Adam Dubbin

MSc Scientific Methods

Paleoecology Critical Review 1

Phytoliths and the domestication of rice (Oryza sativa L.): A critical

review

The use of phytoliths as a diagnostic tool in archaeobotanical and paleobotanical

investigations has gained much support and utility over the last decade. Phytoliths are
siliceous plant microstructures that are the result of silica deposition, from solute in
groundwater, into plant tissues (Piperno, 1988:11). The term, from the Greek phytos
(plant) and lithos (stone), literally refers to mineralized (siliceous or calcareous)
substances in plant tissues; for purpose of specificity, the term in archaeobotanical
contexts refers strictly to the silicified remains (ibid.). These structures can also be found
in the literature as ‘opal phytoliths, plant opals, opaline silica, or grass opals’ (ibid.).
Regardless of nomenclature, phytoliths possess inherent qualities as a paleoecological
indicator as well as specific evidence of plant presence in archaeological contexts. These
structures are mostly restricted to angiosperms, most importantly the monocotyledonous
grasses, although they may also be found in gymnosperm family Pinaceae and in some
pteridophytes families, such as Equisetaceae (Piperno 1988: Table 2.1).

In plants, the deposition of silica can occur in any plant organ as well as many
varieties of tissues and cells (Piperno 1988:43). On the cellular level, silica can be
deposited in the cell lumen, within the cell wall, or in intercellular spaces. When formed
intercellularly, they typically are stored in idioblasts and the individual morphology is not
related to the shape of the cell (Piperno 1988:18). In these cases, the formation of
phytoliths is poorly understood (ibid); shapes can range from cruciform to dumbbell
shaped and also amorphous silica masses. Intracellular deposits and cell wall
incrustations, conversely, are directly dependent on the morphology of the individual cell
on/in which it formed and therefore retains the original shape and forms a ‘skeletal’
impression of the erstwhile cell. These cells include epidermal cells and ‘hair cells,’ and
are often extremely valuable for taxonomic interpretation based upon morphology.

In an article from Geoarchaeology, Zhao and Piperno (2000) endeavor to identify

domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) in the paleological record using soil cores from Lake

1
 Adam Dubbin
MSc Scientific Methods
Paleoecology Critical Review 1

Poyang, Jiangxi province, China. Because rice has been demonstrated as one of the
highest producers of phytoliths in the Gramineae (Wadham & Parry 1981), this query has
appreciable potential for success. This study also demonstrates a solution to the problem
with rice pollen: it cannot be “unequivocally identified” (Zhao & Piperno 2000:211). As
well, the authors individually and jointly have a respectable track record in phytoliths
analysis and have published recent works on rice phytoliths (Pearsall et al. 1995; Zhao et
al. 1998).

First of all, let us examine the sampling strategies employed by the researchers.
Because the authors ventured to verify the presence of rice in terms of time before
present, what they were looking for was evidence of ‘domesticated’ rice as far deep in the
soil core as possible. The specific phytoliths shape in rice that discerns ‘domesticated’
from ‘wild’ is the double-peaked glume cell phytoliths (Zhao et al. 1998). The samples
were taken from a single core out of a total of two test cores. Ordinarily, the examination
of only one core would appear insufficient, if not the drilling of only two total tests cores.
If a paleoenvironmental model is to be developed, multiple test cores should be drilled to
help assess ancient inconsistencies that may be associated with a lakebed (Piperno 1993).
However, this should neither make the presence of taxonomic-specific phytoliths
diminutive for paleoecological interpretation nor should the presence or absence of
‘domesticate’ rice phytoliths be affected. In examining the cores, two proven methods
were appropriately hybridized (Piperno 1988; Zhao & Pearsall 1998), assuring
consistency with previous works performed on similar materials.

The use of AMS 14C dating in conjunction with sedimentation patterns for the
estimation of dates is also standard procedure. The authors describe one of the dates as an
outlier, as it is not sequential with the stratigraphy; however, their explanation that “more
recent carbon percolated downward through the sands” (p. 208) is an extremely viable
cause of contamination. As well, all of that dates appear reasonable with appreciable
error calibrations and tested on the appropriate materials. In these dates, a hiatus occurs
which the authors interpret as a change in the hydrological and topographic features of
the coring area, which is a reasonable interpretation. According to sedimentation rates

2
 Adam Dubbin
MSc Scientific Methods
Paleoecology Critical Review 1

and AMS 14C dating, this hiatus probably began 10,500 B.P., contemporary with the Late
Pleistocene/Holocene shift. However, because only one core was sampled, the only
conclusions that can be derived from dating this core are dates relative to the phytoliths
found in the sediments.

The phytoliths themselves were found abundantly throughout the lake core.
Many of those found bore substantial resemblances to modern analogues of the region
and a great proportion of those belong to the grasses, in the form of short-cell phytoliths.
There were some 3 types of phytoliths that were left classified but unidentified. The
authors also discovered other plant microfossils such as sclereids, cystoliths and rough
spheres that also have significance in paleobotanical taxonomy. Those microfossils
proved useful in the development of a paleoecological model.

The conclusive literature is presented legibly and lucidly, facilitated by the

appropriate figures and illustrations. The authors take care to note factors that would
affect the contents of their core, such as the effects of changing hydrology (i.e. inflowing
rivers and streams) and the sedentary nature of phytoliths. Because this lake lies between
two major Chinese rivers and the volatile nature of Chinese monsoons, one would
deductively conclude that this would certainly be a factor. In regards to the rice
phytoliths, the authors found the single-peaked glume phytoliths terminating at about
13,000 years B.P. and a lack of double-peaked in sediments older than this, indicating a
Late Pleistocene date for the origin of rice ‘domestication.’ This conclusion is coupled
with a paleoclimatic model based upon the quantitative phytolith data in the respective
soil layers. This model, despite the exclusion of the early Holocene from the record,
shows a much drier Late Pleistocene based on the lack of arboreal microfossils and an
abundance of grass phytoliths. While all of these conclusions appear sound within its
realm, the single fact that only one core was examined discounts a deal of credibility to
the environmental interpretations but leaves the rice domestication issue unscathed.

3
 Adam Dubbin
MSc Scientific Methods
Paleoecology Critical Review 1

References
Pearsall, D.M. 2000. Paleoethnobotany: a handbook of procedures. 2nd edition Ch. 5
Academic Press, San Diego.

Pearsall, D.M., D.R. Piperno, E.H. Dinan, R. Umlauf, Z.J. Zhao and R.A. Benfer 1995.
Distinguishing rice (Oryza sativa Poaceae) from wild Oryza species through
phytoliths analysis- results of preliminary research. Economic Botany 49:183-196.

Piperno, D.R. 1988. Phytolith Analysis: an archaeological and geological perspective.

Academic Press: San Diego.

Piperno, D.R. 1993. Phytolith and charcoal records from deep lake cores in the American
tropics. In Pearsall, D.M. and D.R. Piperno (eds.) Current research in phytolith
analysis: applications in archaeology and paleoecology. MASCA Research
Papers in Science in Archaeology 10:58-72. Philadelphia: MASCA.

Wadham, M.D. and D.W. Parry 1981. The silicon content of Oryza sativa L. and its
effect on the grazing behavior of Agriolimax reticulates Miller. Annals of Botany
48:399-402.

Zhao, Z.J. and D.M. Pearsall 1998. Experiments for improving phytoliths extraction from
soils. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:587-598.

Zhao, Z.J., D.M. Pearsall, R.A. Benfer & D.R. Piperno 1998. Distinguishing rice (Oryza
sativa Poaceae) from wild Oryza species through phytoliths analysis, II: finalized
method. Economic Botany 52:134-145.

Zhao, Z.J. and D.R. Piperno 2000. Late Pleistocene/Holocene environments in the
Middle Yangtze River Valley, China and rice (Oryza sativa L.) domestication: the
phytoliths evidence. Geoarchaeology 15:203-222.