Professional Documents
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S161
S162 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
These include incomplete clinical information, including lack of a they do, the culprit is seldom the immunizing agent itself.48-51
history of concomitant diseases, concurrent medications, and Rather, it is likely to be a protein excipient, such as gelatin or
drug or alcohol abuse, and absence of a detailed death scene in- egg, or rarely another excipient, such as dextran.48,51
vestigation (eg, interview of witnesses).22 Initial symptoms and Venom from stinging insects (Order Hymenoptera, family
signs in fatal episodes of anaphylaxis commonly include respira- Apidae [eg, honeybees]; family Vespidae [eg, yellow jackets,
tory distress rather than circulatory collapse.21 The autopsy find- yellow hornets, white-faced hornets, and paper wasps]; and
ings might be nonspecific, and laboratory test results might be family Formicidae [eg, ants])52-54 or, less commonly, saliva
within normal limits; however, this cannot be used to exclude from biting insects (flies, mosquitoes, ticks, kissing bugs, and cat-
the diagnosis of anaphylaxis.20-22 erpillars) can trigger anaphylaxis.54-57
In health care settings ongoing efforts to prevent anaphylaxis
from natural rubber latex have been relatively successful; how-
PATHOGENESIS ever, in the community anaphylaxis is still occasionally reported
Triggers of anaphylaxis after direct exposure to latex-containing gloves, condoms, rubber-
Triggers of anaphylaxis in the community are listed in handled racquets, balloons, latex-padded play pits, infant paci-
Table III.24-69 In many countries the most common food triggers fiers, and bottle nipples. It also potentially occurs after ingestion
are peanut, tree nuts, shellfish, fish, milk, egg, and sesame24-26; of foods that cross-react with latex, such as banana, kiwi, papaya,
however, there are important geographic variations, and in some avocado, potato, and tomato.58
countries other foods, such as chestnut, rice, buckwheat, or chick- Occupational allergens,25 seminal fluid,59 and, rarely, inhaled al-
pea, predominate.27 Any food can potentially trigger anaphylaxis, lergens, such as animal dander60 or grass pollen, can also trigger an-
including previously unrecognized triggers, such as quinoa,28 aphylaxis; some systemic absorption of these allergens likely occurs.
dragon fruit,29 or some fresh red meats containing carbohydrates.30 In addition, nonimmune perturbations of mast cells and
Food triggers can be hidden (eg, substituted foods, cross-reacting basophils might lead to anaphylaxis. This potentially occurs after
foods, and cross-contacting foods).26 Food triggers also include ad- exercise61,62 and/or exposure to cold air or water, heat, sunlight/
ditives, such as spices, vegetable gums, and colorants (eg, carmine UV radiation, insect venom constituents,52,53 radiocontrast me-
[cochineal])31; contaminants, such as dust mites32; and parasites, dia,34,42 ethanol, and some medications, including opioids,
such as the live seafish nematode Anisakis simplex.33 COX-1 inhibitors, and vancomycin.24,25,34 In patients with exer-
Medication-triggered anaphylaxis can occur in patients of any cise-induced anaphylaxis, food is a common cotrigger61; it is
age; however, it is particularly common in middle-aged and older hypothesized that in these patients, food-sensitized immune cells
adults. Antibiotics, especially b-lactam antibiotics, and nonste- are relatively innocuous until they are redistributed into the sys-
roidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including aspirin, temic circulation from gut-associated deposits during exertion.62
ibuprofen, and other agents, are often implicated, as are chemo- Idiopathic anaphylaxis is diagnosed when no triggers can
therapeutic agents.24,25,34-40 Newly recognized medication trig- be identified based on history, skin tests are negative, and serum
gers include loperamide37; contaminants in medications, such as specific IgE levels are absent or undetectable. Before this
oversulfated chondroitin sulfate (OSCS)-contaminated heparin38; diagnosis is made, however, the possibility of a hidden
seemingly innocuous substances, such as vitamins and supple- or previously unrecognized trigger should be ruled
ments containing folic acid39; and herbal treatments.40 Periopera- out,24,28-30,32,33,37-40,57 and the patients should be evaluated for
tive medications,41 iodinated contrast media42 and medical dyes mastocytosis and clonal mast cell disorders.63-67
are becoming increasingly relevant triggers in community set-
tings. Biological agents that trigger anaphylaxis include monoclo-
nal antibodies (mAbs), such as cetuximab, infliximab, and Mechanisms
omalizumab,43-45 and allergens used in immunotherapy.46,47 Vac- The underlying pathogenesis of human anaphylaxis commonly
cines to prevent infectious diseases seldom trigger anaphylaxis. If involves an immunologic mechanism in which IgE is synthesized
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S163
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
in response to allergen exposure and becomes fixed to high- release.70-72 IgE also contributes to the intensity of anaphylaxis
affinity receptors for IgE (FceRI receptors) on the surface by enhancing the expression of FceRI on mast cells and baso-
membranes of mast cells and basophils (Fig 1).1,2,24,25,69-72 Ag- phils.70-72
gregation of receptor-bound IgE molecules occurs on re-exposure Rarely, other immunologic mechanisms that do not involve
to the allergen and results in cell activation and mediator IgE are implicated in human anaphylaxis.73 IgG-mediated
S164 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
anaphylaxis has been reported due to high molecular weight iron and platelet-activating factor, and cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-33,
dextran or infusion of chimeric, humanized, or human and TNF-a, which is a late-phase mediator, as well as a preformed
therapeutic mAbs, such as infliximab.44,51 Complement-medi- mediator.68,70,71,80-84 Sphingosine-1-phosphate is now recog-
ated anaphylaxis occurs in association with hemodialysis, nized as a circulating mediator in anaphylaxis, and in addition,
OSCS-contaminated heparin,38 protamine neutralization of hep- it acts as a signaling component within the mast cell.85 Once ac-
arin, liposomal drugs, or polyethylene glycols. Direct activation tivated, the mast cell response is regulated by the balance of pos-
of the innate immune system might also contribute to triggering itive and negative intracellular molecular events that extend
anaphylaxis.74 beyond the traditional kinases and phosphatases.
In addition, as noted previously, nonimmune activation of mast New discoveries in mast cell biology have the potential to
cells and basophils occurs.24,25,34 improve the diagnostic and therapeutic approach to human
A trigger can lead to anaphylaxis through more than 1 mech- anaphylaxis. For example, stem cell factor and its receptor Kit
anism; for example, radiocontrast media can trigger anaphylaxis are fundamentally important in IgE/antigen-induced mast cell
through an immunologic IgE-dependent mechanism and through activation, and concurrent inhibition of Kit- and FceRI-mediated
direct mast cell activation.34,42 OSCS-contaminated heparin trig- signaling achieves coordinated suppression of human mast cell
gers anaphylaxis through activation of the complement system, activation.86 An orally effective compound has been identified that
leading to generation of kallikrein, bradykinin, and the comple- binds to Syk, downregulates the interaction of Syk with some of its
ment protein-derived anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a; in addition, macromolecular substrates, and inhibits FceRI-induced mast cell
factor XII and the coagulation system are involved.38,75 degranulation in vitro and anaphylaxis in vivo.87 Inhibitory sialic
Regardless of the immunologic or nonimmunologic triggering acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectins (Siglecs) are expressed
mechanisms and regardless of whether FceRI or other receptors, on human mast cells, on which Siglec-8 engagement results in in-
such as G protein–coupled receptors or Toll-like receptors, are hibition of FceRI-dependent mediator release without apoptosis.88
activated, mast cells and basophils play an important role in Anti-IgE antibody potentially plays a therapeutic role by depleting
initiating and amplifying the acute allergic response. After IgE/ free IgE, with consequent downregulation of FceRI on mast cells
FceRI binding and receptor aggregation, multiple tyrosine ki- and basophils and deflation of the intracellular activation signal
nases, including Lyn, Syk, and Fyn, are activated and exert both triggered by IgE/FceRI aggregation.89 Basophil involvement in
positive and negative regulation on the signal transduction anaphylaxis will likely be further elucidated in the future because
cascade.70,71,76 Calcium influx is the essential proximal intracel- a monoclonal antibody directed against pro–major basic protein
lular event leading to mast cell degranulation and is controlled by 1 has been identified.90 The opening of the endothelial barrier
both positive and negative regulation through calcium chan- through endothelial Gq/G11-mediated signaling has been identi-
nels.70,77 Mast cells and basophils release preformed chemical fied as a critically important process leading to symptoms of ana-
mediators of inflammation, including histamine, tryptase, carbox- phylaxis in many body organ systems.91
ypeptidase A, and proteoglycans.68,70,71,78,79 They also release There are few studies of the role of genetic factors in human
newly generated mediators, such as leukotrienes, prostaglandins, anaphylaxis. Investigations in this area might improve our
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S165
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
understanding of why anaphylaxis occurs in only a minority of In patients of any age, diseases that impede prompt recognition
persons who are sensitized to an antigen and why episodes vary of triggers or symptoms potentially place patients at increased
greatly in severity from mild with spontaneous remission to risk of anaphylaxis.24,25,69,93 These include impaired vision or
severe and fatal.92,93 hearing, neurologic disorders, psychiatric disorders (including
depression), autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay,24,69
and use of medications, such as first-generation H1-antihista-
Patient-specific risk factors for severity and fatality mines (eg, diphenhydramine and chlorpheniramine), antidepres-
Patients might be at increased risk of anaphylaxis severity and sants, or CNS-active chemicals, such as ethanol or recreational
fatality because of age, concomitant disease, concurrent medica- drugs.24,69
tions, and other factors that are still being delineated (Table Concomitant diseases, such as asthma or other chronic respi-
IV).24,25,64-69,93-108 ratory diseases, especially if severe or uncontrolled,21,24,25,69 and
In infants anaphylaxis is sometimes hard to recognize because also CVDs97-99 and mastocytosis or clonal mast cell disor-
they cannot describe their symptoms, and many of the signs of ders,64-67,100-103 are associated with increased risk of life-threat-
anaphylaxis in infancy, such as flushing and dysphonia after a ening or fatal anaphylaxis. Severe allergic rhinitis and severe
crying spell, spitting up or loose stools after feeding, and loss of eczema increase the risk of life-threatening anaphylaxis to
sphincter control, are ubiquitous in the healthy state.94 Teenagers some foods.105 Concurrent medications, such as b-blockers
and young adults are at increased risk of anaphylaxis triggered by and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors increase the
foods and possibly other agents because of inconsistent behaviors severity of anaphylaxis, and b-blockers potentially make
with regard to avoiding their confirmed relevant triggers and car- anaphylaxis more difficult to treat.24,25,98,99,103,105
rying epinephrine autoinjectors.95 During pregnancy, anaphy- In some patients severe or fatal anaphylactic episodes might be
laxis places the mother and especially the baby at high risk of associated with defects in mediator degradation pathways and
fatality or permanent central nervous system (CNS) damage. Dur- intracellular signaling pathways, as reflected, for example, in
ing the first, second, and third trimesters, potential triggers of an- increased baseline serum tryptase levels (which are strongly
aphylaxis are similar to those in nonpregnant women. During associated with insect sting–triggered anaphylaxis),67,103 in-
labor and delivery, the most common triggers are penicillins creased baseline plasma histamine levels,104 low serum angioten-
and other b-lactam antibiotics given as prophylaxis against neo- sin-converting enzyme activity,105 and reduced platelet-activating
natal group B streptococcal infection.96 Elderly adults are at in- factor acetylhydrolase activity.80
creased risk of fatality in anaphylaxis because of concomitant Other concomitant factors reported to increase the risk of an
diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease anaphylactic episode include exercise; exposure to extremes of
(COPD), and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and the medica- temperature or humidity or high pollen counts; foreign travel or
tions used to treat them.21,97-99 other disruption of routine; feeling unwell; fever; acute infection,
S166 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
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TABLE IV. Patient factors that increase risk of anaphylaxis severity and fatality
Age*
Infants: Underrecognition, underdiagnosis; no appropriate epinephrine auto-injector dose
Adolescents and young adults: [ Risk-taking behavior
Pregnancy: During labor and delivery, antibiotic prophylaxis against neonatal group B streptococcal infection is a common trigger
Elderly: [ Risk of fatality from medication and venom-triggered anaphylaxis
Comorbidities*
Asthma and other respiratory diseases, especially if severe or uncontrolled
CVDs, including hypertension
Mastocytosis! and clonal mast cell disorders!
Allergic rhinitis and eczema"
Depression and other psychiatric diseases (might impair recognition of symptoms)
Thyroid disease (some patients with idiopathic anaphylaxis)
Concurrent medication/chemical use*
Potentially affect recognition of anaphylaxis
Sedatives/hypnotics/antidepressants/ethanol/recreational drugs
Potentially increase anaphylaxis severity
b-Blockers and ACE inhibitors
Other factors*
Exercise
Acute infection, such as upper respiratory tract infection
Menses
Emotional stress
Occupation, such as beekeeping
Priming effect of recent previous anaphylactic episode
Increased baseline plasma histamine levels (hyperhistaminemia)
Increased baseline serum tryptase levels
Reduced level of PAF AH activity, leading to increased PAF levels
Reduced level of ACE activity, leading to increased bradykinin levels
Adapted from references 68, 69, and 94-108.
ACE, Angiotensin-converting enzyme; AH, acetylhydrolase; PAF, platelet-activating factor.
*In some patients several factors might need to be present concurrently for risk to be increased, such as an elderly person plus cardiovascular disease plus b-blocker medication.
In others concurrent triggers might be needed, such as food plus exercise.
!Suggested by increased baseline total tryptase levels.
"Atopic diseases are a risk factor for anaphylaxis triggered by food, exercise, and latex but not for anaphylaxis triggered by insect stings, b-lactam antibiotics, or insulin.
such as an upper respiratory tract infection; emotional stress; The differential diagnosis of anaphylaxis includes common
menses (premenstrual and ovulatory phases); and/or ingestion of entities, such as acute generalized hives, acute asthma, syncope,
NSAIDs or ethanol.20,32,61,62,106-108 panic attack, aspiration of a foreign body, and cardiovascular or
neurologic events.24,25 Postprandial syndromes, such as pollen-
ASSESSMENT OF PATIENTS WITH A HISTORY OF food syndrome and scombroidosis, also need to be considered, as
ANAPHYLAXIS do excess endogenous histamine syndromes, such as mastocytosis;
Ideally, patients with a history of an acute anaphylactic episode flush syndromes, including perimenopausal flushing; nonorganic
should be referred to an allergy/immunology specialist with diseases, such as vocal cord dysfunction; and other diagnostic en-
training and experience in risk assessment in anaphylaxis, includ- tities, some of which are rarely encountered (Table VI).24-26,32,33,63-
68,109,110
ing confirmation of the diagnosis, verification of the triggers, and The differential diagnosis is age related to some extent. In
evaluation of comorbidities and concurrent medications. infants foreign body aspiration, congenital malformations of the
respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts, and apparent life-threatening
event/sudden infant death syndrome need to be considered.94 In
Clinical diagnosis of anaphylaxis middle-aged and elderly adults myocardial infarction, pulmonary
When patients are seen after an acute anaphylactic episode, the embolus, and stroke are important considerations.21,25,97
history of the episode should be confirmed and relevant emer-
gency medical services and emergency department records
should be reviewed.24,25,68,69,93 The history should focus on recall Laboratory tests at the time of the acute
of exposure to potential triggering agents or events, the minutes or anaphylactic episode
hours elapsed between exposure and symptom onset, and the ev- In some patients the clinical diagnosis of anaphylaxis can be
olution of symptoms and signs. Involvement of body organ sys- confirmed by means of a blood test; for example, an increased
tems varies among patients and even in the same patient from plasma histamine level or serum total tryptase level. These tests
one episode to another; however, review of anaphylaxis case se- are not specific for anaphylaxis (Table VII).24,25,68,78,79
ries reveals some general patterns. Skin involvement is reported Plasma histamine levels should optimally be measured 15 to 60
in 80% to 90% of episodes, respiratory tract involvement in up minutes after onset of symptoms of anaphylaxis. Special handling
to 70%, gastrointestinal tract involvement in up to 45%, cardio- of the blood sample is required. Histamine and its metabolite,
vascular system involvement in up to 45%, and CNS involvement N-methylhistamine, can also be measured in a 24-hour urine
in up to 15% (Table V).24,25,69,93 sample.68 Serum total tryptase levels should optimally be
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S167
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
measured from 15 minutes to 3 hours after onset of symptoms. No of mast cell releasability.68 Measurement of allergen-specific IgE
special handling of the blood sample is required. The total tryp- levels by using a quantitative method can be performed at any
tase level is typically increased in patients with anaphylaxis trig- time during or after the acute anaphylactic episode; however, if
gered by an injected medication or an insect sting and in those the blood sample is obtained during or shortly after the episode
with hypotension and shock but is less likely to be increased in from patients who have received intravenous fluid resuscitation,
those with anaphylaxis triggered by food or in those who are nor- levels can be falsely undetectable or low because of the dilutional
motensive.68,78 Serial measurements of serum total tryptase and effect on circulating IgE. Negative tests for sensitization to a trigger
comparison with baseline levels obtained after the acute episode in a patient with a convincing history of anaphylaxis from that trig-
or available in stored serum might be more helpful than measure- ger should be repeated weeks or months later. It is important to note
ment at a single point in time.68,78 that both positive skin tests and increased specific IgE levels indicate
Other biomarkers reported to be useful in confirming an acute sensitization to the allergens tested but are not diagnostic of anaphy-
episode of anaphylaxis include serum mature b-tryptase; mast laxis or any other disease.24-26,34,52,58,68,69
cell carboxypeptidase A3; chymase; platelet-activating factor; If indicated, incremental challenge/provocation tests should be
bradykinin; C-reactive protein; cytokines, such as IL-2, IL-6, IL- conducted in appropriately equipped health care facilities by
10, IL-33, and TNF-receptor I; and urinary cysteinyl leukotriene professionals trained and experienced in patient selection, timing
E4 and 9-a-11-b prostaglandin F2.68,72,80-84 Many studies of these of the challenge, use of challenge protocols, and diagnosing and
potential biomarkers have included appropriate control groups, treating anaphylaxis. Before a challenge is performed, the
such as patients with severe acute asthma, but some have not. Bio- potential risks and benefits should be discussed with the patient
markers are released at different times after activation of mast cells (or, for children, the caregivers) and documented in the medical
and basophils, and patients experiencing anaphylaxis in commu- record.68,111
nity settings arrive in emergency departments at different time in- Assessment of patients with food-triggered anaphy-
tervals after symptom onset; therefore measurement of a panel of laxis. Skin prick tests with foods that elicit a wheal of 3 mm
different biomarkers might be useful.68 larger than that caused by the negative control (eg. saline) are
considered positive. Commercially available food allergen ex-
tracts do not contain standardized allergens. Some food allergens,
Confirmation of the triggers of anaphylaxis such as fruits and vegetables, are labile and degrade in glycerin-
An important aspect of risk assessment in patients who have ated extracts during manufacture and storage; therefore skin prick
experienced anaphylaxis in the community is confirmation of the tests with these allergens are often performed with fresh foods.
trigger or triggers identified through a detailed history of Intradermal tests to foods are contraindicated because of lack of
antecedent exposures, so that the relevant specific trigger or specificity (false-positive tests) and their potential for triggering
triggers can be avoided and recurrences of anaphylaxis can be anaphylaxis.26,68,112 An exception to this might be use of intrader-
prevented (Table VIII).24-26,34,52,58,61,68,69,93,111 Skin tests should mal tests to assess sensitization to fresh meat containing the car-
be performed with validated instruments, techniques, and record- bohydrate galactose-a-1,3-galactose.30
ing systems, preferably at least 3 to 4 weeks after the anaphylactic In food-sensitized patients specific IgE levels have predictive
episode, to allow time for rearming of skin mast cells and recovery values for positive (failed) or negative (passed) food challenge
S168 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
TABLE VI. Differential diagnosis of anaphylaxis people who have no history of anaphylaxis. For example, 60% of
Common entities Nonorganic disease young people have a positive skin prick test to 1 or more foods,
Acute generalized hives Vocal cord dysfunction yet most of those with positive tests have never experienced
Acute asthma Munchausen syndromejj anaphylaxis from a food.114 In addition, although positive skin
Syncope (faint, vasovagal episode) tests and increased allergen-specific IgE levels correlate with
Panic attack an increased probability of clinical reactivity to specific foods,
Aspiration of a foreign body Shock the results of these tests do not necessarily correlate with the
Cardiovascular event (myocardial Hypovolemic
risk of future anaphylactic episodes or with the severity of
infarction, pulmonary embolus) Cardiogenic
such episodes.26,68
Neurologic event (seizure, stroke) Distributive (eg, spinal cord injury)
Septic (might involve all of the above) Oral food challenge testing was extensively reviewed in the
Journal in 2009.111 Patients with a convincing history of anaphy-
Postprandial syndromes Other laxis to a specific food and evidence of sensitization to that food
Pollen-food syndrome* Nonallergic angioedema should not undergo oral food challenge tests because of their high
Scombroidosis! Red Man syndrome (vancomycin) risk of anaphylaxis from such tests. Others, such as those with an
Monosodium glutamate Urticarial vasculitis equivocal history, low or moderate evidence of sensitization, or
Sulfites Hyper-IgE urticaria syndrome
both, might benefit from a physician-monitored incremental
Progesterone anaphylaxis
Pheochromocytoma
oral food challenge. A positive (failed) challenge provides a
Idiopathic systemic capillary leak sound basis for continued avoidance of the food. A negative
syndrome (passed) challenge allows introduction or reintroduction of the
Excess endogenous histamine
specific food into the patient’s diet.111
Mastocytosis/clonal mast cell Unproved or disproved diagnostic methods, such as electro-
disorders" dermal skin testing and kinesiology, remain in use for assessment
Basophilic leukemia of patients with food allergy.115
In the future, in vitro tests that will distinguish reliably be-
Flush syndromes
tween sensitization without risk of clinical reactivity versus sen-
Perimenopause
Carcinoid
sitization with risk of clinical reactivity might be available.
Autonomic epilepsy These include measurement of allergen-specific basophil reac-
Medullary carcinoma thyroid tivity,116 assessment of sensitization by using recombinant
allergens,117 peptide microassay-based immunoassays to map
Adapted from references 24-26, 63-68, 109, and 110. IgE and IgG4 binding to sequential allergen epitopes,117-119 or
*Pollen-food allergy syndrome, also termed oral allergy syndrome, is elicited by a
variety of plant proteins, especially pathogen-related proteins that comprise a large
assessment of allergen-specific cytokine or chemokine
number of class 2 allergenic proteins found in various fruits and vegetables. These production.68
plant proteins cross-react with airborne allergens. Typical symptoms include pruritus, Assessment of medication- or biological agent–
tingling, and angioedema of the lips, tongue, palate, throat, and ears after eating raw, triggered anaphylaxis. Any medication or biological agent
but not cooked, fruits and vegetables. can potentially trigger anaphylaxis. For most agents, the antigenic
!This disease is due to histamine poisoning from fish, such as tuna, mackerel, saury,
mahi-mahi, anchovies, and herring, that are stored at increased temperatures (308C), at
determinants have not been characterized or validated; indeed, the
which bacteria such as Morganella marganii and Klebsiella pneumoniae produce relevant immunogenic prodrugs, haptens, metabolites, and un-
histamine and cis-urocanic acid. Symptoms occur from minutes to hours after identified degradation products or contaminants are often un-
ingestion of the fish and last for hours. They include flush (especially of the face and known.34,38,68 For most medications, with the exception of some
neck), angioedema, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and hypotension. An important clue to
the diagnosis is that more than 1 person eating the fish is usually affected. Skin prick
b-lactam antibiotics, appropriate reagents are not commercially
tests to fish are negative, and fish-specific IgE levels are absent or undetectable. available for use in skin tests, measurement of medication-spe-
"Anaphylaxis might be the first manifestation of mastocytosis or a clonal mast cell cific IgE levels, or other in vitro tests.34,68 Customized tests and
disorder. physician-monitored challenge/provocation tests performed in
jjNonorganic diseases also include Munchausen syndrome by proxy in a child or other specialized centers therefore play a central role in assessment
dependent, globus hystericus, and undifferentiated somatoform anaphylaxis.
of patients with a history of anaphylaxis triggered by a medica-
tion.34,68,120-122
For assessment of anaphylaxis triggered by vaccines to
prevent allergic diseases, skin prick tests should be performed
tests. Allergen-specific IgE levels with greater than 95% predic- not only with the immunizing agent but also with the relevant
tive risk values of a positive (failed) food challenge result have excipients in the culprit vaccine, such as gelatin in measles
been identified by using the ImmunoCAP (Phadia, Uppsala, vaccines or egg in some influenza vaccines and in yellow fever
Sweden). These levels are defined for cow’s milk (!15 kU/L), egg vaccine.48,68
(!7 kU/L), peanut (!14 kU/L), tree nuts (!15 kU/L), and fish Assessment of stinging insect–triggered anaphy-
(!20 kU/L); in infants lower values have been established for laxis. Standardized Hymenoptera venoms, such as honeybee,
milk (!5 kU/L) and egg (!2 kU/L).26 Predictive values for aller- yellow jacket, yellow hornet, white-faced hornet, and paper wasp,
gen-specific IgE levels potentially differ from one immunoassay are available for skin testing. Skin prick tests, if negative, should be
to another, and this can affect management decisions.26,68,113 followed by intradermal tests.52-54 Use of dialyzed venoms in skin
A positive skin test, an increased serum IgE level, or both to a tests is reported to improve the identification of venom-sensitized
specific food document sensitization to that food. Such tests are patients.123 For fire ant-triggered anaphylaxis, whole-body ex-
not diagnostic of anaphylaxis because sensitization to 1 or more tracts are used as skin test reagents.54,55 Measurements of
food allergens is common in the general population of healthy venom-specific IgE levels and fire ant whole-body extract–specific
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S169
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
Adapted from references 24-26, 34, 52, 58, 61, 67, 100-102, and 111.
*Allergens for skin testing should be selected on the basis of the history. Standardized extracts are available only for some Hymenoptera venoms and some inhalant allergens.
Patients should discontinue H1-antihistamines 7 days before skin testing. Many people in the general population are sensitized to allergens (eg, 60% of teens to food and as many as
28.5% of adults to venom).
!Intradermal tests are generally contraindicated in food allergy because of the high likelihood of false-positive results and the possibility of triggering anaphylaxis.
"Available commercially for foods, insect venoms, and latex but not for most medications or biological agents. Refer to predictive values, where available, for foods such as peanut,
tree nuts, fish, milk, and egg.
§Open, single-blind, or double-blind depending on clinical history and allergen. ‘‘First do no harm’’: challenge only if assessment (clinical history, skin tests, and/or measurement
of allergen-specific IgE levels) indicate that the patient is at low risk for anaphylaxis. Perform only under medical supervision in a hospital or other health care facility.
jjAssessment of cotriggers, such as a food, medication, or cold exposure, is needed.
IgE levels are commercially available. Some patients with a history Positive intradermal tests to stinging insect venoms, increased
of Hymenoptera sting–triggered anaphylaxis have negative skin venom-specific IgE levels, or both occur in up to 28.5% of the general
test responses to insect venoms but increased specific IgE levels adult population, most of whom do not have systemic symptoms
to venoms and vice versa.52,124 Challenge/provocation tests with after an insect sting.52-54,68 It is therefore critically important that the
stinging and biting insects are potentially dangerous and are test results be interpreted in the context of the clinical history. Cross-
used only in research.52-57,68,125 reacting carbohydrate derivatives between venom allergens and plant
S170 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
or other nonvenom allergens might account for many of these posi- MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS AT RISK FOR
tive test results. In some centers additional tests used to assist in in- ANAPHYLAXIS IN COMMUNITY SETTINGS
terpretation of positive test results include consideration of total Long-term preventive measures include optimal management
IgE levels as well as venom-specific IgE levels,125 and measurement of relevant comorbidities, such as asthma, other chronic respira-
of basophil activation markers, such as CD63 or CD203c after incu- tory diseases, CVDs, and mastocytosis and clonal mast cell
bation with different concentrations of venom.53,68,125 disorders.63-67,97-102 These measures also include discussion of
Conversely, venom skin tests might be negative and venom- the relative benefits and risks of concurrent medications (eg,
specific IgE levels might be absent or undetectable in patients with a b-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and others
convincing history of insect sting–triggered anaphylaxis. Negative that are widely and effectively used in the management of CVDs)
tests might be due to rare IgE- or non–IgE-mediated reactions to a with the patient and his or her cardiologist and documentation of
protein or peptide constituent127 such as melittin in honeybee venom the rationale for treatment decisions in the patient’s medical
or mastoparan in vespid venom; variability of intradermal testing; record.97-99,103
anergy in patients tested within a few weeks of the sting; decrease With the exception of venom immunotherapy for patients with
in the immune response to venom over time in patients stung insect sting–triggered anaphylaxis, current recommendations for
many years before testing; or increased patient vulnerability to ana- prevention of anaphylaxis and emergency preparedness for
phylaxis. As noted previously, risk of severe or fatal anaphylaxis in- treatment of anaphylaxis in the community are based on expert
creases with older age; concurrent diseases, including CVDs; and opinion and consensus rather than on randomized, double-blind,
concurrent use of medications, such as b-blockers or angiotensin- placebo-controlled trials. Preventive strategies for anaphylaxis in
converting enzyme inhibitors,52,53,97,103 as well as in patients with community settings that involve trigger avoidance and immuno-
mastocytosis, clonal mast cell disorders, or increased baseline tryp- modulation are summarized in Table IX.1,2,24-
tase levels.52,53,72,100-103 If the baseline total tryptase level is greater 26,34,52,54,58,69,93,129-153
Follow-up at regular intervals is an impor-
than 11.4 ng/mL (the new upper limit of normal), meticulous exam- tant aspect of long-term risk reduction.
ination for cutaneous mastocytosis is indicated, and if the level is
greater than 20 ng/mL, a bone marrow biopsy is indicated, even if
cutaneous manifestations are absent.67 Also, in some patients clin- Long-term risk reduction: Prevention of anaphylaxis
ical risk of anaphylaxis is increased by factors such as a recent sting; Anaphylaxis triggered by food. Written personalized
a previous severe systemic reaction to a sting; a sting on the head, information about avoidance of confirmed relevant food triggers,
neck, or throat; or the entomology of the stinging insect.52-54,68,103 including lists of common hidden sources of the food or foods and
Assessment of anaphylaxis from other triggers. For high-risk situations, such as buffet and catered meals and
assessment of anaphylaxis triggered by natural rubber latex, skin unlabeled desserts, baked goods, and candies, should be provided.
prick tests should be performed with commercial latex allergens, Patients should be directed to resources that provide up-to-date,
where available, or with extracts of rubber products, such as natural consistent information about avoidance of the specific food or
rubber latex gloves, where commercial allergens are not available. foods (Table IX).26,129 Food avoidance measures potentially de-
Consideration should be given to testing with foods that cross-react crease quality of life for those at risk of anaphylaxis and for their
with latex, such as banana, kiwi, papaya, avocado, potato, and caregivers130,131 because of lifestyle changes that disrupt
tomato.58,68 Latex-specific IgE antibodies can also be measured. activities, uncertainty about ambiguities in advisory labeling,132
For assessment of exercise-triggered anaphylaxis, skin tests and anxiety about the risk of accidental exposures.26,133 Strict
should be performed with potential food allergen cotriggers.61 An avoidance of many foods potentially leads to nutritional
exercise intensity threshold can be defined in an exercise challenge deficiencies.26 Some patients at risk for anaphylaxis to foods, or
test to diagnose food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis.128 their caregivers, turn to complementary and alternative medicine
Assessment of idiopathic anaphylaxis. When a metic- for relief.115
ulous history of antecedent exposures and events does not yield Allergen-specific oral immunotherapy is currently a research
any clues about potential triggers and when allergen skin tests are procedure for prevention of anaphylaxis triggered by food.
negative and specific IgE measurements are absent or undetect- Clinical trials with foods such as milk, egg, or peanut have been
able to selected common allergens, patients are said to have conducted in carefully selected patients in appropriately equipped
idiopathic anaphylaxis. Before making this diagnosis, physicians food allergy research centers by physicians and other health care
should consider the possibility of a hidden or previously unrec- professionals who have experience in performing food chal-
ognized trigger. Sensitization to a novel trigger for which there is lenges, administering oral immunotherapy, and diagnosing and
no commercially available test allergen can be identified through treating anaphylaxis.108,112,134-141 A few of the studies have had a
a history of the event and confirmed by objective tests. These double-blind, placebo-controlled design.137 Adverse effects have
potentially include skin testing the patient and 1 or more controls been common with some oral immunotherapy dosing regimens,
with crude extracts of the suspected culprit allergen (although especially on the initial dose escalation day and on subsequent
there is no quality assurance that such extracts contain the dose build-up days.141
relevant allergenic components) and/or development of custom- In some of these studies, clinical desensitization to a food has
ized, sensitive, specific ELISAs and other in vitro tests, including been accompanied by long-term, food-specific humoral and
gel electrophoresis and IgE immunoblotting, for identification of cellular changes,138,140 including decreased titrated skin prick
specific IgE to the suspect allergen.63,68,69 tests, decreased basophil activation, decreased IgE levels, and in-
The serum total tryptase level should be measured in all creased IgG4, IL-10, IFN-g, and TNF-a levels.140 Studies in pro-
patients with idiopathic anaphylaxis.63-68,78,100-103 This important gress will resolve the issue as to whether oral immunotherapy for
screening test for mastocytosis reflects the increased burden of food-triggered anaphylaxis leads not only to clinical desensitiza-
mast cells in all forms of this disease.78 tion but also to true immunologic tolerance in which patients
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S171
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
Adapted from reference 153 and others; see text for details.
*These Web sites consistently provide accurate up-to-date information: the Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (www.foodallergy.org); the American Latex Allergy
Association (www.latexallergyresources.org); the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (www.aaaai.org); and the American College of Allergy, Asthma &
Immunology (www.acaai.org).
!Avoid the medications suspected of triggering anaphylaxis and substitute a non–cross-reacting medication, preferably from a different therapeutic class. If this is not possible,
desensitization should be performed (eg, for b-lactam antibiotics, NSAIDs, and chemotherapy drugs).
"Avoid relevant cotriggers, such as food, medication, cold air, or cold water.
remain desensitized even if the food is not eaten on a regular the medication. Immunologic tolerance does not occur, and if
basis.112,134,135 the medication is discontinued, symptoms can recur when it is re-
Future directions in specific immunotherapy to food and other started.144 Desensitization should be conducted in an appropri-
allergens that trigger anaphylaxis might include allergen admin- ately equipped health care facility staffed by health care
istration through the sublingual route, ‘‘engineered’’ recombinant professionals who are trained and experienced in using desensi-
protein allergens, a mixture of major recombinant allergens, tization protocols and in the recognition and treatment of break-
CpG-oligonucleotide–conjugated allergens, peptides or polymers through symptoms, including those of anaphylaxis.34,144 The
of major allergens, and other novel approaches.112 cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying temporary desen-
Immunomodulatory approaches that are not specific for a sitization without immunologic tolerance are not yet fully
particular food allergen are also being studied. Food Allergy understood.144
Herbal Formula-2, a well-characterized mixture of Chinese herbs In patients with a history of vaccine- or vaccine component–
that prevents food-induced anaphylaxis and leads to long-lasting triggered anaphylaxis who have negative skin tests to the vaccine
immunologic tolerance in a murine model, has now entered and its components, it is highly unlikely that IgE antibody is
clinical trials.142 Subcutaneous injections of anti-IgE antibody present. The vaccine can therefore be administered in the usual
potentially provide an increased margin of protection against manner; however, it is prudent to observe such patients for
food and other allergen triggers of anaphylaxis for many, although 1 hour afterward instead of the customary 30 minutes. In patients
not all, patients at risk (Table IX).143 with a positive history and positive skin tests, a suitable
Medication- or biological agent–triggered anaphy- alternative vaccine is sometimes available; for example, egg-
laxis. For anaphylaxis triggered by a medication or a biological free seasonal influenza vaccine and egg-free pandemic A/H1N1
agent, avoidance is critically important. An alternative non–cross- vaccine grown in mammalian cell culture systems are now
reacting agent, preferably from a different therapeutic class but available in some countries. If a suitable alternative vaccine is
sometimes from the same class, can often be substituted effec- not available, the culprit vaccine should be administered in an
tively and safely.34 Where this is not possible, desensitization appropriately equipped and staffed health care facility by using a
with the offending agent is indicated.34,144 Standardized 12-step graded-dose protocol (Table IX).48
desensitization protocols in which antigens are introduced in an Stinging insect–triggered anaphylaxis. For anaphylaxis
incremental manner over several hours have been published for triggered by stinging insects, avoidance of exposure involves
some agents, such as b-lactam antibiotics or other antibiotics, as- several approaches. Yellow jacket, hornet, or wasp nests or fire ant
pirin or other NSAIDs, insulin, and chemotherapeutic agents, in- mounds in the vicinity of the patient’s home should be profession-
cluding taxanes and platins, as well as mAbs.144 Once achieved, ally exterminated. Awareness of high-risk outdoor work or leisure
desensitization is maintained through regular administration of activities, such as gardening, camping, picnicking, or barbecuing,
S172 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
is important. When outdoors, appropriate protective clothing, prophylaxis regimen involves 60 to 100 mg of prednisone each
including shoes and socks, should be worn. Personal insect morning for 1 week, followed by 60 mg on alternate mornings for
repellents, such as DEET, are not effective in preventing insect 3 weeks and then gradual tapering of the dose over 2 months, in
stings in contrast to their efficacy in preventing insect bites.54 addition to an H1-antihistamine, such as 10 mg of cetirizine
In most patients with Hymenoptera venom–triggered anaphy- daily.63 Anti-IgE antibody injections have been reported to be
laxis, a 3- to 5-year course of subcutaneous injections of the helpful in patients with idiopathic anaphylaxis and in anaphylaxis
relevant standardized insect venom or venoms significantly with no apparent trigger that occurs in patients with mastocytosis.
reduces the risk of anaphylaxis from a subsequent sting and (Table IX)151,152
provides long-lasting protection.52-54,124 This potentially curative
treatment is underused.53 In children a 98% protection rate can be Long-term risk reduction: Emergency preparedness
achieved, and the effect lasts for decades after venom injections for anaphylaxis recurrences in the community
are discontinued.52,145 Use of purified extracts potentially reduces Those at risk for anaphylaxis in the community and their
large local reactions during venom immunotherapy.146 Venom caregivers should be prepared to recognize episodes that occur
immunotherapy can be safely administered to all those at risk, in- despite best efforts to avoid the relevant trigger and other
cluding high-risk patients with mastocytosis or clonal mast cell preventive measures and to provide prompt life-saving first-aid
disorders, although a slow rate of dose escalation is often neces- treatment of such episodes.2,24-26,34,52,54,69,93,153 Emergency pre-
sary in such patients.147,148 Anti-IgE antibody is reported to be paredness involves carrying 1 or more epinephrine autoinjectors,
useful in controlling reactions to venom immunotherapy in pa- having an anaphylaxis emergency action plan, and wearing
tients with mastocytosis.149 For prevention of anaphylaxis from appropriate medical identification.1,2,24-26,54,69,153
fire ant stings54,55 or from insect bites,54,57 subcutaneous injec- Epinephrine (adrenaline): the medication of choice.
tions of the relevant whole-body extracts are used. For treatment of an anaphylaxis recurrence in the community,
In adults venom immunotherapy significantly reduces sting- injection of epinephrine is the first-aid medication of choice, as
induced cutaneous systemic reactions and is therefore indicated recommended in all anaphylaxis guidelines. The rationale for this
for patients with sting-induced generalized urticaria and no other is summarized in Table X.24,154,156-162 Most guidelines recom-
systemic symptoms.52,124 It also reduces large local reactions to mend injecting epinephrine from an autoinjector intramuscularly
stings and might be considered for at-risk patients who cannot to- in the midanterolateral aspect of the thigh. The first aid dose of ep-
tally avoid insect exposure, such as beekeepers, and/or those who inephrine is 0.01 mg/kg of a 1 mg/mL (1:1,000) dilution to a max-
experience frequent or severe large local reactions.150 In children, imum dose of 0.5 mg in an adult or 0.3 mg in a child. This dose can
venom immunotherapy is not indicated either for sting-induced be repeated every 5 to 15 minutes, as needed.154,155,163-165 Pa-
generalized urticaria without other systemic symptoms or for tients should not suddenly sit or stand after receiving an epineph-
large local reactions (Table IX).145 rine injection because this can lead to the empty inferior vena
Anaphylaxis induced by other triggers. Avoidance of cava/empty ventricle syndrome and sudden death.166
the relevant specific confirmed trigger is the key to prevention of In patients with anaphylaxis, epinephrine has potent life-saving
anaphylaxis recurrence, such as avoidance of natural rubber a1-adrenergic vasoconstrictor effects on the small arterioles and
latex58 or occupational allergens.1,2,24,25,69 Desensitization pro- precapillary sphincters in most body organ systems.156 It de-
vides short-term immunomodulation for patients at risk of creases mucosal edema, thereby preventing and relieving upper
anaphylaxis to seminal fluid.59 In the future, regular subcutaneous airway obstruction, and it also prevents and relieves hypotension
injections of anti-IgE antibody might be indicated for patients and shock (Table X).156-160 In addition, its b1-adrenergic effects
with anaphylaxis triggered by various allergen triggers. For ana- lead to increased force and rate of cardiac contractions, and its
phylaxis induced by some nonimmune triggers, such as cold, heat, b2 effects lead to increased bronchodilation and decreased release
sunlight/UV radiation, or ethanol, avoidance of the trigger is the of mediators, such as histamine and tryptase, from mast cells and
key to prevention of recurrences (Table IX).25 basophils.156
Exercise-triggered anaphylaxis. Strategies for prevention Prompt injection is important. In most countries the highest
of exercise-induced anaphylaxis include strict avoidance of epinephrine dose currently available in an autoinjector is 0.3 mg.
relevant cotriggers, such as food, medication, or ethanol inges- This dose is low compared with the initial adult dose of 1 mg
tion and cold air or cold water exposure, and awareness of other epinephrine used in cardiopulmonary resuscitation and is unlikely
potential concomitant risk factors, such as acute infection, to be effective if anaphylaxis has progressed to the point at which
emotional stress, menses (premenstrual and ovulatory phases), cardiopulmonary resuscitation is needed. Delayed injection of
extremes of temperature and humidity, and high pollen counts. epinephrine is associated with fatal anaphylaxis18-21 and also con-
Additional precautions include never exercising alone, discon- tributes to the increased likelihood of biphasic anaphylaxis, which
tinuing exertion immediately when the first symptom of ana- is defined as symptom recurrence 1 to 72 hours (usually within 8
phylaxis is noted, always carrying 1 or more epinephrine hours) after resolution of the initial symptoms despite no further
autoinjectors, and carrying a cell (mobile) phone for calling exposure to the trigger.167-169
911/emergency medical services during activities such as long- The best way of providing first-aid treatment with epinephrine
distance running or cross-country skiing. Premedication and (adrenaline) for anaphylaxis in the community is by using an
warm-up are not effective in preventing exercise-induced autoinjector; however, currently available autoinjectors have a
anaphylaxis (Table IX).24,25,61 number of limitations. Only 2 fixed epinephrine doses, 0.15 mg
Idiopathic anaphylaxis. Immunomodulation with pharma- and 0.3 mg, are available in autoinjector formulations in most
cologic agents is often recommended for patients with frequent countries (EpiPen, Dey, LP, Napa, Calif; Twinject, Shionogi &
episodes of idiopathic anaphylaxis, which is defined as more than Co, Ltd, Osaka, Japan; Anapen, Lincoln Medical, Salisbury,
6 per year or more than 2 per 2 months. One example of a Wiltshire, United Kingdom). The 0.15 mg dose is too high for
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S173
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
infants and children weighing less than 15 kg. The 0.3 mg dose is improved design, including needle protection features, are being
too low for children weighing more than 30 kg and for teens and introduced.
adults. In the United Kingdom a 0.5 mg epinephrine dose is Up to 20% of patients who receive an initial first-aid dose of
available in the Anapen. Autoinjectors with 1.43 cm needles epinephrine for treatment of anaphylaxis in the community are
might not achieve intramuscular injection in some children and reported to require a second dose, either because of ongoing
adults, as ascertained by using computed tomographic scans of symptoms or because of biphasic anaphylaxis.167-169,176-178 Most
the thigh to measure the distance from the skin to the surface of patients with anaphylaxis respond promptly to epinephrine injec-
the vastus lateralis muscle.170,171 The force of the injection likely tions; the potential reasons for apparent lack of response in a minor-
also contributes to intramuscular deposition and rapid absorption ity of patients are summarized in Table XI.158,166,170,171,175,178-181
of epinephrine.172 Transient pharmacologic effects of epinephrine, such as pallor,
Health care professionals need to be trained to use epinephrine tremor, anxiety, palpitations, headache, and dizziness, that occur
autoinjectors correctly and safely in order to train and coach those within 5 to 10 minutes after injection are usually mild and confirm
at risk for anaphylaxis and their caregivers in how to use them that a therapeutic epinephrine dose has been given. Serious adverse
correctly and safely.173 Unintentional injections from epinephrine effects, such as pulmonary edema or hypertension, are usually
autoinjectors into fingers, thumbs, and hands by patients self-in- attributable to epinephrine overdose. Although they can occur after
jecting or by caregivers injecting children or others have been re- administration by any route, they are most commonly reported after
ported to poison control centers with increasing frequency in the either an intravenous bolus dose, an overly rapid intravenous
past decade. These unintentional injections might not only result infusion, or an intravenous injection of a concentrated 1 mg/mL
in injury but also in partial or complete loss of the epinephrine (1:1,000) epinephrine solution instead of the dilute 0.1 mg/mL
dose for the person having an anaphylactic episode, the so-called (1:10,000) epinephrine solution appropriate for intravenous
‘‘lost dose hazard.’’174,175 Epinephrine autoinjectors with infusion.24,154
S174 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
Adapted from references 158, 166, 170, 171, 175, and 178-181.
*For example, if epinephrine is injected for a disease, such as nonallergic angioedema or food protein–induced enterocolitis, that would not be expected to respond well to it.
!Occurs when the epinephrine injected cannot circulate in the body because the patient is suddenly placed upright and the vena cava (and ventricle) empties.
"In many countries life-saving epinephrine autoinjectors are not available for those at risk of anaphylaxis. Existing alternatives cannot be depended on to produce high tissue
concentrations of epinephrine rapidly. These include having a patient or caregiver draw up epinephrine from an ampule, use of a syringe prefilled with epinephrine, or use of an
epinephrine metered-dose inhaler.
§The maximum shelf-life of EpiPen and Twinject autoinjectors is 12 to 18 months. The maximum shelf life of AnaPen autoinjectors (available in the United Kingdom) is 18 to 24
months. The maximum shelf life of a syringe prefilled with epinephrine in a physician’s office is 3 to 4 months. In vitro degradation (breakdown) products of epinephrine are
ineffective in patients with anaphylaxis.
jjEpinephrine through other routes, such as subcutaneous injection or inhalation from a metered-dose inhaler or nebulizer and compressor is not recommended for the treatment of
anaphylaxis because it is more difficult to achieve high plasma and tissue concentrations rapidly when these routes are used.
Traditionally, many physicians have been reluctant to inject diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine, and promethazine, have a
epinephrine in middle-aged or older patients with anaphylaxis poor benefit/risk ratio.182,184 When self-administered in patients
because of concerns regarding cardiac adverse effects. In fact, the with anaphylaxis, these medications potentially impair self-recog-
heart is a potential target organ in anaphylaxis. In healthy people nition of symptoms. When given to a child, they potentially compli-
mast cells are present throughout the myocardium (between cate interpretation of CNS symptoms and signs, such as drowsiness.
myocardial fibers, around blood vessels, and in the coronary An H1-antihistamine might be useful as an adjunctive measure to
artery intima).72,97 In patients with coronary artery disease, the relieve residual hives that have not disappeared after epinephrine in-
number and density of cardiac mast cells is increased because jection (Table XII).153,183
mast cells are also present in atherosclerotic plaques, where b2-Adrenergic agonists do not have a vasoconstrictor effect and
they contribute to atherogenesis.97 Histamine, leukotrienes, plate- do not decrease mucosal edema, prevent or relieve upper airway
let-activating factor, and other mediators released after mast cell obstruction, hypotension or shock. They are potentially useful
stimulation potentially lead to coronary artery spasm.97 Patients when administered by nebulization as an adjunctive measure to
with anaphylaxis can present with acute coronary syndrome sec- relieve residual bronchospasm that has not disappeared after epi-
ondary to either vasospasm or acute plaque rupture and thrombus nephrine injection (Table XII).154
formation. In patients with coronary artery disease, the use of ep- Glucocorticoids are traditionally given to prevent and relieve
inephrine requires caution; however, concerns about its potential biphasic or protracted anaphylaxis (Table XII).185
adverse effects need to be weighed against the cardiac risks of un- Emergency preparedness in the community: Addi-
treated anaphylaxis and the knowledge that epinephrine injection tional measures. Almost 40% of persons at risk of anaphy-
usually enhances blood flow in the coronary arteries because its laxis in the community reportedly use a written anaphylaxis
b2-adrenergic action leads to increased myocardial contractility emergency action plan.178 Most plans list common symptoms
and increased duration of diastole compared with systole and signs of anaphylaxis and emphasize the importance of using
(Table X).24,25,97,161,162 the epinephrine autoinjector promptly and of calling 911 or
Other medications. More than 40 H1-antihistamines are emergency medical services promptly (download from
available for use,182 and many of these medications are recommen- www.aaaai.org).69,186 Plans should be personalized for each
ded for use in anaphylaxis; in some anaphylaxis guidelines, dosage at-risk patient by listing comorbidities and concurrent medica-
regimens are provided for up to 7 different H1-antihistamines. H1- tions, describing the epinephrine autoinjector and dose pre-
antihistamines do not prevent or relieve upper or lower airway ob- scribed for the patient, and providing appropriate contact
struction, hypotension or shock.182,183 After oral administration, telephone numbers, such as those of family members.69,186 Plans
their onset of action ranges from 1 to 3 hours.182 The rapid improve- need to be updated and discussed with the patient, and if rele-
ment in symptoms sometimes attributed to oral H1-antihistamines vant, his or her caregivers, on a regular basis. Formal evaluation
likely reflects spontaneous resolution of the anaphylactic episode. of the clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness of these plans is
First-generation, potentially sedating H1-antihistamines, such as needed.187
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S175
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
Strength of C C C C
recommendation*
Pharmacologic effects At H1-receptor At H2-receptor At b2-receptor Y Late-phase allergic
Y Gastric acid secretion response to allergen
Y Itch (skin, mucus membranes) Y Vascular permeability [ Bronchodilation
Y Flush Y Hypotension
Y Hives Y Flushing
Y Sneezing Y Headache
Y Rhinorrhea Y Tachycardia
Y Chronotropic and
inotropic activity
Y Mucus production
(airway)
Practical aspects Y Itch and hives but not life- Small additive effect Y Wheeze, cough, and Effects take several hours;
saving in anaphylaxis (10% or so) when used shortness of breath but used to prevent
in conjunction with an do not Y upper airway biphasic or protracted
H1-antihistamine for obstruction or relieve anaphylaxis; however,
Y in vascular hypotension and are not there is no evidence
permeability, life-saving in from high-quality
Y flushing, and anaphylaxis randomized controlled
Y hypotension trials that this occurs.
Potential adverse effects First-generation drugs cause Ranitidine: unlikely Tremor, tachycardia, Unlikely to occur during a
(usual doses) sedation and impair cognitive cimetidine: potentially dizziness, jitteriness short 1- to 3-day course
function. causes hypotension if
infused rapidly
Potential adverse effects Coma, respiratory depression Unlikely Headache, hypokalemia Unlikely
(overdose)
Comment Many different H1-antihistamines Not mentioned in most Deliver by nebulization Different glucocorticoids
and different dose regimens are anaphylaxis guidelines; and face mask. and different dose
listed as adjunctive an H2-antihistamine regimens are used;
medications in anaphylaxis should not be used these medications are
guidelines. alone in anaphylaxis; if unlikely to play a role
used, it should be given in the initial minutes to
with an H1- hours of an
antihistamine. anaphylactic episode.
There are no randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of any of these medications in the treatment of acute anaphylaxis episodes. The route of administration of
H1-antihistamines and glucocorticoids depends on the severity of the anaphylaxis episode. Adapted from reference 153.
*For use in anaphylaxis.
Those at risk for anaphylaxis in the community should wear autoinjector correctly and safely, call for help, transfer the patient
medical identification jewelry that provides worldwide access to a to a health care facility, and also to recommend follow-up,
patient registry service 24 hours a day, 365 days of the year, so that preferably with an allergy/immunology specialist. Examples of
health care professionals treating them can obtain relevant specific education projects are those focusing on anaphylaxis
information about their triggers, concomitant diseases, and con- after omalizumab injection in a physician’s office,190 and on fol-
current medications if needed. An anaphylaxis wallet card listing low-up of patients with anaphylaxis who are treated in the emer-
relevant confirmed triggers, concomitant diseases, and concurrent gency department.191 Many patients discharged from an
medications is available at www.aaaai.org.69,153 emergency department after anaphylaxis treatment still do not re-
An approach to anaphylaxis education for health care profes- ceive a prescription for self-injectable epinephrine or a referral to
sionals, people at risk of anaphylaxis and their caregivers, and the a specialist physician.192 Lack of access to epinephrine autoinjec-
general public is outlined in Table XIII.69,153,188,189 The consis- tors for children experiencing anaphylaxis in schools remains a
tent message in anaphylaxis education should be that anaphylaxis concern.188,189,193,194
is potentially a killer allergy, not a trivial lifestyle disease, and that
prompt treatment is life-saving.69,153 EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE
Anaphylaxis education projects are now becoming a priority in ANAPHYLAXIS IN A HEALTH CARE FACILITY
some communities. The main goal of these efforts is to teach Emergency management of anaphylaxis in a health care facility
people to act promptly, recognize anaphylaxis, use an epinephrine is reviewed in depth elsewhere.154,155,163,164 In any physician’s
S176 SIMONS J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
FEBRUARY 2010
TABLE XIV. Reasons for lack of randomized controlled trials in patients with anaphylaxis
Anaphylactic episodes are unpredictable.
Anaphylaxis commonly occurs in community settings (eg, home, restaurant, and school).
Baseline measurements of vital signs and oxygenation are often not available.
Symptoms and signs vary from one person to another and from one episode to another, even in the same person, with regard to time of onset after exposure to
trigger (minutes to hours), body organ systems involved, severity, and duration.
Symptoms sometimes resolve spontaneously because of endogenous production of epinephrine, endothelin I, and angiotensin II.
Randomized placebo-controlled trials would be unethical for epinephrine, although randomized placebo-controlled trials of H1-antihistamines, H2-
antihistamines, and glucocorticoids might be conducted in the future.
Rarely, even with prompt and optimal treatment and monitoring, anaphylaxis can be fatal.
office or clinic where allergen skin tests or allergen challenge/ is appropriate), and placing the patient on the back or in a position
provocation tests are performed or allergen-specific immunotherapy, of comfort with the lower extremities elevated.154,155,166,195 Ad-
anti-IgE antibody injections or vaccine injections are given, it is ministration of supplemental oxygen by face mask at a rate of
important to develop and rehearse an anaphylaxis management at least 6 to 8 L/min, airway management, and insertion of 1 or
plan, train the staff, and ensure availability of essential medica- more large-bore (no. 14 or 16) needles or intravenous catheters
tions (within expiry date), as well as essential supplies and for infusion of large volumes of fluid, such as 0.5 to 1 L of
equipment.195 0.9% (isotonic) saline in 5 to 10 minutes to an adult, should be
The basic principles of anaphylaxis management in a health performed if needed.154,155,163,195 Most anaphylaxis guidelines
care facility include rapid assessment of the patient’s airway, recommend administration of an adjunctive medication such as
breathing, circulation, and orientation/mentation; examination of an H1-antihistamine, a nebulized b2-adrenergic agonist, and a
the skin; and estimation of body weight/mass. Initial treatment glucocorticoid154,155,163-166 and some also recommend an H2-
involves discontinuing exposure to the trigger, if relevant (eg, antihistamine.163
discontinuing administration of an intravenous medication or It has also been suggested that epinephrine and other vaso-
biological agent), and then prompt and simultaneous intramus- pressors should be administered intravenously only by physicians
cular injection of epinephrine in a first-aid dose of 0.01 mg/kg to a who are trained, experienced, and equipped to administer these
maximum adult dose of 0.5 mg, calling for help (either a potent medications effectively and safely; that is, to titrate the rate
resuscitation team or 911/emergency medical services, whichever of infusion (preferably by using an infusion pump), according to
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL SIMONS S177
VOLUME 125, NUMBER 2
the patient’s hemodynamic response assessed by means of high-volume intravenous fluid resuscitation, as well as continu-
continuous, noninvasive cardiac and blood pressure monitoring ous noninvasive monitoring of heart rate, blood pressure, and
and pulse oximetry.154,155 If it is used, intravenous epinephrine oxygenation.154,155,163,164,166,190,195
should only be given by slow infusion (not a bolus) of a dilute so-
lution, 0.1 mg/mL (1:10,000) that is appropriate for intravenous The assistance of Ms Lori McNiven is gratefully acknowledged.
use, and not the concentrated 1 mg/mL (1:1,000) dilution that is
appropriate for intramuscular injection.154 Physician confusion
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leads to dosing errors and fatality.196 Existing studies do not per- eases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008;121(suppl):S402-7.
mit a conclusion with regard to whether any one vasopressor is su- 2. Sampson HA, Munoz-Furlong A, Campbell RL, Adkinson NF Jr, Bock SA, Bra-
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