You are on page 1of 54

AIRCRAFT

DESIGN
PROJECT- I
7-15 SEATER
BUSINESS JET

8
ABSTRACT
In this project we have designed a 7-15 seater

Business jet. We have taken the sufficient steps to make

sure that the aircraft what we are designing is in an

optimum range. The aircraft parameters like cruise

velocity, cruise altitude, wing loading etc and weight

estimation, airfoil selection, wing selection, landing gear

selection have been made with extreme care. The

adequate details have been collected to make our

calculation easier and to make design more precision.

The details have been collected from various sources

which are given in the bibliography.

8
Page no
Serial no Topic

1 Introduction 5

2 Classification of aircraft 9

3 The design 11

4 Comparative data sheet 12

5 Weight design 31

6 Wing design 35

7 Airfoil selection 37

8 Landing gear design 42

9 Performance calculations 53

10 3-D view Diagram 56

8
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and scope of airplane design
An airplane is designed to meet the functional,
operational and safety requirements set by or acceptable to the ultimate
user. The actual process of design is a complex and long drawn out
engineering task involving:

• Selection of airplane type and shape

• Determination of geometric parameters

• Selection of power plant

• Structural design and analysis of various components and

• Determination of airplane flight and operational


characteristics.

Over the year of this century, aircraft have evolved in


many directions and the design of any modern plane is a joint project for a
large body of competent engineers and technicians, headed by a chief
designer. Different groups in the project specialize in the design of different
components of the airplane, such as the wing, fuselage etc.

A new experimental plane has to meet higher


performance requirements than similar planes already in service. Hence
design laboratories involved in experimental and research work are
indispensable adjuncts to a design office. These laboratories as well as allied
specialized design offices and research institutions are concerned in helping
the designer to obtain the best possible solutions for all problems pertaining
to airplane design and construction and in the development of suitable
components and equipment.

Airplane design procedure is basically a method of trial and


error for the design of component units and their harmonization into a
complete aircraft system. Thus each trial aims at a closer approach to the

8
final goal and is based on a more profound study of the various problems
involved. The three phases of aircraft design are

• Conceptual design

• Preliminary design

• detail

Phase of aircraft design


Conceptual design

Aircraft design can be broken into three major phases, as depicted in


figure. Conceptual design is the primary focus of this book. It is in conceptual design
that the basic questions of configuration arrangement, size and weight, and
performance are answered.

The first question is “can an affordable aircraft be built that meets the
requirements?” if not, the customer may wish to relax the requirements.

Conceptual design is a very fluid process. New ideas and problems emerge as
a design is investigated in increasing detail. Each time the latest design is analyzed
and sized, it must be redrawn to reflect the new gross weight, fuel weight, wing
size, and other changes. Early wind tunnel test often revel problems requiring some
changes to the configuration.

REQUIREMENTS

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN will it work?

What does it look like?

What requirements drive the design?

What trade-offs should be consider?

What should it weigh and cost?

8
PRELIMINARY DESIGN freeze the configuration

Develop lofting

Develop test and analytical base

Design major items

Develop actual cost estimation

DETAIL DESIGN design the actual piece


to be built

Design the tooling and


fabrication process

Test major items


structure, landing gear

Finalize weight and


performance estimate

FABRICATION

Preliminary design

Preliminary design can be said to begin when the major changes are
over. The big questions such as whether to use a canard or an aft tail have
been resolved. The configuration arrangement can be expected to remain
about as shown on current drawing, although minor revisions may occur. At
some point late in preliminary design, even minor changes are stopped when
a decision is made to freeze the configuration.

During preliminary design the specialists in area such as structure


landing gear and control systems will design and analyze their portion of the
aircraft. Testing is initiated in areas such as aerodynamics, propulsion,
structures, and control. A mockup may be constructed at this point.

A key activity during preliminary design is “lofting”. Lifting is the


mathematical modeling of the outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient
accuracy to insure proper fit between its different parts, even if they are
designed by different designers and possibly fabricated in different location.
Lofting originated in shipyards and was originally done with long flexible
rulers called” splines”. This work was done in a loft over the shipyard; hence
the name.

8
The ultimate objective during preliminary design is to ready the company
for the detail design stage, also called full-scale development. Thus, the end
of preliminary design usually involves a full scale development proposal. In
today’s environment, this can result in a situation jokingly referred to as
“you-bet-your-company”. The possible loss on an overrun contrast o from
lack of sales can exceed the net worth of the company! Preliminary design
must establish confidence that the airplane can be built in time and at the
estimated cost.

Detailed design

Assuming a favorable decision for entering full scale development,


the detail deign phase begins in which the actual pieces to be fabricated are
designed. For example, during conceptual and preliminary design the wing
box will be designed and analyzed as a whole. During detail design, that
whole will be broken down in to individual ribs, spars and skins, each of
which must be separately designed and analyzed.

Another important part of detailed is called production design.


Specialist determine how the airplane will be fabricated, starting with the
smallest and simplest subassemblies and building up to the final assembly
process. Production designers frequently wish to modify the design for ease
of manufacture; that can have a major impact on performance or weight.
Compromises are inevitable, but the design must still meet the original
requirements.

It is interesting to note that in the Soviet Union, the production design


is done by a completely different design bureau than the conceptual and
preliminary design, resulting in superior producibility at some expense in
performance and weight.

During detail design, the testing effort intensifies. Actual structure of


the aircraft is fabricated and tested. Control laws for the flight control system
arte tested on an “iron-bird” simulator, a detailed working model of the
actuator and flight control surfaces. Flight simulator are developed and flown
by both company and customer test pilot.

Detail design ends with fabrication of the aircraft. Frequently the


fabrication Begins on part of the aircraft before the entire detail-design effort
is completed. Hopefully, changes to already- fabricated pieces can be
avoided. The further along a design progresses, the more people are

8
involved. In fact, most of the engineers who go to work for a major
aerospace company will work in preliminary on detail design.

Classification of airplanes design


Functional classification:
The airplane today is used for a multitude of activities
in civil and military fields. Civil applications include cargo transport,
passenger travel, mail distribution, and specialized uses like agricultural,
ambulance and executive flying. The main types of military airplane at the
present time are fighters and bombers. Each of these types may be further
divided into various groups, such as strategic fighters, interceptors, escort
fighters, tactical bombers and strategic bombers. There are also special
aircraft, such as ground attack planes and photo-re-connaisance planes.
Sometimes more than one function may be combines so that we have multi-
purpose airplanes like fighter-bombers. In addition to these, we have
airplanes for training and sport.

Classification by power plants:


Types of engines used for power plant:

• Piston engines (krishak, Dakota, super constellation)

• Turbo-prop engines ( viscount,friendship,An-102)

• Turbo-fan engines (HJT – 16, Boeing series, MIG-21)

• Ramjet engines

• Rockets (liquid and solid propellants) (X-15A)

Location of power plant:

• Engine ( with propeller) located in fuselage nose (single


engine) (HT-2,Yak-9,A-109)

• Pusher engine located in the rear fuselage (Bede XBD-


2)

• Jet engines submerged in the wing

8
1. At the root(DH Comet, Tu-104,Tu-16)

2. Along the span (Canberra, U-2, YF-12A)

• Jet engines in nacelles suspended under the wing (pod


mountings) (Boeing 707,DC-8,Convair 880)

• Jet engines located on the rear fuselage (Trident, VC –


10 ,i1-62)

• Jet engines located within the rear fuselage (Hf – 24,


lighting,MIG-19)

Classification by configuration:

Airplanes are also classified in accordance with their shape


and structural layout, which in turn contribute to their aerodynamic, tactical
and operational characteristics. Classification by configuration is made
according to:

• Shape and position of the wing

• Type of fuselage

• Location of horizontal tail surfaces

Shape and position of the wing:

• Braved biplane(D.H. Tiger moth)

• Braced sesquiplane (An-2)

• Semi-cantilever parasol monoplane (baby ace)

• Cantilever low wing monoplane (DC-3,HJT-16,I1-18,DH


Comet)

• Cantilever mid wing monoplane (Hunter, Canberra)

8
• Cantilever high wing monoplane (An-22,Brequet 941
Fokker Friendship)

• Straight wing monoplane (F-104 A)

• Swept wing monoplane (HF-24, MIG-21, Lighting)

• Delta monoplane with small aspect ratio (Avro-707, B-58


Hustler, Avro Vulcan)

Type of fuselage

• Conventional single fuselage design ( HT-2,Boeing 707

• Twin- fuselage design

• Pod and boom construction (Packet, Vampire)

Types of landing gear:

• Retractable landing gear (DC-9,Tu-114,SAAB-35)

• Non- retractable landing gear (pushpak, An-14, Fuji KM-2)

• Tail wheel landing gear (HT-2,Dakota,Cessana J85 C)

• Nose wheel landing gear (Avro-748, Tu-134,F-5A)

• Bicycle landing gear (Yak-25,HS-P,112)

THE DESIGN
Design is a process of usage of creativity with the
knowledge of science where we try to get the most of the best things
available and to overcome the pitfalls the previous design has. It is an
iterative process to idealism toward with everyone is marching still.

Design of any system is of successful application of


fundamentals of physics. Thus the airplane design incorporates the
fundamentals of aerodynamics, structures, performance and stability &
control and basic physics. These are based on certain degree of judgment
and experience. Every designer has the same technical details but each
design prevails it own individuality and the mode of the designer.

8
Here the preliminary design has been done of an
executive Transport Aircraft. The basic requirements are the safe,
comfortable and economic transport mode with reasonable time period of
flight. Here comfort and safety are given primary importance.

Here the most possible considerations have been taken.


And the flight parameters and limitations are studied.

The modern day calls for the need of latest aircrafts for the use
of passenger transport which aims mainly at improving the aerodynamic
characteristics as well as the passenger comfort. This design project also
looks at the above aspects in a lot more closer way. Also the design project
has been classified into different stages in our design will be as follows.

• Collection of comparative data

• Selection of aircraft parameters

• Preliminary and second weight estimations

• Selection of power plant

• Airfoil selection, flaps, t/c, sweep, etc

• Layout of L/G, load, tires selection

• 3-view diagram

• Balance diagram

8
COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET

In the designers perspective it is necessary to compare the


existing airplanes that are of same type as that of our desired airplane. Their
important parameters, positive aspects to be considered and pitfalls to be
overcome are taken into consideration.

The datas has been collected for various sites in the internet
for 7-15 seater BUSINESS JET design

Several parameters are compared for over 25 aircrafts and


different critical parameters were plotted on graph. They are

• Cruise Velocity

• Range

• Wing area

• Wing loading

• Aspect ratio

• Sweep angle

• Cruise altitude

• Thrust/weight ratio

• Maximum take off weight

8
Bombardier Britten-Norman
Parameters Cessna 421
global express Islander
Maximum take off
44,500 2,994 3,103
Weight (kg)

Empty weight(kg) 22,600 1,627 2,132

Design pay
805 n/a n/a
load(kg)
Design fuel
19663 n/a n/a
load(kg)

Length(m) 30.3 10.86 10.29

Area(m2) 94.9 30.2 18.6

Span(m) 28.65 14.94 12.15

Aspect ratio 8.65 7.39 7.937

Quarter chord
35 n/a n/a
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
468 99.14 166.8
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.301 0.186 0.158


Length\span ratio
1.057 0.7269 0.847

Cruise
950 n/a 420
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 11,390 1,400 2,756

Altitude(m)
15,500 4,024 5,230

Capacity 8 to 19 9 8

8
Cessna citation
Parameters Cessna citation cj3
excel
Cessna citation X

Maximum take off


6,291 13,608 16,375
Weight(kg)
Design pay
371 n/a 6,486
load(kg)
Design fuel
2,136 3057 n/a
load(kg)

Length(m) 15.29 19.37 22

Area(m2) 27 34.35 50

Span(m) 16.26 19.24 19.4

Aspect ratio 10 8.4 7.527

Quarter chord
0 0 37
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
230 264.1 334.45
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.331 0.38 0.33


Length\span ratio
0.94 1.006 1.13

Cruise
773 848 1004
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 3519 4,821 6,020

Altitude(m)
13,716 15,517 15,545

Capacity 9 10 8 to 12

8
Parameters Gulf stream G100 Gulf stream G200 Hawker 400

Maximum take off


11181 16079 7393
Weight(kg)

Empty weight(kg) 6214 8981 4785

Design pay
363 1905 289
load(kg)
Design fuel
3942 6804 2228
load(kg)

Length(m) 16.94 18.97 14.75

Area(m2) 29.41 34.28 22.43

Span(m) 16.64 17.7 13.25

Aspect ratio 8.8 9.1 7.8

Quarter chord
34 34 20
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
380.3 469.1 329.67
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.31 0.346 0.287

Length\span ratio
1.01 1.07 1.11

Cruise
850 880 778
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 5461 6667 2883

Altitude(m)
12497 13715 13243

Capacity
9 8 8

Learjet 25
Parameters Hawker 800 Dassault Falcon 50

8
Maximum take off
12701 18007 6803
Weight(kg)

Empty weight(kg) 7029 9603

Design pay
1000 1710 n/a
load(kg)
Design fuel
4536 7040 n/a
load(kg)

Length(m) 15.6 18.52 14.5

Area(m2) 34.75 46.83 21.53

Span(m) 15.66 18.86 10.84

Aspect ratio 7.1 7.6 5.4577

Quarter chord
20 29 n/a
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
365.5 384.5 315.9
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio n/a n/a n/a

Length\span ratio
0.99 0.98 1.3376

Cruise
793 850 n/a
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 4704 5602 2853

Altitude(m)
11887 12497 13720

Capacity 14 9 8

Cessna 680 citation


Parameters Learjet 45
sovereign
Cessna 550 citation

Maximum take off


9298 13067 6713
Weight(kg)

8
Empty weight(kg) 5797 7892 3992

Design pay
1030 726 370
load(kg)
Design fuel
2750 4921 2204
load(kg)

Length(m) 17.81 19.35 14.4

Area(m2) 28.95 49.73 30

Span(m) 14.56 19.25 15.75

Aspect ratio 7.3 7.7 8.4

Quarter chord
13 12 10
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
322.3 283.9 223.8
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.383 0.33 0.38

Length\span ratio
1.22 1.005 0.9

Cruise
846 850 744
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 3885 5056 1744

Altitude(m)
15545 13105 8458

Capacity 9 12 10

Learjet 35
Parameters IAI WEST WIND GAF N22 NOMAD

Maximum take off


8300 9390 3855
Weight(kg)

Empty weight(kg) 4590 n/a n/a

8
Design pay
n/a n/a n/a
load(kg)
Design fuel
n/a n/a n/a
load(kg)

Length(m) 14.83 15.93 12.56

Area(m2) 23.5 28.6 30.1

Span(m) 12.04 13.65 16.52

Aspect ratio 6.16 6.5 9

Quarter chord
n/a n/a n/a
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
353.19 328.322 128.07
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.383 0.3 0.192

Length\span ratio
1.23 1.16 0.76

Cruise
852 870 311
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 4070 3410 1352

Altitude(m)
13716 13716 6400

Capacity 8 10 12

RAYTHON
BEECHCRAFT KING Cessna citation
Parameters AIR
Learjet 23
mustang

Maximum take off


6350 6803 3807.97
Weight(kg)

Empty weight(kg) n/a n/a n/a

8
Design pay
n/a n/a 281
load(kg)
Design fuel
n/a n/a 1460
load(kg)

Length(m) 13.36 10.84 13.16

Area(m2) 28.2 21.46 22.3

Span(m) 16.61 13.18 13.16

Aspect ratio 9.78 8.09 7.7

Quarter chord
n/a n/a n/a
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
225.18 317 215.6
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.155 n/a n/a

Length\span ratio
0.8 0.82246 1

Cruise
583 n/a 630
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 3630 1584 2310

Altitude(m)
N\A 13715 12500

15
Capacity 6 4 to 5

North American Piaggio P180


Parameters Lockheed jet star
sabreliner Avanti
Maximum take off
8060 5262 20227
Weight(kg)

Empty weight(kg) 5000 3400 11477

Design pay
n/a n/a n/a
load(kg)

8
Design fuel
n/a 1271 n/a
load(kg)

Length(m) 13.41 14.4 18.42

Area(m2) 31.78 16 50.4

Span(m) 13.56 14.03 16.6

Aspect ratio 5.7858 12.3 5.46

Quarter chord
n/a 1 n/a
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
253.6 327.4 401.3
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.338 0.333 0.339

Length\span ratio
0.9889 1.026 1.109

Cruise
n/a 644 823
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 4020 2595 4585

Altitude(m)
n/a 12500 13135

Capacity 4 to 5 9 8to 10

8
Dassault falcon 7X
Parameters Learjet 60 Learjet 55

Maximum take off


10660 9525 28,894
Weight(kg)

Empty weight(kg) 6641 5832 n/a


Design pay
1070 n/a n/a
load(kg)
Design fuel
3588 n/a 17735
load(kg)

Length(m) 17.88 16.8 23.19

Area(m2) 24.6 24.57 70.7

Span(m) 13.34 13.35 25.13

Aspect ratio 7.234 7.253 8.93

Quarter chord
n/a n/a 34
Sweep(degrees)
Max wing
433 387.66 435
loading(kg\m2)

Thrust\weight ratio 0.392 0.345 0.33


Length\span ratio
1.34 1.258 0.923

Cruise
782 744 685
velocity(km\hr)

Design range(km) 4628 4156 10,500

Altitude(m)
15545 15545 15,500

Capacity 8 to 10 7 19

8
8
8
8
8
s.n Design
Values
o characteristics

1 Cruise velocity 800 Km/hr

2 Design range 3825 Km

3 Cruise altitude 12750ft

4 Aspect ratio 7.5

5 Sweep angle 31

Thrust /weight
6 .33
ratio

7 Wing loading 315 Kg/M2

Max take off


8 11250 kg
weight

9 Wing area 30

8
Weight Estimation
The weight of the aircraft (W) is the key factor in
almost aircraft performance problems. The gross weight is
distributed in the following manner:

W = Wstruc + Wcrew + Wpass + Wfe + Wpp + Wf

Here,

Wstructure consists of the wing, fuselage, under-carriage & the


empennage and accounts for about 32% of the gross weight, i.e.,
0.32W.

Wfixed equipment includes the passenger seats, food, baggage


racks, lavatories, air-conditioning, avionics and other passenger
amenities. This adds to the weight by about 0.05W.

Wpowerplant is the weight of the engine and its systems. The


initial assumption of engine weight is assumed to be 0.055W
which may be modified later to suit thrust requirements.

Wfuel is the weight contribution of the fuel to the total weight. It


depends on the range also includes the Reserve fuel that is used
in case of an emergency. It adds to the gross weight by a factor of
0.3W.

Wcrew + Wpassengers accounts for the remaining weight. i.e.,


0.275W. Taking passenger & baggage weight into consideration, a
maximum of 1800N per passenger is permissible. As for a crew
member, 1000N would suffice.

• W = 0.725W + (No. of passengers)*1800N +


(Crew)*1000N

8
• As for the aircraft to be designed, the Number of
passengers will be 15 with a 5 member crew.

• W = 116363 N = 11861.7 kg (approx)

• The total weight of the power-plant (0.055W) requires


being approx. 326 kg.

• The choice of a suitable engine, having been made, it is now


possible to estimate the amount of fuel required for a flight
at the given cruising speed for the given range.

• Wfuel = (no. of engines) x (thrust at altitude) x


Range x SFC x 1.2

------------------------------------------
----------------

Cruise velocity

• The factor of 1.2 is provided for reserve fuel

• Thrust at altitude is calculated using the relation


ρalt
σ=
Tσ = T0 * σ 1 .2
ρ0

• Therefore the weight of the fuel

Wfuel = 3385.43 kg

Final weight estimation:

W = 0.425W + Wpayload +Wfuel

8
W = 0.425W + 3261.97 + 3385.43

Hence W = 10821.57 kg

This value closely matches with maximum take off weight


obtained in the comparative data sheet obtained.

Engine selection:

Therefore the weight of the power plant = 652 kg

Choice of engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as


higher operating fuel economy & efficiency for high
payloads.

Since it is a business jet of 7 to 15 seater hence two


engines would be sufficient.

Engines can be used in combination of 2 x 326 kg engines

ENGINE NAME DRY WEIGHT (Kg) SFC (lb/hr/lbt) MAX. THRUST(KN)

TFE731-5A 400 0.469 20


J60-P-6 203 0.96 13.3
PW530A 275 0.468 18
CF700-202 349 0.65 20
JT15D-5 291 0.54 12.9
J85-GE-21 310 1.24 15.6

The power plant chosen is CF700-202

Wstruc = 0.32 Wg = 3600 kg

Wfixed equipment = 0.05 Wg = 562 kg

8
Wpower plant = 0.055 Wg = 652 kg

Wfuel = 3385.43 kg

Wcrew + Wpassengers = 3261.9 kg

Wtotal = 11460 kg

From data sheet we know that T/W = 0.33

Hence thrust required = 37 K

Parameters :-
MTOW (N) 112435.6

Wpay (N) 32000

Wst (N) 35316

Wfe (N) 5513

Wpowerplant (N) 6396

Wfuel (N) 33211

Required Thrust (kN) 37

Thrust per engine (kN) 20

Cruise altitude (m) 11750

Sigma 0.26

Range (km) 3825

Cruise Velocity (kmph) 800

Time of cruise (hrs) 10

Power plant chosen CF700-202

Dry weight (kg) 349

Net engine weight (N) 3423.7

Thrust per engine (kN) 20

Net Thrust (kN) 40

8
Cruise SFC (lb/hr/lbt) 0.65

Calculated W fuel (N) 3375

Wing selection
Λ can be approx reasonably with more simply constructed
trapezoidal using with a taper ratio of

λ=0.5(assuming)

S=30m2

A= (b2/S)

A=7.5= (b2/S)

b= = 15m

Formula to calculate root chord is given by

Cr=2b/ (A (1+λ))

=2 / (7.5(1+0.5)) =2.67m

Ct/Cr=0.31 Ct=2.67 0.5=1.33m

The mean aerodynamic chord length is given

C= 2Cr (1+λ+λ2)/ (3(1+λ))

=2 x 2.67(1+0.5+0.52)/ (3 1.5)

C=2.08m

The normalized span wise location of the mean aerodynamic


chord from the centre span of the wing is

(Y/b)= (1+2λ)/ (6 (1+ λ))

8
(Y/b)= (1+1)/ (6 1.5) =0.222m

Mach number for the a/c is given by

Mcruise =800/1188=0.673

McrD = Mcruise +0.071 = 0.744

McrDo = McrD + ΔMcrD (AR) - ΔMcrD (CL) = 0.748

From the historical data for M,

ΛLE=31⁰

Λc/4=tan-1(tan 31-((2 Cr (1- λ))/4b)

Cr =2.67m

b=15m

λ=0.5

Λc/4=29.5⁰

Aspect Ratio(AR) 7.5


Area(S) 30M2
Span(b) 15M
Cr 2.67M
Ct 1.33M
λ 0.5
Λc/4 29.5⁰

AIRFOIL SELECTION
During steady level flight, lift is equal to weight and
hence

8
L = W = 0.5 ×density × V2stall × S×CLmax

Density = 1.2256 kg/m3

Vstall = 1.25 × Vcruise

Vcruise = 222.22 m/s (from graph)

Vstall = 0.25×222.22 = 55.555 m/s

S = 30 m2 (from graph)

W = 11460kg

Therefore 11460 ×9.81 = 0.5×1.2256×55.5552


×30× CLmax

CLmax = 1.98

Airfoil selection:

From the aerofoil data book various airfoils of required t/c


are taken and are tabulated for maximum lift coefficient and
minimum drag.

From the table the airfoil with optimum combination of maximum


lift coefficient and minimum drag coefficient is selected.

Airfoil CLmax CDomin L/D


652015 1.4 0.004 350
652215 1.5 0.004 375
652415 1.6 0.004 400
652415 (a = 1.6 0.004 400
0.5)

Airfoil selected (root): NACA 652415

8
All airfoils listed below are from NACA series

Airfoil CLmax CDomin L/D


63210 1.55 0.0045 344
63A010 1.2 0.0045 226
63A210 1.425 0.00425 335
64210 1.45 0.004 362.5
64110 1.4 0.004 350
64A010 1.225 0.00425 288
64A210 1.425 0.004 356.27
64A410 1.625 0.00425 382
65210 1.4 0.00375 373
65410 1.525 0.00375 406
66210 1.2 0.003 400

Selected airfoil (mean): NACA 64A410

6%
Airfoil CLmax CDomin L/D
63006 0.9 0.004 225
64006 0.86 0.00375 229.3333
64206 1.1 0.0038 289.4737
65006 0.95 0.0034 279.4118
65206 1.1 0.0035 314.2857

Airfoil selected (tip): NACA 65206


2S
Cr = b(1 +λ)

= 2.666m

8
Ct = 0.5 × Cr

= 1.333 m
C r + Ct
Cm =
2

=2m

parameter root mean Tip


Chord (m) 2.666 2.0 1.333

NACA 652415 64A410 65206

t/c 15 % 10 % 6%
Clmax 1.6 1.625 1.1
Cdomin 0.004 0.00425 0.0035

Volume of the fuel that can be stored in the wing

V = (0.5×Cm × t/c × Cm ×b/2 × 0.75) ×0.75×2

= 1.68m3

So volume of fuel that can be stored in wings is 1.68 m3

Total Volume of the fuel to be carried


W fuel
Vt = (9.81 * ρ fuel )

= 4.21 m3

Remaining Fuel = 4.218 –1.68 = 2.58 m3

The remaining fuel is stored in the fuselage.

8
Flap selection:

With zero final velocity and with deceleration aided by thrust


reverser, landing speed is calculated using the following equation.
Since our aircraft is a 15 seater aircraft,

Runway length = 3100 m

Ground run= 60% of (Runway length) = 1850m

V2-VL2=2 a S

V=0, a= -0.25g s=1850m

VL = 95.25 m/s.

Vstall = VL /1.3= 73.27m/s

From the stalling speed the lift coefficient required to avoid


stall is calculated as follows,
2(W / S )
CL stall =
ρ Vstall 2

= 0.95

CLmaxavailable = 0.95

CLrequired = 1.98

∆ CLreq = 1.03

Part span correction required for flap:

The flap on the wing of the aircraft does not run along the
entire span. As a convention we can approximately take the flap
is provided for quarter span of the wing i.e. flap span is b/4.

Hence ∆ CLactual with the part span correction is given by,

∆ CLactual =∆ CLrequired /4 (since the flap is of quarter span)

8
Length = 50% of Semi span

Cf = 0.25 C

Split Flap:

Flap Full span Part span 50%


deflection
δ ∆ CL CDo ∆ CL CDo

0 0 0 0 0
10 0.22 0.018 0.11 0.009
20 0.42 0.048 0.21 0.024
30 0.6 0.09 0.3 0.045
40 0.65 0.136 0.325 0.068
50 0.79 0.18 0.395 0.09
60 0.825 0.22 0.4125 0.11

LANDING GEAR SELECTION


In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is
the structure (usually wheels) that supports an aircraft and allows
it to move across the surface of the Earth when it is not flying.
Overview
Landing gear usually includes wheels equipped with
shock absorbers for solid ground, but some aircraft are equipped
with skis for snow or floats for water, and/or skids or pontoons
(helicopters).
Types of gear arrangements
Wheeled undercarriages come in two types:
conventional or "tail dragger" undercarriage, where there are two

8
main wheels towards the front of the aircraft and a single, much
smaller, wheel or skid at the rear; or tricycle undercarriage where
there are two main wheels (or wheel assemblies) under the wings
and a third smaller wheel in the nose. Most modern aircraft have
tricycle undercarriages. Tail draggers are considered harder to
land and take off, and usually require special pilot training.
Sometimes a small tail wheel or skid is added to aircraft with
tricycle undercarriage, in case of tail strikes during take-off. The
Concorde, for instance, had a retractable tail “bumper” wheel (as
delta winged aircraft need a high angle when taking off). Some
aircraft with retractable conventional landing gear have a fixed
tail wheel, which generate minimal drag and even improve yaw
stability in some cases.
Retractable gear
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract
into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the
surface or concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear.
A design for retractable landing gear was first seen in
1876 in plans for an amphibious monoplane designed by
Frenchmen Alphonse Pénaud and Paul Gauchot. Aircraft with at
least partially retractable landing gear did not appear until 1917,
and it was not until the late 1920s and early 1930s that such
aircraft became common. By then, aircraft performance was
improved to the point where the aerodynamic advantage of a
retractable undercarriage justified the added complexity and
weight. An alternate method of reducing the aerodynamic penalty
imposed by fixed undercarriage is to attach aerodynamic fairings
(often called "spats" or "pants") on the undercarriage, with only
the bottoms of the wheels exposed.

Large aircraft
As aircraft grow larger, they employ more wheels to cope
with the increasing weights. The Airbus A340-500/-600 has an

8
additional four-wheel undercarriage bogie on the fuselage
centerline. The Boeing 747 has five sets of wheels, a nose-wheel
assembly and four sets of four-wheel bogies. A set is located
under each wing, and two inner sets are located in the fuselage, a
little rearward of the outer bogies.
Unusual types of gear
Some planes use wheels only for take off and drop
them afterwards to gain the improved streamlining without the
complexity, weight and space requirements of a retraction
mechanism. In this case, landing is achieved on skids or similar
simple devices. Historical examples include the Messerschmitt Me
163 and the Messerschmitt Me 321. A related contemporary
example are the wingtip support wheels ("Pogos") on the U-2
reconnaissance aircraft, which fall away after take-off; the aircraft
then relies on titanium skids on the wingtips for landing. Landing
gear on an Airbus A310 an unusual undercarriage configuration is
found on the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, which has two main wheels
in line astern under the fuselage (called a bicycle or tandem
layout) and a smaller wheel near the tip of each wing. On second
generation Harriers, the wing is extended past the outrigger
wheels to allow greater war loads to be carried.
A multiple tandem layout was used on some military jet
aircraft during the 1950s such as the Lockheed U-2, Myasishchev
M-4, Yakovlev Yak-25, Yak-28 and the Boeing B-47 because it
allows room for a large internal bay between the main wheels. A
variation of the multi tandem layout is also used on the B-52
Stratofortress which has four main wheel bogies underneath the
fuselage and a small outrigger wheel supporting each wing-tip.
The B-52's landing gear is also unique in that all four pairs of main
wheels can be steered. This allows the landing gear to line up
with the runway and thus makes crosswind landings easier (using
a technique called crab landing).For light airplanes, a landing gear
which is economical to produce is a simple wooden arch
laminated from ash, as used on some homebuilt aircraft. A recent

8
addition to this type of gear is the fixed-gear RJ.03 IBIS canard
homebuilt aircraft.
Steering
The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled
landing gear varies by aircraft, but there are several general
types of steering. Tail dragger aircraft may be steered by rudder
alone (depending upon the prop wash produced by the aircraft to
turn it) with a freely-pivoting tail wheel, or by a steering linkage
with the tail wheel, or by differential braking (the use of
independent brakes on opposite sides of the aircraft to turn the
aircraft by slowing one side more sharply than the other). Aircraft
with tricycle landing gear usually have a steering linkage with the
nose wheel (especially in large aircraft), but some allow the nose
wheel to pivot freely and use differential braking and/or the
rudder to steer the aircraft.

Virgin Atlantic Airbus A340-600 landing. This airliner has an


undercarriage on the fuselage belly, as well as on the wings.
Some aircraft require that the pilot steer by using rudder pedals;
others allow steering with the yoke or control stick. Some allow
both. Still others have a separate control, called a tiller, used for
steering on the ground exclusively.

Rudder steering
When an aircraft is steered on the ground exclusively using the
rudder, turning the plane requires that a substantial airflow be
moving past the rudder, which can be generated either by the
forward motion of the aircraft or by thrust provided by the
engines. Rudder steering requires considerable practice to use
effectively. Although it requires air movement, it has the

8
advantage of being independent of the landing gear, which makes
it useful for aircraft equipped with fixed floats or skis.
Direct steering
Some aircraft link the yoke, control stick, or rudder directly to the
wheel used for steering. Manipulating these controls turns the
steering wheel (the nose wheel for tricycle landing gear, and the
tail wheel for tail draggers). The connection may be a firm one in
which any movement of the controls turns the steering wheel
(and vice versa), or it may be a soft one in which a spring-like
mechanism twists the steering wheel but does not force it to turn.
The former provide positive steering but make it easier to skid the
steering wheel; the latter provide softer steering (making it easy
to over control) but reduce the probability of skidding the wheel
used for steering. Aircraft with retractable gear may disable the
steering mechanism wholly or partially when the gear is
retracted.
Differential braking
Differential braking depends on asymmetric application of the
brakes on the main gear wheels to turn the aircraft. For this, the
aircraft must be equipped with separate controls for the right and
left brakes (usually on the rudder pedals). The nose or tail wheel
usually is not equipped with brakes. Differential braking requires
considerable skill. In aircraft with several methods of steering that
include differential braking, differential braking may be avoided
because of the wear it puts on the braking mechanisms.
Differential braking has the advantage of being largely
independent of any movement or skidding of the nose or tail
wheel.

Tiller steering
A tiller in an aircraft is a small wheel or lever, sometimes
accessible to one pilot and sometimes duplicated for both pilots,
that controls the steering of the aircraft while it is on the ground.
The tiller may or may not be designed to work in combination

8
with other controls such as the rudder or yoke. In large airliners,
for example, the tiller is often used as the sole means of steering
during taxi, and then the rudder is used to steer during take-off
and landing, so that both aerodynamic control surfaces and the
landing gear can be controlled simultaneously when the aircraft is
moving at aerodynamic rates of speed.
Maximum take off weight (from data sheet) = 10821.57 N=
25165 lbs

Tricycle-wheel arrangement

Nose- 1L/G

- 2 wheels
Main – 2 L/G

- 8 wheels
Weight taken by main landing gear, Wm = 0.9 ×W/8

= 12.6 KN/wheel =
2831 lbs/wheel

Weight taken by nose landing gear, Wn = 0.1 × W/2

= 5600 N/wheel =
1258.25 lbs/wheel

Tyre sizing:

During landing and takeoff, the undercarriage supports the


total weight of the airplane. Undercarriage is of three types:

1. Bicycle type
2. Tricycle type
3. Tricycle tail wheel type.

A tricycle wheel type needs more takeoff distance and floor


is also needs to be inclined. So we have selected a tricycle nose
wheel type. Also the types of runways are also be selected with

8
due care since depending on this criterion, wheels and tires are
selected.

Being an executive transport vehicle, it may land on grass


fields and may even on beaches. For tricycle nose wheel type
undercarriage, the nose wheel carries 10 % of the total load and
the main undercarriage carries 90% of the total load.

For different runways, the allowable loadings are given by,

Grass 21.1 N/cm2


Grass Strip 36.9 N/cm2
Asphalt (Tar) 73.9 N/cm2
Concrete 116.1 N/cm2

Wheel configurations:

A B
Wheel diameter 1.51 0.349
Wheel width 0.715 0.312

Main wheels:
B 0.349
Wheel diameter = A (Wm\2) = 1.51× (2831\2)

= 19 inches = 0.48 meters

Wheel width = A (Wm\2) B =0.715× (2831\2) 0.312

= 6.87 inches = 0.1746 meters

Nose wheels:

Wheel diameter = A (Wn)B = 1.51× (1258.25)0.349

= 18.23 inches = 0.463 meters

8
Wheel width = A (Wn)B = 0.715 × (1258.25)0.312

= 6.628 inches = 0.168 meters.

FUSELAGE SELECTION

Length of the fuselage = 16 m

Diameter of the fuselage = 1.74 m

HORIZONTAL TAILPLANE

From the standard design books =0.5 ARht= 4

Sht/s=0.15 S=30m2

Sht=4.5m2

bht=

bht=4.24m

Crt= (2Sht)/ ( +1) bnt) = (2 4.5)/(1.5 4.24)

Crt=1.415m

Ctt=0.5Crt=0.7m

Yht= (bt (1 ))/(6(1+ )) =(4.24(1+2(0.5))/(6(1+0.5))=0.94m

Cht= ((2Crt (1+ + 2))/ (3(1+ ) = (2 1.415(1+0.5+0.52)/ (3


(1+0.5))Cht=1.1m

Vertical tail plane

From standard design books Svt/S=0.08 ARvt=1.5

Svt=2.4m

bvt=

8
bvt=1.879m

Crt= (2 Svt / ((1+ ) bvt)) = ((2 /(1+0.5) 1.897))

Ctt=Crt0.5=0.84m

Yvt = (2 bvt (1 ))/ (6(1+ )) =0.843m

Cvt= ((2Crt (1+ + 2))/ (3(1+ ) =1.3m

Horizontal Tail:

VHT = 0.7

ARht = 4

SHT = 4.5 m2

bht = 4.24 m

Cr = 1.415 m

Cmht = 1.1 m

Ct = 0.7 m

Yht = 0.94 m

Vertical Tail:

VVT = 0.04

ARvt = 1.5

SVT = 2.4 m2

bvt = 1.897 m

Crvt = 1.68 m

8
Cmvt = 1.3 m

Ctvt = 0.84 m

Yvt = 0.843 m

Performance
Take off performance

The take off distance is given by

Sto = (1.44×W2)/ (g×ρ×S×CLmax[T-(D+μ (W-L))]

CLtakeoff = CLmax (Vstall/Vtakeoff)2

Assuming takeoff speed is 10 % greater than the stall speed

CLtakeoff = CLmax (1/1.1)2 = 1.945 × 0.826 = 1.61

L= 0.5 × ρ×V2×S×CL

= 0.5×1.2256×55.5552×30×1.61

L= 91.35 KN

We know that W= 110362.5 N and T/W=0.33

Hence T=36419.6 N

Assuming L/D = 15

D=91350/15 = 6090 N

Thrust required = 40 KN

Therefore

Sto = (1.44×W2)/ (g×ρ×S×CLmax [T-(D+μ (W-L))]

Sto = 0.745 km

Landing performance:

8
The landing distance is given by

SLo = (1.69×W2)/ (g×ρ×S×CLmax (D+μ (W-L)))

Here WLO = Wg-0.3 Wg = 77.25 KN

Therefore

SLo = (1.69×W2)/ (g×ρ×S×CLmax (D+μ (W-L)))

SLo = 2.1 km

Climbing flight:

R/c = V sin γ

= V (T-D)/W

= (PA-PR)/W

R/C = 68.28 m/s

68.28= V sin γ

γ = 17°53°

Horizontal turn:

Bank angle is Ø

Turn angle is θ

The sustained turn is considered for this:

nm = (T/W) × (L/D) = 4.95

nmax is the maximum sustained load factor.

But some factor of safety should be given hence n is assumed to


be 3.5

8
L cos Ø = W

Sec Ø = nmax

Ø = sec-1(4.95)

Ømax = 78°30°

For normal horizontal turn n = 2.5

Hence Ø = 70°31°

Tan θ = (n2 – 1)0.5 = 4.85

(n^2 – 1)0.5 = V2/gR2 = 4.85

There fore R = 1038.43 m.

Radius has to be decreased for better performance. It is


decreased by decreasing the velocity.

ω = V/R = 0.21 m/s

Endurance:

The endurance for a jet engine is given by

E= (L/D) × (1/C) ×ln (Wi/Wf)

E = 9.59 hours.

Serial no characteristics value


1 Take off distance 0.745 km
2 Landing distance 2.1 km
3 Rate of climb 68.28 m/s
4 Climb angle 17°53°

8
5 Turn radius 1038.43 m

AIRCRAFT DATA SHEET


1 Cruise velocity 800 Km/hr
2 Design range 3825 Km
3 Cruise altitude 12750M
4 Aspect ratio 7.5
5 Sweep angle 31
6 Thrust /weight ratio .33
7 Wing loading 315 Kg/M2
8 Max take off weight 11250 kg
9 Wing area 30
10 MTOW (N) 112435.6
11 Wpay (N) 32000
12 Wst (N) 35316
13 Wfe (N) 5513
14 Wpowerplant (N) 6396
15 Wfuel (N) 33211
16 Required Thrust (kN) 37
17 Thrust per engine (kN) 20
78 Cruise altitude (m) 11750
19 Sigma 0.26

8
20 Range (km) 3825
21 Cruise Velocity (kmph) 800
22 Time of cruise (hrs) 10
23 Power plant chosen CF700-202
24 Dry weight (kg) 349
25 Net engine weight (N) 3423.7
26 Thrust per engine (kN) 20
27 Net Thrust (kN) 40
28 Cruise SFC (lb/hr/lbt) 0.65
29 Calculated W fuel (N) 3375
30 Aspect Ratio(AR) 7.5
31 Area(S) 30M2
32 Span(b) 15M
33 Cr 3.053M
34 Ct 0.947M
35 λ 0.31
36 Λc/4 29.5˚

AIRFOIL SELECTION

8
parameter root mean Tip
Chord (m) 2.666 2.0 1.333

NACA 652415 64A410 65206

t/c 15 % 10 % 6%
Clmax 1.6 1.625 1.1
Cdomin 0.004 0.00425 0.0035

3-D VIEW DIAGRAM

1.74M

16M ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

ZZZ

8
30 M2

15 M

Conclusion
The aircraft is designed and the
parameters like cruise velocity, wing
loading, span etc have been selected for
our aircraft. The weight estimation had
been done to estimate the weight of our
aircraft. The wings, airfoil, landing gear
have been selected for our aircraft. The
performance calculations were also made
to estimate the performance. The aircraft

8
parameters are in the optimum range and
design characteristics have been found to
be satisfactory

BIBILOGRAPHY
1. “AIRCAFT PERFORMANCE AND
DESIGN” by
John D.Anderson, Jr
2. “AIRCRAFT DESIGN” by Daniel P.
Ramer
3. “ALL THE WORLD’S AIRCRAFT “ by
janes

8
4. Web source: www.wikipedia.com
www.airliners.com
www.geae.com
www.pdas.com

You might also like