TRAINING REPORT

OF SIX WEEKS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING UNDERTAKEN

AT
“220KV SUBSTATION ABLOWAL PATIALA”
IN
“SUBSTATION”
ON
“STUDY OF SUBSTATION”
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Under the guidance of: Submitted by:
Name: GIAN CHAND Amanpreet Singh
Designation: Asst. Executive Engineer Roll no. : 100804004.
Department: P.S.T.C.L (S/S).
CONTENTS
 Need of this Project
 Transformers
 Protection devices
 Circuit Breakers
 Fuses
 Isolators
 Capacitor Banks
 Instrument Transformers
 Current Transformers
 Potential transformers
 Wave trap
 Lightning Arrestors
 Need of This Project

The project entitled “Study of various protection devices in 220 kV

Grid “was carried out to have a deep knowledge of the various
devices used in the grid. After this project I have knowledge of
the various components used in the grid, how are the various
components installed, what is the use of various components,
how do these components work. It gave knowledge of
transformers, capacitor banks, relay, wave trap, isolator,
circuit breakers, etc. It gave knowledge of safety measures
that should be kept in mind while working with high voltage
devices like power transformers. It also gave the knowledge
about the transmission of power in a grid and how it is
distributed to others.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am greatly thankful to 220Kv substation,
Ablowal, Patiala for conducting summer training
(31st may, 2010 to 11th July, 2010). I would also
like to Mr. Nitin Narang, training coordinator,
Thapar University and for their able guidance
without which I cannot complete the training. I
would appreciate the efforts of Er. Gian Chand,
asst. Executive Engineer, 220Kv substation,
Ablowal for providing me valuable knowledge and
making the subject interesting for me.
 Transformers
Introduction
Electrical transformers are used to "transform" voltage from one level to another, usually
from a higher voltage to a lower voltage. They do this by applying the principle of magnetic
induction between coils to convert voltage and/or current levels.

In this way, electrical transformers are a passive device which transforms alternating current
(otherwise known as "AC") electric energy from one circuit into another through
electromagnetic induction. An electrical transformer normally consists of a ferromagnetic
core and two or more coils called "windings". A changing current in the primary winding
creates an alternating magnetic field in the core. In turn, the core multiplies this field and
couples the most of the flux through the secondary transformer windings. This in turn
induces alternating voltage (or e.m.f.) in each of the secondary coils.

Electrical transformers can be configured as either a single-phase or a three-phase

configuration. There are several important specifications to specify when searching for
electrical transformers. These include: maximum secondary voltage rating, maximum
secondary current rating, maximum power rating, and output type. An electrical
transformer may provide more than one secondary voltage value. The Rated Power is the
sum of the VA (Volts x Amps) for all of the secondary windings. Output choices include AC or
DC. For Alternating Current waveform output, voltage the values are typically given in RMS
values. Consult manufacturer for waveform options. For direct current secondary voltage
output, consult manufacturer for type of rectification.

There are many types. These include autotransformer, control, current, distribution,
general-purpose, instrument, isolation, potential (voltage), power, step-up, and step-down.
Mountings include chassis mount, dish or disk mount, enclosure or free standing, h frame,
and PCB mount.

It is a device used to transfer an alternating current or voltage from one circuit to another
by means of electromagnetic induction. The simplest type consists of two coils of wire,
insulated from one another and arranged so that a change in the current in one coil (the
primary) will produce a change in voltage in the other (the secondary). In many types, the
coils are wound on a core made of a material with high magnetic permeability; this
intensifies the magnetic field induced by the current in the primary, increasing efficiency.
Neglecting power losses (which are made small by careful design), the ratio of primary
voltage to secondary voltage is the same as the ratio of the number of turns in the primary
coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil. The primary and secondary currents are in
inverse proportion to the number of turns in the coils. The primary and secondary
impedances are in the same ratio as the squares of the numbers of turns in the primary and
secondary coils. For example, if a 10-volt, 2-ampere alternating current were to flow
through a 10-turn primary, theoretically a 20-turn secondary would exhibit a 20-volt, 1-
ampere alternating current, with the output impedance four times as great. Power types are
generally used to transmit power at a constant frequency. Audio types are designed to
operate over a wide range of frequencies with a nearly flat response, i.e., a nearly constant
ratio of input to output voltage. Radio frequency (RF) types are designed to operate
efficiently within a narrow range of high frequencies.

A few important specifications to consider include:

 maximum secondary voltage

 maximum secondary current
 maximum rating
 Output type.

They may also provide more than one secondary voltage value.

These units have ratings that are determined by the sum of the VA (Volts x Amps) for all of
the secondary windings. Output choices include AC or DC For AC waveform output, voltage
the values are typically given in RMS values. Consult a manufacturer for waveform options
Transformer construction
1.) Transformer - Cores
Cores can be constructed as either a toroidal or laminated. Toroidal units typically have
copper wire wrapped around a cylindrical core so the magnetic flux, which occurs within the
coil, doesn't leak out, the coil efficiency is good, and the magnetic flux has little influence on
other components. Laminated refers to the laminated-steel cores. These steel laminations
are insulated with a nonconducting material, such as varnish, and then formed into a core
that reduces electrical losses.

2.) Transformer - Windings

In most practical transformers, the primary and secondary conductors are coils of
conducting wire because each turn of the coil contributes to the magnetic field, creating a
higher magnetic flux density than would a single conductor.

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage

The winding material depends on the application. Small power and signal transformers are
wound with insulated solid copper wire, often enamelled. Larger power transformers may
be wound with wire, copper or aluminium rectangular conductors, or strip conductors for
very heavy currents. High frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of
kilohertz will have windings made of Litz wire, to minimize the skin effect losses in the
conductors. Large power transformers use multiply-stranded conductors as well, since even
at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in large
windings. Each strand is insulated from the others, and the strands are arranged so that
either at certain points in the winding or throughout the winding, each portion occupies
different relative positions in the complete conductor. This "transposition" equalises the
current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the
winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar
size.

Windings on both primary and secondary of a power transformer may have external
connections (called taps) to intermediate points on the winding to allow adjustment of the
voltage ratio; taps may be connected to automatic on-load tap changer switchgear for
voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers used for
distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers have taps to allow adjustment of power
supplied to each speaker. A centre-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of
an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Tapped transformers are also used as
components of amplifiers, oscillators, and for feedback linearization of amplifier circuits.

3.) Transformer - Insulation

The conductor material must have insulation to ensure the current travels around the core,
and not through a turn-to-turn short-circuit.

In power transformers, the voltage difference between parts of the primary and secondary
windings can be quite large. Insulation is inserted between layers of windings to prevent
arcing, and the transformer may also be immersed in transformer oil that provides further
insulation. To ensure that the insulating capability of the transformer oil does not
deteriorate, the transformer casing is completely sealed against moisture ingress. The oil
serves as both cooling medium to remove heat from the core and coil and as part of the
insulation system.

4.) Transformer - Shielding

Although an ideal transformer is purely magnetic in operation, the proximity of the primary
and secondary windings can create a mutual capacitance between the windings. Where
transformers are intended for high electrical isolation between primary and secondary
circuits, an electrostatic shield can be placed between windings to minimize this effect.

Transformers may also be enclosed by magnetic shields, electrostatic shields, or both to

prevent outside interference from affecting the operation of the transformer, or to prevent
the transformer from affecting the operation of other devices (such as CRTs in proximity to
the transformer).
5.) Transformer - Coolant
All transformers must have some circulation of coolant to remove the waste heat produced
by losses. Small transformers up to a few kilowatts in size usually are adequately cooled by
air circulation. Larger "dry" type transformers may have cooling fans. Some dry transformers
are enclosed in pressurized tanks and are cooled by nitrogen or sulphur hexafluoride gas.

The windings of high-power or high-voltage transformers are immersed in transformer oil -

a highly-refined mineral oil that is stable at high temperatures. Large transformers to be
used indoors must use a non-flammable liquid. Formerly, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
was used as it was not a fire hazard in indoor power transformers and it is highly stable. Due
to the stability of PCB and its environmental accumulation, it is no longer permitted in new
equipment. Today, nontoxic, stable silicone-based oils or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be
used, where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a
transformer vault. Other less-flammable fluids such as canola oil may be used but all fire
resistant fluids have some drawbacks in performance, cost, compared with mineral oil.

Cut-away view of three-phase oil-cooled transformer. The oil reservoir is visible at the top. Radiative
fins aid the dissipation of heat.
The oil cools the transformer, and provides part of the electrical insulation between internal
live parts. It has to be stable at high temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause
a breakdown or fire. The oil-filled tank may have radiators through which the oil circulates
by natural convection. Very large or high-power transformers (with capacities of millions of
watts) may have cooling fans, oil pumps and even oil to water heat exchangers. Oil-filled
transformers undergo prolonged drying processes, using vapour-phase heat transfer,
electrical self-heating, the application of a vacuum, or combinations of these, to ensure that
the transformer is completely free of water vapour before the cooling oil is introduced. This
helps prevent electrical breakdown under load.

Oil-filled power transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays - safety devices sensing
gas build-up inside the transformer (a side effect of an electric arc inside the windings) and
switching off the transformer.

Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with superconducting
windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled
by liquid nitrogen or helium.

6.) Transformer - Terminals

Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and
brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have
heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or
porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must both provide electrical
insulation, and contain oil within the transformer tank.

7.) Transformer - Enclosure

Small transformers often have no enclosure. Transformers may have a shield enclosure, as
described above. Larger units may be enclosed to prevent contact with live parts, and to
contain the cooling medium (oil or pressurized gas).
 Equivalent circuit
The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an
equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless transformer. Power
loss in the windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances RP and
RS. Flux leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped without contributing to
the mutual coupling, and thus can be modelled as reactances of each leakage inductance XP
and XS in series with the perfectly coupled region.

Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core, and are
proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. Since the core
flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance
RC in parallel with the ideal transformer.

A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain the mutual
flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux; saturation effects cause
the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect tends to be
ignored in most circuit equivalents. With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux lags the induced
EMF by 90° and this effect can be modelled as a magnetizing reactance (reactance of an
effective inductance) XM in parallel with the core loss component. RC and XM are
sometimes together termed the magnetizing branch of the model. If the secondary winding
is made open-circuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetizing branch represents the
transformer's no-load current.

The secondary impedance RS and XS is frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary side
after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor (NP/NS) ².

Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the primary side

The resulting model is sometimes termed the "exact equivalent circuit", though it retains a
number of approximations, such as an assumption of linearity. Analysis may be simplified by
moving the magnetizing branch to the left of the primary impedance, an implicit assumption
that the magnetizing current is low, and then summing primary and referred secondary
impedances, resulting in so-called equivalent impedance.

The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of
two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

Testing of Transformers
The structure of the circuit equivalent of a practical transformer is developed earlier.

The performance parameters of interest can be obtained by solving that circuit for any load
conditions. The equivalent circuit parameters are available to the designer of the
transformers from the various expressions that he uses for designing the transformers. But
for a user these are not available most of the times. Also when a transformer is rewound
with different primary and secondary windings the equivalent circuit also changes. In order
to get the equivalent circuit parameters test methods are heavily depended upon. From the
analysis of the equivalent circuit one can determine the electrical parameters. But if the
temperature rise of the transformer is required, then test method is the most dependable
one. There are several tests that can be done on the transformer; however a few common
ones are discussed here.

Winding resistance test

This is nothing but the resistance measurement of the windings by applying a small d.c
voltage to the winding and measuring the current through the same. The ratio gives the
winding resistance, more commonly feasible with high voltage windings. For low voltage
windings a resistance-bridge method can be used. From the d.c resistance one can get the
a.c. resistance by applying skin effect corrections.

Polarity Test
This is needed for identifying the primary and secondary phasor polarities. It is a must for
poly phase connections. Both a.c. and d.c methods can be used for detecting the polarities
of the induced emfs. The dot method discussed earlier is used to indicate the polarities. The
transformer is connected to a low voltage a.c. source with the connections made as shown
in the fig. . A supply voltage Vs is applied to the primary and the readings of the voltmeters
V1, V2 and V3 are noted. V1 : V2 gives the turn’s ratio. If V3 reads V1−V2 then assumed dot
locations are correct (for the connection shown). The beginning and end of the primary and
secondary may then be marked by A1 −A2 and a1 −a2 respectively.

If the voltage rises from A1 to A2 in the primary, at any instant it does so from a1 to a2 in
the secondary. If more secondary terminals are present due to taps taken from the windings
they can be labelled as a3, a4, a5, a6. It is the voltage rising from smaller number towards

larger ones in each winding. The same thing holds good if more secondaries are present.

D.C. method of testing the polarity. When the switch S is closed if the secondary voltage
shows a positive reading, with a moving coil meter, the assumed polarity is correct. If the
meter kicks back the assumed polarity is wrong
Open Circuit Test

As the name suggests, the secondary is kept open circuited and nominal value of the input
voltage is applied to the primary winding and the input current and power are measured. In
Fig. 19(a) V,A,W are the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter respectively.

Let these meters read V1, I0 and W0 respectively. Fig. 19(b) shows the equivalent circuit of
the transformer under this test. The no load current at rated voltage is less than 1 percent
of nominal current and hence the loss and drop that take place in primary impedance r 1
+jxl1 due to the no load current I0 is negligible. The active component Ic of the no load
current I0 represents the core losses and reactive current Im is the current needed for the
magnetization.

The parameters measured already are in terms of the primary. Sometimes the primary
voltage required may be in kilo-Volts and it may not be feasible to apply nominal voltage to
primary from the point of safety to personnel and equipment. If the secondary
voltage is low, one can perform the test with LV side energized keeping the HV side open
circuited. In this case the parameters that are obtained are in terms of LV . These have to be
referred to HV side if we need the equivalent circuit referred to HV side.
Sometimes the nominal value of high voltage itself may not be known, or in doubt,
especially in a rewound transformer. In such cases an open circuit characteristics is first
obtained, which is a graph showing the applied voltage as a function of the no load current.
This is a non linear curve as shown in Fig. 20. This graph is obtained by noting the current
drawn by transformer at different applied voltage, keeping the secondary open circuited.
The usual operating point selected for operation lies at some standard voltage around the
knee point of the characteristic.

Short Circuit Test

The purpose of this test is to determine the series branch parameters of the equivalent
circuit of . As the name suggests, in this test primary applied voltage, the current and power
input are measured keeping the secondary terminals short circuited. Let these values be
Vsc, Isc and Wsc respectively. The supply voltage required to circulate rated current through
the transformer is usually very small and is of the order of a few percent of the nominal
voltage. The excitation current which is only 1 percent or less even at rated
Voltage becomes negligibly small during this test and hence is neglected.
The shunt branch
is thus assumed to be absent. Also I₁ = I₂’as I₀ ≃ 0. Therefore Wsc is the sum of the
Copper losses in primary and secondary put together. The reactive power consumed is that
absorbed by the leakage reactance of the two windings.
Wsc = I₂sc(r₁ + r₂’)
Zsc =Vsc/Isc
(xᵢ₁ + xᵢ₂’) = √{Z²sc− (r₁ + r’₂)²}
Short Ckt. Test
 Protection Devices

FUSES
A fuse is an overcurrent protective device with a circuit-opening fusible part that is heated
and severed by the passage of current through it. Fuses can meet most of the protection
requirements for good system operation.

The fuse is a thermal device. Heat will melt the fuse element regardless of its source.
The fundamental features of fuses are as follows:

1.) The fuse combines the sensing and interrupting elements in one unit.

2.) It is a single-phase device. Only the fuse in the affected phase will melt to isolate the fault.
Three-phase motors will continue to run on single-phase power for extended periods.
This may result in overheating and damage to the motors.

3.) The fuse response is a function ofI2T, where Iis the current and Tis the time the current
exist. It has an inverse-time characteristic—the higher the current, the faster the
Fuse blows.

4.) Most fuses require considerably more current than their amperage rating operating. For
example, NEMA standards require that E-rated fuses of 100E and below melt in 300 s at 200 to
240 percent of their rating. Fuses above 100E must melt in 600 s at 220 to 264 percent of their
rating. These durations are considered extremely long for short-circuit protection.

5.) Fuses should be coordinated with downstream devices to ensure faults are cleared within
reasonable times (1 to 5 s or faster). A fault magnitude of 5 or more times the current
rating of the fuse is required to clear the fault within this range of operating times.

The application of fuses is a little difficult in some situations due to this current-
magnitude requirement. Another protective scheme must be used in some critical
applications, usually at higher cost.

TYPES OF FUSES
The most common types of fuses are single-element, dual-element, and current-limiting.
Single-Element Fuses
Single-element fuses have a high-speed response to overcurrents. They are usually used for
the protection of nonmotor loads. Motor inrush currents are usually 6 times the normal full-
load current.
Single-element fuses could cause nuisance opening during the starting period. Therefore,
they are not normally suitable for motor controllers.
Note: The single-element fuses could cause nuisance openings if used in other inductive
load applications such as transformers or solenoids
Dual-Element Fuses
The dual-element fuse has two distinct series-connected sections. The first provides
instantaneous operation for short circuits, and the second provides time-delayed operation
for normal overloads. These fuses are ideally suited for motor controllers. The
manufacturers of these fuses recommend their use for short-circuit and running overload
protection.

However, this is not a common practice in industry. The dual-element fuses are not highly
desirable for running overload protection because of the lengthy downtime required to obtain
and install a new fuse. Most controllers are equipped with overload relays. These relays are
manually or automatically resettable after an overload that caused the devices to open the
circuit.

Current-Limiting Fuses
Current-limiting fuses are designed to open the circuit in less than1/4 cycle (based on 60
Hz). Fig. illustrates the performance of a current-limiting fuse. The current-limiting fuse will
react as any other fuse to low and medium magnitudes of fault current. The current-limiting
action will occur at high magnitudes of fault current.

A current-limiting fuse will not produce external arcing. The special quartz sand inside
the fuse container is transformed to glass by the energy from the fault current. The glass
creates an insulating material that results in circuit opening.

The circuit-limiting fuse has the highest capability to interrupt short circuits of any fuse
available. The current-limiting fuse operates to drive the fault current of a voltage surge to
zero. These fuses keep a voltage surge to a minimum to prevent equipment damage.

FEATURES OF CURRENT-LIMITING FUSES

Current-limiting fuses are fully rated to withstand moderate overloads without damage or a
change in characteristic. Current-limiting fuses are generally used in motor starters and low-
voltage circuit breakers to protect the motor contactor or circuit breaker from destruction
when subjected to fault-current magnitudes in excess of their interrupting rating.

When current-limiting fuses are used, the NEC requires that “Fuse holders for current-
limiting fuses shall not permit insertion of fuses that are not current-limiting” (Art. 240-60).
Therefore, the fuse holder which will take class R fuses must be used. Class R fuses provide
high degree of current limitation with interrupting current capability of up to 200,000 A.

This interrupting current rating distinguishes class R fuses, from class H fuses, which have
an interrupting rating of only 10,000 A. Class K fuses (K-1, K-5, and K-9), have an interrupting
rating as low as 50,000 A.
ADVANTAGES OF FUSES OVER CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Fuses are preferred over circuit breakers for the following reasons:

1.) Fuses do not have moving parts. They are maintenance-free and do not require periodic
checking. They can be relied upon to protect a circuit for an indefinite time.

2.) In general, fuses are considered more accurate and reliable than circuit breakers.

3.) A blown fuse usually provides greater incentive to correct the cause of a failure than
tripped circuit breakers

Circuit Breakers
During the operation of the power systems, it is often desirable and necessary to switch on
or off the various circuits (e.g., transmission lines, distributors, generating plants etc.) under
both normal and faulty conditions. Previously this function was performed by a switch and a
fuse in series with the circuit. However, such a means of control presents two
disadvantages. Firstly, when fuse blows out, it takes quite some time to replace it and
restore the supply to the customers. Secondly, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt the
heavy fault currents that occur on the modern high voltage power systems and large
capacity circuits. Therefore, with the advancement in the power systems, there was a need
to develop a more reliable means of control. The circuit breaker was developed to switch on
and off the various circuits of a power system
Important Terms and Definitions
Here are described some vital terms, used in the circuit breakers’ analysis, with

simple definitions and a short description.

Arc Voltage
Arc voltage is defined as the voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit
breaker during the arcing period (the period in which the arc persists).

As soon as the contacts of the circuit breaker are separated, an arc is formed between
them. The voltage that appears across the contacts during this period, until the arc is
extinct, is called the arc voltage. The value of this voltage is highest at the zero current
point. This peak value of the arc voltage helps maintain the current flow in the form of
arc.
Restriking Voltage
Restriking voltage is the transient voltage that appears across the contacts at or near
current zero during the arcing period.

The current interruption in the circuit depends upon the high frequency transient
voltage, the restriking voltage. If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the
dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts, the arc will persist for the next
half-cycle. On the other hand, if the dielectric strength of the medium builds up more
rapidly than the restriking voltage, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be
interrupted.

Recovery Voltage
Recovery voltage is defined as the normal (50 Hz) voltage that appears across the
contacts of the circuit breaker immediately after the final arc extinction. It is
approximately equal to the system voltage.

When the contacts of the circuit breaker are opened, current drops to zero after every
half cycle. At some current zero, the contacts are separated adequately apart and
dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts attains high value due to the
elimination of ionized particles. At such an instant, the medium between the contacts is
strong enough to prevent the breakdown by restriking voltage. Consequently, the final
arc extinction takes place and circuit current is interrupted. Immediately after the final
current interruption, the voltage that appears across the contacts has a transient part.
However, these transient oscillations cave in rapidly due to the damping effect of the
system resistance and normal circuit voltage appears across the contacts. The voltage
across the contacts is of normal frequency and is identified as recovery voltage.

Operating Principle
The primary function of the circuit breakers mechanism is to provide the means for opening
and closing the contacts. Initially, this seems to be a rather simple and straightforward
requirement. However, when one considers the fact that most circuit breakers, once placed
into service, will remain in the closed position for long periods of time, and yet on the few
occasions when they are called upon to open or close, they must do so reliably, without any
delay or sluggishness, then one realizes that the demands on the mechanisms are not as
simple as was first thought.
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts are called
electrodes. The need for carrying the continuous current and for withstanding a period of
arcing makes it necessary to use two sets of contacts in parallel, one is the primary contact
and the second is the arcing contact. The primary contact is always made of a high
conductive material such as copper and the arcing contact is made of arc resistance material
such as tungsten or molybdenum, which has a much lower conductivity than those used for
primary contacts. When the circuit breaker opens to interrupt the current, the primary
contacts open before the arcing contacts.

Under the normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and are not open
automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the contacts can be
opened manually or by remote control when ever desired. When a fault occurs on any part
of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get energized and the moving contacts are
pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.

When the contacts of a circuit break are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck
between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The
production of the arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates
enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself.
Therefore, the main problem in the circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the
shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.

In single phase (1-phase) circuits (i.e., lighting circuits etc.), a switch is located in only one of
the two conductors to the load. However in the power circuits, a circuit interrupting device
(i.e., circuit breaker) is put in each phase or conductor. These are, sometimes, called 3-pole
circuit breakers.
 1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the
status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they
can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes
referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the
device after assembly.
7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider/extinguisher

Arc Phenomenon
Arc in an ac circuit breaker occurs in two ways:

1.) When the current-carrying contacts are being separated, arcing is possible even when
the circuit e.m.f. is considerably below the minimum cold electrode breakdown voltage,
because of the ions neutralizing the electronic space charge and thus allowing large currents
to flow at relatively low voltage gradients. This way of occurrence of an arc is common to
both dc and ac circuit breakers.

2.) The other way of occurrence of an arc happens only in ac circuit breakers. In such case,
the arc is extinguished every time the current passes through zero and can restrike only if
the transient recovery voltage across the electrodes , already separated and continuing to
separate, reaches a sufficiently high value causing breakdown.

The function of an ac circuit breaker is to prevent restriking of the arc, which depends upon
the following important factors:-
a) The nature and pressure of the medium of arc
b) The external ionizing and de-ionizing agents present
c) The voltage across the electrodes and its variation with time
d) The material and configuration of the electrodes
e) The nature and configuration of the arcing chamber

Arc interruption
Miniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will
have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout
coils deflect the arc into the arc chute. In larger ratings, oil circuit break ers rely upon
vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.
Gas (usually sulphur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a
magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) to
quench the stretched arc.

Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the
contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<2–3 mm).
Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to
35,000 volts.

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the
contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air
thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is
extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending
upon age and construction of the device.

Classification of Circuit Breakers on the Basis of

Interrupting Media
The interrupting media has been a vital factor in the evolution of circuit breakers. It
dedicates the overall design parameters of the breaker. The choice of air and oil, as the
interrupting media, was predominant till late 70s. but today, vacuum and SF6 are the only
dominant interrupting technologies, for medium and high voltage segments of circuit
breaker design respectively. The medium used for the arc extinction can be:

Oil
Air
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF₆)

1.) Oil Circuit Breakers

In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (i.e., transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them. The heat of
the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume of
hydrogen gas at a high pressure. This large volume of the hydrogen gas pushes the oil away
from the arc. In an oil circuit breaker, the arc quenching process is entirely dependent on arc
energy generated. The arc drawn across the contacts is contained inside the interrupting
pot, and thus the hydrogen gas formed by the vaporized oil (gas) is also contained inside the
chamber. As the contacts continue to move, and the moving contact rod separates itself
from the orifice of the chamber, an exit similar to a nozzle allows escape of the hydrogen
gas trapped inside the interrupting chamber. The escaping high pressure hydrogen gas,
having a high thermal conductivity, takes away the heat, thus making the contact gap cool
and free from ionization, immediately after current zero.
However, the oil breakers have prolonged arcing times, due to insufficient vapor pressure
generated at lower interrupting currents. Periodic monitoring of the oil dielectric
conduction and its maintenance is important for the effective operation of medium oil
circuit breaker. However, maintenance required for oil circuit breakers is of low technology.

The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two processes:

1.) Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools the arc, thus aiding the de-
ionization of the medium between the contacts.

2.)Secondly, the gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between
contacts, thus eliminating the arcing products from the arc path. This results in extinguishing
the arc and as a result the circuit current is interrupted.

Advantages:
As an Arc extinguishing medium oil has the following advantages:

1.) Oil absorbs the arc energy to produces hydrogen gas during arcing. The hydrogen has
excellent cooling properties and helps extinguish the arc. (In addition to hydrogen gas, a
small proportion of methane, ethylene, and acetylene are also generated in oil
decomposition.)

2.) The oil provides insulation for the live exposed contacts from the earthed portions of the
container.
3.) Oil provides insulation between the contacts after the arc has been extinguished.
4.) The oil close to the arc region provides cooling surface.

Disadvantages:
1.) Oil is inflammable and may cause fire hazards. When a defective circuit breaker fails
under pressure, it may cause an explosion.
2.) The hydrogen generated during arcing, when combined with air, may form an explosive
mixture.

3.) During arcing, oil decomposes and becomes polluted by carbon particles, which reduces
its dielectric strength. Hence, it requires periodic maintenance and replacement.

Types of Oil Circuit Breakers

The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in the power systems. They can be classified with
the reference to the quantity of oil used. The types are:

 Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers

 Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers

A) Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers

These circuit breakers use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two purposes:

1.) It extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts.

2.) It insulates the current conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank.

In the bulk oil circuit breakers, the interrupting unit is placed in a tank of oil at earth
potential and the incoming and outgoing conductors are connected through insulator
bushings.

B) Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers

These circuit breakers use a small quantity of oil. In such circuit breakers, oil is used only for
arc extinction; the current conducting parts insulated by air or porcelain or organic
insulating material.

In these circuit breakers, the oil requirement can be minimized by placing the interrupting
units, in insulating chambers at live potential, on an insulator column.

2.) Air-Blast Circuit Breakers

These circuit breakers employ a high pressure air-blast as an arc quenching medium. The
contacts are opened in a flow of air-blast established by the opening of the blast valve. The
air-blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing products of the atmosphere.
Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.
Whenever current at high voltages needs to be interrupted, more breaking units are used, in
series. Dry and clean air supply is one of the most essential requirements for the operation
of the air-blast circuit breakers.

In addition, other gases such as Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, and Hydrogen can also be used.
But air is preferred because of the fact that the Carbon dioxide tends to freeze, and the
hydrogen gas is very expensive.

This type of circuit breaker has been used earlier for open terminal HV applications, for
voltages of 245 kV, and 400 kV up to 765 kV, especially where faster breaker operation was
required.

This type of breaker has been used for special applications wherein several super thermal
power stations located in close vicinity to each other have been inter-connected. These one-
cycle breakers from the inter-connecting link which, in the event of a fault in an outgoing
feeder of a particular station, isolates the station from the neighbouring ones thereby
limiting the fault level for the feeder breaker.

The interrupting capability of air circuit breaker is usually increased by increasing the normal
pressure range. Normally, the pressure level is around 30 to 35 bars. In order to maintain
the insulation level and reliability of operation, it is also necessary for the condition of the
air to be very dry.

Currently, however, SF6circuit breakers have practically eliminated the use of this
technology.

Advantages:
1. The risk of fire is eliminated in these circuit breakers.
2. The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas the oil deteriorates
with successive operations. So the expenditure of oil replacement is avoided in air-blast
circuit breakers.

3. The size of these breakers is reduced, as the dielectric strength grows so rapidly that final
contact gap for the arc extinction is very small.

4. Due to the rapid growth of the dielectric strength, the arcing time is also very small. It
causes less burning of oil. The arc energy is also very small fraction of that in oil circuit
breakers.

5. The arc extinction is facilitate by the high pressure air, and is independent of the fault
current to be interrupted.

Disadvantages:
1. These circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variation s in the rate of rise of restriking
voltage.

2. The air-blast is supplied by the compressor plant that needs considerable maintenance

3.) Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker:

High-voltage circuit-breakers have greatly changed since they were first introduced about
40 years ago, and several interrupting principles have been developed that have contributed
successively to a large reduction of the operating energy. These breakers are available for
indoor or outdoor applications, the latter being in the form of breaker poles housed in
ceramic insulators mounted on a structure.

Current interruption in a high-voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by separating two contacts

in a medium, such as SF6, having excellent dielectric and arc quenching properties. After
contact separation, current is carried through an arc and is interrupted when this arc is
cooled by a gas blast of sufficient intensity.

Gas blast applied on the arc must be able to cool it rapidly so that gas temperature between
the contacts is reduced from 20,000 K to less than 2000 K in a few hundred microseconds,
so that it is able to withstand the transient recovery voltage that is applied across the
contacts after current interruption. Sulphur hexafluoride is generally used in present high-
voltage circuit-breakers (of rated voltage higher than 52 kV).

In the 1980s and 1990s, the pressure necessary to blast the arc was generated mostly by gas
heating using arc energy. It is now possible to use low energy spring-loaded mechanisms to
drive high-voltage circuit-breakers up to 800 kV.

Several characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:

  Simplicity of the interrupting chamber which does not need an auxiliary breaking
chamber;
 Autonomy provided by the puffer technique;
 The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63 kA, with a reduced
number of interrupting chambers;
 Short break time of 2 to 2.5 cycles;
 High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of operation without
reconditioning;
 Possible compact solutions when used for "gas insulated switchgear" (GIS) or hybrid
switchgear;
 Integrated closing resistors or synchronized operations to reduce switching over-
voltages;
 Reliability and availability;
 Low noise levels.

Issues related to SF6 Circuit Breakers

The following issues are associated with SF6 circuit breakers:

Greenhouse gas

SF6 is the most potent greenhouse gas that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
has evaluated. It has a global warming potential that is 23,900 times worse than CO₂

Toxic lower order gases

When an arc is formed in SF 6 gas small quantities of lower order gases are formed. Some of
these by-products are toxic and can cause irritation to eyes and respiratory system.
Oxygen displacement

SF6 is heavier than air so care must be taken when entering low confined spaces due to the
risk of oxygen displacement.

Also, these circuit breakers are expensive due to the high cost of SF₆ gas. and since SF₆ gas
has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker, additional equipment is required
for this purpose.

Alternatives to SF6 Circuit Breakers

Circuit Breakers are usually classed on their insulating medium. The follow types of circuit
breakers may be an alternative to SF6 types.

 Air blast
 Oil
 Vacuum

Capacitor Banks
Capacitor, resistor and inductor banks are simply series and/or parallel combinations of
components constructed for the purpose of increasing the capacitance, resistance,
inductance values or the voltage, current or power rating above what is available with a
single component. The banks usually consist of a number of identical components. If the
components are not identical, it is usually more difficult to calculate the rating of the
combination of components and more difficult to achieve the desired result.

Parallel connected capacitors provide increased capacitance, increased stored energy and
increased ripple current capacity for DC applications. For AC applications the kVar and
current ratings are increased. Series connected capacitors provide an increased voltage
rating but reduced capacitance value. Shunt capacitor banks (SCB) are mainly installed to
provide capacitive reactive compensation/
power factor correction. The use of SCBs has increased because they are relatively
inexpensive, easy and quick to install and can be deployed virtually anywhere in the
network. Its installation has other beneficial effects on the system such as: improvement of
the voltage at the load, better voltage regulation (if they were adequately designed),
reduction of losses and reduction or postponement of investments in transmission.
The main disadvantage of SCB is that its reactive power output is proportional to the square
of the voltage and consequently when the voltage is low and the system needs them most,
they are the least efficient.
Standard Features:

Standard features for installing the capacitor banks are:

Rack: Three capacitors and six capacitor rack design are available. Six cell racks available on
unit supplied with three cells to allow for expansion.
Capacitor: The capacitor are of low loss, all film, double bushings, design with gray
stainless steel tanks. Capacitors are connected in Star for optionally grounding by customer.
Capacitor produces rated kVar at rated voltage and frequency. Capacitor complies with all
applicable IEEE/ANSI standards. Internal discharge resistors reduces residual voltage in
capacitor to less than 50 Volts within 5 minutes of de-energization. Dielectric fluid is
environmentally friendly, bio-degradable and of low toxicity.
Switches: Three single phase group operated oil switches (optimal vacuum switches)
available are used.
Fault Current Rating: Capacitor have 10000 amp fault current handling capacity.
Operating Temperature: Permissible range is (-40 deg C) to (+ 46 deg)

CAPACITOR BANK DESIGN

The protection of shunt capacitor banks requires understanding the basics of capacitor bank
design and capacitor unit connections. Shunt capacitors banks are arrangements of
series/paralleled connected units. Capacitor units connected in paralleled make up a group
and series connected groups form a single-phase capacitor bank.
As a general rule, the minimum number of units connected in parallel is such that isolation
of one capacitor unit in a group should not cause a voltage unbalance sufficient to place
more than 110% of rated voltage on the remaining capacitors of the group. Equally, the
minimum number of series connected groups is that in which the complete bypass of the
group does not subject the others remaining in service to a permanent overvoltage of more
than 110%.The maximum number of capacitor units that may be placed in parallel per group
is governed by a different consideration. When a capacitor bank unit fails, other capacitors
in the same parallel group contain some amount of charge. This charge will drain off as a
high frequency transient current that flows through the failed capacitor unit and its fuse.
The fuse holder and the failed capacitor unit should withstand this discharge transient.
The discharge transient from a large number of paralleled capacitors can be severe enough
to rupture the failed capacitor unit or the expulsion fuse holder, which may result in damage
to adjacent units or cause a major bus fault within the bank. To minimize the probability of
failure of the expulsion fuse holder, or rupture of the capacitor case, or both, the standards
impose a limit to the total maximum energy stored in a paralleled connected group to 4659
kVar. In order not to violate this limit, more capacitor groups of a lower voltage rating
connected in series with fewer units in parallel per group may be a suitable solution.
However, this may reduce the sensitivity of the unbalance detection scheme. Splitting the
bank into 2 sections as a double Y may be the preferred solution and may allow for better
unbalance detection scheme. Another possibility is the
use of current limiting fuses. The optimum connection for a SCB depends on the best
utilization of the available voltage ratings
of capacitor units, fusing, and protective relaying. Virtually all substation banks are
connected wye. Distribution capacitor banks, however, may be connected wye or delta.
Some banks use an H configuration on each of the phases with a current transformer in the
connecting branch to detect the unbalance.

CAPACITOR BANK PROTECTION

The protection of SCB’s involves:
a) Protection of the bank against faults occurring within the
bank including those inside the capacitor unit.
b) Protection of the bank against system disturbances and faults.
The protection selected for a capacitor bank depends on bank configuration, whether or not
the capacitor bank is grounded and the system grounding.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical power
systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or current is too
large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardized, low
value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control circuitry from
the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being measured or controlled

A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary coil

proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil

Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are designed
to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude and phase, over a
range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present a
negligible load to the supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows protective
relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at lower voltages.

Both current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have predictable
characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current protective relays requires
that current transformers provide a predictable transformation ratio even during a short-
circuit.

The extension of instruments range, so that current, voltage, power and energy can be
measured with instruments or meters of moderate size is of very great importance in
commercial metering. In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large and,
therefore, direct measurements are not possible as these currents and voltages are far too
large for any meter of reasonable size and cost. The solution lies in stepping down these
currents and voltages with the help of instrument transformers so that they could be
metered with instruments of moderate sizes.

ADVANTAGES:
1. When instruments are used in conjunction with instrument transformers, their readings
do not depend upon their constants(R, L, and C) as is the case with shunts and multipliers.
The instrument transformers produce practically the same reading regardless of the
constants of the instruments or, in fact, the number of instruments connected in the circuit.
2. Current transformers have been standardized at 5 A secondary winding current and
potential transformers at from 100 V to 120 V secondary winding voltage. These are very
moderate ratings and the instruments for measurements are rated near these. Therefore,
very cheap moderate rating instruments may be used to measure large currents and high
voltages.

3. With the standardization of C.T. and P.T. secondary winding ratings, it is possible to
standardize instruments around these ratings and, therefore, there is great reduction in cost
of instrument transformers and instruments. Also, replacement of instrument transformers
is easy on account of standardization of the ratings.

4. The measuring circuit is isolated from the power circuit. The fact that the meters in the
secondary circuit of an instrument transformer are isolated electrically from the primary
side is of very great importance in high voltage systems. Large alternators usually operate at
voltages between 11 kV to 20 kV while transmission voltages are as high as 750 kV are being
used. Therefore, in all electrical systems it is necessary to have a measure of currents and
voltages, both for metering purposes and for the operation of protective relays and other
equipments. It is impossible to bring the high voltage lines directly to the switchboard to be
connected to instruments as even for voltages up to a few thousand volts it would be
difficult to insulate the equipment to provide safety for the operating personnel. The
situation is completely changed with the help of instrument transformers, as only the leads
from the secondary windings of the instrument transformers are brought to the switch
board for connection to the metering equipment. The voltage between these leads and
ground is very low and hence the operators can work safely.

Current Transformer
Current Transformer Theory can be explained this way: Central to all of the AC power
transducers is the measurement of current. This is accomplished using a current
transformer (CT), a "donut" shaped device through which is threaded the wire whose
current is to be measured.
A current transformer is a type of "instrument transformer" that is designed to provide a
current in its secondary which is accurately proportional to the current flowing in its
primary.
Current transformers are designed to produce either an alternating current or alternating
voltage proportional to the current being measured. The current transformers used with the
Wattnode transducers produce a 333 mV alternating voltage when the rated current is
measured (either 30A, or 50A). The OSI power transducers employ CT's that produce 5V
output at rated value.
Current transformers measure power flow and provide electrical inputs to power
transformers and instruments. Current transformers produce either an alternating current
or alternating voltage that is proportional to the measured current. There are two basic
types of current transformers: wound and toroidal. Wound current transformers consist of
an integral primary winding that is inserted in series with the conductor that carries the
measured current. Toroidal or donut-shaped current transformers do not contain a primary
winding. Instead, the wire that carries the current is threaded through a window in the
toroidal transformer.
Current transformers have many performance specifications, including primary current,
secondary current, insulation voltage, accuracy, and burden. Primary current, the load of
the current transformer, is the measured current. Secondary current is the range of current
outputs. Insulation voltage represents the maximum insulation that current transformers
provide when connected to a power source. Accuracy is the degree of certainty with which
the measured current agrees with the ideal value. Burden is the maximum load that devices
can support while operating within their accuracy ratings. Typically, burden is expressed in
volt-amperes (VA), the product of the voltage applied to a circuit and the current.
There are a variety of applications for current transformers. Some devices are used to
measure current in electronics equipment or motors. Others are used in street lighting

This ideal transformer has infinite no-load input impedance, 100% magnetic coupling
between transformer windings (hence no leakage inductance), zero winding resistance, zero
core losses, and no capacitance. (Capacitance, leakage inductance, winding resistance, and
core losses are considered to be parasitic components.) The output voltage is exactly
proportional to the primary voltage times the turns' ratio. There is no regulation drop. There
are no losses. Since there are no parasitic components the ideal current transformer is 100%
accurate. The conservation of energy requires that the output power equals the input
power, hence Vp x Ip must equal Vs x Is. Since Vs = Vp x Ns / Np, it can be shown that
Is = Ip x Np / Ns. Is = Vs / RL, hence Ip = Ns x Vs / ( RL x Np ). With an ideal current
transformer there is no phase shift ( except 180 degrees depending on the choice of output
connections ).
The ideal transformer’s secondary resistive load consumes power equal to Is x Is x RL. This
same amount of power must be consumed at the primary terminals. The secondary load RL
can be replaced ( commonly referred to as “reflected” ) with a resistor across the primary
terminals, RLr. By applying the conservation of energy, one can show that RLr equals Np x
Np x RL / (Ns x Ns), OR RLr equals RL times the turns ratio squared (where turns ratio = Np /
Ns). If Np / Ns is small, then the RLr is very small. The primary voltage drop is Ip x RLr. A very
small value for RLr means that the current transformer presents a low insertion loss to the
primary current and a low primary voltage drop.
The reflected load impedance acts in parallel to the transformers own input impedance. The
ideal current transformer has infinite input impedance. This infinite impedance would
correlate to an infinite inductance inserted in series into the path of the primary conductor.
Without the load (or burden) the current transformer acts like an inductor and would
completely block the primary current flow. Any constant value of alternating current would,
in theory, produce an infinite primary voltage drop. In reality the current transformer’s
input inductance (hence also impedance) cannot be infinity. The current transformer has an
inductance value which acts in parallel to the reflected load. The core has losses that can be
represented as a resistor in parallel with the reflected load and the transformer’s self-
inductance (no load inductance). Without the load resistor the inductance and core loss will
place an upper limit on the primary voltage, but this voltage could still be substantial. Core
saturation is also a possibility. A turns ratio step-up would result in even higher secondary
voltage. Any circuitry beyond the secondary load resistor could be subjected to high voltage,
possibly resulting in circuit damage. Because of this potential high voltage, the load resistor
should never be removed from the secondary when the current transformer is being
powered.

Voltage transformers
Voltage transformers (VT) or potential transformers (PT) are another type of instrument
transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits. They are designed to
present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to
accurately step down high voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can be
operated at a lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for
69 V or 120 V at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protective relays.

The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labelled as H 1, H2

(sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X 1, X2 and sometimes an X3 tap may be
present. Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same
voltage transformer. The high side (primary) may be connected phase to ground or phase to
phase. The low side (secondary) is usually phase to ground.

The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as polarity. This applies to
current transformers as well. At any instant terminals with the same suffix numeral have the
same polarity and phase. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is essential for
proper operation of metering and protective relays.

Some meters operate directly on the secondary service voltages at or below 600 V. VTs are
typically used for higher voltages (for example, 765 kV for power transmission) , or where
isolation is desired between the meter and the measured circuit.
Therefore, there are some differences in construction and connectivity between a Current
Transformer (CT) and a Voltage (or Potential) Transformer (PT).

A CT will typically have a toroidal core and evenly distributed secondary windings so as to
minimize leakage reactance. The primary is typically the main power line conductor, which
passes directly through the toroidal core. This type of transformer is specifically for the
purpose of measuring current values, and the secondary windings cannot be left open-
circuited, or a large voltage will be produce, resulting in dielectric failure (and often an
explosion). If a device is not connected to the CT, its secondary must be short-circuited.

A PT is connected between the main conductor and ground and can be either wound in the
normal way, or the voltage can be taken from a subsection of a string of capacitors (this is
called a Capacitive Voltage Transformer or CVT, and is usually cheaper than the wound type,
but is typically not as accurate). This type of transformer measures voltage values, and the
secondary winding cannot be short-circuited, as this will produce excessively high currents,
resulting in the failure of the PT or the wires it is connected to. A PT can be left open-circuit
 ISOLATORS

In electrical engineering, a disconnector or isolator switch is used to make sure that an

electrical circuit can be completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches
are often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications where machinery must
have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation
switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. Isolating switches are
commonly fitted to domestic extractor fans when used in bathrooms in the UK. Often the
isolation switch is not intended for normal control of the circuit and is only used for
isolation.
Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation is not possible
(see: Lock and tag). In high voltage or complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a
trapped-key interlock system to ensure proper sequence of operation. In some designs the
isolator switch has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing
additional safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect power
distribution systems where both end of the circuit need to be isolated.
The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is an off-
load device intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other
control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the
disconnector while it supplies a circuit.
Standards in some countries for safety may require either local motor isolators or lockable
overloads (which can be padlocked).
 WAVE TRAP

Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to
the telecom/teleprotection panel in the substation control room (through coupling
capacitor and LMU).
This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication
among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The
signals are primarily teleprotection signals and in addition, voice and data communication
signals. Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to
the telecom/teleprotection panel in the substation control room (through coupling
capacitor and LMU).
This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication
among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The
signals are primarily teleprotection signals and in addition, voice and data communication
signals.

The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals thus
obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation busbars. If there were not to be
there, then signal loss is more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.
 Lightning Arrester

A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect the insulation on
the system from the damaging effect of lightning. Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) have been
used for power system protection since the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also
known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a
lightning surge or switching surge travels down the power system to the arrester, the
current from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth.
Although Lightning Rods are devices that divert lightning surges to ground, they are simple
conductive terminals that are always at ground potential and are never energized.
Lightning is divided into two major classes: Atmospheric lightning and internal lightning. The
equalization of potential difference between two clouds oppositely electrified, or between a
cloud and the earth causes atmospheric lightning. Visible manifestation of such
phenomenon is seen in lightning strokes and flashes. This class of lightning may affect an
electrical system either directly or indirectly. Surges, or internal lightning effects, are
excessive voltage rises coming from changes in the load on the electrical system. Such
abnormal conditions may, for example, occur on high potential systems, and may be caused
by the opening or closing of switches or by an intermittent ground. The use of an arrester on
an electrical system is to relieve the circuit of abnormally high voltages, as a pop safety valve
acts under excessive pressure in a steam boiler. Any device that will, under abnormal
voltage, permit current to flow through it to ground, and that will, when such conditions
ceases, stop the flow of that current, constitutes a lightning arrestor
Lightning discharge currents are always of high frequencies, or the equivalent thereof. They
are oscillatory in nature, that is, the current surges back and forth thousand times a second,
and a coil of wire, called a choke coil has an apparent resistance that is enormously high for
such an oscillatory current than for a steady direct one. For a given coil and a given flux
density, the inductance is constant; but the apparent resistance opposing the current
increases rapidly as the number of alternations of the current increases per second. In a
general way, the protective capacity of a choke coil increases as the square of the mean
diameter of the coil. With coils of equal mean diameter and length, the protection afforded
varies as the square of number of turns. The function of a choke coil in lightning protection
is to increase the inductance of the circuit in which it is inserted. It thereby has the tendency
to force the lightning discharge to ground through the lightning arrester. Hence, unless
choke coil, which are especially designed to provide inductance, are placed in the line
circuits, abnormal voltages may be induced in the windings of the apparatus and cause an
insulation breakdown.
 Bibliography

1.) Switchgear And Protection by S.S.Rao

2.) Electrical and Electronics Measurement by A.K.Sawhney
3.) www.google.com
4.) www.scribd.com
5.) www.wikipedia.com