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Chapter 2

Updated 12/08/21
Time reversal:
Time scaling

Example: Given x(t), find y(t) = x(2t). This


SPEEDS UP x(t) (the graph is shrinking)

What happens to the period T?

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1,


Time scaling
• Given y(t),
– find w(t) = y(3t)
– v(t) = y(t/3).
Time Shifting
• The original signal x(t) is
shifted by an amount t0 .
Time Shift: y(t)=x(t-to)

• X(t)X(t-to) // to>0
Signal Delayed Shift
to the right

• X(t)X(t+to) // to<0
Signal Advanced Shift
to the left
Time Shifting
Example
• Given x(t) = u(t+2) -u(t-2),
– find
• x(t-t0)=
• x(t+t0)=

• x(t-t0)= u(t-to+2) -u(t-to-2),


• x(t+t0)= u(t+to+2) -u(t+to-2),
Remember
Step unit function
(a discontinuous continuous-time signal): Time Shifting t=0

• Determine x(t) + x(2-t) , where x(t) = u(t+1)- u(t-2)


u(t+1)- u(t-2)
– Which is x(t):

– find x(2-t): Advance, then reverse in time.

Add the two functions: x(t) + x(2-t)


Summary
shift to the left of t=0 by
Shifting to the right; increasing in time  Delaying the signal! two units!

Delayed/ Advanced/
Moved right Moved left

Reversed &
Delayed

Or rewrite as: X[-(t+1)] Or rewrite as: X[-(t-2)]


Hence, reverse the signal in time. Hence, reverse the signal in time.
Then shift to the left of t=0 Then shift to the right of t=0
by one unit! by two units!

This is really:
X(-(t+1))
See
Notes
Amplitude Operations
In general: Reversal

y(t)=Ax(t)+B

B>0  Shift up
B<0  Shift down
Scaling
|A|>1 Gain
|A|<1 Attenuation

A>0NO reversal
A<0 reversal
Scaling
Amplitude Operations
Given x2(t), find 1 - x2(t).

Remember: This is y(t) =1 Ans.

Multiplication of two signals:x2(t)u(t)

Step unit function


Ans.

Signals can be added or multiplied


Amplitude Operations
Note: You can also think of it as X2(t)
being amplitude revered and then
Given x2(t), find 1 - x2(t). shifted by 1.

Remember: This is y(t) =1

Multiplication of two signals:x2(t)u(t)

Step unit function

Signals can be added or multiplied


Signal Characteristics
• Even and odd signals
1. X(t) = Xe(t) + Xo(t)
2. X(-t) = X(t)  Even
3. X(-t) = -X(t)  Odd
• Properties
Xe + Ye = Ze Xe * Ye = Ze
Xo + Yo = Zo Xo * Yo = Ze
Xe + Yo = Ze + Zo Xe * Yo = Zo
Example
• Prove that product of two even
signals is even. x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
x1 (t )  x2 (t )  x(t )

• Prove that product of two odd


signals is odd.

x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
• What is the product of an even x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) 
signal and an odd signal?
x1 (t )   x2 (t )   x(t ) 
Prove it!
x(t )  Even
Signal Characteristics

Given:
Signal Characteristics

Anti-symmetric
Symmetric across the vertical axis across the vertical axis
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___

2___ 2___

5 5
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___

2___ 2___

-5
5 -5 5
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___
4e-0.5t

2___ 2___

2___ 2___
2e-0.5t
5 2e+0.5t 5 2e-0.5t

-2___
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___
4e-0.5t

2___ 2___

2___ 2___
-2e+0.5t 2e-0.5t
5 2e+0.5t 5 2e-0.5t

-2___
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal
• X (t) is periodic iff X(t) = x(t+nT) for any T
and any integer n
• Example
– X(t) = A cos(t) X(t+T) = A cos(t+T)) =
– A cos(t+2)= A cos(t)
– Note: f0=1/T0; 
– T0 is fundamental period; T0 is the minimum
value of T that satisfies X(t) = x(t+T)
Periodic signals
• Show that sin(t) is in fact a periodic signal.
– Is this an even or odd signal?
– What is the period?
– Use a graph
– Show it mathematically
• Is tesin(t) periodic?
– X(t) = x(t+T)?
Sum of periodic Signals
• X(t) = x1(t) + X2(t)
• X(t+T) = x1(t+m1T1) + X2(t+m2T2)
• m1T1=m2T2 = To=Fundamental period
• Example:
– cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
– T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾
– m1T1=m2T2 = 6.4 = 3.8 = 24 = To
Sum of periodic Signals
Note that T1/T2 must be
• X(t) = x1(t) + X2(t) RATIONAL (ratio of integers)

• X(t+T) = x1(t+m1T1) + X2(t+m 2T2number


An irrational ) is any real
number which cannot be
• m1T1=m2T2 = To=Fundamental
expressed asperiod
a fraction a/b,
where a and b are integers, with
• Example: b non-zero.

– cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
– T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾
– m1T1=m2T2 = 6.4 = 3.8 = 24 = To

Read about Irrational Numbers: http://www.mathsisfun.com/irrational-numbers.html


Product of periodic Signals
• X(t) = xa(t) * Xb(t) =
– X(t) = 2sin[t/2(7/12)]* cos[t/2(/12)]; find the
period of x(t)
• Using
– sin(A+B)=2sin(t/2(A+B))cos(t/2(A-B))
• x(t) = sin(t/3)+sin(t/4)
• Thus, To=24 , as before!
Sum of periodic Signals – may not
always be periodic!
x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t )  cos t  sin 2t

– T1=(2)/()= 2;
– T2 =(2)/(sqrt(2)); Note that T1/T2 is NOT
RATIONAL (ratio of integers) In
– T1/T2= sqrt(2); this case!
– Note: T1/T2 = sqrt(2)
An irrational number is any real
is an irrational number number which cannot be
– X(t) is aperiodic expressed as a fraction a/b,
where a and b are integers, with
b non-zero.
Sum of periodic Signals
• Example
– X1(t) = cos(3.5t)
– X2(t) = sin(2t)
– X3(t) = 2cos(t7/6)
– Is v(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) + x3(t) periodic?
– What is the fundamental period of v(t)?
– Find even and odd parts of v(t).

notes
Sum of periodic Signals (cont.)
– X1(t) = cos(3.5t)  f1 = 3.5/2  T1 = 2 /3.5
– X2(t) = sin(2t)  f2 = 2/2  T2 = 2 /2
– X3(t) = 2cos(t7/6)  f3 = (7/6)/2  T3 = 2 /(7/6)
  T1/T2 = 4/7 Ratio or two integers
  T1/T3 = 1/3 Ratio or two integers
  Summation is periodic

– m1T1 = m2T2 = m3T3 = To ; Hence we find To


– The question is how to choose m1, m2, m3 such that the above
relationship holds
– We know: 7(T1) = 4(T2) & 3(T1) = 1(T3) ;
– Hence:
21(T1) = 12(T2)= 7(T3);
Thus, fundamental period: To = 21(T1) = 21(2 /3.5)=12(T2)=12

Find even and odd parts of v(t).


Important Engineering Signals
• Euler’s Formula
– Remember: ej = 1|_ and arg [: ej ] = can you prove these?)

notes

• Unit Step Function (Singularity Function)


notes

What is sin(A+B)? Or cos(A+B)?

• Use Unit Step Function to express a block function (window) notes

-T/t T/t
Important Engineering Signals
• Euler’s Formula

notes

• Unit Step Function (Singularity Function)


– Can you draw x(t) = cos(t)[u(t) – u(t-2)]?

notes

• Use Unit Step Function to express a block function (window)


Next

-T/2 T/2
Unit Step Function Properties
u (at  t0 )  u (t  t0 / a ), a  0
u (t  t0 )  [u (t  t0 )]  [u (t  t0 )]
2 k

u (t )  1  u (t )
Examples:

Note:
U(-t+3)=1-u(t-3)
Block Function (window)
1
• rect(t/T)
-T/2 T/2

1
• Can be expressed as u(T/2-t)-u(-T/2-t)
– Draw u(t+T/2) first; then reverse it!
-T/2 T/2

-T/2 T/2
• Can be expressed as u(t+T/2)-u(t-T/2)

• Can be expressed as u(t+T/2).u(T/2-t) -T/2 T/2


Unit Impulse Function (t)
• Not real (does not exist in nature – similar to i=sqrt(-1)
• Also known as Dirac delta function
– Generalized function or testing function
• The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a
function of the real line which is zero everywhere
except at the origin, where it is infinite
• Note that impulse function is not a true function – it is
not defined for all values
– It is a generalized function = (0)
Mathematical definition

Mathematical definition
(t)

(t-to)

0 to
Unit Impulse Function (t)
• Also note that

• Also
Unit Impulse Properties

• Scaling
– K(t) Area (or weight) under = K
• Multiplication
– X(t) (t) X(0) (t) = Area (or weight) under
• Time Shift
– X(t) (t-to) X(to) (t-to)
• Draw 3x(t-1) (t-3/2) where x(t)=sin(t)
– Using X(t) (t-to) X(to) (t-to) ;
– 3x(3/2-1) (t-3/2)=3sin(1/2) (t-3/2)
Unit Impulse Properties
• Integration of a test function

• Example

• Other properties:

Make sure you can prove these!


Unit Impulse Properties
• Example: Verify
notes

1
• Evaluate the following  (3t  1) (t )  ?
2

1

notes

Remember:
More on Unit Step Functions u(t)
Unit ramp function can be achieved by:
1
t t

notes f (t )   u (  t0 )d   d (t  t0 )u (t  t0 )


0 t0

to to+1
Non-zero only
for t>t0
Example

f (t )  3u (t )  tu (t )  [t  1]u (t  1)  5u (t  2)
Example
• Plot
f (t )  3[t  2]u (t  2)  6[t  1]u (t  1)  3[t  1]u (t  1)  3u (t  3)

• t<-2  f(t)=0
• -2<t<-1  f(t)=3[t+2]
• -1<t<1  f(t)=-3t
• 1<t<3  f(t)=-3
• 3<t<  f(t)=0
Continuous-Time Systems
• A system is an operation for which cause-
and-effect relationship exists
– Can be described by block diagrams
– Denoted using transformation T[.]
• System behavior described by
mathematical model
X(t) y(t)
T [.]
System - Example
• Consider an RL series circuit
– Using a first order equation:
R
di (t )
VL (t )  L
dt
di (t ) V(t) L
V (t )  VR  VL (t )  i (t )  R  L
dt
Interconnected Systems
• Parallel
• Serial (cascaded)
• Feedback
notes

R R

V(t) L L
Interconnected System Example
• Consider the following systems with 4 subsystem
• Each subsystem transforms it input signal
• The result will be:
– y3(t)=y1(t)+y2(t)=T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)]
– y4(t)=T3[y3(t)]= T3(T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)])
– y(t)= y4(t)* y5(t)= T3(T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)])* T4[x(t)]
Feedback System
• Used in automatic control
• Example: The following system has 3 subsystems. Express the equation
denoting interconnection for this system - (mathematical model will depend
on each individual subsystem)
– e(t)=x(t)-y3(t)= x(t)-T3[y(t)]=
– y(t)= T2[m(t)]=T2(T1[e(t)])
  y(t)=T2(T1[x(t)-y3(t)])= T2(T1( [x(t)] - T3[y(t)] ) ) =
– =T2(T1([x(t)] –T3[y(t)]))

Find this
first Then,
calculate
this
System Properties
Continuous-Time Systems - Properties

• Memoryless

• Examples – Memoryless?

Has memory if output depends on inputs other than the one defined at current time
Continuous-Time Systems - Properties

Inverse of a System (invertibility)

Examples

Noninvertible Systems
Thermostat
Example!
(notes)

Each distinct input  distinct output


Continuous-Time Systems - Invertible
• If a system is invertible it has an Inverse System

x(t) y(t) Inverse x(t)


System
System

• Example: y(t)=2x(t)
– System is invertible: For any x(t) we get a distinct output y(t)
– Thus, the system must have an Inverse
• x(t)=1/2 y(t)=z(t)

x(t) System y(t)=2x(t) Inverse x(t)


(multiplier) System
(divider)

If the system is not invertible it does not have an INVERSE!


Continuous-Time Systems - Causality
Causality (non-anticipatory system)
- A System can be causal with non-causal components!

Examples
Remember: Reverse is not TRUE!

?? ?? What it t<0?

Depends on cause-and-effect  no future dependency


Continuous-Time Systems - Stability
• Many different definitions
• Bounded-input-bounded-output

• Example:
– An ideal amplifier y(t) = 10 x(t)  B2=10 B1
– Square system: y(t)=x^2  B2=B1^2
• A system can be unstable or marginally stable
• More examples
Continuous-Time Systems – Time
Invariance

Testing for Time Invariance notes To test: y(t)|t-to  y(t)|x(t-to)


Example:
y(t) = e^x(t):
y(t)|t=to  e^x(t-to)
y(t)|x(t-to)  e^x(t-to)
 Time Invariant
What if the system is time reversal? (next slide)

Time-shift in input results in time-shift in output  system always acts the same way (Fix System)
Continuous-Time Systems –
Time Invariance
Example of a system:
U(1-t)

Draw the First output!

Draw the Second output!

Are they the same?


Continuous-Time Systems –
Time Invariance
Example of a system:
U(1-t)

Pay attention!
Due to time - reversal

Time reversal operation is NOT time invariant!


Continuous-Time Systems – Time
Invariance
• Examples:
– Do these yourself!
Continuous-Time Systems – Linearity
• A linear system must satisfy superposition
condition (additive and homogeneity hoh-muh-juh-nee-i-tee)

• Note: for a linear system a zero input always


generates an output zero

• Example notes
More…
notes

• Example

• Summary
Practice: Schaum’s Outlines
• Chapter 1- Solved Problems
– 1, 3, 5-10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25-30,
33-35, 48, 51, 53-61

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