is easier to
paid in choosing the cement achieve a high level of quality control.
and/or the aggregate to avoid On-site concrete mixers are the
any detrimental cement paste- distant second preference if obtaining
aggregate reactions. concrete from a batch plant is not an
option. The least desirable option is
• Aggregate should be chosen to prepare concrete on-site manually.
to match the type and grain This last case should be avoided to
size distribution specified in the extent possible since it is almost
the concrete mix design. Beach impossible to prepare consistently
sand should never be used. good quality concrete batches
manually (see Figure 54). Important
• Adherence between cement considerations in the handling of
paste and aggregate is essential concrete are discussed below:
for concrete quality. To that
Concrete
should be
prepared in batch
plants
Figure 53. Inappropriate aggregate size; note the highly porous poor
quality concrete and rusted smooth bars (photo: A. Irfanoglu).
38
Chapter 4: Construction Considerations
Proper
moisture
conditions
should be ensured
Figure 54. Manual mixing and preparation of concrete is the least preferred batch
throughout the
preparation style because of the inability to ensure consistent quality (photo: A. curing of the
Irfanoglu). concrete
Fresh concrete mix Once the concrete sets, which

takes a few hours under normal
Once the concrete mix is ready, it conditions, the curing process
should be handled properly and begins. During curing, it is
used in construction as quickly as important to maintain the proper
possible. Fresh concrete should levels of moisture content and
never be allowed to dry or set temperature in and around the cast
before it is cast in forms. element. It is usually sufficient to
During the transport from its cover the cast elements in moist
preparation site to the building site burlap and wrap plastic sheets
location, concrete may segregate over the burlap. Occasional wetting
or separate. In other words, the of the burlap is often the way to
aggregate may group together maintain proper moisture content.
forming aggregate anomalies, If wooden forms are used in the
or water may accumulate at the formwork, the moisture level
surface or drain away from the should be monitored closely as
fresh concrete. In such cases, the wood used in the forms may absorb
proper concrete mixture should too much water from the concrete
be re-established by re-mixing it being cured.
thoroughly. Water may need to be
added to replace the drained away Selection and control of
amount. However, it should be Steel rebars
remembered that any such addition
steel used must be
or increase in the water-to-cement mill-certified
Steel reinforcement must match
ratio would lower the concrete
what is specified in the structural
strength.
drawings. Specific considerations
include:
Concrete setting
• Only mill-certified steel
Once the fresh concrete is
of the type(s) allowed for
cast, proper care of the setting
use in earthquake-resistant
(hardening) stage should be
construction of buildings
taken. Wrapping or covering the
should be used.
concrete elements with plastic
sheets often provides a good setting
• Steel grades must match the
environment for the hardening
specifications given in the
stage.
structural drawings.
39
• Whenever possible, smooth to corrosive elements (water/

bars should be avoided moisture plus air being the all
(unless specified and properly too natural ones). Loose particles
accounted for in the structural need to be removed from the steel
design). surface using hand-wire brushes.
In all cases, the corrosion must
• Cold-formed steel, that is, steel not have been excessive to render
Steel
re-formed from scrap steel, reinforcing bars unacceptable by
grades different
than those speci-
must be avoided. Such steel applicable material standards.
fied on construction has widely varying quality. It
is inappropriate for any kind
drawings can be
harmful to the of use in reinforced concrete Workmanship
build- structures.
In reinforced concrete frame building
• Inappropriately deformed construction, it is very important
bars should not be used in to have qualified work crews
construction. Over-bent or with appropriate experience and
over-stretched segments competent workmanship. It is also
can form weak spots in the very important to have a feasible and
reinforcement (see Figure 55). well-thought construction sequence to
let the crews perform their tasks in a
• Corroded bars should be proper and timely manner.
avoided. This requires not
only purchase of good quality The design engineer and the architect
Designers steel reinforcement and play important roles in ensuring
should ensure proper storage of it, but also that the design is feasible and can be
that the con-
sequencing the construction understood by construction crews.
struction drawings
are simple and
process to minimize the
constructible exposure of the reinforcement These crews are the last link in the
chain of construction and, therefore,
are literally the ones whose actions
make the elements. The design
engineer should keep the structural
configuration and detailing of the
structural system and its sub-elements
as simple and straightforward as
possible. It is good practice to use
standard or typical detailing as much
as possible. Of course ultimately,
it is the responsibility of the whole
building team --from the architect and
the design engineer to the field crews-
Workman- - to build a successful building.
ship is the last,
but vital, link in The key processes where
converting design to workmanship is critical in
reality construction are:
1) Steelwork: the steelwork has to

result in reinforcement layouts
per the specifications given in the
structural drawings. Reinforcing
Figure 55. Smooth reinforcing steel
elements should be clean and
delivered to a construction site in
should not have any dirt or oil on
Turkey, bent into a “U” shape (source:
them (see Figure 56).
Gulkan et al. 2002).
40
Chapter 4: Construction Considerations
2) Formwork: to be able to cast bondbetween concrete and the

reinforced concrete elements steel reinforcement. To that end,
properly, good quality forms there should be no excessive
need to be built. This requires voids or no weak spots within
use of clean, leak-proof and the cast concrete. Improper
tightly constructed formwork consolidation of fresh concrete
systems, characterized by due to improper use of vibrators
adequate stiffness and strength. or other tools typically results in
Where necessary, proper the accumulation of an excessive
falsework may need to be amount of water around the steel Use of
incorporated into the formwork reinforcement. The outcome is vibrators for
construction to support the then very poor bond between the consolidating fresh
forms. reinforcement and the concrete, concrete is recom-
mended
resulting in poor bond strength.
3) Proper placement of steelwork
5) Non-structural elements: the way
into the forms: reinforcing
non-structural elements are
steel assemblies need to be
installed within the building
placed and secured within the
may have significant --often
forms in such a way that the
detrimental-- effects on its
design specifications (such
seismic performance. The effect
as minimum concrete cover
of infill walls, for example,
thickness) are met. This would
are discussed elsewhere in
prevent future corrosion of the
this tutorial. In all cases, no
reinforcement and spalling of
addition, attachment, removal
the concrete. The steelwork
of material or alteration of
should not be displaced or
any kind that would change
distorted when fresh concrete is
the behavior of a structural
placed into the forms.
element from its original
design intent should be
4) Concrete work: transportation,
allowed. Examples of improper
handling, placement and
installation of non-structural
consolidation of fresh concrete
elements which may have
should be done properly.
dangerous consequences on
Accumulation or loss of water,
the seismic performance of
or segregation of aggregate
an entire building are shown
in the concrete mix should be
in Figure 51. The design and
avoided as much as possible. If
installation of all non-structural
such alterations of the concrete
work must meet the applicable
matrix take place, the concrete
specifications and code.
mix should be reconstituted
before placing the fresh
Members of the building team,
concrete into forms.
from the design engineer and the It is essen-
architect to the field crews and tial to properly
Fresh concrete should be place steel rebars
the engineer-in-charge, must have
poured into the forms and into forms and ensure
a clear understanding of their adequate concrete
distributed (consolidated)
own and others’ responsibilities
within and around the cover to prevent
and tasks. They must be aware of corrosion
steel reinforcing elements
the chain-of-command and their
properly. Use of vibrators
position within this chain. This
or other instruments that
means, for example, never cutting
enhance consolidation of
corners or allowing subordinates
the concrete within forms is
recommended. It is extremely
important to have good
41
Key considerations for the building

inspector are listed below:
1) The inspector should be free

of any conflicts-of-interest
(immediate or future) in carrying
out the inspection.
2) The inspector should have

All parties anunobstructed and free access
involved in the to ongoing site activities and
construction pro- relevant construction documents
cess must have a clear at all times.
understanding of their
responsibilities 3) At a minimum, the inspector
should be present whenever
and wherever the applicable
construction codes require that
an independent inspection be
carried out. Often times, once the
concrete is cast, there is very little
an inspector can do with regards
Figure 56. Poor workmanship: dirty groundwork to verification of the construction
and inappropriate column and bar anchorage quality and adherence to
(source: Mejia 2002). the construction drawings,
specifications and applicable
codes.
to cut corners without rational
consideration of the possible effects 4) The inspector should document
of such an act and without explicit his/her observations diligently
approval of the engineer in charge and keep the records.
of the construction. It should be
remembered that once a defective 5) The inspector should interact
element is built, it would take great and, when necessary, give regular
amount of time and expense to feedback to the site engineer
remove and replace it with a proper about his/her observations.
one.
6) The inspector should promptly
Inspection bring to the attention of
the engineer-in-charge any
The construction work should not issues related to the quality of
only be monitored by an internal construction.
Inspection
should be controller (often the site engineer),
performed by but also by a certified independent It is the duty of the inspector to
certified inspec- inspector. The inspection process be competent and thorough in the
tors who have no should be rigorous and carried out by monitoring and inspection of the
conflict of inter- a competent inspector in an honest construction. And of course, it is the
est in the task manner. Inspection is a critical task responsibility of the contractor and
at hand in the construction process--just a few the construction crews to perform
missing column ties or the absence of their tasks at a competence level
135º bends may lead to collapse of the no less than that set by the codes
entire building. and construction documents and
drawings.
42
5. Alternatives to RC Frames with
Masonry Infills in Regions of High
Seismic Risk
Why are Alternatives
Needed
Infill walls
Engineers across the world have ground shaking is considered tend to collapse dur-
been designing RC frame buildings to be a challenge even in highly ing strong shaking and
for many decades now. Experiences therefore are not reliable for
industrialized countries with
earthquake resistance
from earthquakes across the advanced construction technology.
world have made it amply clear
that earthquake resistance cannot Notwithstanding the above
be guaranteed in a RC building limitations, designers and builders
in which its seismic safety relies in many countries have embraced
on moment resisting frames RC moment resisting frames as the
only (unless these frames are dominant system for multi-story
specially detailed). The problem is buildings, and construction with this
aggravated further by the use of system is on the rise throughout the
unreinforced masonry infills. While world. The authors of this tutorial
infill walls are required to define the would like to emphasize that RC
functional spaces in a building, their moment resisting frames with infills
presence may be detrimental for the should not be relied upon as a system
satisfactory seismic performance. that provides a satisfactory level of
It is not easy to achieve ductile safety for buildings in regions of
behavior in RC frame buildings; high seismic risk. Consequently, the
Use alterna-
special seismic detailing performed alternative building systems discussed
tive structural
with an advanced level of in this chapter are expected to result systems instead of RC
construction skills and quality in a better level of seismic safety than frames
control is required. Constructing the currently practiced non-ductile RC
a RC frame building is not an easy frame building system with masonry
task, and it involves a high level infills.
of skills related to constructing
beams, columns, and beam-
to-column joint construction. The Alternatives
Inadequately reinforced beam-
column joints pose a serious threat The two alternative building systems
to basic frame behavior and can are confined masonry and RC frames
lead to devastating consequences, with RC walls. The former system is
including the collapse of the entire intended for low-rise construction
building. In general, achieving (up to 3-to-4 stories tall), while the
satisfactory seismic performance latter can be used for a wide range
of RC frame buildings subjected of building heights, however it is
to several cycles of earthquake considered to be most economically
43
feasible for medium-to-high rise columns to ensure satisfactory

construction. The salient aspects of earthquake performance.
these two schemes are described (b) Confining elements (tie-columns and
below. tie-beams) – provide restraint to
masonry walls and protect them
from complete disintegration
Confined Masonry even in major earthquakes; these
Buildings elements do not resist gravity
loads.
Confined (c) Floor and roof slabs – transmit both
Background
masonry build- gravity and lateral loads to the
ings look similar walls. In an earthquake, slabs
Confined masonry construction
to RC frame build- behave like horizontal beams and
ings with infills, but consists of masonry walls (made
are called diaphragms.
perform significantly either of clay brick or concrete
(d) Plinth band – transmits the load
better during block units) and horizontal and
earthquake from the walls down to the
vertical reinforced concrete
foundation. It also protects the
confining members provided
ground floor walls from excessive
on all four sides of a masonry
settlement in soft soil conditions.
wall. Vertical members, called
(e) Foundation – transmits the loads
tie-columns, resemble columns
from the structure to the ground.
in reinforced concrete frame
construction. Horizontal elements,
The components of a typical confined
called tie-beams, resemble beams
masonry building are shown in Figure
in reinforced concrete frame
57.
construction.

The appearance of finished confined
The structural components of a
masonry construction and frame
confined masonry building are:
construction with masonry infills may
Use confined (a) Masonry walls – transmit the
look alike to lay persons. However,
masonry construc- gravity load from the slab
these two construction systems
tion for buildings from down to the foundation, and
1 to 4 stories in are substantially different. The
also resist seismic forces. The
main differences are related to the
height walls must be confined by
construction sequence, as well as the
concrete tie-beams and tie-
behavior under seismic conditions.
Figure 57. Typical confined masonry building (source: Blondet 2005)
44
Chapter 5: Alternatives to RC Frames with Infills in Regions of High Seismic Risk
Table 1: Comparison of RC Frame and confined masonry buildings
Item RC Frame Building Confined Masonry Building

Gravity and RC frame resists both gravityMasonry walls are the main
lateral load- and lateral loads through load-bearing elements and are
resisting beams, columns, and their expected to carry both gravity
system connections. and lateral loads. Lateral loads
are resisted by diagonal
compression struts forming in
the walls and tension and
compression forces in end
columns.
Foundation Isolated footing beneath each Continuous strip footing Reinforcement
construction column. beneath the wall with the RC detailing for confined
plinth band.
Superstructure 1. The frame is constructed 1. Masonry walls are masonry construc-
construction first. constructed first. tion is simple
sequence 2. Masonry walls are 2. Subsequently, tie-columns
constructed at a later stage. are cast in place.
3. Finally, tie-beams are
constructed on top of the
walls, simultaneously with
the floor/roof slab
construction.
These differences are summarized construction. This construction

in Table 1 and are illustrated in practice has evolved though an
Figure 58. In confined masonry informal process based on satisfactory
construction, confining elements performance in past earthquakes.
are not designed to act as a moment The first reported use of confined
resisting frame; as a result, the masonry construction was in the
detailing of reinforcement is simple. reconstruction of buildings destroyed
In general, confining elements have by the 1908 Messina, Italy earthquake
smaller cross sectional dimensions (Magnitude 7.2), which killed over
than the corresponding beams and 70,000 people. Subsequently, in 1940s
columns in a reinforced concrete this construction technology was
frame building. Confining elements introduced in Chile and Mexico. Over
require less reinforcement than the last 30 years, confined masonry
beams and columns in concrete construction has been practiced in
frame construction. the Mediterranean region of Europe
(Italy, Slovenia, Serbia), Latin America
Advantages (Mexico, Chile, Peru, Argentina, and
other countries), the Middle East
Confined masonry offers an (Iran), and Asia (Indonesia, China).
Confined masonry
alternative to both unreinforced It is important to note that confined
construction requires
masonry and RC frame masonry construction is practiced in less reinforcement
than RC frame
construction
a b

Figure 58. (a) RC frame building, and (b) confined masonry building during construction,
before the masonry is constructed the full height of the wall (source: Brzev 2006).
45
countries and regions of extremely beams that carry earthquake loads

high seismic risk. Several examples downwards to the foundation. Thus, a
of confined masonry construction RC frame building with RC shear walls
around the world, from Argentina, has two systems to resist the effects of
Chile, Iran, Serbia and Slovenia, are strong earthquake shaking, namely:
featured in the WHE (EERI/IAEE
2000). More details on confined (a) a three-dimensional RC
masonry construction are provided moment resisting frame (with
in publications by Blondet (2005), interconnected columns, beams
Brzev (2006) and Anthoine and and slabs) (see Figure 59a), and
RC shear
walls reduce the lat- Taucer (2006). (b) RC shear walls oriented along one
eral sway of the building or both horizontal directions of a
which generally reduces building (see Figure 59b).
both structural and non-
RC Frame Buildings
structural damage with RC Shear Walls The columns of RC frame buildings
with RC shear walls primarily
carry gravity loads (i.e., those due
Background
to self-weight and the contents
of the building). RC shear walls
Reinforced concrete (RC) frame
provide large strength and stiffness
buildings can be provided with
to buildings in the direction of their
vertical plate-like RC walls (often
orientation, which significantly
called shear walls), in addition to
reduces lateral sway of the building
the slabs, beams, columns and infill
and thereby reduces damage
walls, as shown in Figure 57. These
to structural and nonstructural
RC walls should be continuous
components. Since RC shear walls
throughout the building height
also carry large horizontal earthquake
starting at the foundation level.
forces, the overturning effects on
The thickness canrange from
them are large. Thus, design of their
150 mm in low-rise buildings to
foundations requires special attention.
400 mm in high-rise buildings.
RC shear walls are preferably
These structural walls are usually
Use RC shear provided along both the length and
provided along both length and
walls for all build- the width of a building. However,
ing heights from low-
width of buildings (see Figure
when provided along only one
rise to high-rise 59). They act like vertically-oriented
direction, an earthquake-resistant
a b

Figure 59. RC Frame Buildings: (a) with three-dimensional RC column-
beam-slab frame only, and (b) with three-dimensional RC column-beam-slab
frame and RC shear walls (source: Murty 2005).
46
moment-resistant frame (i.e., grid RC walls are oblong in cross-section,

of beams and columns) must be i.e., one dimension of the cross-section
provided along the other direction is much larger than the other. While
to resist earthquake effects. rectangular cross-section is common,
L- and U-shaped sections are also
Door or window openings can be used (see Figure 61). Hollow RC
provided in RC walls, but their size shafts around the elevator core of Symmetrical
must be limited to ensure minimal buildings also act as shear walls. placement of shear
interruption to the force flow walls along the building
through the walls. Moreover, the RC shear walls need to be designed perimeter will provide the
openings should be symmetrically and constructed in a manner such that best earthquake perfor-
located. Special design checks are a ductile behavior is ensured. Overall mance
required to ensure that the area of geometric proportions of the wall,
a wall at an opening is sufficient types and amount of reinforcement,
to carry the horizontal earthquake and connection with remaining
force. RC walls in buildings must elements in the building also help
be symmetrically located in plan in improving their ductility. Seismic
to reduce the ill-effects of twist provisions of building codes in
in buildings (see Figure 60). They various countries provide guidelines
could be placed symmetrically for ductile detailing of RC shear walls.
along one or both directions in plan.
RC walls are more effective when In a RC shear wall, steel reinforcing
located along the exterior perimeter bars are to be provided in regularly
of the building: such a layout spaced vertical and horizontal grids
increases resistance of the building (see Figure 62a). The vertical and
to twisting. horizontal reinforcement in the
wall can be placed in one or two
parallel layers (also called curtains).
Horizontal reinforcement needs to
a b

Figure 60. RC wall layout must be symmetric to avoid undesirable twist effects: (a)
Unsymmetric location of RC walls is not desirable, and (b) Symmetric layout of RC
walls about both axes of the building and along the perimeter of the building is desirable
Figure 61. Shear walls in RC

buildings – different geometries are
possible (source: Murty 2005).
47
be anchored at the wall ends. This Advantages

reinforcement should be distributed
uniformly across the wall cross- Properly designed and detailed
section. buildings with RC shear walls have
shown very good performance in
Under the large overturning effects past earthquakes. The 1985 Llolleo,
caused by horizontal earthquake Chile earthquake (M 7.8) exposed
forces, end regions of shear walls many RC buildings with shear walls
experience high compressive and to extremely severe ground shaking.
tensile stresses. To ensure that Most of the buildings of this type
shear walls behave in a ductile suffered minor damage or remained
manner, the wall end regions must undamaged (Moroni and Gomez,
be reinforced in a special manner 2002). In the 1999 Izmit and the
to sustain these load reversals (see 2003 Bingol (Turkey) earthquakes,
Figure 62b). End regions of a wall thousands of people died, many
with increased confinement are of them crushed under the ruins
called boundary elements. The special of collapsed RC frame buildings
confining transverse reinforcement with infills. However, tunnel form
in boundary elements is similar to buildings containing RC shear walls
Boundary that provided in columns of RC performed very well and no damage
elements = highly frames. Sometimes, the thickness was reported (Yakut and Gulkan,
reinforced regions of the shear wall in these boundary 2003). The same was true for the
with closed loop ties elements is also increased. RC “Fagure” type buildings in Romania
at both ends of the walls with boundary elements after the 1977 Vrancea earthquake (M
shear wall have substantially higher bending 7.2) (Bostenaru and Sandu, 2002). RC
strength and horizontal shear force shear wall buildings were exposed to
carrying capacity, and are therefore the 1979 Montenegro earthquake (M
less susceptible to earthquake 7.2) and the 1993 Boumerdes, Algeria
damage than walls without earthquake (M 6.8). The buildings
boundary elements. were damaged due to severe
groundshaking, however collapse was
avoided.
Figure 62. Layout of main reinforcement in shear walls as per IS:13920-1993

– detailing is the key to good seismic performance (source: Murty 2005).
48
RC shear walls in high seismic

regions require special detailing.
However, in past earthquakes,
even buildings with sufficient
amount of RC shear walls that were In major
not specially detailed for seismic damaging earth-
performance (but had enough quakes, buildings with
RC shear walls suffered
well-distributed reinforcement)
damage, however col-
performed well.
lapse was avoided
RC frame buildings with shear

walls are a popular choice in
many earthquake prone countries,
like Chile, New Zealand and
USA, because of the following
advantages:
(a) RC walls are effective in
providing earthquake safety
and avoiding collapse.
(b) Reinforcement detailing of
RC walls is less complex than
detailing of ductile RC frames.
(c) The construction costs of
construction of RC frame
buildings with RC walls is
generally less than that of RC
frame buildings without RC
walls.
49
50
6. Retrofitting RC Frame Buildings
Introduction
Thus far, this document has focused before an earthquake (as a preventive
on the problems associated with measure) or after an earthquake,
planning and design of new RC when it is usually combined with
frame buildings with masonry the repair of earthquake-induced
infills. However, an enormous damage. It should be noted that
stock of RC frame buildings exists seismic retrofitting is required not
in countries and regions prone to just for building structures (including
moderate or major earthquakes. foundations) but also for their non-
These buildings are mainly structural components, e.g., building
concentrated in rapidly growing finishes and contents. With the current
urban areas. In many cases, the costs of building finishes and contents
local population considers them as soaring to over two-thirds of the total
the construction type of choice for building cost, seismic retrofitting of
residential apartment buildings. the non-structural components needs
Unfortunately, one of the major to receive due attention to ensure
causes of seismic vulnerability that the loss of property is minimised
associated with these buildings during earthquakes.
is that, in developing countries, a
Seismic
large number of existing RC frame In theory, it would be possible to
retrofitting is a
buildings have been designed retrofit the majority of existing RC modification of the
by architects and engineers who frame buildings. However, in a pre- structural and non-
may not have formal training in earthquake situation, it is unlikely structural components
seismic design and construction that funding is going to be available in a building that aims
and/or they have been built by to retrofit significant number of these to improve a building’s
inadequately-trained construction buildings in any one community. performance in fu-
workers. Consequently, there is a need to ture earthquakes
develop strategies and policies for
The estimated number of prioritising buildings to be retrofitted
vulnerable RC frame buildings according to their importance and
in seismic zones across the world funding resources. This section
is staggering. In an ideal world, discusses some generic seismic retrofit
it would be great to strengthen strategies suitable for RC frame
all these buildings in order to structures.
protect them from the effects of
future earthquakes and minimize In some countries, prescriptive retrofit
fatalities and property losses. schemes are being implemented.
Seismic strengthening (also known Here, no calculations are performed to
as seismic retrofitting) represents understand the strength and ductility
a judicious modification of the capacities of the existing building;
structural components in a building generic prescriptions are made for
with a purpose to improve its all buildings. This is an unacceptable
performance in future earthquakes. approach and can lead to making the
Seismic retrofit can take place existing buildings unsafe.
51
Vulnerability nonstructural elements are outlined

in FEMA 274 (1994). A considerable
Assessment amount of literature is available on
this subject internationally, e.g. FEMA
Seismic assessment procedures 154 (1988), ATC 20 (1989), FEMA 310
are well-established. Three tiers of (1998), FEMA 356 (2000) and most
seismic vulnerability assessment recently ASCE (2003), ASCE (2006),
are practiced for buildings, namely and ICC (2006).
Rapid Visual Screening, Quick
Structural Evaluation, and Detailed
Assessment. These assessments are Ways to Strengthen
performed in telescopic sequence; Existing RC Frame
when the building fails at one
tier, it is subject to the next tier of Buildings
assessment. Rapid Visual Screening
Seismic is a quick assessment made in Usually, engineers lead the seismic
vulnerability assess- order to designate vulnerable retrofit effort of the structural system,
ments help to pinpoint and architects lead the effort for non-
buildings. It typically consists
expected earthquake fail-
of configuration-related checks structural elements. While strategies
ures and help determine
if structural retrofit- based on the building layout and for retrofit of non-structural elements
ting is necessary configuration discussed in Chapter are generally uniform, this is not true
2 of this document, including with structural retrofitting. Seismic
load path, weak story, soft story, strengthening measures identified
geometry, effective mass, torsion, for one RC frame building may not
and pounding. be relevant for another. It is therefore
very important to develop retrofit
Once a building is identified to be solutions for each building on a case-
vulnerable through Rapid Visual by-case basis.
Screening, it is subjected to the
second assessment procedure, Earthquake resistance in RC frame
namely the Quick Structural buildings can be enhanced either by:
Evaluation. It involves general (a) increasing their seismic capacity-
strength related checks based on - increasing stiffness, strength
structural design aspects like & ductility, and reducing
shear and axial stress checks of irregularity--this is a conventional
the vertical members resisting approach to seismic retrofitting
earthquake loads. Again, once a which has been followed in the
building is identified as vulnerable past few decades, or;
through a Quick Structural (b) reducing their seismic response--
Performance
Evaluation, it is subjected to the increasing damping by means
of a building in an
third assessment procedure, of energy dissipation devices,
earthquake can be
improved by increasing namely a Detailed Assessment. reducing mass, or isolating the
its seismic capacity or This detailed assessment is building from the ground.
reducing its seismic a quantitative and rigorous
response evaluation of the vulnerability of Both of these sets of measures require
the building. an appreciation of the overall seismic
response of the building, and not just
Detailed Assessments include a of individual structural members (see
detailed vulnerability assessment Figure 63).
of the structural system that resists
the earthquake loads, as well as
the non-structural elements (i.e., the
contents, finishes and elements that
do not resist earthquake loads).
Generic retrofit provisions for
52
Chapter 6: Retrofitting RC Frame Buildings
Seismic capacity of existing countries, or have a promise of

buildings is typically enhanced becoming widely used in the future:
by increasing strength or ductility To increase
of individual existing structural • Installing new RC shear walls or the capacity of a
members (e.g., jacketing existing steel braces and tying them to the structural system, the
beams and columns with steel, existing frame.
individual components
may be strengthened
concrete or fiberwrap overlays) • Strengthening of existing masonry and/or new structural
or by introducing new structural infills with fiber reinforced members may be
members (e.g., shear walls). In any composites. added
case, the purpose is to significantly • Jacketing of existing individual
increase the ability of a building structural components, such
structure to resist earthquake as columns and beams, using
effects. concrete or steel jackets, or
composite fiber-wrap overlays.
The alternative approach is to
reduce seismic forces in the Installation of New RC Shear
structure either by installing special
devices which can increase damping
Walls or Steel Braces
in the structure (so-called seismic
dampers), or isolate a building The most common, and perhaps
from the ground by means of base the most effective, method for
isolation devices. These emerging strengthening reinforced concrete
technologies can be used to retrofit frame structures consists of the
existing RC frame structures; installation of new RC shear walls, as
however, their high cost and the shown in Figure 64. These walls are
sophisticated expertise required to usually either of reinforced concrete
design and implement such projects or (less frequently) of reinforced
represent impediments for broader masonry construction. The most ef-
application at this time. fective retrofit for RC
New RC shear walls must be installed frame structures is to in-
at strategic locations in order to stall new RC shear walls
The following retrofit strategies minimize undesirable torsional at strategic locations
for RC buildings described in this effects. Also, these walls must be
document have been used after reinforced in such a way as to act
recent earthquakes in several together with the existing structure.
Careful detailing and material
Figure 63. Seismic retrofitting strategies for lateral load

resisting structural system (source: Durgesh C. Rai).
53
selection are required to ensure an has a beneficial effect of increasing

effective connection between the the strength and ductility of existing
new and existing structure. reinforced concrete columns, as
RC shear walls The addition of shear walls previously discussed. This technique
should be installed
substantially alters the force is usually implemented when it is
such that torsional
effects are minimized distribution in the structure under not possible to achieve an effective
lateral load, and thus normally connection between the new and
requires strengthening of the the existing structure using the steel
foundations. This method was dowels. (In some countries, the
extensively used in Turkey after practice of using chemical anchors,
the 1999 earthquakes (Gulkan et al. which act as dowels, is not very well
2002) and in Taiwan after the 2001 developed.)
Chi Chi earthquake (Yao and Sheu
2002). Figure 65 shows a retrofit As an alternative to installing the
concept for RC frames based on the new RC or masonry shear walls, steel
installation of new shear walls. braces can be provided to increase
earthquake resistance of these
In some cases, installation of new buildings. Figure 67 illustrates a
reinforced concrete shear walls is retrofit example from a recent test in
combined with the column jacketing, Japan.
as shown in Figure 66. Jacketing also
New shear
walls must be re-
inforced in such a way
to act in unison with the
existing frame structure
Figure 64. Installation of new shear walls (source: C.V.R. Murty).
Figure 65. Installation

Use dowels
of new RC shear walls
to connect the
new shear wall to the in an existing RC frame
existing slab and building– note dowels
beams provided to tie the new
and the existing structure
(source: C.V.R. Murty,
adapted from Gulkan et al.
2002).
54
Figure 66. Retrofit of existing RC building using new RC shear walls and
jacketing of the existing columns after the 2003 Boumerdes (Algeria) earthquake
(photo: M. Farsi; drawing courtesy of CTC Algiers).

Figure 67. Retrofit of RC frames
with steel braces – shake-table
testing at E-Defence, Japan: a)
short column failure at the ground
story level; b) retrofit using steel
braces (source: C. Comartin).
55

is performed without any
Jacketing
preparation of the existing
concrete surface (the cover of
Jacketing consists of installing new the existing column should be
Jacketing can steel reinforcement bars (lateral chipped!).
increase strength ties and vertical bars) in order to • In most cases, the size of
and increase strength and ductility of jacketed columns is inadequate
ductilty of columns existing concrete members (usually even for gravity; however,
columns), as shown in Figures 68 in some cases column size
and 69. As a result of the jacketing, becomes ridiculously large after
the column cross section is also the jacketing (see Figure 73).
enlarged. When new ties are • In some cases, jacketing of the
installed in the beam-column joint columns discontinues at the
region, the existing concrete in ground floor level without
the joint region must be carefully extending into the foundations.
removed. Figure 70 shows the
jacketing of RC frames in Colombia. In recent years, use of composite fiber
wraps to confine reinforced concrete
Alternatively, jacketing can be columns is increasingly common.
accomplished by means of steel These are simpler and ultimately less
straps and angles, as shown in expensive than using steel bars. Fiber
Figure 71. In this case, straps act as Reinforced Polymer (FRP) sheets
lateral reinforcement (ties), while can be applied circumferentially
An emerging
technology, Fiber angles act as vertical reinforcement. around reinforced concrete columns
Reinforced Polymer These components are welded to to provide confining reinforcement
(FRP) overlays can be ensure the integrity of the retrofit which has been shown to increase
used to strengthen exist- scheme. both their strength and ductility. This
ing masonry infills or to
technology has been used worldwide
jacket columns Jacketing of RC columns was used for seismic retrofitting of reinforced
to retrofit RC frame buildings concrete bridge piers and columns in
in India after the 2001 Bhuj buildings in the last decade. Detailed
earthquake, and previously in design procedures are outlined
Romania after the 1977 Vrancea in publications developed by ISIS
earthquake (Bostenaru 2004). Some Canada (2001, 2003, and 2004).
of the observed implementation
flaws are:
• In some cases, retrofit was

limited to ground floor
columns only, which may
not be sufficient; in some
cases, the longitudinal bars
added in the concrete portion
are often left projecting out
without any connection to the
Retrofit us- existing RC beam and column
ing FRPs need to members above, as well as to
be performed carefully, the foundations below (see
considering their brittle
Figure 72).
behavior.
• In most cases, the existing
columns were snugly strapped
with steel angles and straps
(see Figure 72) before the
concrete was poured. And,
in many cases, the jacketing
56
Jacketing
must be provided
continuously through the
floor slabs in order to be
effective
Figure 68. Jacketing of existing RC columns using new RC encasement (source:

NRC 1995).
Figure 69. Installation of reinforced concrete jackets from the foundation level up to
the beam soffit; examples from Colombia (source: Mejia 2002).
57
Jacketing
consists of install-
ing new steel rein-
forcement bars (lateral
ties and vertical bars),
increasing the column
cross section
Figure 70. Jacketing of a beam-column joint region; an example from

Colombia (source: Mejia, 2002).
Figure 71. Steel jacketing of existing RC columns (source: NRC 1995)
58
Figure 72. An example of improper steel-based jacketing: vertical steel angles

battened with horizontal welded reinforcement bars, followed by the pouring of
concrete; the battens do not continue into the upper floor beams nor do they start
from the foundation level. The jacketing is limited to the ground floor level (photo:
C.V.R. Murty).
Figure 73. An example of improper retrofit practice: jacketing of RC columns resulted in

extremely large column sizes (note the absence of continuity with regards to upper floors
and the foundation) (photo: C.V.R. Murty).
59
Strengthening et al. 2004). Carbon Fibre Reinforced

Polymer (CFRP) sheets in the form
Existing Masonry of diagonal strips were used to
strengthen existing masonry infills
Infills made of hollow clay tiles. The goal
of the retrofit was to transform these
Installation of new RC shear walls
nonstructural panels into shear walls
in existing buildings is a time-
capable of providing resistance to
consuming effort. The application
lateral earthquake forces. The strips
of this method is feasible in a
were attached to the RC frames
post-earthquake situation, when a
by means of special dowels made
building is damaged and needs to
from CFRP sheets. The results of
be vacated. However, it may not be
the study showed that this method
feasible to vacate an undamaged
could be effectively used to increase
building. The need to perform
strength and stiffness of RC frames;
retrofit in an inhabited building
however, the effectiveness is strongly
in a fast and effective manner has
dependent on the extent of anchorage
prompted research studies focused
between the strips and the frame. It
on the use of Fiber Reinforced
should be also noted that, due to the
Polymer (FRP) overlays to
brittle nature of CFRP material and
strengthen existing masonry infills.
unreinforced masonry infills, this
This emerging technology is being
retrofit solution has only marginal
increasingly used to retrofit bridges
influence upon the ductility of the
and buildings in pre- and post-
existing structure. Figure 74 shows the
earthquake situations. FRPs are
test setup for the METU study.
light-weight materials characterized
by significantly higher tensile
strength when compared to steel Strengthening RC
reinforcement. Several types of
fibers (including those made out Frame Buildings with
of glass and carbon) embedded Open Ground Story
in epoxy-based resin are used
to form sheets or bars. Another
A large number of existing RC
characteristic of FRPs is their brittle
frame buildings across the world are
behavior; once their strength has
those with open, flexible or weak
been reached, these materials fail
ground stories; such buildings are
suddenly (similar to glass).
extremely vulnerable to earthquakes,
as discussed earlier in this document.
A major advantage of this retrofit
Buildings with Since this vulnerable building
scheme is its fast implementation,
open, flexible or system is still constructed, practical
which can be performed within
weak ground stories are retrofit schemes are discussed
days or even hours (depending
EXTREMELY vulnerable here. Generally, retrofitting of such
in earthquakes on the scope of work) and does
buildings should ensure that a sudden
not require relocation of building
and large decrease in the stiffness
inhabitants. It should be noted,
and/or strength is eliminated in
however, that a material cost for
any story of the building. There are
CFRP sheets might be prohibitive
a number of options for retrofitting
for some building owners.
existing open ground story buildings,
as shown in Figure 75. It is often
Extensive research on this subject
possible to retain the original function
was conducted at the Middle East
of the ground level (i.e. parking) while
Technical University (METU) in
reducing the flexibility or weakness
Turkey (Erdem et al 2004; Ozcebe
60
of the building. Developing ensure improved seismic performance

detailed retrofit solutions is a time- as a result of the retrofit).
consuming task which requires an
advanced level of expertise. Due Short Term Goal = Prevent
to several constraints, including Collapse
human and economic resources, it is
not possible to retrofit all vulnerable
Once the vulnerable building
buildings of this type located in
with open ground story has been
high seismic risk areas. Therefore,
identified, the foremost responsibility
the following two strategies are
is to urgently improve the safety of
proposed to deal with this problem:
open ground story buildings, before
a short-term goal (to prevent
the next earthquake strikes and brings
collapse), and a long-term goal (to
Figure 74. Configuration of CFRP strips and anchor dowel locations

(source: C.V.R. Murty, adapted from Erdem et al. 2004).
a b

Figure 75. Options for seismic retrofitting of open ground story buildings: (a) infilling
openings at the ground floor level; and (b) installation of continuous RC shear wall
(source: C.V.R. Murty).
61
them down. One quick solution

is to install masonry infill walls in
How Seismic Retrofit
the ground story between as many Affects Structural
columns as possible (see Figures
75a and 76).
Characteristics
The above retrofit methods, when
Long Term Goal = Improve
properly implemented, influence one
Seismic Performance or more of the following structural
The stiffness
characteristics:
and strength irregu-
larity in the ground story For selected existing buildings and
should be minimized if for all new buildings that have • Strength - it is desirable for a
not open ground stories, the stiffness retrofit to increase the strength
eliminated and strength irregularity in the of an existing structure, that is,
ground story should be minimized, the level at which the structure
if not eliminated. In the ground or its components start to fail.
story, RC walls can be built in select • Stiffness - most retrofit methods
bays but running continuously also affect the stiffness of a
along the full height of the building structure, that is, its ability to
(see Figures 75b and 77); the other deform (sway) when subjected
bays can be infilled with masonry to seismic forces (stiff structures
walls or left open. Of course, in the sway less than flexible
upper stories, the other bays will structures when subjected to
be infilled with masonry walls. same lateral forces)
Using these types of solutions • Ductility – it is very desirable
(designed by a qualified engineer for a retrofit method to
for each particular building), increase ductility of an existing
good earthquake behavior will be structure, that is, its ability to
ensured. deform substantially before the
failure.
Figure 76. Short-term solution to the seismic vulnerability of an open

ground story building after the 2001 Bhuj earthquake: note the open
bays in the ground story infilled with new masonry walls (photo: C.V.R.
Murty).
62

Usually, a retrofit method before field implementation takes place.
influences one or more structural A thorough seismic analysis needs to be
characteristics. The effects of performed, wherein the analysis model
retrofit methods discussed in this for an existing structure is developed,
document are listed in Table 2. and the effect of retrofit of each existing
structural member is quantified.
New structural members (e.g. RC
Retrofitting RC shear walls) added to the existing
structure must be incorporated in the
Frames with structural model at the analysis stage.
Masonry Infills: Several computer analysis software
packages suitable for this purpose are
Implementation commercially available. However, the
Challenges key for success for building owners
and implementing agencies is to
A few common retrofit methods engage knowledgeable engineers with
suitable for RC frames with infills a background in seismic design and
have been discussed in this section. retrofit and structural engineering in
The descriptions are meant to general.
provide an insight into retrofit
concepts rather than detailed In a post-earthquake situation,
solutions. Retrofit design must be governments and private sector
done by qualified professionals agencies are faced with a daunting
task associated with handling massive
Figure 77. Long-term solution for open ground story buildings: continuous RC
shear walls provided along the building height to overcome the reduced stiffness and
strength caused by the open ground story structure (source: Murty 2005).
63
Table 2: Retrofit Methods and their Effect on Structural Characteristics
Results in the increase of

Retrofit strate- Retrofit Method Strength Stiffness Ductility
gies need to be care- Installing new RC walls YES SIGNIFICANT SIGNIFICANT
fully evaluated for their Strengthening existing YES SIGNIFICANT VERY SMALL
influence on the strength, masonry infills with CFRPs
stiffness and Jacketing YES MODERATE MODERATE
ductility of a build-
ing
projects focused on rehabilitating modifications/enhancements of
hundreds or even thousands of existing structural elements;
buildings. However, it must be • Estimating the time required
recognized that each building is to complete the retrofit for a
unique and that seismic retrofit specific building depending on
schemes identified for one RC its size and construction type;
frame building may not be relevant and
to another. Retrofit requirements
• Finding the construction labor
depend on many factors, including
with the set of skills required
the seismic hazard of the building
for the retrofit implementation.
Road maps site, local soil conditions, expected

are required to seismic performance, and type
The above challenges highlight
estimate the human and age of the structure. Thus,
an urgent need for a dialog
resources and equipment mass retrofitting strategies are not
required for seismic between all stakeholders within
meaningful in the case of RC frame
retrofitting of vulnerable countries and regions at risk
buildings, unless the buildings have
RC frame buildings in from earthquake disasters. Road
the same deficiencies and failure
high seismic risk areas maps are required to estimate the
modes.
worldwide. required human resources and
equipment, and establish effective
Another challenge associated with construction management systems
implementing retrofit of RC frame for implementing seismic retrofitting
buildings with infills lies in the projects of vulnerable RC frame
limited expertise related to both buildings in pre- or post-earthquake
design and construction of seismic situations across the world.
retrofit projects. Retrofitting is an
advanced process and, in most
cases, requires a higher level of
In most expertise than that required for
cases, retrofit design and construction of new
design and construc- buildings. Developing countries
tion of retrofit measures are more significantly faced with
in existing buildings this problem, particularly in a post-
requires a higher level earthquake situation. Some of the
of expertise than that challenges which implementing
required for design and
agencies are faced with due to the
construction of new
lack of expertise and experience
buildings
include:
• Finding out retrofit cost

estimates for various types
of structures (RC frames,
masonry buildings, etc.);
• Identifying equipment
required for undertaking
64
7. Conclusions

This document highlights the poor earthquakes, even though the
seismic performance of RC frame required additional factors are only
buildings with masonry infills, incremental in nature, including the
and documents the underlying costs. For instance, the column ties
design and construction factors need to be provided with 135° bends
causing such performance. at the ends of the hooks, as opposed
There is a significant concern to 90° bends in RC frames made in
in the earthquake engineering non-seismic areas. The additional
community that many of these effort and cost are nominal, but the
buildings, already built and consequences of not making this
standing throughout the world, change can be catastrophic. When
are potential death traps in future special attention cannot be paid to
earthquakes. And even the new design, detailing and construction, RC
ones being built can be potentially frames alone should not be used to
dangerous if attention is not paid to resist lateral loads. Alternative lateral
the critical design, construction and load resisting systems are required. Architects,
management issues. building owners,
This tutorial on RC frame buildings construction manag-
encourages the use of the following ers, designers, engi-
Technical Challenges neers, and municipal
two alternative structural systems to
agencies
resist lateral loads:
all play important roles in
The design and construction of (a) RC shear walls continuous improving performance
RC frame buildings require many from the foundation to the of RC frame buildings
small but vital factors to make these roof provided in medium-to- with masonry infills in
buildings earthquake-resistant. As highrise RC frame buildings; earthquakes
discussed in this document, the and
primary challenges in RC frame (b) Confined masonry
construction are to ensure: construction, a combination
(a) that the beams are stronger of RC confining elements (tie-
than columns beams and tie-columns) and
(b) that the rebars in the beam- masonry walls, is suitable for
column joints allow proper low-rise buildings (one-to-
concreting in the joint four stories high).
region
(c) that the beams are ductile,
through the proper rebar Stakeholders
detailing, and
(d) that the frame is not too There are several important players
weak or flexible in the in drawing the needed attention
horizontal direction, either to these issues. Readers of this
in any one story or in the document should evaluate how they
whole. can use their role in the construction
process to encourage safe design and
In general, it is very difficult construction. This enormous problem
to design, detail and construct can become more manageable if
RC frames to perform well in each individual with a role in the
65
design and construction process • Municipal agencies such

takes responsibility to learn how as building authorities, city
he or she can personally influence planning departments, and
the process. The key stakeholders municipal managers, need to
and their respective roles are enforce the use of building codes
summarized below: and seismic design standards
in their communities. This
• Architects need to understand role is essential. Without the
that their designs can directly enforcement and regulatory teeth
influence building performance that can be imposed by such
in an earthquake, and should authorities, earthquake-resistant
refrain from designing complex design practices are not uniformly
shapes causing potential applied or enforced. The educated
torsional problems. They need owner or the sophisticated
to understand that masonry engineer may incorporate such
infills are not just architectural practices in a particular design,
components, but rather, have but government agencies have
fundamental influence on the the opportunity, in fact the
structural performance of a responsibility, to ensure that such
building. practices are enforced throughout
a community and not just on a
• Building owners must play building by building basis.
an absolutely critical role by
understanding the importance
of earthquake resistance and
Closing Comments
insisting that seismic features
As developing countries become
become a part of new design
more and more urbanized, seismic
and construction.
risks will rise dramatically unless
fundamental changes in policy,
• Construction Managers
design, and construction are
can explicitly improve the
implemented. The time for these
earthquake resistance of new
changes is long overdue. It thus
buildings by ensuring quality
becomes the responsibility of all
construction materials and
stakeholders involved in the design
quality workmanship.
and construction process to advocate
for safer buildings.
• Designers must understand
that their designs have
Ultimately, the problem of RC frame
important consequences on
construction with masonry infills is
building performance in an
not just an engineering problem. The
earthquake. From simple issues
authors of this document believe that
such as the placement of a wall
the global community will benefit
or window, to more complex
from the improved design and
configuration issues, designers
construction practices suggested here,
need to realize that every such
and that fewer lives will be lost and
decision has implications for
less property significantly damaged in
earthquake performance.
future earthquakes.
• Engineers have a pivotal role
in improving the performance
of RC frame buildings in
earthquakes, by paying careful
attention to the design and
construction issues outlined in
this tutorial.
66
8. References
American Concrete Institute, (2002), Applied Technology Council and SEAOC
Design and Construction Joint Venture, (1999), Built To Resist
of Externally Bonded FRP Earthquakes. ATC/SEAOC Training
Systems for Strengthening Curriculum: The Path to Quality
Concrete Structures, ( ACI Seismic Design and Construction.
440.2R-02) American Concrete Applied Technology Council,
Institute, Farmington Hills, Redwood City, California.
Michigan, USA.
Blondet, M. ed, (2005), Construction and
American Society of Civil Maintenance of Masonry Houses –
Engineers/Structural For Masons and Craftsmen, Pontificia
Engineering Institute, (2006). Universidad Catolica del Peru, Lima,
Seismic Rehabilitation of Peru, (http://www.world-housing.
Existing Buildings, ASCE/SEI net/Tutorials/Tutorial.asp).
41-06.(Supplement available
early 2007.) Washington DC: Bostenaru, M.D., (2004), “Early “Reinforced
American Society of Civil Concrete Frame Condominium
Engineers. Building with Masonry Infill Walls
Designed for Gravity Loads only,”
American Society of Civil WHE Report 96 (Romania), World
Engineers/Structural Housing Encyclopedia (www.world-
Engineering Institute, 2003. housing.net), Earthquake Engineering
Seismic Evaluation of Existing Research Institute and International
Buildings, ASCE Standard Association for Earthquake
No. 31-03. Washington DC: Engineering.
American Society of Civil
Engineers, 444 pages. Bostenaru, M, and Sandu,I. (2002),
“Reinforced concrete cast-in situ
Anthoine, A. and Taucer, F., shear wall buildings (“OD”-type,
(2006), Seismic Assessment with “fagure” plan”, WHE Report
of a Reinforced Concrete 78 (Romania) World Housing
Block Masonry House. Encyclopedia (www.world-housing.
PROARES Project in El net). Earthquake Engineering Research
Salvador. European Laboratory Institute and International Association
for Structural Assessment, for Earthquake Engineering.
Joint Research Centre of
the European Commission, Brzev, S., (2006), Confined Masonry
EUR22324 EN, Ispra, Italy. Construction: A Guide for Architects
and Builders, Department of Civil
Applied Technology Council, Engineering, Indian Institute of
(1989), Procedures for Technology Kanpur, India.
Postearthquake Safety
Evaluation of Buildings, EERI, (2000), Annotated Slide Collection.
ATC-20, Applied Technology CD Publication. Earthquake
Council, Redwood City, Engineering Research Institute,
California. Oakland, CA.
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EERI, (2001). Annotated Images Federal Emergency Management

from the Bhuj, India Agency, (1999a), Evaluation
Earthquake of January 26, 2001 of Earthquake Damaged
(CD). Earthquake Engineering Concrete and Masonry Wall
Research Institute, Oakland, Buildings- Basic Procedures
CA. Manual (FEMA 306). Federal
Emergency Management Agency,
EERI/IAEE, (2000), World Housing Washington, D.C.
Encyclopedia (www.world-
housing.net). Earthquake Federal Emergency Management
Engineering Research Agency, (1999b), Evaluation of
Institute and the International Earthquake Damaged Concrete
Association for Earthquake and Masonry Wall Buildings-
Engineering. Technical Resources (FEMA 307).
Federal Emergency Management
Englekirk, R.E., (2003), Seismic Agency, Washington, D.C.
Design of Reinforced and
Precast Concrete Buildings, Federal Emergency Management
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., U.S.A. Agency, (1999c), Repair
of Earthquake Damaged
Erdem, I., Akyuz, U., and Ozcebe, Concrete and Masonry Wall
G., (2004), “Experimental Buildings (FEMA 308). Federal
and Analytical Studies on the Emergency Management Agency,
Strengthening of RC Frames”, Washington, D.C.
Proceedings, 13th World
Conference on Earthquake Federal Emergency Management
Engineering, Vancouver, Agency, (1998), Handbook for the
Canada, Paper No. 673. Seismic Evaluation of Buildings
– A Prestandard (FEMA 310).
Faison, H., Comartin, C., and Federal Emergency Management
Elwood, K. (2004), “Reinforced Agency, Washington, D.C., USA.
Concrete Moment Frame (currently ASCE Standard 31-02).
Building without Seismic
Details” WHE Report 111 Federal Emergency Management
(U.S.A.) World Housing Agency, (1994), Reducing
Encyclopedia (www.world- the Risks of Nonstructural
housing.net). Earthquake Earthquake Damage (FEMA 74).
Engineering Research Institute Federal Emergency Management
and International Association Agency, Washington, D.C.,
for Earthquake Engineering. USA,. (http://www.fema.
gov/plan/prevent/earthquake/
Federal Emergency Management homeowners.shtm).
Agency, (2000), Prestandard
and Commentary for the Federal Emergency Management
Seismic Rehabilitation of Agency, (1988), Rapid Visual
Buildings (FEMA 356). Federal Screening of Buildings for
Emergency Management Potential Seismic Hazards: A
Agency, Washington, D.C., Handbook (FEMA 154), Federal
USA. Emergency Management Agency,
Washington, D.C., USA.
68
References
Gulkan, P., Ascheim,M. and Jaiswal, K., Sinha, R., Goyal, A., (2003),
Spence,R., (2002), “Reinforced “Reinforced Concrete Frame
concrete frame building with Building with Masonry Infill Walls
masonry infills,” WHE Report Designed for Gravity Loads”. WHE
64 (Turkey), World Housing Report 19 (India). World Housing
Encyclopedia (www.world- Encyclopedia (www.world-housing.
housing.net), Earthquake net). Earthquake Engineering
Engineering Research Institute Research Institute and International
and International Association Association for Earthquake
for Earthquake Engineering. Engineering.
International Code Council, 2006. Levtchitch, V., (2002), “Gravity designed

“Appendix Chapter A5: reinforced concrete frame buildings
Earthquake Hazard Reduction with unreinforced masonry infill
in Existing Concrete Buildings walls,” WHE Report 13 (Cyprus),
and Concrete with Masonry World Housing Encyclopedia (www.
Infill Buildings”, 2006 Edition world-housing.net), Earthquake
of the International Existing Engineering Research Institute
Building Code (IEBC). and International Association for
Available for purchase at www. Earthquake Engineering.
iccsafe.org.
MacGregor, J.G. and Wight, J.K., (2005),
ISIS, (2001), Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and
Reinforced Concrete Structures Design, Fourth Edition, Pearson
With Externally-Bonded Education Inc., Upper Saddle River,
Fibre Reinforced Polymers, NJ, U.S.A.
Intelligent Sensing for
Innovative Structures (ISIS) Mejia, L., (2002), “Gravity Concrete Frame
Canada Research Network, Building (predating seismic codes),”
Winnipeg, Manitoba. WHE Report 11 (Colombia), World
Housing Encyclopedia (www.world-
ISIS, (2003), An Introduction to FRP housing.net), Earthquake Engineering
Composites for Construction, Research Institute and International
ISIS Educational Module Association for Earthquake
No. 2, Intelligent Sensing for Engineering.
Innovative Structures (ISIS)
Canada Research Network, Moroni, O. and Gomez, C., (2002a),
Winnipeg, Manitoba (free “Concrete shear wall building” WHE
download from http://www. Report 4 (Chile). World Housing
isiscanada.com/education/ Encyclopedia (www.world-housing.
education.html). net). Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute and International
ISIS, (2004), An Introduction to Association for Earthquake
FRP Strengthening of Concrete Engineering,.
Structures, ISIS Educational
Module No. 4, Intelligent Moroni, O. and Gomez, C., (2002b),
Sensing for Innovative “Concrete frame and shear wall
Structures (ISIS) Canada building”. WHE Report 6 (Chile).
Research Network, Winnipeg, World Housing Encyclopedia (www.
Manitoba(free download from world-housing.net). Earthquake
http://www.isiscanada.com/ Engineering Research Institute
education/education.html). and International Association for
Earthquake Engineering.
69
Murty, C.V.R., (2005), IITK- Paulay,T., and Priestley,M.J.N., (1992),

BMTPC Earthquake Tips Seismic Design of Reinforced
– Learning Earthquake Concrete and Masonry Buildings,
Design and Construction, John Wiley & Sons, USA.
National Information Center
of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Penelis, G.G., and Kappos, A.J., (1997),
Kanpur, India, September. Earthquake Resistant Concrete
Structures, E&FNSPON, U.K.
Murty, C.V.R., Charleson, A.W., and
Sanyal, S.A., (2006), Earthquake Rodriguez, M. and Jarque, F.G.,
Design Concepts for Teachres (2005), “Reinforced concrete
of Architecture Colleges, multistory buildings”. WHE
National Information Center Report 115 (Mexico). World
of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Housing Encyclopedia (www.
Kanpur, India. world-housing.net). Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute
Naeim, F., (2001), The Seismic and International Association for
Design Handbook, Second Earthquake Engineering.
Edition, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Boston MA. UNIDO, (1983), Repair and
Strengthening of Reinforced
Newman,A., (2001), Structural Concrete, Stone and Brick Masonry
Renovation of Buildings - Buildings, Building Construction
Methods, Details and Design Under Seismic Conditions in the
Examples, McGraw-Hill Balkan Region, UNDP/UNIDO
Professional Engineering. Project RER/79/015, Vol. 5,
Vienna, Austria.
NRC, (1995), Guideline for Seismic
Upgrading of Building Yakut, A. (2004), “Reinforced Concrete
Structures, Institute for Frame Construction”, World
Research in Construction, Housing Encyclopedia – Summary
National Research Council of Publication 2004, Earthquake
Canada, Ottawa. Engineering Research Institute,
Oakland, California, pp.9-1 to 9-8.
Ozcebe, G. et al., (2004), Yakut, A., and Gulkan, P., (2003),
“Rehabilitation of Existing “Tunnel Form Building”, WHE
Reinforced Concrete Structures Report 101 (Turkey). World
Using CFRP Fabrics”, Housing Encyclopedia (www.
Proceedings, 13th World world-housing.net). Earthquake
Conference on Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Engineering, Vancouver, and International Association for
Canada, Paper No. 1393. Earthquake Engineering.
Pao, J., and Brzev, S., (2002), Yao, G.C., and Sheu,M.S., (2002),
“Concrete shear wall highrise “Street-front building with arcade
buildings”. WHE Report 79 at the first floor (contemporary
(Canada). World Housing construction),” WHE Report
Encyclopedia (www.world- 62 (Taiwan), World Housing
housing.net). Earthquake Encyclopedia (www.world-
Engineering Research Institute housing.net). Earthquake
and International Association for Engineering Research Institute
Earthquake Engineering. and International Association for
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.
70
WHE TUTORIALS
developed by volunteers in the World Housing Encyclopedia project of EERI and IAEE
available for free download at http://www.world-housing.net/Tutorials/Tutorial.asp
or hard copies can be purchased from EERI online bookstore at www.eeri.org
Earthquake-Resistant Construction of Adobe Buildings (available in

Spanish and English) EERI Publication # WHE-2006-01 (published on
the web in 2003; hard copy in 2006, USD $10)
Construction and Maintenance of Masonry Dwellings for Masons

and Builders (available in Spanish and English) EERI Publication # WHE-
2006-02 (published on the web in 2005; hard copy in 2006, USD $15)
OTHER WHE PUBLICATIONS
World Housing Encyclopedia summary publication 2004 (Technical

Editors: Svetlana Brzev, Marjorie Greene). Includes one page summary
of all WHE reports as of August 2004, as well as overview of construction
technologies represented on the WHE website. EERI Publication #
WHE-2004-01, USD $25 with CD-ROM.
71

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AT RISK:

The Seismic Performance of

A Tutorial Developed by a committee of the

First Edition, November 2006

A Tutorial Developed by a committee of the

First Edition November 2006

Publication Number WHE-2006-03

Copies of this publication may be ordered from either:

Layout: Marjorie Greene, Heidi Faison

Vanja Alendar Heidi Faison

Qaisar Ali Jorge Gutierrez

Chris Arnold Andreas Kappos

Marcial Blondet Marjana Lutman

Jitendra Bothara Kimiro Meguro

Svetlana Brzev Ofelia Moroni

Andrew Charleson Farzad Naeim

Shel Cherry Jelena Pantelic

Craig Comartin Virginia Rodriguez

Dina D’Ayala Laura Samant

Dominic Dowling Baitao Sun

Abdibaliev, Marat Davis, Ian Lutman, Marjana Skliros, Kostas

6. RETROFITTING RC FRAME BUILDINGS 51

KEY POINT DESIGN TIP

These three-dimensional RC frames than 110 reports describing housing

Figure 1. A typical RC frame building with masonry infills and its

rise apartment buildings of this southern Europe, North Africa,

Because of the high occupancy considered to be at risk since the

buildings in any one community. comparable costs and construction

Considering the high seismic

Figure 6. A building with a very

each other during earthquakes tend to incur damage or collapse

concrete walls designed to

Figure 9. Sudden changes in load path lead to poor performance of buildings in

Figure 10. Examples of vertical irregularities (from Bangladesh)

Figure 13. Typical brick

When ductile RC frames are The difficulty in isolating masonry

to the wall surface. This is frame buildings that have columns

in buildings constructed on a slope above it (see Figure 20). The upper

Figure 17. A building with short

Figure 18. Examples of

Figure 20. Captive columns are common in RC buildings when

portion does not continue within Adjacent Buildings:

Figure 21. An example of an existing RC frame building in Cyprus showing weak

earthquakes across the world. For

Figure 24. Typical building with a soft ground story

the columns during an earthquake above, i.e., the relative horizontal

Figure 25. Excessive

Figure 26. An example of a building

above. Thus, the open ground How to Avoid Soft Stories

• Select an alternative structural avoided, ensuring that forces can

Figure 29. Two distinct design approaches result in significantly

Figure 31. Collapse of a multistory RC frame building due to weak column-strong

Figure 32. Multiple-story collapse in a six-story building due to strong

Figure 33. Capacity Design

The ductile behavior of RC characterized by diagonal

Stirrups earthquake energy and sustain

Failure modes Vertical rebars resist axial loads and

the same total cross-sectional area. Several earthquakes have revealed

Figure 39. Steel reinforcement in columns must have ties with

Beam-Column Joints region. When either the column is not

beam-column joint region mandates volume of the confined concrete

Figure 43. Shear failure of a RC beam-

Figure 44. Improper