c


 



à P

   



    is the small- or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or

phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s) that are wireless, or
not in physical or intimate contact with the object (such as by way of aircraft, spacecraft,
satellite, buoy, or ship).

Earth observation or weather satellite collection platforms, ocean and atmospheric observing
weather buoy platforms, the monitoring of a parolee via an ultrasound identification system,
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), X-radiation (X-RAY)
and space probes are all examples of remote sensing.

à ^ 
   



Πbasic components of a remote sensing system

à energy source
à transmission path
à target
à sensor

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
Œ. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.

5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to
better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

à    
     

There are two main types of remote sensing: passive remote sensing and active remote
sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or
surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography,
infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active remote sensing, on the other hand,
emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures
the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR is an example of active
remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing
the location, height, speeds and direction of an object.

à ë




 





    is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated position. The
term usually refers to images in which the camera is not supported by a ground-based
structure.

Aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys, which are often the
basis for topographic maps), land-use planning, archaeology, movie production, environmental studies,
surveillance, commercial advertising, conveyancing, and artistic projects.

Ê

Î

   






 







 



 


  
 





Sensors may be placed on a ladder, scaffolding, tall building, cherry-picker, crane, etc. Aerial
platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft, although helicopters are occasionally used. Aircraft
are often used to collect very detailed images and facilitate the collection of data over virtually
any portion of the Earth's surface at any time.

In space, remote sensing is sometimes conducted from the    or, more commonly,
from satellites.    are objects which revolve around another object - in this case, the
Earth. For example, the moon is a natural satellite, whereas man-made satellites include those
platforms launched for remote sensing, communication, and telemetry (location and
navigation) purposes. Because of their orbits, satellites permit repetitive coverage of the Earth's
surface on a continuing basis. Cost is often a significant factor in choosing among the various
platform options.

Advances in radio controlled models have made it possible for model aircraft to conduct low-
altitude aerial photography.

There are several advantages to using balloons or blimps as platforms for remote sensing data
collection. One of the most significant advantages is that balloons can be deployed quickly and
data collected immediately. Extensive operator training is not required. For instance, balloons
could be sent up quickly to monitor chemical spills or accidental releases. Balloons may also be
able to collect data that current helicopter or fixed wing cameras cannot. A balloon system
could be deployed to monitor a specific site for hours or days which would be logistically
difficult or impossible with current airborne imagery. Tethered balloons can be moved and
relocated easily, providing a more flexible method to collect data. For instance, tethered
balloons could be deployed on small boats in rivers to conduct water quality surveys over
several stream miles.
 à m 

 
   

 



à p 
 







Electromagnetic radiation (often abbreviated E-M radiation or EMR) is a phenomenon that

takes the form of self-propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of:

   
 which varies in magnitude in a direction perpendicular to the direction in
which the radiation is traveling, and a

    
 oriented at right angles to the electrical field. Both these fields travelat the
speed of light (c).

Electromagnetic radiation is classified into several types according to the frequency of its wave;
these types include (in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength): radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. A
small and somewhat variable window of frequencies is sensed by the eyes of various
organisms; this is what is called the visible spectrum. The photon is the quantum of the
electromagnetic interaction and the basic "unit" of light and all other forms of electromagnetic
radiation and is also the force carrier for the electromagnetic force.
Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for understanding
remote sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency:

1. The ½   is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance
between successive wave crests.

- Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda (ë).

- Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres such as nanometres (nm, 10-
9 metres), micrometres (mm, 10-6 metres) or centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres).

2.     refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.

- Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per second, and various
multiples of hertz.

Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

à Ê  
 
 
The Electromagnetic Spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and x-
rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There are
several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote sensing.

M The light which our eyes can detect is part of the visible spectrum (small)
M There is a lot of radiation around us which is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected
by other remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage

The  ½   cover a range from approximately 0.Œ to 0.7 mm (violet to red)

Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible spectrum. They are defined as
such because no single primary colour can be created from the other two, but all other colours can be
formed by combining blue, green, and red in various proportions. Although we see sunlight as a uniform
or homogeneous colour, it is actually composed of various wavelengths of radiation in primarily the
ultraviolet, visible and infrared portions of the spectrum

M
For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the spectrum has the shortest wavelengths which
are practical for remote sensing. This radiation is just beyond the violet portion of the visible
wavelengths, hence its name. Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce or
emit visible light when illuminated by UV radiation.

The 
 

  covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7 mm to 100 mm - more
than 100 times as wide as the visible portion! The infrared region can be divided into two categories
based on their radiation properties - the reflected IR, and   
  
. Radiation in the
reflected IR region is used for remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible
portion. The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 mm to 3.0 mm. The   

region is quite different than the visible and reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the
radiation that is emitted from the Earth's surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR covers wavelengths
from approximately 3.0 mm to 100 mm. Thermal IR energy is more commonly known as
"heat".
Ê







 



   !Ê"#$




 


%

à  
 
, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 ʅm). The lower part of this range may also be
called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-
phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the
Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere effectively
opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges ("windows") within the opaque range
which allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from
approximately 200 ʅm up to a few mm is often referred to as "sub-millimetre" in astronomy,
reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 ʅm.
à 

 
, from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 ʅm). Hot objects (black-body radiators) can radiate
strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, where the different atoms in a
molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the
~

 
since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for
that compound.
à 
 
, from 120 to Œ00 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for
this range are similar to those for visible light.

Ê


 











    Ê 




  





Ê
 


  







 





  


  


 

 

à º 



à  




 &
   




' 

  




(

 
)  

 '
 
  










)

 &

 



)  



 
(






  Ê 

  



 (


$
  

 )
 



 )
 



*
)

 

*




 


 
Ê )

 
 &


 




 



 &





à 

 
)  






 ) 



 



 






+
 )  



 


 )


)
)
) 
)
 
 



 
'

 &
 
)
  






ë,
-' 






 &
 


 


 Î 












 






  



*   
 
*
.
  


 
Ê


 

à 
  ½

Ê
mº
 )mÎ 
 







  

  

 
 

( 


)

 /

)
 /)



)&0)



  

  




 

Ê

  


 
%






 

)

 

  

 
 

 /$

)

) 


 

)1%



2
(')
 

 










 


  3Ê 
  




 
  3





UNIT 2

p
interaction with atmosphere and earth materials

 à        

Four layers of the atmosphere:

1) Troposphere (0-15 km)

2) Stratosphere (15-50 km)

3) Mesosphere (50-90 km)

Thermosphere or Ionosphere (>80 km

  

The troposphere is where all weather takes place; it is air moves as currents, up-and downdrafts, and
wind. The air pressure at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea level. The boundary
between the troposphere and the stratosphere lies 6-17 km above Earth and is called the 
.

      
    

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, where air flow is mostly horizontal. The thin ozone layer in
the upper stratosphere has a high concentration of ozone, a particularly reactive form of oxygen. This
layer is primarily responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. (Jet Stream)

     

 

Ë Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere and above that is the ionosphere (or thermosphere),
where many atoms are ionized (have gained or lost electrons so they have a net electrical
charge). The density of gas molecules in the ionosphere is very thin

Ë aurora

Ë absorbs the most energetic solar radiation

Ë reflects radio waves.

 à Scattering of EMR

p




  
  

 


 









 







 




 
 







 



 
 








 
 



 




 
à
 

  
à
Y


 
à

  


 

 






 

 
 


 
  
Y


 Y 


 
 


 







 


 







 


 


 





  



 

 

 




















 




Y


 


 | 



 


!
"
 


 

 
  














 


mpecular

eflection 






# 



 







 
  


 



Piffuse
eflection 
 







à     

     occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the
radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules.
Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer
wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The
fact that the sky appears "blue͞ during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes
through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more
than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through
the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this
leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere.
 à    

Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the
radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to
affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the
lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud
conditions are overcast.

à      

The final scattering mechanism of importance is called nonselective scattering. This occurs when
the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust
particles can cause this type of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all
wavelengths are scattered about equally. This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white
to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities
(blue+green+red light = white light).
 à
aman scattering
2 

 

,
24,2
 *




 
 







  
)


,


   





  

 






 

 
 
 



 

5

  






)



 



 






 +  




(

  

  



) 
 


 


à   ½½     
 
à