Bridging Theory in Practice: Transferring Technical Knowledge To Practical Applications

Bridging Theory in Practice
Transferring Technical Knowledge

to Practical Applications
Introduction to Motor Control
Intended Audience:
• Individuals with an interest in learning about electric motors and how they are
controlled
• A simple understanding of magnetics is assumed
Topics Covered:
• What is an electric motor?
• What are some common types of electric motors?
• How do these electric motors work?
• How these motors are controlled.
Expected Time:
• Approximately 90 minutes
Agenda
• Introduction to Electromagnets and Electric Motors
• What Is Motor Control?
• What Are Some Common Types of Motors?
• Permanent Magnet DC Motors
• Stepper Motors
• Brushless DC Motors
• Summary of Motors and Motor Control Circuits
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
What Is a Permanent Magnet?
• A piece of iron or steel which produces a magnetic field
• Found in nature as magnetite (Fe3O4) lodestones
• Magnetic field causes the permanent magnet to attract

iron and some other materials
• Two ends of the permanent magnet are usually

designated North and South
• Opposite magnet ends attract and like magnet ends repel

What Is an Electromagnet?
• Electromagnets behave like permanent
magnets…
… but their magnetic field is not

permanent
• Magnetic field is temporarily induced by an

electric current
How Do You Make an
Electromagnet?
• Start with an iron bar
How Do You Make an
Electromagnet?
• Wrap a wire around the iron bar
How Do You Make an
Electromagnet?
• Connecting a battery causes a current to flow
in the wire
+ -
Current
How Do You Make an
Electromagnet?
• Connecting a battery causes a current to flow in the wire
• The current induces a magnetic field creating an
electromagnet
NORTH SOUTH
+ -
Current
How Do You Make an
Electromagnet?
• Reversing the current direction, reverses the
polarity
SOUTH NORTH
- +
Current
How Do You Make an
Electromagnet?
• Reversing the current direction, reverses the
polarity
• If the current is stopped, the induced magnetic field
decays to 0
SOUTH NORTH
- +
Current
Electromagnets and
Electric Motors
• We can use electromagnets in electric motors to convert
electrical energy to mechanical work…
Electric Motor
• Electric motors are used to

perform a mechanical task by
Electric using electricity
Energy – Open a sunroof
+ - – Lift a power antenna
12V – Control windshield wiper
What Is an Electric Motor?
• An electric motor has two basic parts:
– The stationary part is called the stator.
– The rotating part of the electric motor is called the
rotor.
ROTOR
STATOR
• Electrical energy creates a rotating magnetic field
inside the motor causing the rotor to rotate,
creating mechanical motion
ROTOR
STATOR
Where Are
Electric Motors Used?
Electric motors are used in many different automotive applications:
Power windows Sunroof

Power seats Brakes
Power mirrors Power steering
Fans Fuel pump
Windshield wipers Water pump
Windshield washer pumps Hybrid and electric vehicles
Starter motor Cruise control
Electric radio antennae Throttle plate control
Door locks Air vents
Information gauges Others
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
What Is Motor Control ?
• The controlled application of electrical energy to a motor to
elicit a desired mechanical response
– Start / Stop
– Speed
– Torque
– Position
• Significant amount of electronics may be required to

control the operation of some electric motors
Control of Electromagnetics
• Much of the physical design of an electric motor and its control system
are related to the switching of the electromagnetic field
• There is a mechanical force which acts on a current carrying wire

within a magnetic field
• The mechanical force is perpendicular to the wire and the magnetic

field
• The relative magnetic fields between the rotor and stator are arranged
so that a torque is created, causing the rotor to rotate about its axis
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
Types of Electric Motors
• There are many different types and classifications of electric motors:
Permanent magnet DC motor Repulsion motor

Stepper motor Linear motor
Brushless DC motor Variable reluctance motor
Wound field motor Unipolar stepper motor
Universal motors Bipolar stepper
Three phase induction motor Full step stepper motor
Three-phase AC synchronous motors Half step stepper motor
Two-phase AC Servo motors Micro step stepper motor
torque motors Switched reluctance motor
Shaded-pole motor Shaded-pole synchronous motor
split-phase induction motor Induction motor
capacitor start motor Coreless DC motor
Permanent Split-Capacitor (PSC) motor Others......
Repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR) motor
Permanent Magnet DC Motor
• Similar in construction to the introductory example
• Metallic contacts (brushes) are used to deliver electrical energy
• Rotational speed proportional to the applied voltage
• Torque proportional to the current flowing through the motor
• Advantages:
+ Low cost (high volume demand)
+ Simple operation
• Disadvantages:
– Medium efficiency
– Poor reliability (brush, commutator wear out)
– Strong potential source of electromagnetic interference
Stepper Motor
• Full rotation of electric motor divided into a number of "steps"
• For example, 200 steps provides a 1.8o step angle
• A stepper motor controller can move the electric motor one step (in
either direction) by applying a voltage pulse
• Rotational speed is controlled by changing the frequency of the voltage
pulses
• Advantages:
+ Low cost position control (instrument gauges)
+ Easy to hold position
• Disadvantages:
– Poor efficiency
– Requires digital control interface
– High motor cost
Brushless DC Motor
• Similar to a permanent magnet DC motor
• Rotor is always the permanent magnet (internal or external)
• Design eliminates the need for brushes by using a more complex drive
circuit
• Advantages:
+ High efficiency
+ High reliability
+ Low EMI
+ Good speed control
• Disadvantages:
– May be more expensive than "brushed" DC motors
– More complex and expensive drive circuit than "brushed" DC
motors
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
How Does a Permanent Magnet
DC Motor Work?
• "DC Motors" use magnets to produce motion
– Permanent magnets
SOUTH NORTH
How Does a Permanent Magnet
DC Motor Work?
• "DC Motors" use magnets to produce motion
– Permanent magnets
– An electromagnet armature
SOUTH NORTH
Rotating Armature
• Electromagnet armature is mounted on axle so that
it can rotate
SOUTH NORTH
Commutator and Brushes
• Electromagnet armature is mounted on axle so that
it can rotate
• A commutator makes an electrical contact with the
motor's brushes
SOUTH NORTH
Commutator Structure
• Commutator is comprised of two "near-
halves" of a ring
• Commutator is comprised of two "near-halves" of a ring
• Mounted on the armature's axle to rotate with the rotor
Armature
• Armature's windings are connected to the
commutator
Commutator and Brushes
• Armature's windings are connected to the commutator
• Brushes connect the commutator to the battery
Electromagnet Polarization
• Current flows through the armature's windings,
which polarizes the electromagnet
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation
• The like magnets (NORTH-NORTH and SOUTH-SOUTH) repel
• As the like magnets repel, the armature rotates, creating mechanical
motion
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation Direction?
• What direction will the armature spin?
• Clockwise? Counterclockwise?
+ -
Counterclockwise ?
SOUTH NORTH
Clockwise ?
Rotation Direction?
• To determine the direction of the motor's rotation, we need
to use the "Left Hand Rule"
eld
Fi
tic
ne
ag
M
Cu
rren
e
t
Forc
Left Hand Rule
• Start with two opposite
ends of a magnet SOUTH
NORTH
Left Hand Rule:
Magnetic Field
• The magnetic field (B) is from
the NORTH pole to the SOUTH
opposite SOUTH pole
• The pointing finger

follows B into
screen
NORTH B
Left Hand Rule:
Current Flow
• Current flows in a wire through
the magnetic field from left to
right SOUTH
I1
• The middle finger follows I1
right, or I2 left
I2
NORTH
Left Hand Rule:
Force
• The force, F, acting on each wire
is in the direction of theF1
SOUTH
thumb
I1
• The wire with I1

is pushed up, I2
I2 down
NORTH
F2
Left Hand Rule:
Force
• The magnitude of F is give by:
F1 SOUTH
|F|=|I|**|B|
I1
where  is the length of
the wire in B
I2
NORTH
F2

Left Hand Rule:
Current Loop
• If the current flows in a loop,
the force(s) will cause
F theSOUTH
I
loop to rotate
NORTH
F
Rotation
• Magnetic field is from right to left
• Imagine current flows out of the screen in this cross
section
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation
• Imagine current flows out of the screen in this cross section
• The force causes the armature to rotate clockwise
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation
• At some point, the commutator halves will rotate away from the
brushes
• Momentum keeps the electromagnet and the commutator ring rotating
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation
• When the commutator halves reconnect with the
other brush, the current in the windings is reversed
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation
• When the commutator halves reconnect with the other brush,
the current in the windings is reversed
• The polarity is reversed and the armature continues to rotate
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Rotation
• Imagine current flows out of the screen in this cross section
• The force causes the armature to rotate clockwise
+ -
SOUTH NORTH
Controlling a Permanent Magnet
DC (PMDC) Motor
• Bi-directional PM DC motors are controlled with an "H-Bridge"
circuit consisting of the motor and four power switches
Turning On a PMDC Motor
• One switch is closed in each leg of the "H"
• One switch is open in each leg of the "H"
Current
Turning On a PMDC Motor
in the Other Direction
• One switch is closed in each leg of the "H"
• One switch is open in each leg of the "H”
Current
Controlling a Permanent
Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor
• Unidirectional motors are controlled by a “half-H”
bridge circuit
Current
Controlling a PMDC Motor
Options
• DC operation
– Rotational speed of the DC motor is fixed at a given voltage
and load
• PWM Operation
– Average voltage (and rotational speed) can be controlled
by opening/closing the switches quickly
• Braking
– Shorting the terminals or momentarily reversing the drive
• Others
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
Why a Stepper Motor ?
• Unlike the permanent magnet DC motor, stepper motors move
in discrete steps as commanded by the stepper motor controller
• Because of their discrete step operation, stepper motors can

easily be rotated a finite fraction of a rotation
• Another key feature of stepper motors is their ability to hold

their load steady once the require position is achieved
• An example application for stepper motors is for implementing

traditional "analog" instrumentation gauges on a dashboard
How Does a
Stepper Motor Work ?
• A stepper motor often has an internal rotor with a large number of
permanent magnet “teeth”
• A large number of electromagnet "teeth" are mounted on an external

stator
• Electromagnets are polarized and depolarized sequentially, causing the

rotor to spin one "step"
• Full step motors spin 360o/(# of teeth) in each step
• Half step motors spin 180o/(# of teeth) in each step
• Microstep motors further decrease the rotation in each step

Full Step Motor Operation
Half Rotate
and Hold
`
Half Step Motor Operation
Half Rotate
and Hold
`
Stepper Motor Control
• The stepper motor driver receives square wave pulse
train signals from a controller and converts the signals
into the electrical pulses to step the motor
• This simple operation leads stepper motors to

sometimes be called "digital motors"
• To achieve microstepping, however, the stepper motor

must be driven by a (quasi) sinusoidal current that is
expensive to implement
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
Why a Brushless DC Motor ?
• Many of the limitations of the classic permanent magnet "brushed"
DC motor are caused by the brushes pressing against the rotating
commutator creating friction
– As the motor speed is increased, brushes may not remain in
contact with the rotating commutator
– At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining
contact
– Sparks and electric noise may be created as the brushes
encounter flaws in the commutator surface or as the commutator
is moving away from the just energized rotor segment
– Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance
• Brushless DC motors avoid these problems with a modified design,
but require a more complex control system
How Does a Brushless DC Motor
Work ?
• A brushless DC motor uses electronic sensors to detect the position of
the rotor without using a metallic contact
• Using the sensor's signals, the polarity of the electromagnets’ is

switched by the motor control drive circuitry
• The motor can be easily synchronized to a clock signal, providing

precise speed control
• Brushless DC motors may have:

– An external PM rotor and internal electromagnet stator
– An internal PM rotor and external electromagnet stator
Example Brushless DC Motor
Operation
• This example brushless DC motor has:
– An internal, permanent magnet rotor
Operation
– An external, electromagnet stator
Operation
– An external, electromagnet stator, with magnetic
field sensors
Brushless DC Motor
Construction
A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C C B
B
com
Brushless DC Motor Operation
A
com com
A
a
1
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com
A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 2
A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 3
A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 4
A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 5
A
com com
A
a
6
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com
A
com com
A
a
1
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
1
a
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
3
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
4
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
5
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
6
a
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit
A1 B1 C1
A
1
a
c com b
C B
A2 B2 C2
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
• An electric motor converts electric energy into
mechanical motion
Electric Motor
• Electric motors are used to

perform a mechanical task by
Electric using electricity
Energy – Open a sunroof
+ - – Lift a power antenna
12V – Control windshield wiper
Types of Electric Motors
Permanent Magnet Stepper Brushless DC
DC Motor Motor Motor
Advantages: + Low cost + Position control + High efficiency

(high volume) (low cost + High reliability
+ Simple operation control circuits) + Low EMI
+ Speed control
Disadvantages: - Medium efficiency - Poor efficiency - Maybe higher cost
- Poor reliability - Digital interface - Complex control
- Bad EMI - High cost
Agenda
• Stepper Motors
Thank you!
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Bridging Theory in Practice

Transferring Technical Knowledge

• Found in nature as magnetite (Fe3O4) lodestones

• Magnetic field causes the permanent magnet to attract

• Two ends of the permanent magnet are usually

• Opposite magnet ends attract and like magnet ends repel

… but their magnetic field is not

• Magnetic field is temporarily induced by an

• Electric motors are used to

Power windows Sunroof

• Significant amount of electronics may be required to

• There is a mechanical force which acts on a current carrying wire

• The mechanical force is perpendicular to the wire and the magnetic

Permanent magnet DC motor Repulsion motor

• The pointing finger

• The wire with I1

• Because of their discrete step operation, stepper motors can

• Another key feature of stepper motors is their ability to hold

• An example application for stepper motors is for implementing

• A large number of electromagnet "teeth" are mounted on an external

• Electromagnets are polarized and depolarized sequentially, causing the

• Full step motors spin 360o/(# of teeth) in each step

• Half step motors spin 180o/(# of teeth) in each step

• Microstep motors further decrease the rotation in each step

• This simple operation leads stepper motors to

• To achieve microstepping, however, the stepper motor

• Using the sensor's signals, the polarity of the electromagnets’ is

• The motor can be easily synchronized to a clock signal, providing

• Brushless DC motors may have:

• Electric motors are used to

Advantages: + Low cost + Position control + High efficiency

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