UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

May 9, 2005
Date:___________________

Deepa Nair
I, _________________________________________________________,
hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of:
Master of Science
in:
Mechanical Engineering
It is entitled:
Gear Modeling By Simulating The Fabrication Process

This work and its defense approved by:

Dr. Ronald L. Huston

Chair: _______________________________
Dr. David F. Thompson
_______________________________
Dr. Richard L. Shell
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
 Gear Modeling By Simulating The Fabrication Process

A thesis submitted to the

Office of the Graduate School

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in the Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Nuclear Engineering

of the College of Engineering

2005

by

Deepa Nair

B.E., Osmania University, India, 2001

Committee Chair : Dr. Ronald L. Huston

 Abstract

One of the major impediments facing designers and engineers of power transmission and

gearing systems is the geometry of the gears themselves. Even for simple involute spur

gear pairs, the geometry is hardly trivial, and the geometric complexity increases

dramatically with helical, bevel and hypoid gears.

Now it appears it may not be necessary to master all the geometric details of involutes,

evolutes, envelopes, spirals, tip relief and crowning. With recent and current advances in

computer graphics, CAD/CAM and computer hardware, it has become possible to

develop models of gears by simulating the fabricating processes. In this thesis, a

mathematical basis for gear tooth modeling is presented, along with computer graphics

simulations of spur, helical, bevel and spiral bevel gears. With models like these, a

designer can now readily predict the responses of gears in field applications and

determine expected stresses, strains, deformation displacements and predict fatigue, life

and failure. But perhaps of even more importance is that non-standard tooth forms can

also be developed. Specifically, non-standard tooth forms can be developed such that

ideal tooth geometry is approached when the gears are under load. Such developments

can then also be used to determine the fabrication processes for these non-standard forms.
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Ronald L. Huston for being the guiding

force behind this thesis. His encouragement and guidance at all times has been

invaluable.

My sincere thanks to Dr. David F. Thompson, my academic advisor, who has always

supported, guided and encouraged me to achieve my professional goals.

I would also like to thank Dr. Richard L. Shell for serving on my thesis committee and

for his support and encouragement.

My thanks to Mechanical, Industrial and Nuclear Engineering department staff at the

University of Cincinnati for their timely assistance whenever I needed it. I would also

like to thank the staff at the Engineering Library at the University of Cincinnati for their

assistance in procuring reference books and papers.

Finally I would like to thank my parents who have provided me with opportunities to

seek knowledge. Without their blessing I would not have been able to pursue my

academic goals.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Title Pg. No.

A List of Figures 3

1 Computer Aided Design 4

1.1 Introduction 4

1.2 Definition of a CAD System 4

1.3 The Design Process 5

1.4 CAD and The Design Process 8

2 Computer Graphics 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 CAD Graphics Software 17

2.3 Functions of a CAD Graphics Software 19

3 Gear Modeling By Simulating The Fabrication Process 22

3.1 Introduction 22

3.2 Preliminary Concepts 23

3.3 Envelopes 24

3.4 Involutes 25

3.5 Evolutes 29

1
 Sr.No. Title Pg.No.

3.6 Envelopes/Involute Geometry of a Gear Blank 31

Rolling Over a Reciprocating Trapezoidal Cutter

3.7 Envelope of a Gear Blank Rolling Over a Wheel 33

With an Involute Tooth Form as Cutter

3.8 Computer Graphics Simulation 42

4 Summary and Conclusions 66

References 69

2
 LIST OF FIGURES

Sr.No. Title Pg.No

1.1 The General Design Process 7

1.2 Application of Computers to the Design Process 9

3.1 Gear Blank Meshing With a Reciprocating Rack Cutter 23

3.2 Involute Teeth on Gear Blank 23

3.3 A Plane Curve 24

3.4 A Family of Plane Curves and Its Envelope 24

3.5 Involute of a Circle Formed as a Locus 26

3.6 An Involute of a Circle 27

3.7 A Computer Generated Graph of an Involute 28

3.8 Center of Curvature of a Plane Curve 29

3.9 A Plastic Wheel Rolling Over a Rigid Step 31

3.10 A Gear Blank Rolling on a Wheel With a Reciprocating Cutter 34

3.11 Axes Generated by Rolling Disks 35

3.12 A Gear Blank Rolling Over a Rack Cutter (Front view) 43

3.13 A Gear Blank Rolling Over a Rack Cutter (Isometric view) 44

3.14-3.17 Spur Gear 45

3.18-3.21 Helical Gear 49

3.22-3.28 Bevel Gear 53

3.29-3.34 Spiral Bevel Gear 60

3
 Chapter 1

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

1.1 Introduction: In recent years the computer has become a powerful tool in design and

manufacture. CAD/CAM systems (Computer Aided Designing and Computer Aided

Manufacturing) have revolutionized the design and manufacturing industry by increasing

design accuracy, reducing lead times and improving overall engineering productivity.

1.2 Definition of a CAD System: Computer Aided Design can be defined as any type of

design activity which makes use of the computer to develop, analyze, or modify an

engineering design. [1] Hardware for a CAD system typically consists of a computer,

graphics display unit, keyboards and other peripherals. CAD software consists of

computer programs to implement computer graphics on the system plus application

programs to facilitate the engineering functions of the user company.[1] Most of the

application programs are generally stress-strain analyses of components, dynamic

response of mechanisms, part programming for CNC machines or heat transfer

calculations.

There are several fundamental reasons for implementing a computer-aided design system:

[1]

1. To improve legibility: A CAD system permits more standardization in the

drawings, better documentation of the design, greater legibility and

portability.

4
 2. To increase the productivity of the designer: The productivity of the designer

can be enhanced by helping him visualize the product and its component

subassemblies and parts; and by reducing the time required to create the

design, analyze and document it. Improving productivity can in turn reduce

design costs and shorten project completion times.

3. To improve the quality of design: Performing a thorough engineering analysis

and investigation of several alternative designs is comparatively easy when a

CAD system is used. The greater accuracy provided by the system also

ensures that design errors are reduced.

4. To create a database for manufacturing: A large part of the database required

to manufacture the product is created in the process of documenting the

product design, for example the dimensions and geometries of the product and

its components, material specifications of the parts, bill of materials etc.

1.3 The Design Process: The process of designing begins when there is a need. It may be

the need for a new product, an improvement over an existing product or correction of

a defect in an existing product. According to Shigley, [2] the design process is an

iterative process which consists of six steps:

1 Recognition of need

2 Definition of problem

3 Synthesis

4 Analysis and optimization

5 Evaluation

5
6 Presentation

As mentioned earlier, the entire designing process begins when there is a recognized

need, such as the need for a new product, an improvement over an existing design or

correction of defects in components. Identification of need is the very first step of the

design process. Problem definition is the detailed specification of all aspects of the design

to be implemented, which can include physical features, functional characteristics,

performance criteria etc. In the synthesis phase the designer creates the model as per the

specifications. He then proceeds to analyze it, make any necessary corrections and

improvements over the original model, and redesign it. This process is repeated until an

optimum design is achieved within the constraints. In the evaluation phase the design is

checked to see if it matches the original specifications mentioned in the problem

definition stage. Often a prototype is built to assess various performance criteria.

Presentation is the final phase of the design process. It includes the creation of a design

database containing design drawings, material specifications, assembly lists etc. [1]

6
 Recognition of
need

Definition of
problem

Synthesis

Analysis and
Optimization

Evaluation

Presentation

Figure 1.1 The general design process according to Shigley [2]

7
1.4 CAD And The Design Process: The accuracy of several phases of the conventional

design process can be enhanced by the use of a CAD system. According to Groover and

Zimmers [1] the various design related tasks which are performed by a modern CAD

system can be classified into four functional areas mentioned below: [1]

1. Geometric modeling

2. Engineering Analysis

3. Design review and evaluation

4. Automated drafting

These four functional areas compare with the last four stages of Shigley’s model of

general design. Geometric modeling is comparable to the synthesis stage in which the

actual physical design is created on the graphics unit. Engineering analysis can be

compared to the analysis and optimization stage. Design review and evaluation is similar

to the evaluation stage in Shigley’s model. Automated drafting corresponds to the

presentation stage in which engineering drawings are created directly from the CAD

database.

8
 The Design Process Computer Aided Design

Recognition of
need

Problem
definition

Synthesis Geometric
modeling

Analysis and Engineering

Optimization analysis

Evaluation Design review

and evaluation

Presentation Automated
drafting

Figure 1.2 Application of computers to the design process

9
Geometric Modeling: In CAD, geometric modeling alludes to the physical generation of

the design model on the ICG (Integrated Computer Graphics) unit. It deals with the

mathematical description of the geometry of an object, which is computer compatible.

This type of mathematical description enables the designer to manipulate and display the

image of the object on an integrated computer graphics unit using CAD system

commands. In geometric modeling a designer basically uses three types of commands.

The first type of command produces basic geometric entities like lines, curves, circles etc.

The second class of commands is used to modify, scale and transform these entities to

solid models or any other desired way of representing the object. Cutting, extruding,

chamfering and other operations can be carried out on the model. The third class of

commands can accomplish the assembly of various elements to create the desired shape

of the object, part or sub assembly of components. In geometric modeling, the object can

be represented as a two dimensional model, a wire frame model, or a three dimensional

solid model, which is the most advanced way of representation.

Engineering Analysis: Almost all engineering design projects involve some type of

analysis. Some of the more common analyses like stress-strain calculations, heat transfer

computations etc. can be performed using commercially available program packages. But

in most cases, it becomes necessary for the analysis group to develop specific programs

to solve a particular design problem. Most modern CAD/CAM systems do have or can be

interfaced to engineering analysis software to analyze a given design model. Two

examples of this are : [1]

10
Analysis of mass properties

Finite-element analysis

Analysis of mass properties feature allows a CAD system to provide properties of a

design model being analyzed, such as surface area, weight, volume, center of gravity and

moment of inertia.[1] Finite element analysis is a technique in which the object is

divided into several finite (generally triangular or rectangularly shaped) elements with

interconnected nodes. By analyzing the behavior (like stress-strain effects) at one node

and determining the interrelating behavior at all the other nodes, the behavior of the

entire system can be assessed. Some CAD systems also have the capacity to

automatically define the nodes and network structure for the given object. The output of

an analysis can be displayed in several ways. For example, the deflected object in stress-

strain analyses can be shown superimposed over its unstressed image.

Design Review And Evaluation: Once the design is created, checking its accuracy is

relatively easy on a CAD system. Most of them have semiautomatic dimensioning and

tolerancing capabilities which minimize dimensional errors by assigning size

specifications to surfaces indicated by the user. The designer also has the freedom to

zoom in on any part design details and magnify the image for further scrutiny.[1]

Commonly used procedures for design review are layering, interference checking and

simulation. Layering involves superimposing the geometric image of the final shape over

the rough casting to ensure that there is enough material on the casting to accomplish the

final machined dimensions.[1] Interference checking is performed to make sure that

11
components of the assembly do not occupy the same space. Some simulation packages

enable the designer to animate the motion of simple mechanisms. This improves the

visualization and helps the designer recognize and make any necessary design

improvements.

Automatic Drafting: Automated drafting involves converting the design image data

present in the CAD database to hard-copy engineering drawings. Some of the features of

a CAD system like automatic dimensioning, scaling of the drawing, capability to perform

transformations, generation of sectional views or enlarged views of a particular part all

help immensely in the drafting process. The drawing can also be made to adhere to

company drafting standards by programming the standards into the CAD system. [1]

12
 Chapter 2

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

2.1 Introduction: Computer graphics refers to any program that enables a computer to

generate, display and manipulate pictures. It also refers to images thus generated.

Computer graphics has come a long way from being a mere picture-making tool to the

point that reconfigurable models have immense predictive power. It now has myriad

applications in fields like education, training, computer aided design, scientific

visualization, entertainment etc. Computer graphics mainly consists of:

1. Imaging

2. Modeling

3. Rendering

4. Animation

Imaging: Computer imaging refers to the two-dimensional representation of objects.

The two basic ways of representing the images are :

a) Raster Graphics

b) Vector Graphics

Raster graphics, commonly known as bit map images makes use of a pattern of dots

to define an object. Vector graphics uses geometrical formulae to represent images.

Programs that support raster graphics are called paint programs whereas the ones that

support vector graphics are called draw programs.[13] Most advanced CAD systems

13
and animation software packages make use of vector graphics since vector-oriented

images are easier to resize and manipulate. They look better on display units and

output devices with a higher resolution and require less memory than bit-mapped

images. Bit map images look the same irrespective of a device’s resolution. Almost

all output devices like dot-matrix printers, laser printer, display monitors etc. are

raster devices which necessitates the conversion of even vector graphics images into

bit-maps before being output. However such conversions are generally performed

after all size and resolution specifications have been met. [13]

Modeling: Modeling refers to the three-dimensional (3D) representation of real world

objects or phenomena on a computer, using a set of mathematical equations. All 3D

applications like CAD/ CAM and animation software perform modeling. Techniques

that make use of polygons, primitives and smooth patches are all used to represent a

3D geometric model, each of which is briefly described below.

The classic method for modeling a 3D geometry is by the use of polygons. The object

is described by a set of interconnected polygons called a polygonal mesh. Each

polygon is represented by the 3D coordinates of its vertices. Usually triangles are

used for the sake of simplicity. However, the use of triangles makes an image appear

angular and flat. Generally techniques like smoothing and interpolation are used to

overcome this problem. [14]

14
 Primitives are geometric entities that can be directly used for modeling, for example,

cylinders, cones, cubes and spheres.

Complex mathematical entities are needed to represent complex smooth surfaces and

objects. Spline patches and NURBS (Non Uniform Rational B Splines) are the popular

choices. They are more difficult to manipulate because it is not possible to control the

surface directly. One can only manipulate the control points that are indirectly related to

the final shape.

Rendering: 3D modeling relies on a mathematical description of an object suitable for

graphical representation. Rendering refers to the process of projecting a 3D model to

compute a 2D image from a given viewpoint. It involves projecting the object

(perspective), controlling visibility (which parts of object are hidden) and handling

lighting interactions and appearance. [14].

One advanced technique for rendering graphics is called ray tracing. Ray tracing

involves simulating the path of a single light ray as it is absorbed or reflected by the

objects in the scene. It deals with manipulating realistic features like shadows, color

intensity variations, multiple specular reflections and texture mapping.

Another type of rendering technique is called scanline rendering, in which an image is

rendered one vertical line at a time instead of object-by-object as in ray tracing. [15]

Scanline rendering is considerably faster than ray tracing but the image quality is not as

15
good. Ray tracing is generally used for still images whereas scanline rendering is used in

animation sequences where the speed of rendering takes precedence over image quality

of each frame.

Animation: Animation refers to the process of creating an illusion of motion on a

computer, by projecting a series of slightly different images in a sequential manner, over

a short period of time. In an animated sequence, each individual image must blend

smoothly with the others to create a continuous motion. Animations are created by

drawing images at certain key points in the motion. These drawings are called key frames.

A process called in-betweening is used to fill in images between key frames to complete

the sequence. [16]

Several different techniques are used to create a complex animated sequence. The

techniques can be broadly classified as dealing with: a) 2D animation, b) 3D animation.

Techniques used in 2D animation focus on image manipulation while the ones used in 3D

animation focus on motion generation and control.

a) 2D Animation: 2D animation deals with the modeling and rendering of

static frames. The techniques used for this provide the tools necessary for

a variety of tasks in 3D animation like blending or morphing between

images, generating motion sequences using mathematical equations,

embedding graphical objects in video footages etc. [16] Morphing refers

to the process in which the image of one object is metamorphosed into

another. Embedding is a method by which objects can be added or

16
 removed from a scene. Motion generation sequences frequently make use

of mathematical equations to do so.

b) 3D Animation: 3D animation techniques enable an animator to model

objects and simulate their motion. This is accomplished in three stages

namely, modeling, rendering and animation. Modeling deals with the

mathematical description of the elements in a scene. Rendering involves

the creation of images from the description and adding realistic features

like shadows, variations in color intensity etc. Animation deals with

simulating the motion of the object or image.

2.2 CAD Graphics Software: Graphics software is a collection of programs that are

used for constructing, simulating, rendering and perceiving the shape and behavior of

a broad range of physical objects and their motion. CAD software, apart from

including all the functions of conventional graphics software also includes additional

programs to implement certain specialized functions related to CAD/CAM. Design

analysis software like finite element analysis, kinematic simulation etc., and

manufacturing planning programs like CNC part programming and automated

process planning fall in this category. In the following paragraphs, a few aspects of

graphics software relevant to a CAD system are discussed.

17
Graphics software can be subdivided into the following parts: [1],[3]

1) Graphics package

2) Application program

3) Application database

The graphics package acts as an interface between the user and the application software.

There are input subroutines and output subroutines in a graphics package. [1] Input

subroutines help in routing the commands and data the user enters, to the application

program in order to accomplish a task. Output subroutines display the data from the

application program on the graphics display unit either in two or three-dimensional form

as specified by the user.

Application programs are typically written for particular problem areas. They are

equipped to deal with the design conventions and graphical images of a particular field.

They are used by the designer to model and view a physical entity or phenomena on a

graphics unit. Such models are sometimes called application models. Typical problem

areas in which application programs are frequently used include engineering design,

mathematical analysis, flight simulation etc.

Application database stores all the mathematical, logical and numerical descriptions of an

application model like electronic circuits, mechanical components etc. A CAD database

would typically contain application models, designs drawings, assemblies and

alphanumeric information like bills of materials, application-specific properties like

18
material properties and other data. [1] This information is stored in computer memory

(primary storage) and secondary storage.

2.3 Functions of a CAD Graphics Package: A graphics package performs several

different types of functions. These functions can be grouped into function sets as

mentioned below:
1)
Generation of graphic elements1

2) Construction of application models

3) Motion generation

4) Segmenting functions1

5) Transformations1

6) Display control1

Generation of Graphic Elements: Generation of graphic elements is the most basic

function of a graphics package. A graphic element is any basic picture-making entity

like a point, a line segment or basic shapes like rectangles, circles etc. All two-

dimensional modeling packages make use of these basic graphics elements to depict

an object on the graphics display unit. In three-dimensional modeling, geometric

entities that can be used directly to construct models are known as primitives. Ergo,

primitives are also graphic elements. Typical primitives are cubes, cones, cylinders

and spheres.

19
Construction of Application Models: A graphics package uses basic graphic

elements or primitives as the building blocks to construct an application model. Most

models constructed on advanced CAD systems are three-dimensional reconfigurable

models that have great predictive power. Designers use these models to study

(perform analysis) and modify their designs, and guide in the manufacturing process

(CAM).

Motion Generation: Every time-dependent activity in the real world may be depicted

as an animated routine on a graphics work station. Earlier keyframe and interpolation

techniques were used to depict motion in animated sequences. These techniques

however, rely on drawings of images at key points and other techniques to create an

illusion of motion. They may or may not be totally accurate according to physical

laws. In order to obtain a graphics simulation of the motion as realistically as

possible, most modern computer simulation packages use complex physical laws to

compute motion. There is an increasing dependence on mathematical representation

and physical laws to achieve realism of motion in graphics simulation.

Segmenting Functions: Improving a design entails changing certain aspects of an

existing one. One of the key features a graphics software provides is the option to

modify a design. In order to be able to modify a design, it is necessary to ‘segment’ it.

The term ‘segment’ alludes to that particular portion of an image, which has been

identified for modification. It may be a single element or a group of elements.

20
Segmenting allows a user to selectively replace, omit or otherwise edit parts of an

image or design model.

Transformations: Several editing features involve transformations of the graphics

elements, groups of such elements or sometimes even the whole model.

Transformations include repositioning the image (translation), rotation and

enlargement or reduction of the image by a process called scaling. [1] These methods

are used edit the image on the graphics display unit and to reposition it in the

database. Transformations also help the designer in constructing an application

model.

Display Control: This function enables the user to generate different views of the

image. The designer can control the magnification and angle in which the image is

viewed. In wire frame modeling or 2D representation, the designer also has the option

of choosing to hide or show hidden lines. Hidden lines represent the edges or sides

that are not visible from the angle the object is being viewed.

21
 Chapter 3

GEAR MODELING BY SIMULATING THE FABRICATION PROCESS

3.1 Introduction: One of the major impediments facing designers and engineers of

power transmission and gearing systems is the geometry of the gears themselves. Even

for simple involute spur gear pairs, the geometry is hardly trivial, and the geometric

complexity increases dramatically with helical, bevel and hypoid gears.

Now it appears it may not be necessary to master all the geometric details of involutes,

evolutes, envelopes, spirals, tip relief and crowing. With recent and current advances in

computer graphics, CAD/CAM and computer hardware, it has become possible to

develop models of gears by simulating the fabricating processes. With these models an

analyst can now readily predict the responses of gears in field applications and determine

expected stresses, strains, deformation displacements and predict fatigue, life and failure.

Even the most complex of geometries (e.g. spiral bevel, hypoid and worm gears) can now

be modeled by simulating the fabrication process.

But perhaps of even more importance is that non-standard tooth forms can also be

developed. Specifically, non-standard tooth forms can be developed such that ideal tooth

geometry is approached when the gears are under load. Such developments can then also

be used to determine the fabrication processes for these non-standard forms.

22
3.2 Preliminary Concepts: Milling and hobbing are common methods of gear

manufacture, particularly spur gears. With spur gear hobbing a gear blank is rotated

across a reciprocating cutter as a gear would mesh with a rack, as represented in Figure

3.1

Figure 3.1 Gear blank meshing with a reciprocating rack

cutter

The envelope, in the gear blank, of the positions of the cutter creates the tooth form. If the

cutter is in the shape of a trapezoid, or a series of identical trapezoids, the teeth cut on the

gear blank will have an involute geometry as illustrated in Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 Involute teeth on gear blank

23
3.3 Envelopes:

The geometry and analysis of envelopes as with that of the rack cutter has been long

established. [5]

Analytically, the analysis procedure is simple: suppose a plane curve is described in the

X-Y coordinate plane as y=f(x) as represented in Figure 3.3

Figure 3.3 A plane curve

Suppose further that this curve is translated and rotated across the plane with the locus of

positions creating a family of plane curves.

Figure 3.4. Family of plane curves and its envelope.

24
This family of curves may in turn be described by a parameter t which determines the

movement of the generated curve across the plane. Analytically, the family may be

expressed as:

Y= f(x,t) or F(x,y,t)=0 (1)

Next, observe in Figure 3.4 that the boundary of the family forms a curve called the

“envelope” of the family. The equation of the envelope is readily obtained by

differentiating F in Equation (1) relative to ‘t’ leading to

∂F ( x, y, t ) / ∂t = 0 or G (x,y,t) = 0 (2)

The combination of Equations (1) and (2) then determine the envelope.

3.4 Involutes:

As noted above and as illustrated in Figures 3.1 and 3.2, an involute curve as a tooth form

is the envelope of the trapezoidal curve for the rotating /rolling gear blank. Involute

shaped gear teeth have been used for hundreds of years [circa 1750, see Ref. 9] and

continue to modern times to be the shape of choice –especially for spur gears. The

popularity of the involute form stems from: 1) ease of manufacture; 2) uniform pressure

angle throughout the engagement of meshing teeth; and 3) maintenance of conjugate

action even with minor changes in center distance between the gears.

Involutes are probably easiest to visualize as the locus end of a cord unwrapped away

from a surface. For gears that surface in a cylinder the profile becomes the base circle for

the gear.

25
 Figure 3.5 Involute of a circle formed as the locus of the end of
an unwrapping cord

There are a variety of analytical expressions for the involute of a circle. [10] A simple

and useful parametric representation can be obtained from Figure 3.6 where C is the base

circle, with radius r and I is its involute curve. Let P be a typical point on I with

coordinates (x,y) relative to the X-Y axes originating at O, the center of C. Since I is

formed by unwrapping a cord about C, let T be the point of the cord at C which is about

to be unwrapped. Then the segment TP (or vector TP) is found to be both tangent to C at

T and perpendicular to I at P. Let p be the position vector locating P relative to O.

26
 Figure 3.6 An involute of a circle

Then p may be expressed in terms of X, Y directed unit vectors as:

p = x nx + y n y

But also from Figure (4) we see that p may be expressed as :

P = OT+TP = r nr + r φ nφ (4)

Where nr and nφ are radial and tangential unit vector and φ is the included angle between

OT and the Y axis. [The last term in Equation (4) is obtained by observing that the length

of TP is the length of the unwrapped cord along the arc C from T to the Y-axis.]

The unit vectors nr and nφ may be expressed in terms of nx and ny as:

nr = sinφ nx + cosφ ny

nφ = - cosφ nx + sinφ ny (5)

27
Then by substituting into Equation (4) and by comparing with Equation (3) we obtain the

parametric representation of I as :

x = r sin φ − rφ cos φ

y = r cos φ + rφ sin φ (6)

Figure (5) contains a computer generated graph of Equations (6)

200

100

0 x

-100

-200

-100 0 100 200

Figure 3.7 A computer generated graph of an involute as represented by
equation (6)

28
3.5 Evolutes:

An evolute of a curve is the locus of the centers of curvature of the curve. For a circle the

evolute is simply a point: the circle center. For a line, the evolute is a parallel line

infinitely far away. For an ellipse the evolute is a smaller concentric ellipse. For an

involute of a circle the evolute is the circle itself – as is seen from the construction of the

involute in Figure 3.5. The center of curvature, and hence, the evolute, of a general plane

curve is readily obtained by determining the radius of curvature of the curve and the

normal direction of the curve as represented in Figure 3.8

Figure 3.8 Center of curvature of a plane curve

Specifically, suppose a plane curve C is defined by the parametric equations

x = x (t) and y = y (t) (7)

Then the radius of curvature ρ of C at a typical point P of C is: [Ref 6 and 11]

ρ=
(x 2
t )
+ y t2 2
3

(8)
y tt xt − xtt y t

29
where the subscript tt indicates differentiation with respect to the parameter t.

A unit vector τ tangent to C at P is

(x n + y n )
t x t y
τ= (9)
(x + y )2
t
2
t
1
2

where nx and ny are unit vectors parallel to the X and Y axes of Figure 3.8. Similarly, a

unit vector η normal to C and directed toward the center of curvature Q of C at P is:

(x n − y n )
t y t x
η= (10)
(x + y )
2
t
2
t
1
2

If Q is a center of curvature of C it is then a point on the evolute of C. Using Equations

(8) and (10) we can locate Q relative to the origin O of the X-Y axes system of Figure

6 by the position vector pQ as:

pQ = p + ρ η = xQnx+yQny (11)

where p locates P relative to O and (xQ,yQ) are the X-Y coordinates of Q. By comparison

of Equations (8), (10), and (11) we see that xQ and yQ are

xQ = ( x − y )
(x 2
t + y t2 )
and yQ = (xt + y )
(
xt2 + y t2 ) (12)
t
(x yt tt − y t xtt ) (x t ytt − yt x tt )

30
 3.6 Envelope/Involute Geometry of a Gear Blank Rolling Over a Reciprocating

Trapezoidal Cutter

In view of Figures 3.1 and 3.2 consider again a wheel W rolling over a step S as in Figure

3.9. If W is perfectly plastic and if S is perfectly rigid, then as W rolls over S, S will

leave an imprint in W, which can partially be described by the envelope in W of the

leading line L along S.

Figure 3.9 A plastic wheel rolling over a rigid step.

To develop this let (xW,yW) and (x,y) be the coordinates of a point relative to axes

systems XW – YW and X-Y fixed in W, and in the fixed frame R in which W moves (see

Figure 3.9). Then these coordinates are related by the expressions below, [6]

31
 x = rα + xW cos α + yW sin α

and

y = r – xW sin α + yW cos α (14)

where r is the radius of W and α is the angle turned through by W as it rolls along the X-

axis toward S.

The equation of L in R is simply

y = (x – xs) tan φ = 0 (15)

where xs is the x coordinate of the intersection of L and the X-axis (see Figure 3.9), and φ

is the complement of the pressure angle. Then by substituting from Equations (13) and

(14) into (15) we have

yW (cos α – tan φ sin α) – xW (sin α + tan φ cos α)

(16)
+ r + (xs – rα) tan φ = 0

or

F(xW,yW,α) = 0 (17)

Equation (17) may be viewed as defining a series of lines in W, as the locations of line L

at various rotation angles α of W. In view of Equation (2), if we differentiate Equation

(17) [or (16)] with respect to α we obtain the envelope of the lines in W. Specifically,

∂F
= 0 = y w (− sin α − tan φ cos α ) − x w (cos α − tan φ sin α ) − r tan φ (18)
∂α

By solving equations (16) and (18) for xw and yw, we obtain the equations for the

envelope as:

32
 x w = r sin α + ( x s − rα ) sin φ sin(α + φ ) (19)

and

y w = −r cos α − ( x s − rα ) sin φ cos(α − φ ) (20)

To verify that equations (19) and (20) define an involute in W we can use equations (12)

to find the evolute (locus of centers of curvature) of the curve. Specifically by

substituting from equations (19) and (20) into (12) we see (after simplification) that

xQ2 + y Q2 = r 2 sin 2 φ = r 2 cos 2 θ (21)

Where θ is the pressure angle. Hence the evolute is a circle centered at Ow and with

radius rcos θ , the base circle radius.

3.7 Envelope of a Gear Blank Rolling Over a Wheel With An Involute Tooth Form

As Cutter

Gear fabrication processes show that conjugate tooth forms can be generated by meshing

gear blanks with rotating reciprocating cutters simulating the meshing gear .The

foregoing example represents a gear blank meshing with a rack. To illustrate the concept

further consider a gear blank rolling over a wheel containing a reciprocating cutter in the

form of an involute tooth as in Figure 3.10, where W1 is the blank and W2 contains the

tooth form cutter. Let W1 and W2 roll on each other on their pitch circles and let the cutter

tooth form of W2 arise from its base circle. Let X1-Y1 and X2-Y2 be axes fixed in W1 and

W2 as in Figure 3.10

33
 Figure 3.10 A gear blank rolling on a wheel with a reciprocating cutter in
the form of an involute gear tooth

Consider the geometry of this rolling/cutting process, r1 and r2 are the pitch circle radii of

W1 and W2. If the cutter tooth has an involute and the pressure angle of the fabricated

gear is to be θ then the base circle radii of the gear blank W1 and cutter wheel W2 are

r1b = r1 cos θ and r2b = r2 cos θ (22)

34
Let O1 and O2 be the centers of W1 and W2 and let L be the line connecting O1 and O2. If

W1 is envisioned to roll on W2 , then the X2-Y2 axes of W2 will remain stationary

(horizontal and vertical) as the X1-Y1 axes rotate and become inclined as in Figure 12.Let

α be the rotation angle between the axes systems. Correspondingly let γ1and γ2 be the

angles between L and the Y1and Y2 axes respectively as shown . Then we have the simple

relations

α = γ1 +γ 2 (23)

Figure 3.11 Axes generated by rolling disks

35
Finally, Let P be a typical point on the planes of W1 and W2 with coordinates (x1,y1) and

(x2,y2) relative to the X1-Y1 and X2-Y2 systems. Then it is readily seen that these

coordinates are related by the expressions:

x1 = (r1 + r2 ) sin γ 1 + x 2 cos α − y 2 sin α (24)

y1 = −(γ 1 + γ 2 ) cos γ 1 + x 2 sin α + y 2 cos α

and

x 2 = (r1 + r2 ) sin γ 2 + x1 cos α + y1 sin α

y 2 = (γ 1 + γ 2 ) cos γ 2 − x1 sin α + y1 cos α (25)

Let the involute tooth form extending from the base circle of W2 be represented by

parametric equations as in Equation (6). If we were to eliminate the parameter φ between

the equations we would have a representation of the form;

y 2 = f ( x2 ) (26)

Then by substituting for x2 and y2 from Equations (25) into (26) we obtain an equation of

the form:

F ( x1 , y1 , α ) = 0 (27)

The envelope, or impression, of the tooth form in W1 is then given by Equation (27) and

the expression:

∂F ∂α = 0 (28)

To develop the envelope equations in more detail, we can substitute from Equations (25)

into (26) yielding

36
 (r1 + r2 ) cos γ 2 − x1 sin α + y1 cos α = f [(r1 + r 2 ) sin γ 2 + x1 cos α + y1 sin α ] (29)

Note that γ2 may be expressed in terms of α by using Equation (23) and the rolling

condition of W1 on W2 so that

r1γ 1 = r2γ 2 (30)

Hence, from Equations (23) and (30) we obtain

γ 1 = r1α /(r1 + r2 ) and γ 2 = r2α /(r1 + r2 ) (31)

Equation (29) then becomes:

(r1 + r2 ) cos[r1α /( r1 + r2 )] − x1 sin α + y1 cos α

= f [(r1 + r2 ) sin[ r1α /( r1 + r2 )] + x1 sin α + y1 sin α (32)

In view of Equation (28), by differentiating in Equation (32) we have,

− r1 sin[ r1α /( r1 + r2 )] − x1 cos α − y1 sin α = (df / dx 2 )[r1 cos[r1 α /( r1 + r2 )] − x1 sin α + y1 cos α

(33)

We can write this expression in more compact form in terms of x2 and y2 by using

Equations (25) and (31) leading to:

37
r2 sin[ r1α /( n + r2 )] − x 2 = (df / dx 2 ){−r2 cos[r1α /( r1 + r2 )] + y 2 } (34)

Next, observe from Equations (6) that the involute tooth extending from the base circle of

W2 may be expressed by the parametric equations:

x 2 = r2b sin ϕ − r2bφ cos φ

y 2 = r2b cos φ + r2bφ sin φ (35)

where as before r2b is the base circle radius of w2. Observe that from these equations we

can also obtain the expression

x 2 sin φ + y 2 cos φ = r2b (36)

Then we readily obtain:

dy 2 / dx 2 = df / dx 2 = cot φ (37)

Equation (34) then becomes:

r2 sin[ r1α /( r1 + r2 )] − x 2 = cot φ{− r2 cos[ r1α /( r1 + r2 )] + y 2 } (38)

By multiplying by sinφ and rearranging terms we then obtain:

38
 r2 {sin φ sin[ r1α /( r1 + r2 )] + cos φ cos[r1α /( r1 + r2 )]} = x 2 sin φ + y 2 cos φ

or

r2 cos[φ − r1α /( r1 + r2 )] = r2b = r2 cos θ (39)

Where we have used Equations (22) and (36) and a trigonometric identity. Thus we have

the relation

φ = θ + r1α /( r1 + r2 ) (40)

Now by returning to Equation (24), using the involute Equations (35), Equations (31),

and trigonometric identities we obtain:

x1 = (r1 + r2 ) sin[ r2α /( r1 + r2 )] + r2b sin(φ − α ) − r2bφ cos(φ − α )

y1 = −(r1 + r2 ) cos[r2α /( r1 + r2 )] + r2b cos(φ − α ) + r2bφ sin(φ − α ) (41)

Finally, by substituting from Equation (40) we obtain the parametric equations of the

envelope of the cutter tooth form as:

x1 = (r1 + r2 ) sin β − r2b sin( β − θ ) − (r1b β + r2bθ ) cos( β − θ )

y1 = −(r1 + r2 ) cos β − r2b cos( β − θ ) − (r1b β + r2bθ ) sin( β − θ ) (42)

39
Where for simplicity we have defined β as

β = r2α /(r1 + r2 ) (43)

Observe in the foregoing analysis that Equations (41) are equivalent to Equation (27) and

Equation (40) is developed from Equation (28).

We can express the envelope equations [Equations (42)] in more convenient forms by a

clockwise rotation of the axes of W1 through θ producing coordinates x̂1 , ŷ1 given by:

xˆ1 = x1 cos θ − y1 sin θ

yˆ1 = x1 sin θ + y1 cos θ (44)

Equations (42) then become

xˆ1 = r1b sin β + [(r1 + r2 ) sin θ − r2bθ ] cos β − r1b β cos β

yˆ1 = − r1b cos β + [(r1 + r2 ) sin θ − r2bθ ] sin β − r1b β sin β (45)

Observe in Equations (42) and (45) that if θ is zero, then r1b = r2 and r2b =r2, and the

equations reduce to:

x1 = xˆ1 = r1 sin β − r1 β cos β

(46)
y1 = yˆ1 = −r1 cos β − r1 β sin β

40
These expressions are identical in form to Equation (6), the involute equations. Using the

evolute equations [Equations (7) to (12)] we can see that Equations (45) also form an

involute. To this end, it is convenient to rewrite Equations (45) as:

x = r1b sin β + κ cos β − r1b β cos β

(47)

y = − r1b cos β + κ sin β − r1b β sin β

where here x and y are x̂1 and ŷ1 , and κ is defined as:

κ = (r1 + r2 ) sin θ − r2bθ (48)

Then we immediately obtain the relations

x β = −κ sin β + r1b β sin β

y β = κ cos β − r1b β cos β

x ββ = −κ cos β + r1b sin β + r1b β cos β (49)

y ββ = −κ sin β − r1b cos β + r1b β sin β

and also the expressions (after simplification)

x β2 + y β = (κ − r1b β ) 2

x β y ββ − y β x ββ = (k − r1b β ) 2 (50)

( x β2 + y β2 ) /( x β y ββ − y β x ββ ) = 1

Thus, from Equation (8) the radius of curvature is

ρ = κ − r1b β (51)

From Equations (12), the coordinates of the points of the evolute are

41
 xQ = x − y β = r1b sin β
(52)
y Q = y + x β = r1b cos β

Therefore, we have

xQ2 + y Q2 = r12b (53)

That is, the evolute is a circle with radius r1b, the base circle of W1.

3.8 Computer Graphics Simulation:

To illustrate these concepts computer graphics software is used to simulate the gear

fabrication process. First, the rolling of a plastic disk over rigid wedges representing a

rack-cutter, as illustrated in Figure 3.12, is simulated. Next, a plastic disk representing an

uncut gear is rolled on the pitch circle of a rigid disk with involute teeth. Spur gear is

simulated. Finally, the simulation of helical, bevel and spiral gears is shown.

42
Figure 3.12 A gear blank rolling over a rack cutter (front view)

43
Figure 3.13 A gear blank rolling over a rack cutter (isometric view)

44
Figure 3.14 Spur Gear

45
Figure 3.15 Spur Gear

46
Figure 3. 16 Spur Gear

47
Figure 3. 17 Spur Gear

48
Figure 3. 18 Helical Gear

49
50
Figure 3. 19 Helical Gear

51
Figure 3.20 Helical Gear

Figure 3.21 Helical Gear

52
53
Figure 3.22 Bevel Gear

54
Figure 3.23 Bevel Gear

55
Figure 3.24 Bevel Gear

56
Figure 3.25 Bevel Gear

57
Figure 3.26 Bevel Gear Pinion

58
Figure 3.27 Bevel Gear Pinion

59
Figure 3.28 Bevel Gear Pinion

60
Figure 3.29 Spiral Bevel Gear

61
Figure 3.30 Spiral Bevel Gear

62
Figure 3.31 Spiral Bevel Gear

63
Figure 3.32 Spiral Bevel Gear Pinion

64
Figure 3.33 Spiral Bevel Gear Pinion

65
Figure 3.34 Spiral Bevel Gear Pinion

66
 Chapter 4

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The concepts of differential geometry, like envelopes, involutes and evolutes form the

basis for a computer graphics modeling of spur gears. To elucidate these concepts,

consider a perfectly plastic disk rolling over a rigid protrusion in the shape of an isosceles

triangle. The impression left on the disk after rolling, is the envelope of the isosceles

triangle. This envelope is the involute of a circle whose radius is equal to that of the

rolling disk minus the height of the triangle. [6]

This concept is used as the basis for simulation of spur gears. The rolling disk is replaced

by a gear blank and in place of the rigid protrusion is a rack cutter with involute tooth

forms. When the gear blank rolls over the cutter teeth, the impressions formed on the gear

blank represent the gaps between the teeth of an involute spur gear. This cutter profile is

used to simulate spur gears. The simulation is then extended to generate helical, bevel

and spiral bevel gears.

The primary significance of this method of gear modeling is that the complexity of tooth

forms does not limit or hinder the gear design process. Computer graphics method is not

affected by the complexity of tooth forms where as analytical methods become

intractable as the complexity increases.

67
Conclusions

These results show that, to fabricate any given tooth profile we need to simply obtain a

geometrical, or graphical representation of the profile and then use that representation to

obtain the cutter profile. Then by using the cutter profile we can verify the fabrication

process by rolling the cutter profile onto a plastic gear blank.

This procedure, together with the foregoing results and analyses, lead to the following

conclusions:

1. The elementary spur gear geometry (involute profile) and the elementary

procedures of differential geometry (radius of curvature, envelopes, and

involutes) form the basis for computer-aided (CAD) design of gear teeth.

2. The CAD procedure, once established, can be used to develop geometry whose

analytical development would be virtually intractable.

3. The CAD procedure can simulate fabrication processes of both standard and non-

standard gear tooth profiles.

4. In this CAD fabrication process the cutter profile and the resulting gear tooth

profile are “reciprocal” of one another. The cutter determines the tooth form and

the tooth form determines the cutter form.

5. Once the tooth profile is known, the result can be used to develop a Finite

Element (FE) model and then the stress, strain, deformation, and displacement

under loading.

68
6. From the results of a FE analysis we can determine a tooth form which will have

ideal tooth geometry under loading. This in turn can reduce the need for dressing

and tip relief.

7. The developed procedure can be readily extended to non-parallel, non-interesting

shaft gear pairs (bevel, spiral bevel, hypoid and worm gears)

69
 References

1. Groover, M.P, and Zimmers Jr, E.W, “CAD/CAM Computer Aided Design and

Manufacturing”, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1984. pp 53-77, 104-129.

2. Shigley, J.E, “Mechanical Engineering Design”, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book

Company, New York, 1977.

3. Foley, J.D, and Van Dam, A,“Fundamentals of Interactive Computer Graphics”,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,Inc., Reading, Mass., 1982.

4. Huston, R.L, Mavriplis, D, Oswald, F.B, and Liu, Y.S, “A Basis for Solid

Modeling of Gear Teeth With Application In Design And Manufacture” NASA

Technical Memorandum 105392, 1992

5. Graustein, W.C. “Differential Geometry”, Macmillan, New York, 1935

6. Chang, S.H, Huston, R.L, and Coy, J.J, “A Computer Aided Design Procedure

for Generating Gear Teeth,” ASME Paper 8A-DET-184. American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1984.

7. Huston, R.L, Mavriplis, D, and Oswald, F.B, “Computer Aided Design of Spur

Gear Teeth,” International Power Transmission and Gearing Conference-Vol. 11,

Book No10288B, ASME, 1989.

8. Huston, R.L, Mavriplis, D, Oswald, F.B, and Liu, Y.S, “A Basis for Solid

Modeling of Gear Teeth with Applications in Design and Manufacture,”

Mechanics and Machine Theory, Vol. 29, No.5, 1994, pp. 713-723.

9. Drago, R.J, “Fundamentals of Gear Design”, Butterworth, Stoneham, MA, 1988,

p.11.

70
10. Townsend, D.P, Dudley’s Gear Handbook-“The Design, Manufacture, and

Application of Gears”, Second Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1991.

11. Kane, T.R, “Analytical Elements of Mechanics”, Vol. 2, Academic Press, New

York, 1961, pp. 29-47.

12. Buckingham, E, “Analytical Mechanics of Gears”, McGraw Hill, New York,

1949.

13. http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/V/vector_graphics.html

14. http://graphics.csail.mit.edu/~fredo/ArtAndScienceOfDepiction/1_Introduction/re

viewGraphics.pdf

15. http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/R/ray_tracing.html

16. http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~brd/Teaching/Animation/Papers/ency.pdf

17. CAD Software : IDEAS, UGS Corporation.

18. CAD Software : PRO/ENGINEER, Parametric Technology Corporation.

71