Basic Spatial

Perspective
and
GIS Concepts
 INTRODUCTION
MAP
A map represents geographic features or other spatial
phenomena by graphically conveying information about
locations and attributes
CARTOGRAPHY
-- art and science of map making
COMPUTERISED CARTOGRAPHY
-- performing cartographic functions by means computer
hardware and software
Computer Assisted Mapping

•Map(graphic) information * only graphic data is available

and retrieval * networks are not defined.
•Map publication * spatial relationship not defined
 Introduction
Why Use Graphics

Graphics are international:

Ausgang
Sortie =
Uscita
Salida...
Exit
 Introduction
Why Use Graphics
Graphics are holistic:
“a picture says more than a thousand words...”
“First road left, then cross
the railroad and continue
until you cross the river,
then the first right and
right again on the
crossroads...”
 What is a GIS?
A GIS is a database management system for
spatially distributed features and the
associated attributes.
 Spatial data capture
 Management
 Analysis
 Display
 Decision making
 Research
 WHAT IS A GIS ?
GEOGRAPHIC implies that locations of the data items are known, or
can be calculated, in terms of Geographic coordinates (Latitude,
Longitude)

INFORMATION implies that the data in a GIS are organized to yield

useful knowledge, often as coloured maps and images, but also as
statistical graphics, tables, and various on-screen responses to
interactive queries.
SYSTEM implies that a GIS is made up from several inter-related and
linked components with different functions. Thus, GIS have functional
capabilities for data capture, input, manipulation, transformation,
visualization, combinations, query, analysis, modelling and output.
Some Definitions
 An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by
spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a system
with specific capabilities for spatially-referenced data, as well as a set of
operations for working [analysis] with the data.
- Star and Estes, 1990
 A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware,software, data,
people, and methods.
- ESRI, 1997

 Automated systems for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display
of spatial data.
- Clarke, 1990
 A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating,
analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth.
- Chorley,
1987
 Some Definitions
 A system of hardware, software, and procedures designed to support the
capture, management, manipulation, analysis, modeling and display of
spatially-referenced data for solving complex planning and management
problems.
- NCGIA lecture by David Cowen, 1989

 An integrated package for the input, storage, analysis, and output of spatial
information... analysis being the most significant.
- Gaile and Willmott, 1989

 GIS are simultaneously the telescope, the microscope, the computer, and the
Xerox machine of regional analysis and synthesis of spatial data.
- Abler, 1988
Components of GIS

A working GIS system

integrates these five key components:

 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 People
 Methods
 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF GIS

WHAT IS IT….? Koramangala AREA

(LOCATIONS)

WHERE IS IT ….?
WITHIN THE
(CONDITIONS) BangaloreBLOCK
(X,Y
)
HOW HAS IT IMPROVEMENT IN
CHANGED …? GROWTH
(TRENDS) IN FIVE YEARS

WHICH DATA ARE NEAREST

RELATED ….? Adogodi area
(PATTERNS)

WHAT IF….? FINDING SOLUTIONS TO

(MODELS) THE FORTH QUESTIONS
 What Data is in Your GIS?
 What features do you map?
 What attributes do you need to collect data
on?
 What attribute values can you give the
attribute?
 TOPOLOGIC DATA ELEMENTS

Node

Line (Arc)

Area(polygon)

Nodes: defines beginning and end of the line

Line: defines roads,utilities,boundaries,etc.,
Areas: administrative boundaries, forest block,JFM areas,lakes
s is Su
al y pp
an ort
l sm
pa tia ap
ts s pu
or Supports network analysis bli
pp cat
Su ion
 Point Features

Spatially distributed entities, activities or

events
 Points have a single geographic coordinate
such as:
 Tree
 Traffic accident

 Lamp post
 Line Features
Spatially distributed entities, activities or
events
 Lines (Arcs) are a series of geographic
coordinates joined to form a line such as:
 Road
 Stream

 Railway
 Area Features
Spatially distributed entities, activities or
events
 Areas (Polygons) are a series of geographic
coordinates joined together to form a
boundary such as:
 Lake
 Soil types
 SPATIAL DATA Raster

Vector

DATA MODEL AND STRUCTURE

RASTER MODEL VECTOR MODEL

 Spatial data structures

Raster data files consists of rows of

uniform cells coded according to data
values- Land cover classes is a fine
example.
 Spatial data structures

Vector data files has been captures as

points, lines and polygons- Land cover
classes is a fine example.
 ADVANTAGES OF VECTOR MODEL
• PRECISE EXPRESSION
• LESS DATA VOLUME
• FULL TOPOLOGY
• FAST RETRIEVAL
• FAST CONVERSION
DISADVANTAGES OF VECTOR MODEL
• COMPLICATED STRUCTURE
• DIFFICULTY IN OVERLAY
• DIFFICULTY IN UPDATING
• EXPENSIVE DATA CAPTURE
ADVANTAGES OF RASTER MODEL
• SIMPLE DATA STRUCTURE
• EASY FOR OVERLAY AND
MODELLING
• SUITABLE FOR 3D DISPLAY
• INTEGRATION OF IMAGE DATA
• AUTOMATED DATA CAPTURE
DISADVANTAGES OF RASTER MODEL
• LARGE DATA VOLUME
• LOW PRECISION
• DIFFICULTY IN NETWORK
ANAYLYSIS
• SLOW CONVERSION
 Attributes
Attributes can be numeric or alfa numeric
data that is assigned to a point, line or
area spatial features
Example Attributes…
Stand ID, Compartment no,Vegetation
type, Name of the Forest Block,Type of
Road,VSS code etc.,
 Data Capture Sources
 Digitizing from paper maps
 Scanning
 Traditional surveying techniques
 Paper records & field notes
 Photogrammetry
 Remote sensing
 GPS
 GIS Data Storage

There are two main types of data in a GIS

database
 Cartographic - observations on spatially
distributed features, activities, or events, which
are definable as:
 Points
 Lines (Arcs)

 Areas (Polygons)
 GIS Data Storage

 Non-Cartographic - descriptive information

in a database about the cartographic
features located on a map.
 Attributes
 Attribute Values
 Attributes
Description or characteristic of a feature
 Possible attributes for the feature Tree
 Height
 Diameter

 Species

 Condition

 Age
 Attribute Values
The value given to an attribute
 Possible values for the attributes of a Tree
feature
 Height = 15m
 Diameter = 0.75m
 Species = Oak
 Condition = Good
 Age = 8 years
 Types of Attribute Values
There are a number of different types of
attribute values
Feature Attribute Attribute Values
Character Pole Pole ID ABC123
Numeric Pole Height 15m
Menu Pole Condition Good
Average
Poor
Date Pole Date User generated
Auto generated
Time Pole Time User generated
Auto generated
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF GIS

• DATA AQUISITION AND

PREPROCESSING

DIGITIZING EDITING

TOPOLOGY BUILDING

PROJECTION ATTRIBUTION
 WHY GIS ?
 To inventory and monitor resources
 To test the sensitivity of our analysis
assumptions
 To simulate potential impacts of management
alternatives
 To make the map the 2nd time, the 50th time,
the 100th time...
 Uses of a GIS
 Mapping geographical characteristics for
analysis
 Modeling alternative processes
for management plans
 Managing a utility’s assets
 Monitoring changes in environmental factors
ADVANTAGES OF GIS IN SIMPLE TERMS

 Though collection of data is difficult once it is collected, it

can be stored safely in digital form (in computer) forever
without damage, which usually happens to our maps.

 Once if a map is prepared accurately it can be printed in any

scale without any redrawing.

 Large scale maps at smaller units (Beats) level can be joined

for creating maps at divisions or district level, very accurately
within few minutes.

Contd..
ADVANTAGES OF GIS IN SIMPLE TERMS

 Changes can be incorporated very easily in computer

and it doesn’t require any redrawing.

 Same map can be generated even after 100s of years

later.

 New things can be known after overlay of different

themes and a new types of maps can be generated.

 Work can be done faster than manually.

 The work of decision makers and end users will

become easier.
 Origin
The Cave Paintings
Cave Paintings are considered to be the first GIS Maps as
some unknown information (attributes) is linked to it.

A. Cave Paintings have graphic information

regarding the animals and their tracks of
migration.
1351 B. These paintings used to get shared with in
The Medici sea atlas is published that the tribe groups through generations.
contains a ‘world’ map.
1375 C. Most of the ancient civilizations are found by
The Catalan atlas is prepared by
Catalan cartographers who made great its Cave Paintings.
contribution in the completion of
reformation of world map. 1.Mesapotomia
1477
The first printed edition of the 2.Central Asia
‘Geography’, Bologna is published on
the basis of manuscript atlases,
produced by Dominus Nicholaus
Germanus

Manual Mapping
Manual Mapping is an art of
showing the real time objects
on a piece of paper with a
uniq concept located in it.
(geography,History,social
changes)
Manual Mapping
Dr.John Snow in 1854 used London City Map to Depict
Cholera effected areas.
•Dr.John snow has used a manual Map to track the
cholera effected area of the central London, which
has been ultimately resulted in finding a
contaminated well. This is considered as the first GIS
analysis in the world.
•Europeans produced first Manual Maps to travel
over seas.(Vascodigama,Columbus).
• In American Rervolution Maps are used with huge
Overlays to track the Troop Movements.
 Manual Mapping-Computerized Mapping
• The Art of Manual mapping has been carried out till late 1950, where the
computer based Mapping or drafting was introduced.

•In 1960’s THE Canadian Geographic Information Systems was found by Canada,
which was leaded in providing the information on Natural resources and habitat.

•SkyMap is the world’s first Drafting package.

•The Harvard school for GIS (Center for Geographic analysis) was reopened in
1960 and all the major GIS vendors today are from this institute.
(ESRI,Intergraph etc).

• The legendry art of Manual mapping helped the mankind to produce the
modern world.
 CAD (Computer Aided Drafting)
CAD is rooted in drafting—CAD has a great facility for creating and representing geographic features as
drawings in a computer

In early graphics systems, the data model was simple and

consisted almost entirely of symbolized graphic features

Advantages:
• Features were represented by a graphic symbol
• Features were stored in a single file format.
•Tracking of the data was much easier.

In graphic system software, map files (i.e., layers) can be

edited, manipulated, displayed, & generally managed..

Disadvantages:
• Features were not so intelligent as today.
• The time taken to regenerate the drawing is very high.
• Performance of the system is very poor due to graphic size.
• Editing of the existing drawing/Map is is very hectic as if
one feature is effected in one area then all the feature with
the same symbol need to be changed again.
 AM/FM a Semi GIS

After 1970’s CAD have been implemented in many sectors and was very
successful.

However, Large Utility companies and other companies which needed

Facility Mapping suffered with the inabilities of CAD systems.

The Concept of facility Mapping has been into the lime lite around mid 70’s.

FM is nothing but CAD but it has its own defined features in it (transformers,
repeaters) along with the default text. Some advanced FM systems even
provided a data linking facility to the features.

In one word an AM/FM systems is 90% Automated CAD systems with its
defined features.

Later on FM has become the stepping stone for GIS

 Mile Stones in GIS
 1988 - Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) system is commissioned
with the launch of IRS-1A.

 1989 - The National Remote Sensing Agency prepares the first

Wasteland Atlas. 

 1989 - The National Remote Sensing Agency prepares the first

Wasteland Atlas.

 1996
-ESRI India is formed.

- Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), India established in 1968, starts with the
TCS GIS group to provide services in the areas of GIS, Digital Image
Processing, Automated Mapping and Facility Management.

-The Mountain Natural Resource Information Systems (MENRIS),Nepal is

established to facilitate the application of GIS and remote sensing
( contd…)
 1998
Mile Stones in GIS
- Tata Infotech is appointed as exclusive distributor of MapInfo products in
SAARC region.

- Bentley India is established.

- Kampsax India Ltd. a photogrammetry is formed.

- Tele Atlas starts its operation in India.

1999

-The first "GIS Forum South Asia’99" is organised at Nepal.

- Autodesk India Ltd. is formed.

- Landsat 7 carrying Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) is launched.

- IKONOS is launched
 Trends

Era of Manual Mapping

CAD\CAM

AMFM\GIS

Server Based GIS

Desktop GIS Web GIS Mobile GIS

Application GIS Internet GIS Handheld GIS
ArcPAd
MapObjects ArcIMS
MapInfo
MapX MapXtreame
SuperGIS
GeoPbjects WebMap
MapGuide
 Implementing GIS in various Domains
List Of some important Domains

 Utilities
 Transport & logistics
 Communication
 Urban planning
 Military
 Forestry
 Environment
 Agriculture
Thank You