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Updated 12/08/21
Time reversal:
Time scaling
• X(t)X(t-to) // to>0
Signal Delayed Shift
to the right
• X(t)X(t+to) // to<0
Signal Advanced Shift
to the left
Time Shifting
Example
• Given x(t) = u(t+2) -u(t-2),
– find
• x(t-t0)=
• x(t+t0)=
Delayed/ Advanced/
Moved right Moved left
Reversed &
Delayed
This is really:
X(-(t+1))
See
Notes
Amplitude Operations
In general: Reversal
y(t)=Ax(t)+B
B>0 Shift up
B<0 Shift down
Scaling
|A|>1 Gain
|A|<1 Attenuation
A>0NO reversal
A<0 reversal
Scaling
Amplitude Operations
Given x2(t), find 1 - x2(t).
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
• What is the product of an even x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
signal and an odd signal?
x1 (t ) x2 (t ) x(t )
Prove it!
x(t ) Even
Signal Characteristics
Given:
Signal Characteristics
Anti-symmetric
Symmetric across the vertical axis across the vertical axis
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___
2___ 2___
5 5
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___
2___ 2___
-5
5 -5 5
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___
4e-0.5t
2___ 2___
2___ 2___
2e-0.5t
5 2e+0.5t 5 2e-0.5t
-2___
Example
• Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
4___
4e-0.5t
2___ 2___
2___ 2___
-2e+0.5t 2e-0.5t
5 2e+0.5t 5 2e-0.5t
-2___
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal
• X (t) is periodic iff X(t) = x(t+nT) for any T
and any integer n
• Example
– X(t) = A cos(t) X(t+T) = A cos(t+T)) =
– A cos(t+2)= A cos(t)
– Note: f0=1/T0;
– T0 is fundamental period; T0 is the minimum
value of T that satisfies X(t) = x(t+T)
Periodic signals
• Show that sin(t) is in fact a periodic signal.
– Is this an even or odd signal?
– What is the period?
– Use a graph
– Show it mathematically
• Is tesin(t) periodic?
– X(t) = x(t+T)?
Sum of periodic Signals
• X(t) = x1(t) + X2(t)
• X(t+T) = x1(t+m1T1) + X2(t+m2T2)
• m1T1=m2T2 = To=Fundamental period
• Example:
– cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
– T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾
– m1T1=m2T2 = 6.4 = 3.8 = 24 = To
Sum of periodic Signals
Note that T1/T2 must be
• X(t) = x1(t) + X2(t) RATIONAL (ratio of integers)
– cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
– T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾
– m1T1=m2T2 = 6.4 = 3.8 = 24 = To
– T1=(2)/()= 2;
– T2 =(2)/(sqrt(2)); Note that T1/T2 is NOT
RATIONAL (ratio of integers) In
– T1/T2= sqrt(2); this case!
– Note: T1/T2 = sqrt(2)
An irrational number is any real
is an irrational number number which cannot be
– X(t) is aperiodic expressed as a fraction a/b,
where a and b are integers, with
b non-zero.
Sum of periodic Signals
• Example
– X1(t) = cos(3.5t)
– X2(t) = sin(2t)
– X3(t) = 2cos(t7/6)
– Is v(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) + x3(t) periodic?
– What is the fundamental period of v(t)?
– Find even and odd parts of v(t).
notes
Sum of periodic Signals (cont.)
– X1(t) = cos(3.5t) f1 = 3.5/2 T1 = 2 /3.5
– X2(t) = sin(2t) f2 = 2/2 T2 = 2 /2
– X3(t) = 2cos(t7/6) f3 = (7/6)/2 T3 = 2 /(7/6)
T1/T2 = 4/7 Ratio or two integers
T1/T3 = 1/3 Ratio or two integers
Summation is periodic
notes
-T/t T/t
Important Engineering Signals
• Euler’s Formula
notes
notes
-T/2 T/2
Unit Step Function Properties
u (at t0 ) u (t t0 / a ), a 0
u (t t0 ) [u (t t0 )] [u (t t0 )]
2 k
u (t ) 1 u (t )
Examples:
Note:
U(-t+3)=1-u(t-3)
Block Function (window)
1
• rect(t/T)
-T/2 T/2
1
• Can be expressed as u(T/2-t)-u(-T/2-t)
– Draw u(t+T/2) first; then reverse it!
-T/2 T/2
-T/2 T/2
• Can be expressed as u(t+T/2)-u(t-T/2)
Mathematical definition
(t)
(t-to)
0 to
Unit Impulse Function (t)
• Also note that
• Also
Unit Impulse Properties
• Scaling
– K(t) Area (or weight) under = K
• Multiplication
– X(t) (t) X(0) (t) = Area (or weight) under
• Time Shift
– X(t) (t-to) X(to) (t-to)
• Draw 3x(t-1) (t-3/2) where x(t)=sin(t)
– Using X(t) (t-to) X(to) (t-to) ;
– 3x(3/2-1) (t-3/2)=3sin(1/2) (t-3/2)
Unit Impulse Properties
• Integration of a test function
• Example
• Other properties:
1
• Evaluate the following (3t 1) (t ) ?
2
1
notes
Remember:
More on Unit Step Functions u(t)
Unit ramp function can be achieved by:
1
t t
to to+1
Non-zero only
for t>t0
Example
f (t ) 3u (t ) tu (t ) [t 1]u (t 1) 5u (t 2)
Example
• Plot
f (t ) 3[t 2]u (t 2) 6[t 1]u (t 1) 3[t 1]u (t 1) 3u (t 3)
• t<-2 f(t)=0
• -2<t<-1 f(t)=3[t+2]
• -1<t<1 f(t)=-3t
• 1<t<3 f(t)=-3
• 3<t< f(t)=0
Continuous-Time Systems
• A system is an operation for which cause-
and-effect relationship exists
– Can be described by block diagrams
– Denoted using transformation T[.]
• System behavior described by
mathematical model
X(t) y(t)
T [.]
System - Example
• Consider an RL series circuit
– Using a first order equation:
R
di (t )
VL (t ) L
dt
di (t ) V(t) L
V (t ) VR VL (t ) i (t ) R L
dt
Interconnected Systems
• Parallel
• Serial (cascaded)
• Feedback
notes
R R
V(t) L L
Interconnected System Example
• Consider the following systems with 4 subsystem
• Each subsystem transforms it input signal
• The result will be:
– y3(t)=y1(t)+y2(t)=T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)]
– y4(t)=T3[y3(t)]= T3(T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)])
– y(t)= y4(t)* y5(t)= T3(T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)])* T4[x(t)]
Feedback System
• Used in automatic control
• Example: The following system has 3 subsystems. Express the equation
denoting interconnection for this system - (mathematical model will depend
on each individual subsystem)
– e(t)=x(t)-y3(t)= x(t)-T3[y(t)]=
– y(t)= T2[m(t)]=T2(T1[e(t)])
y(t)=T2(T1[x(t)-y3(t)])= T2(T1( [x(t)] - T3[y(t)] ) ) =
– =T2(T1([x(t)] –T3[y(t)]))
Find this
first Then,
calculate
this
System Properties
Continuous-Time Systems - Properties
• Memoryless
• Examples – Memoryless?
Has memory if output depends on inputs other than the one defined at current time
Continuous-Time Systems - Properties
Examples
Noninvertible Systems
Thermostat
Example!
(notes)
• Example: y(t)=2x(t)
– System is invertible: For any x(t) we get a distinct output y(t)
– Thus, the system must have an Inverse
• x(t)=1/2 y(t)=z(t)
Examples
Remember: Reverse is not TRUE!
?? ?? What it t<0?
• Example:
– An ideal amplifier y(t) = 10 x(t) B2=10 B1
– Square system: y(t)=x^2 B2=B1^2
• A system can be unstable or marginally stable
• More examples
Continuous-Time Systems – Time
Invariance
Time-shift in input results in time-shift in output system always acts the same way (Fix System)
Continuous-Time Systems –
Time Invariance
Example of a system:
U(1-t)
Pay attention!
Due to time - reversal
• Example notes
More…
notes
• Example
• Summary
Practice: Schaum’s Outlines
• Chapter 1- Solved Problems
– 1, 3, 5-10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25-30,
33-35, 48, 51, 53-61