Professional Documents
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Department
of Agriculture
Research and Cumulative
Forest Service
Watershed Effects
Pacific Southwest
Research Station
General Technical
Report PSW-GTR-141 Leslie M. Reid
Reid, Leslie M. 1993. Research and cumulative watershed effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-
141. Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture; 118 p.
The mandate for land managers to address cumulative watershed effects (CWEs) requires that
planners evaluate the potential impacts of their activities on multiple beneficial uses within the
context of other coexisting activities in a watershed. Types of CWEs vary with the types of land-
use activities and their modes of interaction, but published studies illustrate both descriptive and
predictive evaluations of many of these types. Successful evaluations have generally used geomor-
phological and ecological approaches based on the understanding of the processes involved. In
contrast, most generalized “cookbook” analysis procedures are shown to be unable to assess
accumulations of impacts through time, usually cannot evaluate the range of activities and uses that
are necessary, and are rarely validated. A general approach to evaluation is proposed, and the types
of information available for assessments are reviewed.
The Author:
Leslie M. Reid is a research geologist with the Station’s Hillslope Processes/Fisheries Research
Unit, and is stationed at the Redwood Sciences Laboratory, 1700 Bayview Drive, Arcata, CA 95521.
Note: This publication was reprinted December, 1998 from a reconstructed layout. It closely
resembles the original printing, but a difference in text style has caused a slight shift in pagination.
The Table of Contents has been revised to reflect the changes. Also, Figure 4, (previously on page
29) now appears on page 28, and Tables 5 (previously on page 28) appears on page 29.
Publisher:
March 1993
Research and Cumulative Watershed Effects
Leslie M. Reid
Contents
List of Tables
RESPONSE
Approach or
method Applications and advantages Disadvantages
Descriptive Useful for exploring a new problem Results cannot be generalized to other
study Can identify interactions sites or times
Helps define research questions Nonroutine methods are often required,
Allows detailed observations so personnel must be knowledgeable
Requires little prior knowledge
Extensive Often used for inventories or to develop Requires large sample sets
survey databases for statistical analysis Often expensive unless data already exist
Reveals patterns of occurrence Can show association, but not cause
Defines spatial distribution of effect or Results cannot be generalized beyond
process sampled area or time
Identifies associated variables Implementation is usually methodical
modifies activity B to cause impact Z, and Z does not necessarily Z Z Z altered peak flow
occur unless both A and B are present (fig. 3c).
In other cases, impacts result from interactions between B. Complemntary A B A B logging
road
effects building
different environmental changes, and influences are
diverted
interdependent in causing the impact. For example, toxic Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 compaction
channels
compounds may form when two introduced chemicals mix.
Z Z Z
CWEs can also occur if one type of change alters the altered peak flow
Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 input of input of
chemical 1 chemical 2
Cumulative Watershed Effects Figure 3—Combinations of influences that can generate CWEs.
Types are described in the text. A and B are activities, Y is an
environmental parameter, and Z is an impact.
Most published CWE studies evaluate the reasons for ob-
served problems. The impact has already occurred and is mental parameters. These effects often are easily measured.
well defined, so the scope of the problem and the possible Repeated or prolonged activities can augment an impact
controlling elements are known. This problem is less com- by repeatedly perturbing the same environmental parameters.
plex than that of predicting possible CWEs from unspecified Collins and Dunne (1989) examined air photos, gauging
land-use combinations. Retrospective studies evaluate sce- records, and mining records to demonstrate that streambeds
narios that are already complete, and this is more attractive downstream of mined gravel bars are incising at rates that
to researchers than prognoses of future change. Explana- account for the cumulative gravel deficit left by mining.
tions of an existing condition are immediately testable; pre- Sediment budgets suggest that incision will continue if gravel
dictions of the distant future are not. mining continues at present rates. Froehlich (1979) and Geist
and others (1989) found that soils required long periods after
logging to recover from compaction, and inferred that recovery
Examples of Retrospective Analyses may not be complete before the next logging cycle. Compaction
Four types of land-use combinations (repeated, progressive, may thus accumulate through multiple cutting cycles.
sequential, and coexisting activities) can generate CWEs by In the case of gravel mining, the activity occurred annually,
four types of mechanisms (combinations of the same, comple- so demonstration of a CWE required evidence of continued
mentary, cascading, or interdependent influences). These change. In contrast, logging was to be repeated at long intervals,
combinations and mechanisms form a 4x4 matrix that is a so the recovery period for compaction had to be shown to be
convenient framework for describing CWE studies (table 2). longer than the logging rotation. Each study used surrogate
evidence to measure response trends through time. Collins
Same-Influence Effects and Dunne (1989) used historical air photos, while Froehlich
If an environmental parameter is altered in the same way by (1979) and Geist and others (1989) compared soil densities
repeated or multiple activities, those activities all contribute on sites logged at different times. Monitoring of changes
to the watershed’s response, and response is a cumulative through time would have provided the same information, but
effect of the activities. The change may impact a resource studies would have required a half-century of monitoring.
directly or alter watershed processes and cause an indirect Both of these problems were approached at a process scale,
impact, but evaluation is relatively straightforward in either and researchers focused on mechanisms driving the changes.
case. If the general relationship between an environmental Activities that progress through an area progressively
change and an impact is known, then the effect of a land-use broaden their effects on environmental parameters. CWEs
activity can be estimated by evaluating its effect on environ- from a progressive activity can be demonstrated by comparing
Activity type Same influence Complementary influences Cascading influence Interdependent influences
Activity repeated Repeated gravel mining lowers the channel Channel form changes because woody [Traffic degrades ORV track and alters runoff Acid and arsenic from mining combine
or progresses bed (Collins and Dunne 1989) debris is destabilized by logging and future over widening area] (Mok and Wai 1989)
through time inputs will be low (Hogan 1987)
Repeated logging progressively compacts
soil (Geist and others 1989, Froehlich 1979) Decreased flows and sediment alter bed
(Pemberton 1976)
Activity Amount of fine sediments in redds increases Streams incise when overflow is restricted [Erosion severity increases disproportionately
progressive with road density (Cederholm and Reid and flow increases (Nanson and Young as logging progressively enters steeper areas]
through area 1987) 1981)
Peak flows increase as logged area increases Increased sediment and flows from logging
(Dietterick and Lynch 1989) alter streams (Lyons and Beschta 1983)
Channel change increases with mining
(Touysinhthiphonexay and Gardner 1984)
21
impact magnitudes at different stages in its progress. Dietterick logging cycles will prevent regrowth of large trees and ensure
and Lynch (1989) measured changes in peak discharges as that organic debris inputs continue to be mobile. This study
clearcutting progressed through watersheds. Incremental measured the immediate complementary effects of logging
increases were greater than those predicted from the area and inferred future effects as logging is repeated in the
cut, implying a synergistic interaction. future. In contrast, Pemberton (1975) provided a complete
Cederholm and Reid (1987) described a series of studies assessment of one type of complementary effect from the
that associated spawning gravel siltation with percentage of operation of Glen Canyon Dam. The dam decreased both
a basin in roads. The relationship was developed from downstream sediment load and peak discharge, and both
measurements of fine sediments in gravels in many watersheds effects contributed to channel-bed coarsening. Pemberton
with different road densities. However, statistical association used bedload equations that take both influences into account
does not demonstrate causality, and a sediment budget was to successfully predict the observed changes.
used to identify logging roads as a dominant sediment source. Progressive activities that cause complementary effects
Results were translated to an impact on fisheries using are widely studied, but the component influences are usually
laboratory and field measurements of survival-to-emergence not disentangled. Touysinhthiphonexay and Gardner (1984),
as a function of siltation level. for example, surveyed channels in 29 watersheds that had
CWEs from sequential activities are demonstrated by different proportions of their area strip-mined and defined a
measuring impact levels after each activity. Feller (1989) relationship between channel destabilization and proportion
measured nitrogen loss by streamflow in catchments that mined. Channel enlargement was attributed to the combined
had been clearcut, clearcut and burned, and clearcut with a effects of increased peak flows and increased sediment input,
follow-up herbicide application. He found that herbicide use because earlier studies had shown that both of these changes
mobilizes more nitrogen than slashburning, and that addition can alter channel morphology. Hammer (1972) used a similar
of either of these treatments produces more than logging approach to explore the effects of progressive urbanization
alone. Measurements were continued over a 5-year period to on channel form. Hammer attributed changes to increased
assess recovery rates. Causes could not be demonstrated peak flows from altered drainage networks and increased
because only outflow was measured, but they could be inferred runoff but did not evaluate the relative importance of these
because earlier process-based studies examined nutrient loss causes. Ryan and Grant (1991) measured the disruption of
from each of these activities. Without this background of riparian vegetation on sequential aerial photographs in basins
research, results from a study of this type would be difficult that had been logged to different extents and showed a
to interpret or generalize. correlation between riparian area disturbed and basin area
CWEs are relatively easy to evaluate at a process scale logged. Lyons and Beschta (1983) associated channel changes
when coexisting activities cause the same type of in the Middle Fork Willamette River with increased sediment
environmental change: each environmental change can be loads and peak flows caused by timber management and
assessed independently and the changes summed to estimate roads. Progressive changes were measured using sequential
their combined effect. Reid (1990) used this approach to aerial photographs and stream gauge records, and the effects
estimate sediment yield from multiple land-use activities in of altered sediment and flow were inferred from earlier
Tanzania. Soil-loss rates on each type of surface were process studies. Nanson and Young (1981) compared
estimated from published relations and field measurements, urbanized and undisturbed channels in southeastern Australia
and loss rates were summed according to the distribution of to demonstrate enlargement associated with urbanization.
land use to estimate total input from the combination of They attributed changes to increased peak flows from the
land-use activities. growing impervious area and from levee construction that
prevented storage of water on floodplains. The progressive
Complementary Influences nature of the change was inferred from the effects of increasing
Complementary effects occur when land-use activities con- urbanization on the component mechanisms.
tribute to the same result through different mechanisms, and Sequential uses can also produce complementary effects.
their evaluation requires that the link between altered envi- Zimmerman and Neuenschwander (1984) compared vegetation
ronmental parameters and watershed response be established in grazed and exclosed selection cuts to measure the effects
for each activity. As a result, few evaluations of complemen- of grazing on fuel loading after logging. Cattle removed
tary effects are “complete”: rarely does a study demonstrate cool-burning, herbaceous fuels while increasing the volume
every link in an association, and most use results of earlier of downed wood, a hot-burning fuel, and thus increased fire
studies to infer some linkages. hazard and decreased the effectiveness of controlled burns.
Hogan (1987) evaluated the effect of logging on the These changes compounded the effects of logging, which
frequency of debris jams on the Queen Charlotte Islands, had increased fuel loading and provided routes for ground
British Columbia. His measurements and estimates of debris fires to reach the forest canopy by promoting the growth of
input, storage, and output showed that debris is less stable spindly, sub-canopy trees. Roberts and others (1989) associated
after logging than before. Inputs of logging slash and decreased the decline of some European forests with magnesium
channel stability both contributed to this change, and future deficiencies produced by the sequential effects of (1) export
Table 3—Approaches used by studies described in table 2 to diagnose CWEs. Studies are listed in the same order as in
table 2, and symbols are explained below.
activity in each elevation zone and vegetation type. Areas response of impacted feature
are multiplied by ECA coefficients and summed to calculate
threshold of
total change in water yield, and altered water yield is assumed concern (T.O.C.)
to be proportional to altered peak flows. Allowable thresholds
for flow modifications are specified by law in northern
Idaho, and calculated values are compared to the mandated
thresholds. Allowable increases may be modified according Time
to the perceived stability of channels in an area.
The ECA model is not presented as a complete CWE analysis. B. EFFECT OF REPEATED ACTIVITY
response of driving variable
Provisions are not made to evaluate the effects of other types of
cumulative response of impacted feature
land use; other mechanisms of channel destabilization or peak-
flow increase are not analyzed; other types of environmental
changes are not considered; and specific impacts are not addressed.
Response
Equivalent Klock Watershed Equivalent R-1/R-4 CDF Questionnaire WRENSS Limiting Factor Rational Approach
Clearcut Area Cumulative Effects Roaded Area Sediment-Fish Analysis (Grant)
Analysis Model
Model type empirical association weighted indices use intensity index empirical process-base checklist physical process sum impacts; process physical process
Area applied northern Idaho, Mont. east Wash. Cascades Calif. Idaho Batholith California general western Wash., Oreg. west Oreg. Cascades
Can be used with calibration weighting method not with calibration only if relations with redesign to suit yes only if relations are yes
elsewhere? explained measured for locale local issues measured for region
Tested? Belt 1980, King 1989 no no not independently no some modules in progress no
Basin size third to fifth order < 4000 ha 200 - 20,000 ha type B,C streams 3rd, 4th order streams by site coho-bearing streams alluvial reaches
Result water yield, peak flow index index rates and populations qualitative various process rates smolt production critical flow
Impact vegetation change sheetwash, slides impacts increase with eroded sediment in all may be considered depends on module habitat change increased bedload
mechanism alters water yield and introduce sediment and increasing intensity channels impact fish alters fish survival transport alters
29
was designed for, and Belt (1980; quoted in King 1989) considered, and the model is relevant only to those impacts
found a 38 percent underestimate in appropriately sized basins. that might be generated by altered sediment input. Because
The theoretical foundation for the ECA method is weak. site-recovery functions are used to calculate each year’s
Logging is known to increase water yield by reducing index, effects that accumulate through time are not addressed.
transpiration, but this increase occurs primarily during the This oversight is particularly relevant to sediment-related
drier seasons and rarely affects the highest peak flows. impacts, because introduced sediment may be stored for
However, peak flows may be significantly increased by long periods and cause long-term lag effects.
logging in areas subject to rain-on-snow events, because
snow accumulates more and melts faster in cleared areas. Equivalent Roaded Area (ERA)
This is likely to have a more significant effect on channel- USDA Forest Service Region 5 staff developed the ERA
modifying peaks than altered transpiration. An index of clearcut method to index CWE potential from timber management
area may fortuitously address both mechanisms of change, and roads. The original model assumed that channel destabi-
but numerical predictions are likely to be unfounded because lization is the impact of most concern in California, and that
the underlying processes are different. destabilization occurs primarily from increased peak flows
due to soil compaction.
Klock Watershed Cumulative Effects Analysis The model has changed considerably since its initial release.
(KWCEA) The recent version (USFS 1988, Cobourn 1989) extends the
Klock (1985) adapted and combined elements from other procedure to address downstream impacts generated by several
CWE assessment methods into an equation to analyze CWE mechanisms. Impact potential is indexed by relating the impacts
potential from timber management in the Washington Cas- expected from each activity to that expected from roads. The
cades. The impact of concern is again channel destabiliza- sum of indices for a watershed represents the percentage of
tion, but the driving mechanism is here assumed to be in- basin in road surface that would produce the same effects as
creased sediment input. The KWCEA equation combines the existing or planned distribution of management activities.
factors for local climate (the R-factor of the Universal Soil Indices for different planning options can then be compared
Loss Equation, Wischmeier and Smith 1978), susceptibility to rank their potential for producing impacts.
to surface erosion (the USLE K-factor adjusted by a distur- Application of the method first requires identification of
bance index for logging practice and recovery through time), important downstream values and the criteria necessary to
a landslide occurrence factor (a local landslide frequency protect each. A use history is developed for the watershed,
adjusted by site recovery factors), a topographic factor that sensitive sites are identified, and ERAs are calculated for
incorporates gradient and distance from a stream, and a each activity with respect to the mechanism thought to be of
hydrologic sensitivity factor that indexes increased evapo- most concern. Values are summed for the watershed to
transpiration after logging. Model application thus requires calculate the total ERA, and this is compared to the allowable
information on soil characteristics, topography, landslide threshold identified for the area. If the calculated ERA value
frequencies associated with logged sites and roads, land-use is high, then the area is singled out for further evaluation by
history, and areas of land-use types. Index values are calcu- other means.
lated for each type of site in a watershed, normalized by Each National Forest is expected to identify focal concerns
watershed area, and summed to provide an index of potential and mechanisms and calibrate coefficients for characteristic
impact. An index greater than 1.0 indicates a greater than 50 site types, and Haskins (1987) outlined this procedure for
percent chance of “increased impact on the downstream the Shasta-Trinity National Forest. Recent practices often
aquatic ecosystem.” cause less impact than older ones, so changes in land
Unfortunately, no documentation was provided for the management procedures must be identified and accounted
derivation of model components, and procedures for assigning for, and recovery curves for various activities and site types
relative weightings were not explained. Disturbance and also must be defined. Calibration ideally incorporates
recovery coefficients presumably reflect measurements from monitoring data for the identified impact mechanism from
central Washington, so the equation must be recalibrated for different land use activities in that area, but the necessary
regions where runoff and erosion processes interact with data are rarely available, and calibration usually depends on
channels in different ways. But adjustment of component professional judgment. Uses other than timber management
weights for new areas is an indeterminate problem because and road use can also be evaluated if their effects are
component indices do not represent physical quantities: there appropriately calibrated. Thresholds of concern (TOCs) are
are too many knobs to twiddle and too little information to to be identified independently for each area and are to take
guide their twiddling. Klock (1985) did not indicate how into account inherent differences in sensitivity to impacts.
impact probabilities were related to index values, the types TOCs are usually defined by calculating ERAs for areas
of impacts considered, or if and how the model was tested. showing different levels of impact. Users are expected to
Other references to its application were not found. exercise judgment in modifying ERA coefficients and TOCs
The KWCEA model assumes a relatively narrow view of for particular sites.
CWEs. Only the effects of timber management and roads are The ERA method is essentially an accounting procedure
Uses considered
Timber management x x x x x x . .
Roads x x x x x x . .
Mining c . c c x (x) . .
Agriculture c . c c x (x) . .
Recreation c . c c x (x) . .
Urbanization c . c c x (x) . .
Impoundments . . . . x . . .
Mechanisms:
Runoff change x . x . x x x .
Peak flow change x . x . x x x x
Sediment change . x x x x x x .
Organic debris change . . . . x . x .
Nutrient change . . . . x x . .
Input of toxics . . . . x x . .
Temperature change . . . . x x x .
Impact:
Channel stability x x x . x x . x
Fish . . . x x . x .
Recreation . . . . x . . .
Water quality . . x x x x . .
Sedimentation . . x x x x . .
Form of result:
Index . x x . . . . .
Rate or value x . . x . x x x
Qualitative . . . . x x . .
Scientific basis:
Theoretical . . . x n (x) x x
Empirical x n x x n (x) x n
Validation . n . . . (x) * n
Source:
Research . n . x . x x x
Management x n x x x . x .
research. Too little information is provided about KWCEA WRENSS, LFA, and the Rational Approach (Grant) were
to judge its theoretical validity. The ERA method originally not developed specifically as methods for CWE analysis, but
incorporated the premise that peak flows would increase if can be used as components in evaluations. All are well-
12 percent of a watershed were occupied by roads, as suggested founded in basic research. The relations employed by the
by preliminary results of an Oregon study (Harr and others LFA represent decades of field measurements, the Rational
1975). These results have little relevance to other regions, Approach (Grant) is based on fundamental sediment transport
and subsequent work showed that no threshold existed even mechanics, and many of the methods employed by WRENSS
in the study area (Harr 1987). Although the premise has are founded on extensive experiments and large data bases.
since been dropped and the conceptual background expanded, Other WRENSS techniques, however, are less well supported.
the ERA model retains the framework imposed by this Surprisingly, none of the general methods (ECA, KWCEA,
assumption. In contrast, the R-1/R-4 model is based on ERA, CDF, R-1/R-4) have been adequately validated by
research results from the area for which it was developed. Its documented independent studies. Only the ECA method has
assumptions are clearly explained, the data on which relations been tested in published reports, and monitoring results
are based are presented in the procedural guide (Stowell and demonstrated a 38 to 44 percent underestimate in predicted
others 1983), and research continues to improve the model. water yield (Belt 1980, King 1989). Methods that produce
Vegetation
C Altered community composition .DP DS ..M.. .N. F...
D Altered disturbance frequency C.. DS ..M.. .NR F...
P Altered pattern of communities .D. .. ..... ... F...
Soils
D Disruption of horizons C.. .S ..M.. ... F...
S Altered soil structure C.. .. ..... ... F...
Topography
C Altered channel or bank morphology CD. .. ..M.S ... F...
F Emplacement of fill C.. DS C.M.S ... ....
M Altered microtopography ... .. ..... ... ....
N Altered channel network .DP .. ..... ... F...
S Oversteepening of slopes .D. .. ..... ... ....
Chemicals and nutrients
I Import of non-nutrient chemicals C.. .. ..... ... F...
N Introduction of nutrients C.. .. ..... ... ....
R Removal of nutrients or organics C.. .. ..... ... ....
Other effects
F Introduction or removal of fauna CD. DS C.M.. .N. ..P.
H Introduction of heat C.. .. ..... ... F...
P Introduction of pathogens CD. .. ..... ... F...
W Import or removal of water CD. .. C.... I.. F.P.
Vegetation
C Altered community composition P.E.H.. .HC.. A.H..B. A.... AW
F Altered disturbance frequency ....... .H... A....B. ..... ..
P Altered pattern of communities ....... ..... ....... ..... ..
Soils
D Disruption of horizons ....... A.... ....... A.... ..
S Altered soil structure .I..... .H... ....... ..... ..
Topography
C Altered channel/bank morphology .....C. ..C.. ....C.. ..... .W
F Emplacement of fill ....... A..B. ....... ..... ..
M Altered microtopography ....H.. .H... ..H.... ..... ..
N Altered channel network .....C. ..C.. ....C.. ..... .W
S Oversteepening of slopes ....H.. .H... ..H.... ..... ..
Chemicals and nutrients
I Import of non-nutrient chemicals ....... ..... ....... A..B. ..
N Introduction of nutrients ....... ..... ....... A..B. ..
R Removal of nutrients or organics ....... ..... A...... ..... ..
Other effects
F Introduction or removal of fauna ....... .HC.. A...... ..... ..
H Introduction of heat ....... ..... ....... ..... AW
P Introduction of pathogens ....... ..... ....... ..... ..
W Import or removal of water P....CY ..... ....... ...B. .W
Table 10—Interactions between watershed processes. Symbols are explained in the left column.
Runoff
P Production process ....H.. .H... ....... ..... .W
I Infiltration P..M... ..... ....... A.... ..
E Evapotranspiration ...M.CY ..... ....... A.... A.
M Soil moisture .IE.... .H... .D..... A.... ..
H Hillslope hydrograph .I...C. .H... ..H.... .H... ..
C Channel hydrograph ....... ..CBY ....C.. ..C.. .W
Y Annual water yield ....... ..... ....... ..... ..
Sediment
A Amount and character on hills ..E.H.. .H... ....... ..... ..
H Hill erosion process and rate ....... A.CB. ..H.... .H... ..
C Channel erosion process and rate ....... .H.BY ..H.... ..C.. ..
B Amount and character in channel .....C. ..C.. ....... ...B. .W
Y Sediment yield and character ....... ..... ....... ..... ..
Organic material
A Amount and character on hills .IE.H.. .H... .DH.... A.... ..
D Decay rate on hillslopes ....... ..... A...... A.... ..
H Transport rate on hillslopes ....... ..... A....B. .H... ..
R Decay rate in channel ....... ..... .....B. ...B. ..
C Transport rate in channel ....... ..... .....BY ..C.. ..
B Amount and character in channel .....C. ..CB. ...RC.Y ..C.. .W
Y Volume and character exported ....... ..... ....... ..... ..
Chemicals
A Soil chemistry .I..... .H... .D..... .H... ..
H Transport on hillslopes ....... ..... ....... A..B. ..
C Transport in channel ....... ..... ....... ....Y ..
B River chemistry ....... ..... ...R... ..C.Y ..
Y Volume and character exported ....... ..... ....... ..... ..
Heat
A Air temperature P.E.... ..... .D..... A.... .W
W Water temperature ....... ..... ...R... ...B. ..
Treatment Measurements
Reference Location Approach Scale F R T CEFILMPSTWY
Treatment Measurements
Reference Location Approach Scale F R T CEFILMPSTWY
Location:
AL Alabama FL Florida MS Mississippi PA Pennsylvania
AR Arkansas GA Georgia MT Montana SC South Carolina
Au Australia ID Idaho NC North Carolina TX Texas
AZ Arizona KY Kentucky NG New England VA Virginia
BC British Columbia L Laboratory NH New Hampshire WA Washington
CA California LA Louisiana NM New Mexico WG West Germany
CO Colorado MI Michigan OR Oregon WV West Virginia
Approach or method: Scale:
A Reconstructs past using air photos or B Paired basins or sites
records, or by sampling age distribution C Case study
D Based on descriptive measurements H Hypothetical or general case
E Experimental M Multiple basins or sites
M Modeling or calculated results P Process study
O General review of topic
R Reasoned from basic principles Treatment:
S Survey of multiple sites F Fire
T Long-term temporal monitoring study R Roads
T Timber management
Measurement:
C Compaction of soil P Peak flow
E Evapotranspiration S Snow melt or accumulation
F Infiltration into soil T Timing of hydrograph peak during storm
I Interception loss W Woody debris
L Low-flow characteristics Y Water yield
M Soil moisture
Treatment Measurements
Location Approach Scale F R T C L O S Y
Treatment Measurements
Location Approach Scale F R T C L O S Y
Location:
AK Alaska FL Florida NC North Carolina TX Texas
AR Arkansas GA Georgia NZ New Zealand VA Virginia
AZ Arizona ID Idaho OR Oregon WA Washington
BC British Columbia L Laboratory Po Poland WI Wisconsin
CA California MS Mississippi SL Scotland WV West Virginia
CO Colorado MT Montana TN Tennessee
Approach or method: Scale:
A Reconstructs past using air photos or B Paired basins or sites
records, or by sampling age distribution C Case study
D Based on descriptive measurements M Multiple basins or sites
E Experimental P Process study
M Modeling or calculated results
O General review of topic Treatment:
S Survey of multiple sites F Fire
T Long-term temporal monitoring study R Roads
T Timber management
Measurements:
C Channel-related erosion and gullying
L Landsliding
O Other erosion processes
S Surface erosion
Y Sediment yield
effects of floods and land use. Swanson and Fredriksen (1982) plot studies, and long-term sediment yields in the Idaho
demonstrated the application of sediment budgeting to evaluate Batholith to characterize average erosion rates for timber
impacts of timber management, and Reid (1989) used sediment management activities in different land classes, and can be
budgets to predict the response of channel morphology in a used to estimate erosion rates for different planning options.
small California grassland watershed to altered stocking rates,
suburban development, and climatic change.
Models that predict sediment export from watersheds are
in increasing demand. Most existing models couple a USLE- Effects of Environmental Change
based sheetwash erosion equation with a flow-routing model, on Organic Material
and cannot be applied to sites with other erosion processes.
Those that incorporate sediment budgeting, however, are
more flexible. Watson and others (1986) constructed a model Land-use activities that affect input, transport, character, or
for channel erosion in north central Mississippi by coupling decay rate of organic material alter erosion, nutrient cycling,
bank stability, sediment routing, and flow routing models. A and hydrologic processes both on hillslopes and in streams.
procedure developed by the USDA Forest Service (Cline and Organic debris on hillslopes alters rates of surface erosion,
others 1981) combines information from sediment budgeting, provides a moisture reservoir, contributes nutrients, and sup-
Flow Characteristics
A change in environmental parameters induces
compensating changes in watershed processes, and a
combination of changes may produce responses that interact.
Land use can change peak discharge, discharge variance,
low-flow discharge, and seasonal runoff distribution. Each
A CWE occurs when interacting responses are strong enough of these changes affects fish and the organisms they rely on
to disturb something of philosophical or economic value, for food. Every species of fish has particular environmental
and the significance of the impact is determined by the requirements for spawning, rearing, and adult stages. Salmo-
magnitude of disturbance to the value. The potential effects nids spawn in gravels by excavating a hole, depositing eggs,
of watershed alterations on specific resources and values and replacing gravel over the redd, so high flows during
must be understood if CWEs are to be evaluated, and this incubation and intergravel life stages can scour redds and
chapter examines those effects. Many land-use activities wash away eggs or young fish. Natural floods periodically
alter watershed function in the same way, so resource destroy redds, and Thorne and Ames (1987) demonstrated a
responses -the impacts -are here related to the watershed negative correlation between sockeye smolt production per
processes generating them rather than to the underlying spawner in Washington’s Cedar River and peak daily dis-
land-use activity. Almost all beneficial uses and values can charge during incubation. Salmon compensate for these di-
be affected by changes occurring in watersheds, and those of sasters by having multiple runs in a single system, by spreading
particular concern in California are considered here. a single run over several months, and by excavating redds to
depths unlikely to scour. In addition, some anadromous fish
return during off-years, so if one year’s production is de-
stroyed by a storm, pioneers from other years will return to
Impacts on Fisheries Resources reestablish that run. These coping mechanisms are no longer
adequate if peak flows are consistently raised due to land-
and Aquatic Communities use activities. Many other types of fish spawn on particular
substrates or aquatic plants, and these, too, can be disturbed
by unseasonal or chronically high flows.
Impacts on anadromous fish are often the focus of CWE
Erman and others (1988) found that rain-on-snow floods
analyses in the western United States, and concerns over
cause abnormally severe scour because they are contained
impacts on resident fish are growing. Resident fish are af-
between snowbanks; a particular discharge is thus deeper
fected by changes in flow, physical habitat, temperature,
than usual and exerts more force on the channel bed. Snow
accessibility of food, predation, and pathogens within a wa-
accumulation depths increase where riparian vegetation has
tershed. Anadromous fish are influenced, in addition, by
been cleared, so preservation of buffer strips in snow country
changes occurring in habitats they use beyond their natal
may help to prevent excessive scour.
watershed.
Decreased flow can also affect spawning. Anadromous
An impact on fisheries resources is usually recognized by
adults require sufficient discharge during runs to allow
a change either in community structure or in abundance of a
upstream migration, and parts of a stream system may become
target species. However, natural abundance is often difficult
inaccessible if these flows are delayed or prevented by
to establish. Estimates of undisturbed populations have been
diversion or impoundment. Channels may also dry out if
made on the basis of carrying capacities in streams and from
accumulations of coarse sediment increase channel-bed
historical evidence (e.g., Chapman 1986), but large natural
permeability and allow more flow to percolate through the
population fluctuations can make evaluation of change difficult
substrate. Seasonal or periodic desiccation can reduce the
(Platts and Nelson 1988).
spawning habitat available for both anadromous and resident
Several publications reviewed potential impacts on
fish populations. Discharge fluctuations below hydroelectric
fisheries of particular land-use activities, such as hydropower
dams can increase in-gravel mortality by luring some fish to
development (Russell and St. Pierre 1987), recreation (Clark
spawn in gravels submerged during power generation but
and others 1985), range use (Platts 1981), and timber
exposed during off-hours. Chapman and others (1986) found
management (Chamberlin 1982, Chapman 1962, Meehan
that 18 percent of chinook redds on a bar downstream of a
and others 1969). Gibbons and Salo (1973) and MacDonald
dam on the Columbia River were located in areas subject to
and others (1988) provided comprehensive bibliographies
subaerial exposure, although little damage appears to have
of the effects of timber management on fish, and Cordone
occurred because redds were deep.
and Kelley (1961) reviewed impacts caused by increased
High peak flows can displace fish and destroy their food
sediment load.
resources. Ottaway and Clarke (1981) measured susceptibility
Channel Morphology
Bank erosion undermines and destroys channel-bank struc- Impacts on Other Resources and
tures and roads and increases maintenance and construction
costs. Channels can either move incrementally by bank ero- Values
sion or shift catastrophically, as when temporary damming
by a log jam diverts flow into an erodible overflow channel.
Resulting channel shifts can remove valuable lands from Most resources and values are influenced by basic water-
production and replace them with infertile gravel bars or shed properties either as habitat elements or as physical
widened channels. Major channel shifts can destroy struc- influences on processes. Human health is affected by changes
tures far from the original channel. Channel changes pro- in water quality and distribution of toxic materials and patho-
voked by gravel mining along Tujunga Wash in southern gens. Changes in vegetation, erosion rates, and hydrology
California destroyed a length of freeway and several bridges affect range resources and wildlife, and cattle health has
(Bull and Scott 1974). been impaired by mining-related chemical changes (Erdman
Increased sediment loads can aggrade lowland channels, and others 1978).
increase the frequency of overbank flows, and force channels Progressive soil erosion alters soil structure and depletes
to migrate more rapidly. As bed elevation increases, channel- nutrients on croplands. Schertz and others (1989) measured
bed gravels may be deposited at sites previously reached decreased soybean yields of 24 percent at sites with severe
only by silts, and unworkable gravels may cover productive cumulative soil erosion in Indiana. Water development in
floodplain soils. Aggradation can also raise local water tables combination with repeated use for irrigation increases salinity
so that drains must be constructed to maintain agriculture. in many rivers of the western United States, and may
Sedimentation at domestic and irrigation water intakes can eventually raise concentrations enough that further use is
increase maintenance and water treatment costs, and impossible. Brown and others (1990) calculated the cost of
aggradation or incision around bridges can endanger bridge maintaining tolerable salt levels in the Colorado River.
footings and occasionally lead to collapse and fatalities (Duda Colacicco and others (1989) reviewed a variety of impacts
1986). Increased upland erosion also contributes to accelerated resulting from agricultural soil erosion and estimated costs
sedimentation in estuaries and may force more frequent dredging associated with them.
of navigation channels. The western United States is rich with the cultural heritage
In contrast, channel incision lowers adjacent water tables of Native Americans. Many natural areas and topographic
and can make gravity-feed irrigation impossible. Ancient features hold spiritual significance, and the cumulative cultural
gully erosion episodes in the American Southwest may have loss grows as incompatible uses encroach on an increasing
destroyed the economic base of Native American civilizations number of these sites. In addition, many sites of spiritual and
dependent on floodplain irrigation. Reduction of sediment cultural importance are located along rivers and are susceptible
load downstream of a dam caused the Carmel River to to destruction by altered flows and channel morphology.
incise, and the resulting lowering of streamside aquifers Economists have defined several types of noneconomic
killed riparian vegetation (Matthews and Kondolf 1987). values that are affected by environmental changes. These
Increased debris loading and log jams are associated with address the observation that many people value the existence
F G D off-site H
on-site
environmental
impact
parameter
Land A on-site C I
watershed off-site
use environmental
process impact
activities parameter
B E
Figure 5—Influences that generate on-site and off-site CWEs. Interaction paths are described in the text.
Neil Berg USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Albany, Calif.
C. Jeffery Cederholm Washington State Department of Natural Resources Olympia, Wash.
John Chatoian USDA Forest Service, Region 5 San Francisco, Calif.
Glenn Chen USDA Forest Service, Siskiyou National Forest Powers, Oregon
Lynn Decker USDA Forest Service, Region 5 San Francisco, Calif.
William Dietrich University of California,Department of Geology and Geophysics Berkeley, Calif.
Thomas Dunne University of Washington, Department of Geological Sciences Seattle, Wash.
Frederick Euphrat University of California, Department of Forestry Berkeley, Calif.
Fred Everest USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Juneau, Alaska
Michael Furniss USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers National Forest Eureka, Calif.
Gordon Grant USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Corvallis, Oregon
Russell Henly University of California, Department of Forestry Berkeley, Calif.
Dennis Harr USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Seattle, Wash.
Eugene Hetherington Forestry Canada Victoria, British
James Hornbeck USDA Forest Service - Northeastern Research Station Durham, N.H.
George Ice National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement Corvallis, Oreg.
Terry Kaplan-Henry USDA Forest Service, Sequoia National Forest Porterville, Calif.
Harvey Kelsey Western Washington University, Department of Geology Bellingham, Wash.
G. Mathias Kondolf University of California, Department of Landscape Architecture Berkeley, Calif.
Antonius Laenen US Geological Survey Portland, Oregon
George Leavesly US Geological Survey Denver, Colo.
Donna Lindquist Pacific Gas and Electric Company San Ramon, Calif.
Thomas Lisle USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Arcata, Calif.
Keith Loague University of California, Soil Science Department Berkeley, Calif.
Lee MacDonald Colorado State University, Department of Earth Resources Fort Collins, Colo.
Mary Ann Madej Redwood National Park Arcata, Calif.
Bruce McGurk Southwest Research Station Albany, Calif.
Walter Megahan National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement Port Townsend, Wash.
David Montgomery University of Washington, Department of Geological Sciences Seattle, Wash.
Thomas Nickelson Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Corvallis, Oreg.
Jennifer Nielsen USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Arcata, Calif.
K. Michael Nolan US Geological Survey Menlo Park, Calif.
N. Phil Peterson University of Washington Center for Streamside Studies Seattle, Wash.
Gordon Reeves USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Corvallis, Oreg.
Ray Rice USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Arcata, Calif.
Roy Sidle USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station Logan, Utah
John Stednik Colorado State University Department of Earth Resources Fort Collins, Colo.
Kathleen Sullivan Weyerhaeuser Company Tacoma, Wash.
Fred Swanson USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Corvallis, Oreg.
William Trush Humboldt State University Fisheries Department Arcata, Calif.
Clyde Wahrhaftig US Geological Survey Menlo Park, Calif.
Robert Wissmar University of Washington, Center for Streamside Studies Seattle, Wash.
Peter Wohlgemuth USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Riverside, Calif.
Robert Ziemer USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Arcata, Calif.