Architects of Scientific Thought in Islamic Civilization

Architects of the Scientific Thought
in Islamic Civilization
Hallmarks from the Biographies

of Muslim Scholars in Various Ages
By Halima El Ghrari
Translated by
Abdelaziz Haouaria
Publications of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

-ISESCO- 1424AH/2003AD
Typesetting and Design of
the Cover Page at
Photocomposition Unit - ISESCO
Legal number : 1683/2003

ISBN : 9981-26-350-8
Printing : Imprimerie Beni Isnassen

Salé - Kingdom of Morocco
Preface
The publication of this book in its Arabic, English and French

editions, falls within the framework of the efforts exerted by the Islamic
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation in order to highlight the
contributions of the Islamic civilisation, in its various aspects, to the
enrichment of human civilisation in general, and in the fields of science
in particular. These contributions constituted the foundations and basis of
the scientific renaissance that appeared and thrived in the West, as was
confirmed by distinguished European and American authors and
historians who worked on the history of science through centuries.
This book, which the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organisation presents to readers in all regions of the Islamic world and in
other regions in the East and the West, is the most complete reference
that presents concise and thorough biographies of the leading founders of
scientific thought in Islamic civilisation. These illustrious figures
contributed to the progress of the whole humanity and set up the
foundations of the scientific advancement that was achieved in Europe in
the 19th century and continued in the 20th century, reaching
unprecedented advancement and prosperity at this dawn of the third
millennium.
Professor Halima Ghirari has been successful in shedding light on 40

outstanding and distinguished Muslim scholars who flourished in
different ages and had various interests and contributions in all fields of
science, yet were all inspired and guided by Islam’s call to the quest of
knowledge and mastery of sciences. They were the fruit of and sought
inspiration in the Islamic civilisation in which they grew up. They can be
considered, in this respect, as the founders of today’s civilisation. Their
biographies deserve to be read and they should be followed as examples
of scientific and cultural creativity in all fields.
V
In his “Introduction to the History of Science”, George Sarton
classified scientific activity throughout history into epochs, each of which
lasting half a century. He named each epoch by the name of a leading
scholar. From 750 to 1100 (350 years), all the epochs had names of
scholars from the Islamic world: Jabir, al-Khawarizmi, al-Razi, al-Masoudi,
Abu al-Wafa, al-Biruni, Omar al-Khayyam. They were all Muslim
scholars, Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Persians who mastered chemistry,
mathematics, medicine, geography, natural science and astronomy. Since
1100, and for 250 years, European scholars intermingled with Muslim
scholars, such as Ibn Rochd, al-Tussi and Ibn Nafis. At that time, modern
European civilisation started to flourish and the Islamic scientific works
were translated, studied and improved; this endeavour is still in process.
The biographies of all these scholars are presented in this book. This fact
is stated and confirmed by the Arab Muslim scientist settled in Germany,
Dr. Mohamed Mansur, who was chosen among the 2000 personalities
who contributed to human civilisation in the previous century, in a
selection realised at the initiative of prestigious Cambridge university.
We have decided to publish this book in a medium-size form to present

these 40 scholars with a view to allowing a wide range of readers from all
ages to have access to it. This effort comes within the framework of the
lofty mission. ISESCO endeavours to achieve, i.e. disseminating facts
about the Islamic civilisation and culture, showing their specificities and
foundations and recalling their rich contribution to humanity’s progress
and prosperity.
May God grant crown our efforts with success and guide us to what
is best for our Islamic Ummah and for the whole humanity.
Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri

Director General of the Islamic
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation
VI
Contents
Preface ............................................................................................. V
Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
1. Jabir Ibn Haiyan ......................................................................... 3
2. Al-Khawarizmi .......................................................................... 6
3. Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari ................................................................ 9
4. Al-Farghani ................................................................................ 11
5. Sanad Ibn Ali ............................................................................. 13
6. Banu Musa Ibn Shakir ............................................................... 14
7. Al-Kindi ..................................................................................... 17
8. Al-Razi ....................................................................................... 20
9. Al-Battani .................................................................................. 24
10. Al-Farabi ................................................................................... 28
11. Abdurrahman Sufi ..................................................................... 31
12. Abul Wafa al-Buzjani ................................................................ 33
13. Al-Majriti ................................................................................... 35
14. Ibn Al-Jazzar .............................................................................. 37
15. Ibn Yunes ................................................................................... 39
16. Al-Zahrawi ................................................................................ 41
17. Abu Sahl Al-Quhi ...................................................................... 43
18. Al-Karkhi ................................................................................... 45
19. Ibn Sina ...................................................................................... 47
20. Ibn Al-Haitham .......................................................................... 51
21. Al-Biruni .................................................................................... 55
22. Ibn Ridouane .............................................................................. 58
VII
23. Al-Zarqali .................................................................................. 60
24. Ibn Jizla ...................................................................................... 62
25. Omar Al-Khayyam .................................................................... 64
26. Ibn Bajja .................................................................................... 66
27. Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr ............................................................... 68
28. Ibn Tufayl .................................................................................. 71
29. Ibn Roshd ................................................................................... 74
30. Ibn Al-Razaz Al-Jazari .............................................................. 77
31. Al-Batruji ................................................................................... 79
32. Ibn Al-Bytar ............................................................................... 80
33. Nasir Al-Dine Tussi ................................................................... 83
34. Ibn Al-Nafis ............................................................................... 86
35. Al-Hassan Al-Murakchi ............................................................ 89
36. Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi ............................................................. 91
37. Ibn Al-Banaa .............................................................................. 93
38. Ibn Al-Shatir ............................................................................. 96
39. Al-Kashi ..................................................................................... 98
40. Ulugh Beg .................................................................................. 100
Biographies of some Muslim Scientists .......................................... 102
Bibliography .................................................................................... 105
VIII
Introduction
Sciences were among the fields in which Arab scholars excelled and
made great contributions, participating in the development of human
knowledge. Several western historians and searchers have acknowledged
the significant contributions of Arab scientists in many fields, such as
medicine, astronomy, mathematics… and their leading role in setting up
the foundations of modern science.
In an attempt to present some prominent Muslim figures and their
scientific contributions, we thought to realize a bibliography of some
Muslim scholars. We endeavoured to present illustrious figures and
others who are less famous despite their achievements and contributions
to the advancement of science. Our objective is to offer an opportunity to
secondary school and university students to recognize these hallmarks of
scientific thought in Islamic civilization and to form a concise idea about
their works and contributions in various fields of science.
Muslim scholars were known for their encyclopedic nature and for
excelling in various fields of science and knowledge, such philosophy,
astronomy, mathematics, medicine… However, we considered it more
appropriate to dedicate this bibliography only to some scientists who
contributed to the advancement of scientific knowledge in specific fields
such as chemistry; medicine, botany, pharmacy, astronomy, mathematics
and geometry and to present concise biographies about each scholar and
his inventions, achievements, works and contributions, in coherence with
facts mentioned in the reference books we rely on to achieve this work.
This book presents concise biographies of 40 Muslim scholars who
lived in different epochs –from the 9th century AD to the 15th century
AD. Although we dedicate this bibliography only to some scientists who
played important roles in the advancement of scientific knowledge, we
are aware that more efforts need to be made in the future in order to
present other figures that we could not include in this work.
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I would like to present my deep thanks and gratitude to Dr.
Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, Director General of the Islamic
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, for his precious help in
realizing this work. Thanks also go to Dr. Faiq Billal, Director of Science
at ISESCO, who adopted this project and suggested it among the
Organisation’s scientific programs.
Halima El Ghrari
Rabat, August 23, 2001
-2-
1. Jabir Ibn Haiyan
(102-199H/721-815AD)
Jabir Ibn Haiyan, an outstanding personality and one amongst the

greatest scholars of the Middle Ages(1). Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan,
sometimes called al-Harrani or al-Sufi, was known in Europe in the Middle
Ages under the name of Geber. He is thought to have belonged to the
Sabian sect in Harran, which gave him the name of al-Harrani. He
converted to Islam and showed a real zeal for his new religion(2). Father
George Qanouati stated that after the death of his father at his early age,
Jabir was sent to the Arabic Peninsula where he studied Koran and
Mathematics. Ibn Nadim stated in his "al-Fahrest" that views were
controversial concerning the classification of Jabir in a specific category,
such the Shiites, Baramika or the philosophers. “Some people even denied
his existence". Hence, reserve should persist as to his belonging to the
Sabians. Though he originated from Khurassan, he spent the greatest part of
his life in Kufa. Jabir was born in Taous around 721AD and died in 813 or
815AD, as historians differ as to the date of his death(3).
In his early days, Jabir practiced medicine under the patronage of the
Vizir Jaafar al-Barmaki under the rule of the Abbasid Caliph Harun
al-Rashid. In the aftermath of the downfall of the Barmakis, he was put in
prison in Kufa, where he remained until his death in 803AD(4).
Scientific Contribution
The major contribution of Jabir Ibn Haiyan was in the field of chemistry.
He introduced experimental investigation into alchemy and invented the
(1) Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, t. 1, p. 532.
(2) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 6, p. 227.
(3) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 2, p. 103. Refer also to :
- Qanawati Georges: "Al-Khayma al-Arabia" in the"Encyclopedia of the Histrory of Arabian
Sciences, Part III, by Dr. Rushdi Rashed, Centre of Pan-Arab Studies, Beirut, p. 1105.
- Tawkan Qadri: Arabian Sciences, p. 97.
(4) Hakim Mohamad Said, Eminent Figures and Thinkers, p. 41.
-3-
alkalis, known in contemporary chemistry by their Arabic original terms alkali.
He also discovered silver water and all credit goes to him for the later discovery
by Europeans of ammonia, gold water, potassium, vitriol. He described in his
books non precious metals and their oxides and salts, nitric and sulphuric acids,
as well as distillation, percolation and sublimation processes.
Amongst Jabir's major scientific achievements was the introduction

of experimentation and laboratory work in chemistry. He recommended
accuracy in research and reliance on experimentation and patience. He
was amongst the pioneers of applied science. His achievements in this
field include the refining of various metals, steel preparation, cloth
dyeing, leather tanning, water-proof cloth varnishing and the use of
manganese dioxide in glass-making(1).
Jabir classified substances based on their characters into three
distinct types :
1. Spirits, i.e. those which vaporize on heating, such as camphor and
ammonium chloride;
2. Metals, such as gold, silver, lead, copper, iron;
3. Compounds which can be converted into powders(2).
In short, as rightly said by "Sarton", "the real value of Jabir's
contribution can only be appraised if all his works are annotated, edited
and published(3).
Major Works
The fame of Jabir Ibn Hayyan came from his numerous books,
namely :
- Kitab Arrasel al-Sab'een (Book of the Seventh Treaties), translated
into Latin by Gerard of Cremona into Latin in 1187AD
- Kitab Ossoul -al-Kimya, (Basics of Chemistry);
(1) Sarton. op. cit., p. 532.

(2) Scientists and Thinkers, p. 42.
-4-
- Soundouk al-Hikma (Wisdom Box);
- Kitab al-Moulk
- Kitab al-Mawazin Asaghir
- Kitab Arrahma
- Kitab al-Khawas
- Kitab Assomoum wa Dafu Madariha, (Poisons and their Antidotes).
Jabir's corpus includes a great number of books. Apart from

chemistry, he compiled several treatises, such as commentaries on
Aristotle and Platoon, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine and
music. Zarkali stated in his "Eminent Figures and Personalities" that Jabir
had a voluminous corpus, ranging between 232 and 500 books, but most
of them were lost(1). Some of these books were translated from Latin to
English in 1678AD. For several centuries, Europeans relied on his books
which had an important impact in the development of modern chemistry.
In this context, Max Mayerhaff says "the development of chemistry in
Europe can be traced back directly to Jabir Ibn Haiyan. The great
evidence can be found in the fact that several terms coined by Jabir, are
still found in various European languages.”
(1) Zarkali, Ibid., p. 103.
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2. Al-Khawarizmi
(Died 236H/850AD)
Al-Khawarizmi was one of the greatest Arab and world scholars

whose works had a significant influence on mathematics and astronomy.
In this connection, Aldo Mili says : "If we move to mathematics and
astronomy, we will find from the beginning top level scholars, such as
the illustrious Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi"(1).
The date of his birth is unknown while the date of his death is inexact.
The only precise information available about him is that he was born at
Khawarizm (Kheva), south of the Aral sea. He lived in Baghdad during
the rule the Abbassid caliph Al-Mamun who appointed him as the chief
librarian of his library and entrusted him with the task of gathering and
translating Greek books(2). Al-Khawarizmi draw an enormous benefit from
the books of Al-Mamun library. He studied mathematics, geography,
astronomy, history in addition to his in-depth Greek and Hindu
knowledge.
Scientific Contributions
Al-Khawarizmi laid the foundations of algebra as a independent
science separate from arithmetic, that was later adopted by Europeans.
He was the first to have used the term of algebra. Up to now, algebra is
known by its Arabic name in all European languages. All the terms in
European languages ending by "algorithm" are named after him. He was
the first scientist to have ever written in the field of algebra. He had also
the merit to introduce the Indian system of numerals (now generally
known as Arabic numerals). Amongst the major contributions he made to
(1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science and its Impacts on Scientific Development in the World.
(2) Zarkali, ibid., p. 116.
-6-
mathematics was his discovery and development of some procedures,
such as the calculus of two errors, the geometrical solution of quadratic
equations. He published the first Arabic trigonometric tables which were
translated in Latin in the 12th century.
In addition to his great contributions in arithmetic, al-Khawarizmi

innovated in the field of astronomy and developed research in trigonometry
and developed ephemerides which had a considerable impact on the other
tables developed by Arabs afterwards (1).
The other scientific contributions of al-Khawarizmi were the

improvements brought on Ptolemy's views on geography as well on his maps.
Major Works
Al-Khawarizmi wrote several books, the most important of which are :
- Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, (Book on Integration and Equation) an
unprecedented book wrote at the request of the Caliph al-Mamun.
This book not only coined the word of algebra and gave it its
present meaning but it also opened verily a new era in
mathematics(2). It was translated in Latin during the 12th century,
and thanks to this translation, this science reached the West. For
several centuries afterwards, this book constituted a reference in
Europe. It was annotated by Dr. Ali Musharafa and Dr. Muhamad
Mursi Ahmed and was published for the first time in Cairo in
1939AD.
- Kitab Surat-al-Ard, a manuscript kept today in Strasbourg, France.
This book was translated in Latin and the information it contained
was confronted to Ptolemy's views(3).
- Kitab al-Amal bi al-Usturlab (Use of the Astrolabe) and Kitab
Amal al-Usturlab (Astrolabe's Operation).
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 161.

(2) Aldo Milli, Arabian Sciences, p. 154.
(3) Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 9, p. 18.
-7-
In brief, al-Khawarizmi was undoubtedly among the greatest
scholars of his time and had the merit of introducing the Indian numeral
system both to Arabs and to the Western world(1).
In fact, he was the founder of algebra and left several treaties in

arithmetic, astronomy and geography. In his words, Aldo Milli paid
tribute to the eminence of al-Khawarizmi by saying : "al-Khawarizmi
opened the lead for a series of great mathematicians"(2). His books were
taught in European universities until the 16th century.
(1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 154.

(2) Ibid., p. 154.
-8-
3. Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari
(Died in 247H/861AD)
Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was Born in Marv,
Tabristan in 780 or 770AD(1). According to Aldo Mili(2) and Ibn Khalkan,(3)
he hailed from a Persian Christian family. Later, he embraced Islam guided
by Al-Mua'tassim(4). In the words of Mohamad Zubair Siddiki, the
annotator of al "Firdous al-Hikmat" treatise : "it was al-Mutawakil who
called him to Islam and called him the servant of the commander of the
believers. His nobility endeared him to the caliph who made him a member
of his court”.
As for the surname of Rabban which implies "professor" according
to Aldo Milli who says : "the Siryac surname of Rabban was used amongst
Christians as an equivalent for the word professor we use"(5).
His father Sahl was a scholar who excelled in the fields of medicine,
geometry, astrology, mathematics and philosophy. Reportedly, he was
the first to have succeeded in translating Ptolemy's book Almajest.(6). Ali
received his education in the disciplines of medicine, geometry and
philosophy from his father. He also mastered Syriac and Greek languages.
After the death of his father, he furthered his study of medicine and
became a renowned physician. He practiced medicine at his beginnings in
the city of Array then moved to Baghdad. In the end, he settled in "Sura
man raa"(7) (Samaraa), where he became the secretary of the Caliphs,
al-Muatassim, al-Ouatik and al-Mutawakil.
(1) Firdaous al-Hikma, Annoted by Mohamad Zubair Seddiki.

(2) Aldo Milli, Science and Arabs, p. 131.
(3) Ibn Khalkan, Death of Eminent Figures, vol. 5, p. 159.
(4) Ibn Nadim, Index, 1, p. 593.
(5) Aldo Milli, op. cit., p. 133.
(6) Sarton: op. cit., t. 1, p. 565.
(7) Ahmed Abdelbaki, Landmarks of the Islamic Civilization in the 3rd century H., p. 541.
-9-
Contributions to Medical Science
The major scientific contribution of Ali Ibn Rabban lies in his
classification of several medical topics which he tackled in-depth in his
treatise Firdous al-Hikmat, including laying the general principles of
medicine and the rules for keeping good health; comprehensive account
of certain muscular diseases; description of the diet to maintain the good
health. Besides, he discussed in this comprehensive book all diseases
from head to toe, namely head and brain diseases; eye, nose, ear, mouth
and teeth diseases; muscular diseases: chest and lung diseases; diseases
of the abdomen; liver diseases; gallbladder and spleen diseases, intestinal
diseases as well the different kinds of fever. He also described flavor,
taste and color and tackled drugs and poisons.
Major Works
Ali Ibn Rabban left several medical books, the most renown of which
are :
- Firdous al-Hikmat treatise (850AD) is a medical encyclopedia which
incorporates all the branches of medical science, in addition to studies
in philosophy, psychology, zoology, astronomy, meteorological
phenomena. Al-Tabari wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic and
simultaneously translated it into Syriac. Several copies of this book
were published in different countries. Dr. Mohammed Zubair Siddiqi
verified and annotated the manuscripts. The book was published in
India in 1928. It was also published by the Institute of Arab and
Islamic Sciences in Frankfort University in 1996.
- Kitab Tuhfatu al-Mulouk, Hifdh al-Sehhat (a book on keeping
good health) and Kitab fi Tartib al-Aghdiya (a book on foodstuff
classification) Manafi'a al-At'ima wal as-Shriba wal Akakir
(book on the benefits of foodstuffs, beverages and drugs).
Az-Zarkali(1) added to his works the book entitled Addin wa Dawla

(Religion and the State) in which, Ibn Rabban defends Islam.
(1) Zerkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 4, p. 288.
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4. Al-Farghani
(Died after 247H/861AD)
Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Kathir al-Farghani, known

in the West as Alfraganus, was born in Farghana and lived in Baghdad
during the rule of the Abbassid Caliph, al-Mamun. He was one of the most
distinguished astronomers who worked in the service of al-Mamun and his
successors(1). Sarton said about him "He was still alive in 861AD"(2).
Al-Farghani was a contemporary of al-Khawarizmi, Beni Musa and Sanad
Ibn Ali.
Al-Farghani was an astronomer, astrologist and engineer. He determined
the diameter of the earth to be 6,500 miles, and found the diameters of
the planets.
Aldo Milli says : "Al Farghani's measurements of planet distances and

diameters were used by many other astronomers, namely Copernicus(3) as
such, almost without change. Thus, this Muslim astronomer had a
significant influence on the renaissance of astronomy in Europe. In year
861, the Caliph al-Mutawakkil, entrusted him with supervising the
construction of the Nilometer at al-Fustat. He supervised it to completion
and his name was written on it.
Major Works
Al-Fraghani left a number of valuable books, namely :
- Kitab Jawami Ilm al-Nujum wal Harakat al-Samawiya a book on
thorough science of the stars and celestial motion, which was
(1) Sarton, op. cit., t. 1, p. 567.

(2) Sarton, ibid,. p. 567.
(3) Aldo Milli, op. cit., p. 167.
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translated into Latin in the 12th century by Gerard of Cremona. It
was as well translated in Hebrew. This book exerted a great
influence on European astronomy in the period before
Regiomontanus, the astro-mathematician who thrived in the 15th
century. Translations of this book were edited and published
several times during the 15th and 16th centuries.
- Fi al-Usturlab (on the Astrolabe) and Al-Jama' wa Tafrik
(Addition and Division) .
- 12 -
5. Sanad Ibn Ali
(Died after 250H/864AD)
Sanad Ibn Ali, alias Abu Tayeb was a contemporary of the Abassid
Caliph al-Ma'mun. Reportedly, he was born around 850AD. According to
Sarton, he died after year the 864AD. He was a Muslim astronomer and
mathematician(1). It is said that Sanad was Jewish and embraced Islam,
guided by the Caliph al-Ma'mun, who appointed him in his panel of
astrologists and head of all observational matters.
All the credit goes to Sanad for the setting up of Baghdad observatory.
He also developed ephemeredes, he called "Azyaj al-Ma'mun", that were
used by astrologists of his time and subsequently. He was renowned for
the manufacturing of astronomic detection equipment and the astrolabe. He
also corrected the positions of some planets and took part in the endeavor
of measurement of the Earth and planet surfaces, ordered by al-Ma'mun.
Major Works
In addition of his interests in meteorology, Sanad Ibn Ali was versed
in mathematics. He wrote several books in these subjects, including :
- Kitab al-Hissab al-Hindi (book on Indian Numerals);
- Kitab al-Jama' wa Tafriq (book on addition and division);
- Kitab al-Jabr wa al-Mufaraqa;
- Kitab al-Munfasilat wa al-Mutawassitat, dealing with stars and
arithmetic;
Besides, Sanad explained nine essays from Euclid's treatise on geometry

"Elements".
(1) Sarton, op. cit., t. 1, p. 566.
- 13 -
6. Banu Musa Ibn Shakir
(Died in 259H/ 872AD)
Musa Ibn Shakir lived in Baghdad during the rule the Abbasid Caliph
al-Ma'mun and was among his closest courtiers. He was interested in
astronomy and astrology. At his death, he left three children at small age.
Al-Ma'mun took them under his wings and appointed Isshak Ibn Ibrahim
al-Masbaghi to take care of them. This latter placed them in Bayt al-Hikmah
(the House of Wisdom), which hosted an important library, an astronomic
observatory, and a translation center of Greek philosophical and scientific
works. Banu Musa brothers grew up in this scientific environment, and
became among the outstanding scholars of Bayt al-Hikma. The three brothers,
Muhamad, Ahmad and al-Hassan were known as Banu Mussa or the three
brothers(1). The eldest of them, Abu Jaafar Muhamad was a scientist with
extensive knowledge in geometry, stars and "Almajest". Ahmad was an
expert and an innovator in the field of mechanical engineering. Al-Hassan
had an in-depth mastery of geometry(2). The eldest of the three brothers
died in 872AD.
Ibn Musa brothers excelled in the fields of mathematics, astronomy,
mechanics and geometry and contributed to their development by their
important innovations and discoveries.
Their scientific contributions in mechanics appeared in the invention
of a series of scientific tools and automatic devices, such as a number of
farming machines, fountains which show numerous images with ascending
waters. They also invented a number of household devices and toys as
well as machines for loads traction, lifting or weighing.
(1) Ahmad Yussuf Hassan: Introduction of the Annotation of Kitab Al Hiyal, Banu Musa,
Damscus, 1981, p. 18.
(2) Tawkan: op. cit., p. 187.
- 14 -
Banu Musa brothers had an extensive expertise in general mathematics
and put into use their mathematical knowledge in applied matters. They
succeeded for instance in creating the elliptic form(1).
The method consists in planting two pins at two separate points,

taking a thread measuring the distance between the two points. The threat
must be tightened from both ends then put around the pins and a pencil
inserted into the other folded end. When the pencil is turned clockwise
the elliptic form is drawn.
In the fields of astronomy, Banu Musa brothers assessed the mean

movement of the sun in the Persian calendar and developed calendars for
the positions of planets. They also worked on meteorological changes and
recorded the observations.
Banu Musa brothers played also an important role in the development

of mathematics, astronomy and geometry through their treatises and by
providing sponsor and support to translators and scientists. In this context,
the German author Sigrid Hunkah said about Banu Musa brothers : "They
sent envoys at their own expenses to the Byzantine Empire in search of
ancient philosophical, astronomic, mathematical and medical manuscripts.
They went until paying considerable amounts to buy Greek heritage and
carry them home... In a house, close to the palace of al-Mutawakil, put at
their disposal by this latter, a large team of translators from all parts of
the country was working ceaselessly …"(2).
Major Works
Banu Musa brothers wrote in several scientific fields, such as
geometry, land surveying, cones, astronomy, mechanics and mathematics.
Their publications include the following :
- Kitab al-Hiyal, their most famous book, in which they compiled
old mechanics as well as their personnel experiences. The
(1) Ahmad Yussuf Hassan, ibid., p. 19.

(2) Hunkah, "the Sun of Arabs Shines on the West", p. 124.
- 15 -
annotator of this book, Mr. Ahmad Yussuf Hassan, says that the
interest for Kitab al-Hiyal started in the West by the end of the
19th Century. The serious studies did not appear until the
beginning of the 20th century, with the publication by Fiedeman
and Hauser of study papers on this book. In 1979, Hill translated
the book into English. Kitab al-Hiyal was published in 1981 by the
Institute of Arab Scientific Heritage in Syria after its verification
and annotation by Dr. Ahmad Yussuf Hassan and others;
- Kitab Missahat Al-Akr;
- Kitab Kismat Azzawaya ila Talatat Akssam Mutassawiya (Division
of angle into three equal parts), translated by Gerard of Cremona into
Latin;
- Kitab chalk al-Handassi, a book on geometrical form;
- Kitab Harakt al-Falak al-Ula (Stars First Motion).
It is worth noting that Banu Musa brothers worked closely with each
other to the extent it becomes impossible to single out the work of each
of them. The important thing is that they played an outstanding role in the
development of mathematics, astronomy and geometry and had a great
influence on their era.
- 16 -
7. Al-Kindi
(175-260H/800-873AD)
Al-Kindi was known as the Philosopher of the Arabs and was

considered "as one of the 12 geniuses endowed with a high level of
intelligence"(1). He was an encyclopedic scholar. Besides his fame as
philosopher, he was mathematician, astronomer, physicist, physician,
pharmacist and geographer.
His full name was Yaqub Ibn Ishaq Ibn Sabah al-Kindi Abu Yuusuf.
He hailed from al-Kinda tribe and was known in Latin by Alkindus. He
was born at Kufa where his father was governor (2).
Al-Kindi grew up and studied in al-Basra. Later he moved to Baghdad

where he furthered his studies with the most reputed scholars. He was a
contemporary of three Abbasid caliphs, al-Mamun, al-Mu'tasim and
al-Mutawakkil as well as the three astronomers, the Banu Musa brothers
and the astronomer Sanad Ibn Ali. He was held in such a high esteem by
al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim that al-Ma'mun entrusted him with the task of
translating Aristotle's books as well as other Greek philosophers. He vas
also used by al-Mutawakkil as calligrapher. On account of his philosophical
views and denunciation by envious people, al-Mutawakkil ordered the
confiscation of all his books. These were, however, all returned to him later.
He wrote four books on the use of Indian numerals and made
considerable contribution to spherical geometry which he used in his
astronomical studies(3).
(1) Tawkan, Kadri, Arabian Sciences, p. 112.

(2) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 1483.
(3) Hakim Muhammad Said, Eminent Figures and Thinkers, p. 50
- 17 -
He observed the positions of stars and planets -particularly the Sun
and the Moon- in comparison to Earth and their eventual natural impact
as well as the arising phenomena. He came up with breakthrough and
bold views in his research, including on the origin of life on Earth. This
forced several scholars to recognize him as a high level thinker (1).
In chemistry, he challenged the idea that precious metals, such as
gold can be extracted from base metals. He wrote a treatise that he called
"Treatise in Opposition of Alchemists Pretending to Make Gold and Silver
and their Trickeries".
In astronomy, al-Kindi did not believe in the influence of the planets
on people's fate and refuted the astrologer's predictions based upon the
motion of celestial bodies. He focused instead his interest on the
scientific study of the Universe and stars based on their observation.
Some historians considered him as one of eight outstanding astronomers
in the Middle Ages(2).
In physics, he made rich contributions to geometrical and physiological
optics and wrote a book on the subject, which had a great influence later
on Roger Bacon, Witelo and other scholars(3).
Al-Kindi was also a brilliant engineer whose publications and theories
were used as reference in construction works, mainly canals as was the case
during the digging of canals between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (4).
In medicine, his chief contribution was his attempt to systematically
determine the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time(5).
Major Works
Al-Kindi was a prolific writer; he wrote and explained several books.
Views differ as to the total number of his works which range between 230,

(2) Ibid., p. 179.
(3) Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, p. 559.
(4) Tawkan, Ibid., p. 168.
(5) Hakim Muhammad Said, Idem., p. 50.
- 18 -
270 and 300 monographs and books. In these books, he tackled various
subjects, including philosophy, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, medicine,
physics, logic, tides, metals, precious stones, iron and sword types. He was
also an early translator of Greek works into Arabic.
Only some of his works will be presented, based on the statements

of Tawkan(1) and Zarkali(2) :
- Risalah fi Madkhal Ila Aritmetica (Introduction to Arithmetic) : 5
monographs;
- Risalah fi Isti'mal al-Hissab al-Hindi (Use of Indian Calculation) :
4 monographs;
- Risalah fi 'ilal al-Awda' Noujoumia (Positions of the Stars);
- Risalah fi Sina'at al-Usturlab (Making of the Astrolabe);
- Ilahyat-e-Aristu (Aristotelian Philosophy) ;
- Aduiyah al-Murakkab (Compound Drugs);
- Rissalat al-Mosiqa (Treatise in Music);
- Al-Mad wa al-Jazr (Tides) and
- Assuyuf wa Ajnassuha (Swords).
Gerard of Cremona translated a large number of al-Kindi's books

into Latin. Their influence on the development of several scientific fields
continued throughout several centuries.
(1) Tawkan,: Ibid., p. 175.

(2) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 8, p. 195.
- 19 -
8. Al-Razi
(251-313H/865-925AD)
He is Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi, Abu Bakr, known by

Europeans as Rhazes. He was a celebrated Muslim physician, alchemist
and philosopher. Historians agreed to consider him as the greatest
physician of the Islamic world and the most famous physicians of the
Middle Ages. "And one of the world renowned physician of all time …
He had an extensive knowledge to the extent that he was versed in all
fields of science and arts."(1) Ibn Khalkan described him as "the expert
and the reference in medicine in his time. He was excelled in this practice
and knew all its aspects and rules. People used to come from everywhere
to study under him"(2).
Al-Razi was born in Ray in the south of Teheran. Initially, he

studied mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and philosophy, logic and
literature. Later, he learnt medicine from Ishaq Ibn Hunayn, who was
well versed in Greek, Persian and Indian schools of medicine. Though he
studied medicine well after his 40 (3), he was able to make significant
achievements in the field, which earned him fame. After serving as chief
physician in a Ray hospital, he was appointed in a similar position in
Baghdad Hospital, build by order of the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir(4).
Ar-Razi Contributions to Medicine

In medicine, his contribution was so significant and varied, hence
only some of them will pinpointed. He had an interest in clinical
(1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 463.

(2) Ibn Khalkan, Death of Eminent Figures, vol. 5, p. 157.
(3) Ibn Khalkan, op. cit., p. 173.
- 20 -
observation, involving the evolution of the disease in reaction to the
treatment and the development of the patient's state and the result of the
treatment(1). He also relied on the psychological state in the diagnosis of
diseases. He considered that some stomach diseases were primarily
caused by psychological reasons. The diagnosis of Small Pox and
Measles constituted one of al-Razi's greatest medical achievements. He
gave a precise description of the two diseases, particularly their first
symptoms and their treatment. He used to stress the importance of
practice, expertise and experimentation in the treatment of patients. He
also compounded new medicines and experimented them on animals
before prescribing them to human beings.
Westerners recognize the innovations of Al-Razi in the fields of

gynaecology, obstetrics, MST, and eye surgery(2). He also studied face
palsy and its causes and distinguished between palsy resulting from a
central cause in the brain and localized palsy. He described the
complexity of nerves in the thorax. Al-Razi was among the first to apply
their knowledge in chemistry to medicine and who attributed the
recovery of patient to chemical reaction in the body.
Contributions to Chemistry
Al-Razi was not only a great physician, but also an alchemist of top
level stature(3). He was among the leading scientists who made of
chemistry a true science. Some researchers consider him as the founder of
modern chemistry. He undertook important chemical experiments, such as
the preparation of acids. His methods continue to be used up to now. He
was the first to have mentioned sulfuric acid and called it "oil of vitriol" or
"green vitriol". He extracted alcohol by the distillation of fermented starchy
and sugary materials. He used it in pharmacy as a compound to prepare
medicines(4). The merit of al-Razi in chemistry was most evidently his

(2) Ibid., p. 221
(4) Tawkan, ibid., p. 218.
- 21 -
classification of chemistry elements into three categories : vegetal, animal
and mineral. This very classification still exists in modern science(1).
Major Works
Al-Razi was a prolific author, who left an important number of
treatises. According to some historians, they exceeded 220 books, most
of them were lost.
In medicine, al-Razi wrote several valuable books, which in addition
to his innovative research papers, included Greek and Indian science. His
most famous books are :
- Al-Hawi was by far the most famous of all his books. It is the
largest Arabian medical encyclopedia in which al-Razi gathered
abstracts taken from Greek and Arab physicians and added to them
the results of his experiments as well as his own views. It was
translated into Latin by the Jewish physician Faraj Ibn Salim,
commissioned by the King of Sicily Charles I. The word "al-Hawi"
was changed by its Greek equivalent "Continens"(2). The book was
also translated several times in Europe until year 1542AD. Eminent
European scholars relied considerably on this book which
remained a reference book in their schools and universities until
the 12th century.
- Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah (Treatise on Small Pox and
Measles) : This book contains a detailed and accurate description
of the two diseases and their treatment. It was translated in Latin in
Venice in 1565 then in various European languages. It was
published in Europe forty times between 1498 and 1866(3).
- Tib al-Fukara (Medicine of the Poor) : A popular dictionary in
which al-Razi describes all the known diseases, symptoms and
their treatment using cheap foodstuffs instead of expensive
medicines and rare compounds.

(2) Arnold, ibid., p. 463.
(3) Ahmed Abdelbaki, Landmarks of Islamic Civilization in the 3rd century of the Hegira, p. 537.
- 22 -
- Kitab al-Mansuri, which was named after the Governor of
Khurassan, al-Mansur ibn Ishaq. He covered in this book several
medical subjects, such as surgery, eye diseases. The book was
published for the first time in Milano in year 1481AD and was
translated in Latin. It remained a reference book for physicians in
European universities until the 17th century.
Among its most famous books in chemistry, the following can be

cited :
- Kitab al-Asrar fi al-Kimiya (Secrets of Chemistry) : Al-Razi
describes in this book the way he conducted his experiments and
the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization as well
as the instruments and tools used.
In astronomy, the most famous of al-Razi's books was :

- Kitab Hay'atu al-Alam (Attitude of the Universe) : In this book, he
demonstrates that "Earth evolves around two axes, that the Sun is
bigger than the Earth and that the Moon is smaller than Earth"(1).
Al-Razi had several other books in medicine, pharmacy, astronomy,

mathematics, physics, logic, philosophy and religious science.
In brief, we can say that al-Razi made a considerable contribution

through his books and inventions to the progress of medicine and
chemistry and the development of research in both fields. His books
remained a reference in medicine in European universities until the 17th
century.
(1) Hunkah, Ibid., p. 247.
- 23 -
9. Al-Battani
(244-317H/858-929AD)
He is Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan ar-Raqqi

al-Harrani, known as al-Battani. He was named as ar-Raqqi after Raqqa,
a township on the Euphrates in Iraq. He was known in the West in the
Middle Ages as Albategnus or Albategni.
Al-Battani was born in "Battan" near Harran, located on one of the

Euphrates tributaries. His date of birth is not accurate, but he was probably
born in 235 H./858 AD. Concerning the date of his death, "historians
agreed all that he passed away in 317 H./929 A.D.(1) near the city of
Moussul in Iraq. He was regarded as one of the greatest Arab astronomers.
He devoted all his life time from 264 H until his death to the observation of
planets and stars. Al-Battani was first educated by his father Jabir Ibn
al-Battani, who was also a well-known scientist. He then moved to Raqqa,
where he studied the works of his predecessors, mainly Ptolemy's. He
dedicated himself afterwards to research in the fields of astronomy,
trigonometry, algebra, geometry and geography. He spent his professional
life travelling between "Ar-Raqqah" and "Antakia" in Syria, where he set
up an observatory bearing his name (al-Battani Observatory).
The Islamic Encyclopedia refers to al-Battani was famous for the

observation of planets and was one of the leading figures in the fields of
geometry, planet positions and star calculus. European scholars all agree
that al-Battani was more versed in his science than was the Greek
astronomer Ptolemy. The French astronomer Lalande said that al-Battani
was among the 20 top level astronomers that existed in all the world(2).
(1) Human Heritage Magazine, Vol. 3, p. 183.

(2) Islamic Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 326.
- 24 -
Kadari Tawkan stated in his book "Arab Scientific Heritage in
Mathematics and Astronomy"(1) that "Kajori" and "Halle" considered
al-Battani among the most eminent observation scientists. Some researchers
called him Ptolemy of Arabs. Georges Sarton described him as the greatest
astronomer of his time and one of the greatest scholars of Islam(2).
Contributions to Astronomy
Of his most important contributions in astronomy is his discovery of
the azimuth and nadir and the determination of their points in the sky. He
also determined with remarkable accuracy the inclination of the ecliptic,
the length of the tropical year, the seasons and the true and mean orbit of
the sun. He opposed Ptolemy's and showed that the position of the Sun's
apogee is variable. His accurate observations of lunar and solar eclipses
were used by Europeans (Dunthorne in 1749 AD) to determine the
secular acceleration of motion of the Moon throughout a whole century.
He also rectified the orbits of the Moon and the planets and
developed a table of their new positions. Besides, he checked the
positions of several stars and included them in his famous table of
planetary movements, which was used by astronomer for centuries.
"Nellino" recognizes that he "discovered a new theory which
evidences his dexterity and ability to find out means to explain the states
of the Moon at its birth(3).
Contributions in Mathematics
Al-Battani was among the first Arab scholars to have used the sine
instead of chord. He also used the tangent et the cotangent in the
spherical trigonometry. He attempted to use algebra in solving the
problems in which Greeks used geometry. Al-Battani was among the
founders of trigonometry and who endeavours to extend its scope(4).
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 241

(2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 602,
(3) Tawkan, op. cit., p. 245.
- 25 -
Major Works
Among his major works, the following can be cited :
-"Zij Assabi" is by far his most important writing. It contains the

findings of the observation of planets, he conducted in 299 Hegira,
tables on the motions of the celestial bodies, he discovered as well
as the various astronomical works he undertook from 264 to 306
H. It constituted the first "zij" or ephemeris ("zij" a Persian term
referring to the old ephemerides) containing true and accurate
information. The book was greatly influential in the development
of astronomy and mathematics both during the Arab-Islamic
renaissance or at the outset of the European renaissance. Several
Arab scientists relied on it in their calculations, some of them
quoted or interpreted parts of its content.
This book was translated in Latin by Tivok Platoof in the 12th
century under the title "Sciencia de Sttellarum", "Science of Stars",
and was printed in Nuremberg in 1537 AD. In the 13th century, the
King of Castile, Alfonso X, ordered the translation of this Zij from
Arabic into Spanish. An incomplete manuscript of this translation
is in Paris. A copy of this book is available in the Vatican. Carlo
Nellino published an edition of the Arabic original, copied from
the copy of El Escorial in three volumes in Rome 1899-1907
accompanied by Latin translation and comments on some subjects.
- "Kitab Ma'rifat al-Buruj fima bayna Arba' al-Falak" in which
al-Battani deals with the mathematical solution to the astrological
problem to the observer's orientation;
- "Rissala fi Mikdar al-Ittissalt";
- "Rissala fi Tahqiq Akdar al-Ittissalat";
In these last two treatises, al-Battani tackled the subject of the
congruence of two planets as to latitude and longitude, whether
they are in the same orbit, or one or both of them are outside this
sphere.
- 26 -
-"Charh al-Maqalat al-Arba' Libatlimus". Ptolemy ended his
"Almagest" with these four treatises in which he dealt with
astrological issues and the influence of stars on secular matters.
- "Kitab Ta'adil al-Kawakib". Al-Battani studied the difference
between the motions of planets within their orbits, as a constant
value and their real motions which differ from one position to the
other.
In summary, "Al-Battani was among the greatest geniuses of the

world who developed important theories and enriched the human
scientific heritage by adding new discoveries in astronomy, algebra and
trigonometry. He became famous for his observations of planets and
celestial bodies. Some of his findings continue to arouse the interest of
scholars and their admiration(1).
- 27 -
10. Al-Farabi
(257-339H/870-950AD)
"Al-Farbi was a celebrated philosopher and mathematicians as well

as a skilled musician" (1).
He is Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan Ibn Uzalagh, Abu

Nasr al-Farabi. He was known as the "Second Teacher" (al-Mou'allim
al-Tani) for having studies and explained the books of Aristotle (First
Teacher) (2). He was born in Farab in Turkistan where his father of
Turkish origin was serving as an army commander. Dr. Ali Abdulwahed
Wafi said : " Very little is known of al-Farabi's childhood or subsequent
periods of his life(3). All what is known is that he studied in his hometown
a number of subjects, including science, mathematics, letters, philosophy,
languages, such as Turkish, Persian, Greek and Arabic. As he grew older,
he moved to Iraq to further his higher studies. He studied philosophy,
logic and medicine with the Christian physician Yohana Ibn Haylane. He
also studied Arabic linguistics and music. From Iraq he moved to Egypt
and Sham, where he jointed the court of the Sayf ad-Dawlah in Halab. He
held an outstanding position among scientists, men of letters and
philosophers.
After a rich life, he died still bachelor at the age of 80 years in
Damascus in 339 H/950 AD(4).
Al-Farabi was the greatest philosopher of Islam. His contemporaries
used to call him the "Second Teacher" for the big interest he gave to
(1) Hunkah, Arabs' Sun Shines on the West, p. 162.

(2) Zerkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 7, p. 20.
(3) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 2, p. 570.
(4) Human Heritage Magazine, Vol. 2, p. 569.
- 28 -
Aristotle's works and to their explanation, annotation and comments. The
specificity of his philosophy lies in the fact that he tried to synthesize
Platonism and Aristotelism on one side and to compromise between
theology and philosophy. He also introduced the doctrine of emanation in
Islamic philosophy and paved the ground to philosophical sufism.
Despite his fame in philosophy and logic, al-Farabi made
considerable contributions to other scientific fields, such as medicine and
physics. He brought evidence of the existence of vacuum(1). His major
scientific contributions lies in his book Kitab Ihsa' al 'Ulum in which he
discussed the fundamental principles and classifications of sciences(2); he
classified sciences in groups and branches and the subjects and interests
of every branch.
Besides his contributions in philosophy, al-Farabi excelled in music.
His treatise on music constituted the first basis of the concept of logarithm
as indicated in the book entitled "Heritage of Islam". Cara de Faw said :
"As for al-Farabi, the second teacher after Aristotle and one of the eminent
figures of modern Platonism, endowed with a mind that could assimilate
the ancient philosophy, he wrote a valuable treatise in music, a field in
which he excelled. This treatise contain the first core of the logarithm,
which demonstrates the relationship between mathematics and music(3).
Siegfreid Hunkah confirms this very idea when she said : "the interest
shown by al-Farabi to music and to the principles of tune and rhythm
brought him so close to the logarithm science, which is contained in his
book entitled 'Anasir Fan al-Musiqa"(4) (Elements of Musical Art).
Major Works
Al-Farbi wrote several interpretations and books in science, the
major of which are the following(5):
(1) Zahoor, Muslim History.

(2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 628.
(4) Hunkah, op. cit,. p. 163.
- 29 -
- Interpretation of Ptolemy's Almagest;
- Interpretation of the first and fifth treatises of Euclid's book on
geometry;
- Introduction to Virtual Geometry;
- Kalam fi Harakat al-Falak, a book on the motions of celestial
bodies;
- Kitab Ihsa' al-Ulum : In this book, al-Farabi divided science to
eight groups, listed the branches of every group, and the subject of
ever branch, its purposes and interests. This book was translated
into Latin by Gerard of Cremona(1) ;
- Sina'at Ilm al-Musiqa, in which al-Farbi explained the principles
of tune and rhythm.
Al-Farbi was also prolific in philosophy and logic, the most famous
of his writing in these fields are :
- Ara' Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila (Views of the Inhabitants of the
Ideal City);
- Al-Jam' bayn al-Hakimayn Aflatun al-Ilahi wa Aristotalis : a
book where al-Farabi synthesizes between Platonism and
Aristotalism.
"Most of al-Farabi's writing, were either lost or are still kept in

chests and libraries. Only a small part of al-Farabi' works is known
compared to the profusion of his writing in the various science and art
fields(2).
(1) Dr. Othman Amin annotated and published the Arabic text in 1949 in Cairo.
- 30 -
11. Abdurrahman Sufi
(291-376H/ 903-986AD)
Abu al-Hassan Abd al-Rahman Ibn Amr Ibn Sahl Al-Sufi ar-Razi
was born in Ray. He was one of the greatest astronomers and astrologers.
In the words of the historian George Sarton (1), he was one of the most
eminent astronomer of Islam. He was friend with the caliph al-Bouihi
Adud Adawla, who made of him his private astrologer and teacher to
learn about the positions of static stars and their motions.
Sufi made significant contributions to astronomy which can be
summed in the following accomplishments : He observed the stars,
counted them and determined their celestial latitudes and longitudes. His
observations allowed him to discover new stationary stars that had never
been observed before. He drew the map of the sky, in which he listed the
positions of the stationary stars, their magnitudes and the brightness of
each of them. He developed an atlas of the stars to correct the mistakes of
his predecessors (2). Europeans acknowledged the accuracy of his
astronomical observations; Aldo Milli described him as "one of the most
eminent Arab astronomers to whom we owe a series of accurate direct
observations". He further stated : "This great astronomer not only located
several of the stars that were unknown to Ptolemy, but he also corrected
some of his mistaken observations (3). He enabled thus the future
astronomers to recognize the planets for which the Greek astronomer
gave inaccurate positions(4).

(2) Hunkah, Arabs' Sun Shines on the West, p. 151.
(3) Aldo Mielli, Arabian Science, p. 213.
(4) Aldo Mielli, op. cit., p. 218.
- 31 -
Major Works
- "Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabita" (Book of the Stationary Planets) is
considered by Sarton as one of the three major books which were
famous among Muslim astronomers. The other two books are Ibn
Yunus's and Ulugh Beg's. This book contained colored drawings of
constellations and celestial pictures.
- "Risalat al-Amal bil Usturlab" (Treatise on the Use of Astrolabe);
- "Kitab Tadkira";
- "Kitab Matarih Chua'at";
- "Kitab al-Urjuza fi al-Kawakib Tabita".
Copies of some of these works are kept in libraries in a number of

countries, such as El Escorial library in Madrid, Paris and Oxford (1).
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 223
- 32 -
12. Abul Wafa al-Buzjani
(328-387H/940-998AD)
Abu al-Wafa Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Ismail Ibn
Abbas al-Buzjani was an engineer, astronomer, and mathematician.
Sarton described him as one of the greatest mathematicians of Islam(1).
Abu al-Wafa was born in Buzjan in Khurasan in 328H/940 AD. He
studied mathematics under his paternal uncle Abu Umar al-Maghazli and
maternal uncle, known as Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Ataba and
studied geometry under Abu Yahya al-Marudi and Abu al-Ala' Ibn
Karnib. In 348 H/ 959 AD, he moved to Iraq and lived in Baghdad until
his death in 387 H/ 998 AD. Abu al-Wafa dedicated his life to writing,
observing celestial bodies and teaching. He became a member of the
observatory set up by Sharaf ad-Dawla in 377 H(2).
Scientific Contribution
Abu al-Wafa was one of the outstanding scholars in astronomy and
mathematics. Several western scholars also acknowledged his
outstanding merit in geometry(3).
Al-Buzjani made important contributions to the development of
trigonometry. "Cara de Faw" acknowledged that "the services rendered
by Abu al-Wafa to trigonometry can by no means be contested. Thanks to
him, this science became simpler and clearer. He used the secant and
cosecant and developed a new method for the calculation of the sine(4).
He was also the first to demonstrate the general theorem of the sine in
spherical triangles(5).

(3) Tawkan, Idem., p. 277.
- 33 -
Abu al-Wafa was equally a genius in geometry; he was able to solve
several geometrical problems with great dexterity.
Major Works
Al-Buzjani left several valuable books, including :
- "Kitab fima Yahtaju Ilaihi al-Kuttab wa al-Ummal min 'Ilm
al-Hisab" (Book on What Is Necessary from the Science of
Arithmetic for Scribes and Businessmen) a book of applied
arithmetic. Two incomplete copies of this treatise are kept in
Leyden in Holland and in Cairo.
- "Kitab al-Kamil"(the Complete Book)
- "Kitab fima Yahtaj Ilaih as-Suna' fi 'Amal al-Handasa" (Book
on What Is Necessary from Geometric Construction for the
Artisan), a book of applied geometry, written at the request of the
Caliph Baha' ad-Dawla. A copy of this treatise is kept in the library
of Ayasofya Mosque in Istanbul.
- "Kitab al-Majesti" (Almagest Book) is the most famous of all his
books. An incomplete copy of it is kept in the National Library of
Paris.
- "Kitab al-Handsa" (Applied Geometry)
Apart from these treatises, Abu al-Wafa wrote rich commentaries on

Euclid, Diophantus and al-Khawarizmi, but all of these were lost.
In summary, al-Buzjani's researches and books had a significant

influence of the progress of science, in particular astronomy and
trigonometry. He was among the pioneers who laid the ground to the
emergence of analytical geometry by finding geometric solutions to some
algebraic equations(1).
- 34 -
13. Al-Majriti
(338-398H / 950-1007AD)
"Al-Majriti was the leader of mathematicians in Andalusia and the

most knowledgeable in astronomy and stars motion"(1). His full name is
Abu al-Qasim Maslama Ibn Ahmed Ibn Qasim Ibn Abdullah al-Majriti.(2)
He was born in Madrid, Spain in 338 H/950 AD and lived in Cordoba
until his death in 398 H/1007 AD.
He traveled to the East, where he met with Arab and Muslim
scholars and discussed with them the results of his researches in
mathematics and astronomy. He built a school in Cordoba which was
attended by several great scientists in mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
philosophy, chemistry and zoology(3).
Scientific Contributions(4)
Al-Majriti was considered an authority of his time in chemistry. His
made many contributions to the field by drawing a clear distinction
between chemistry and semiology and freeing chemistry from myths and
sorcery. He called for the scientific study of chemistry based on
experimentation and investigation. He considered that mathematics is
necessary for the study of chemistry. Al-Majriti was also interested in
combustion and the resulting reactions. He earned fame for his
preparation of oxide of mercury; nobody succeeded before him in
transforming mercury into mercury oxide.
In the field of astronomy, he shortened al'Battani's ephemerides and
his extract became a reference for astronomers. He was the first to have
(1) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 7. p. 224.

(2) Zarkali, ibid., p. 224.
(3) Adifa', Contribution of Arab and Muslim Scientists in Zoology, p. 369.
(4) Adifa', ibid., pp. 370-379.
- 35 -
ever commented Ptolemy's astronomical map. Al-Majriti also gained
fame by his commentary and correction of al-Khawarizmi's ephemerides
and adopting a Hegira calendar instead of the Persian(1). He also
developed the theories of numerals and Euclid's geometry.
Furthermore, al-Majriti had a great interest in zoology; he dealt with

animal anatomy and the preference of some over the others and their
benefits.
Major Works
Al-Majriti wrote in many scientific fields, including chemistry,
astronomy, mathematics and zoology. Among these writings, those
referred to by Sarton (2) and az-Zarkali (3) :
-"Rutbat al-Hakim" (The Steps of the Scholar). In this treatise,
al-Majriti dealt with semiology and chemistry and drew a
distinction between them. His experiments on mercury are
included in the book;
-"Ghayat al-Hakim" (The Goals of the Scholar) relates the history
of chemistry. In 1252 AD, a translation of this treatise was ordered
by king Alfonso and given the title of Picatrix;
-"Rissala fi al-Usturlab" (Astrolabe Treatise) was translated into
Latin;
-"Sharh Kitab al-Majesti li Batlimus" (Commentary of Ptolemy's
Almagest);
-"Kitab Timar al-Adad fi al-Hissab".
It is worth nothing that al-Majriti's books continued to be taught in

European universities for several years and that the Western scholars
were the first to shed light on al-Majriti's and his works.

(2) Sarton, ibid., p. 668.
(3) Zarkali, ibid., vol. 7, p. 224.
- 36 -
14. Ibn Al-Jazzar
Abu Jafar Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Abu Khalid al-Kirawani Ibn
al-Jazzar, known in the West by Algizar was a Arab Muslim physician
who lived in Kirawan, in Tunisia in the 10th century, and died in 1009 at
an age exceeding 80 years old (1). Details of his life and scientific
contributions are very scarce. However, Zigrid Hunkah states that “he
used to accompany Arab ships travelling from Tunisia to Europe, serving
as a physician”(2).
Ibn al-Jazzar described in his books the causes, symptoms and
treatment of the diseases that might affect travellers. He has also laid
down an accurate description of people infected with smallpox and
measles. He came up with valuable data about internal diseases, and dealt
with different kinds of fever and on epidemics.
Major Works
Ibn al-Jazzar left many medical books(3), among which :
- “Zad al-Musafir” (The Traveller's Supplies) : It is his most famous
book and was translated by Constantine the African into Latin. It
was also translated into Greek and Hebrew. This book enjoyed a
wide reputation among physicians in the Middle Ages, and
remained part of the syllabus in European universities up the 16th
century. Many libraries around the world have manuscript copies
of this book.

(2) Zigrid Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 288.
(3) Zarkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 1, p. 85.
- 37 -
- “Kitab al-I’timad” : A book about medicines, compiled by
al-Jazzar for one of the Fatimid Caliphs in Africa. Manuscripts of
this book are preserved in Algiers and Istanbul.
- “Medicine of the Poor” : A manuscript treatise preserved in the
Museum of Iraq.
- “Causes of the Epidemic in Egypt and ways of Prevention.”
- 38 -
15. Ibn Yunes
Ibn Yunus was a prominent observer of the astronomical phenomena

and a top level theoretician(1). In the words of Sarton, he might have the
greatest Muslim astronomer.
His complete name was Abu al-Hassan Ali Ibn Abu Said
Abdurrahman Ibn Ahmed Ibn Yunus Ibn Abd al-Ali as-sadafi al-Masri.
The date of his birth is unknown, while his death occurred in 399 H/1009
AD in Cairo. He belonged to a family known for its lore. His father was
an eloquent narrator and a great historian, and his grand-father was an
expert in astronomy.
Ibn Yunus gained the favors of the Fatimid monarchs who
encouraged him to persevere in his research in astronomy and
mathematics, and erected for him an observatory near al-Fostat (Cairo),
and equipped it with all the necessary tools and instruments(2).
Ibn Yunus excelled in trigonometry; his valuable treatises
contributed to the development of this science. He was the first to
develop a law for the calculation of spherical triangles, which had a great
importance for astronomers well before the discovery of logarithms.
Thanks to this law, the operations of multiplication could be transformed
in the calculation of triangles into addition. This facilitated much of the
long and complicated equations. Ibn Yunus also invented the pendulum
of the clock. Besides, Ibn Yunus was very skilled in solving many of the
equations in astronomy(3):

(3) Tawkan, Arabian Sciences, p. 150.
- 39 -
He observed the Sun and Moon eclipses in Cairo towards 978 AD.
His calculation constituted the more accurate findings ever known until
the apparition of modern observation instruments.
Major Works
The most interesting book of Ibn Yunus is :
-“Zij al-kabir al-Hakimi" (The Big al-Hakim Ephemeris) : He

began its compilation at the request of the Fatimid Caliph Aziz in
380 H/990 AD, and completed it in 1007 under the reign of the
Caliph al-Hakim. The treatise was named under the Caliph
al-Hakim. Parts of this book exist in several libraries around the
world such as Oxford, Paris, El Escorial, Berlin and Cairo. Caussin
published and translated part of this book, which contain
observations of ancient astronomers as well as Ibn Yunus's
observations about solar and lunar eclipses, and planets
conjunction. In compiling this book, Ibn Yunus wanted to correct
the observations and sayings of his predecessors, and at the same
time complete them(1).
- 40 -
16. Al-Zahrawi
Al-Zahrawi is one of the greatest Muslim and world surgeons. Abu

al-Kacem Khalaf Ibn Abbas al-Zahrawi, known as Abulcassis in the
West, was born in the city of Al-Zahra, in the outskirts of the city of
Cordoba in Andalusia. He flourished in Andalusia in the 4th century
where he served as private doctor of Abderrahman III, and then of his son
al- Mustansir.
While the date of his birth may be unknown, the historians believe
his death to have occurred in 404 H/1013 AD.
His Scientific Contributions

The scientific contributions of al-Zahrawi are manifest in his several
scientific achievements in medicine as a whole, and in surgery in
particular. He was the first to differentiate between surgery ant the other
subjects of medicine, making it an independent field of science based on
the anatomical study of alive and head bodies. He was also the first to
undertake an operation to remove stones from the bladder through the
vagina, and was the first to make a cleft in the respiratory tube in an
operation on his servant. He also succeeded in stopping a haemorrhage
by legating the big veins. He taught his students how to stitch injuries
internally without leaving visual scars, and how to make stitches with
two needles and one thread fixed in them.
In the field of general medicine, he was the first to give a description

of the readability of certain bodies for haemophilia, as he was concerned
by rheumatism and vertebra tuberculosis. He also introduced new
methods and new instruments for gynaecology. Indeed, European
surgeons and dentists benefited from the drawings he made for the design
of necessary surgical instruments.
- 41 -
Major Works
The biggest and most famous of al-Zahrawi compilations was a
treatise entitled “al-Tasrif liman Ajaza ani Ta'lif”. It a sort of
encyclopaedia comprising 30 volumes, illustrated by pictures, and by a
profusion of drawings of the surgical instruments used by al-Zahrawi.
The part of the book dealing with surgery was translated by Gerard de
Cremona into Latin in the 12th century. It was also published in many
versions: one in Venice in 1497, the second in Basel in 1541 and the third
in Oxford in1778. It was also translated into French in the 19th century
by Dr. Leclerck.
Zigfried Hunkah says on this part of the book: “the third part of this
book played an important role in Europe, as it laid the foundation for
European surgery. It has elevated this branch of medicine to a high status.
Surgery has thus became an independent science based on anatomy.”(1)
By far, this book had an important impact on the European Renaissance
for five centuries. It was taught in the universities, and constituted a
reference for European surgeons.
(1) Ibid., p. 288.
- 42 -
17. Abu Sahl Al-Quhi(1)
(Died in 405H/ 1014AD)
Al-Quhi was one of the famous Muslim Scholars who excelled in

astronomy and mathematics during the 4th century H./ 10th century AD.
His name was Abu Sahl Wijen Ibn Rustum al-Quhi. The date of his birth
is unknown, while his death occurred in 405 H./1014 AD. He hailed from
Kuh in Tabaristan mountains and lived in Baghdad. When Sharafu Dawla
al-Bouaihi acceded to power, he favored him and appointed him in 378
H./988 AD at the head of the observatory he set up in Baghdad. He
requested him to provide him with a study on his observation of the seven
planets, their orbits and motions within their zodiac(2).
Al-Quhi was among the prominent astronomers in the 4th century H/
10th century AD. He made a number of observations on which scholars
of his time used to rely and criticized some of the Greek astronomers'
hypotheses. His renown came also from his skills in the manufacturing of
observation instruments.
In mathematics, "al-Quhi was concerned by Archimedes' and

Appolonius problems that lead to equations higher than the second
degree equations. He was able to solve some them and discussed the
requirements of such an operation. His studies can be considered as the
best that has ever been written on geometry in the Muslim world"(3).
(1) Some sources referred to him mistakenly as al-Kuhi. See Dr. Rushdi Rashed, Geometric
Science and Landscapes in the 4th century H. (Ibn Sahl- al-Quhi, Ibn al-Haytam), Pan-Arab
Study Centre. History of Sciences during the Arab Rule (5), Beirut, 1996, p. 167, p. 376.
(2) Ad-Difa', Exact Sciences in Arab Islamic Civilization, p. 396.
- 43 -
Al-Quhi also contributed to the study of weights, a field in which he
had precedence. He used geometric evidence to solve many problems that
require the determination of weight. Moreover, he left valuable
researches in the founding principles of cranes/lifts(1).
Major Works
Dr. Abdullah ad-Difa' and az-Zarkali(2) mentioned several of
al-Quhi's works in astronomy and mathematics, namely the following :
- "Kitab Marakiz al-Akr";
- "Kitab al-Ussul ala Tahrikat Euclides"
- "Kitab San'at al-Usturlab bi al-Barahin"
- "Kitab Aziyadat ala Archimedes fi al-Maqala Tania"
- "Ikhraj al-Khatayn min Nuqta ala Zaouiya Maaluma"
- "Tatlit azzaouiya wa 'amal al-Musaba' al-Mutassaoui al-Adla' fi
Da'era"
Dr. Abdullah ad-Difa' says in his book" Exact Sciences in Arab

Islamic Civilization" : "However, most of al-Quhi's works were lost and
only few references to them were found in Latin works(3).
(1) Ad-Difa', Ibid., p. 395.

(3) Ad-Difa', ibid., p. 400.
- 44 -
18. Al-Karkhi
(Died between 410-420H/1019-1029AD)
Al-Karkhi was one of the eminent Muslim mathematicians(1), and

"one of the greatest mathematicians who had a real influence on the
progress of mathematical sciences"(2). But only few information are
available about him.
He is Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn al-Hassan (or Hussain) al-Hassib

al-Karkhi (after Karakh, a township in Baghdad suburbs. He lived in
Baghdad at the time of the Vizir Abu Ghalib Muhammad Ibn Khalf
Fakhr al-Malik, the Minister of Baha'u Dawla al-Bouwayhi.
Al-Karkhi's books contained for the first time in the history of
Arabs, solutions of indeterminate equations as any other equations, using
the methods adopted by De Fuentes(3).
Al-Karkhi also came up with various solutions to equations of
second order and presented researches on approximate roots of numbers
and proofs of the finding of total of squares and cubes of the natural
numerals he enumerated(4).
Major Works
-"Al-Fakhri fi al-Jabr". This book was called al-Fakhri under
Fakhr al-Mulk and was compiled between 401 and 407.

- 45 -
Smith says in his book entitled "History of Mathematics" that Kitab
al-Fakhri is a valuable heritage in algebra(1). A translation was undertaken
in 1853 by the French orientalist Franz Woepcke.
- Al-Kafi fi al-Hissab (Basics of Calculus). This book was published
between 401 and 407 and was given as a gift to Fakhr al-Mulk. It
deals with the principles of calculus known at the time as well as
some innovated rules and calculation methods to facilitate some
operations. The author did not use Indian numerals in his book and
instead wrote them in letter. The book was translated in German by
Hocheim and was edited in three volumes between 1878 and 1880.
- Kitab "Al-Badi'a fi al-Hissab.
- 46 -
19. Ibn Sina
(370-428H/980-1037AD)
Avicenna is the most outstanding Muslim scientist and one of the

world’s most famous scholars. He was a philosopher, a physician, a
mathematician and an astronomer(1).
His full name is Abu Ali al-Hussain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, known
as Achaikh Arrais. He was also known as the third teacher after Aristotle
and al-Farabi. He is known to Europeans as ‘Avicenna’. Ibn Sina was
born near Bukhara (Uzbekistan) in 980 AD and died in Hamadan in
1037. He received his first education in Bukhara. He studied the Koran,
the rules of language, literature, philosophy, logic, geometry, astronomy,
medicine, and natural science. Ibn Sina became a reference in medicine,
astronomy, mathematics and philosophy before reaching the age of 20(2).
It was through his reputation in medicine that princes invited him to

cure them. He cured the prince of Bukhara, Nuh ibn Mansur, prince of
Hamadan, Shams ad-Dawlah, and prince of Asphahan, Alaâ ad-Dawlah.
They welcomed him in their libraries, which allowed him to sharpen his
learning and gain all sorts of knowledge (3).
In addition to ibn Sina’s scientific interests, he was a politician who

participated in the administration of the state’s affairs. Shams ad-Dawlah
appointed him as a vizier, but the prince’s son imprisoned him. However,
he escaped from prison after several months and fled to Asphahan, where
he spent the last part of his life under the patronage of its prince ‘Alaâ
ad-Dawlah’. He died in Hamadan (4).
(1) Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, p. 709 .

- 47 -
Medical Contributions
Ibn Sina mastered medicine in particular. He made new discoveries
in this field; he was the first to describe a worm that he called the "round
worm", currently known as "anklestoma". He also studied neurological
dysfunctions and was able to reach certain pathologic and psychological
facts through psychoanalysis. He believed in the existence of an
interaction between psychology and physical health. He also described
the brain’s apoplexy resulting of excess in the blood flow (1).
Ibn Sina made original contributions in medicine, based on his own

observations. He founded his conclusions on experiments and was able to
reach new observations, including the contagious nature of tuberculosis,
and the propagation of diseases through water and soil. He also described
at length dermatological and sexually transmitted diseases. Moreover, he
described the pharmaceutical preparation of some medicines (2).
Inb Sina was also the first to describe the irritation of the brain’s
envelope, distinguishing it from other chronic irritations. He elaborated
the first clear diagnostic of neck's scleroses and of meningitis He also
described the facial paralysis and its causes. He made the distinction
between the paralysis caused by a dysfunction in the brain and that
resulting of a local dysfunction(3).
Scientific contributions in other fields

Ibn Sina made important contributions in physics, through the study
of several natural phenomena such as motion, force, vacuum, infinity,
light and heat. He made the observation that if the perception of light is
due to the emission of some particles from a luminous source, the speed
of light must be finite(4).

(3) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 272.
- 48 -
Ibn Sina made contributions in geology with a treatise on the
formation of mountains, precious stones and metals. In this treatise, he
discussed the effect of earthquakes, water, the degree temperature,
sediments, fossilisation and erosion(1).
Ibn Sina was also an outstanding mathematician and astronomer. He

studied infinite bodies from religious, physical, and mathematical
perspectives. His findings helped Newton and Leibniz to develop infinite
numerals(2) in the 17th century.
Major Works
Ibn Sina wrote more than 200 works, including books and treatises.
Among the most famous of these :
- Al-Qanun, known as the ‘Canon’ : one of Ibn Sina’s most
important and original works. Ibn Sina’s reputation in medicine is
due to this book, which became very famous in the East and in the
West. Al-Qanun was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremonia
in the 12th century. In the last 30 years of the 15th century, it was
published sixteen times - fifteen editions being in Latin and one in
Hebrew. Al-Qanun was reedited more than twenty times during the
sixteenth century(3). It remained the textbook for medical education
in European schools until the 19th century. In 1996, Al-Qanun was
reedited by the Institute of the History of Arab and Islamic
Science, affiliated to the University of Frankfurt, within the
framework of a collection of Islamic Medicine realised by Fuad
Sizkine.
-'Kitab Al-Shifa' (Book of Healing) was a philosophical
encyclopaedia covering a vast area of knowledge in logic, natural
science and philosophy.

- 49 -
-'Kitab al-Najat' (Book of Rescue) a less complex summary of
Kitab Al-Shifa.
-'Kitab al-Isharat wa Tanbihate' : contains studies in natural
science, Sufism, theology and ethics.
Ibn Sina has many other works in medicine, philosophy, music,

language, theology, psychology, logic, natural science, mathematics and
astronomy.
- 50 -
20. Ibn Al-Haitham
(354-430H/965-1038AD)
Ibn Al-Haitham is one of the most outstanding Arab scholars. He

excelled in and contributed to the fields of optics, mathematics, natural
science, medicine and philosophy.
His full name is Abu Ali Hasan ibn Al-Haitham, known by

Europeans as ‘Alhazen’. He was born in Basrah, where he received his
education. The Fatimid Caliph Al Hakim bi Amri Allah heard of Ibn
Al-Haitham’s method to regulate the annual Nile flood. He invited him to
Egypt and asked him to regulate the Nile’s water flow in order to prevent
floods. Ibn Al-Haitham failed to do so and simulated foolishness and
remained on this state until the caliph died, then resumed work on
copying the books of predecessors in the fields of mathematics and
natural sciences. He also started writing his own books on different
subjects.
Ibn Al-Haitham’s Contribution in Optics

European historians acknowledge Ibn Al-Haitham’s contribution in
the development of optics. In ‘The Heritage of Islam’, Arnold says “the
field of optics reached its peak with Ibn Al-Haitham"(1). Sarton says “Ibn
Al-Haitham was the best scientist to have existed in the Islamic world in
the Middle Ages in the field of natural science. He was one of the few
most outstanding figures in optics in all times. He was also an
astronomer, a mathematician and a doctor"(2). The Encyclopaedia
Britannica considered him as the leading figure in optics after Ptolemy(3).

(3) Tawkan,Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 297.
- 51 -
Ibn Al-Haitham was the first to conclude the magnifying property of
a lens. He was also the first to describe accurately the various parts of the
eye and gave them names that Western scientists adopted and translated
into their languages. These terms are still accepted today. Among these
terms are ‘Retina’, ‘Cornea’, ‘Humour Viteous’ and ‘Humour Aqueous’.
His treatises on magnifying lens laid the ground for their use in the
correction of eye dysfunctions (1).
Ibn Al-Haitham reached the conclusion that vision originates from

rays sent by an object to the eye. These rays are reflected on the retina
and transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve, constituting the
image of the object. Through this conclusion, he contradicted Ptolemy’s
and Euclid’s theory of vision that the eye sends out visual rays to the
object of vision. Ibn Al-Haitham also did researches on light, colors, and
the reflections of light in some experiments on the measurement of angles
of incidence and refraction(2). Some researchers consider him as the
father of optics.
Ibn Al-Haitham’s Contributions in Mathematics

Ibn Al-Haitham was a great mathematician. He used geometry,
equations and algebra to solve astronomic questions. He also solved
cubic equations and accurately calculated the rules of the surface of balls,
pyramids, leaning discs, round sectors, and round pieces (3).
Ibn Al-Haitham’s Contributions in Astronomy

Ibn Al-Haitham was interested in astronomy and wrote several
books in this field. He also made a number of observations. Among his
important contributions was the design of a new method to determine the
pole’s altitude. He elaborated a theory on the motion of planets, which
(1) Tukan, ibid., p. 300.

- 52 -
continues bear influence up to now. A table that was made in Germany in
1428, showing the planets motion according to Ibn Al-Haitham’s theory,
is still exposed in Austria. Ibn Al-Haitham discovered that all celestial
bodies, including stationary stars, are self-luminous and radiate their
light, except for the moon, which receives light from the sun (1).
Major works
Ibn Al-Haitham left a rich scientific heritage in various fields.
Among his works :
-"Kitab al-Manadhir": a treatise on optics comprising research on
light, the eye's anatomy and vision. This book created a revolution
in optics and influenced Western scientists such as Bacon and
Kepler. It remained a reference for several centuries. It was
translated into Latin several times in the Middle Ages. The book
contains seven essays, the first and third of which were revised and
published in a book by Abdul Hamid Sabrah in 1983 in Kuwait.
Dr. Rochdi Rashid annotated the seventh article in his book
"Geometry and Optics in the 4th century of the Hegira", published
in Beirut in 1996. Complete handwritten copies of the book or of
some of its articles still exist in several libraries, especially in
Istanbul, Turkey.
- "Hal Shokouk Euclid’s";
- "Makalat al- Shokouk ala Batlimus";
- "Kitab Sharh Oussoul Euclid’s fi al-Handass wa al-Adad";
- "Kitab al-Jamia fi Oussoul al-Hissab";
- "Kitab fi Tahlil al Massaïl Al-Handassia."
It is worth mentioning that Ibn Al-Haitham wrote 80 books and

treatises in astronomy, dealing with the motion of planets, the moon,
celestial bodies and their dimensions.
(1) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West.
- 53 -
Ibn Al-Haitham’s works that were translated into Latin exerted a
great influence on western scientists, such as Kepler and Francis Bacon.
According to Mustapha Nadhif, Ibn Al-Haitham contributed in the
development of the experimental methodology based on observation,
experimentation and investigation (1) before Francis Bacon. In "The
Influence of Arabs on Western Civilization", Abbas Mahmud Al-Akkad
says that the translations of Ibn Al-Haitham’s books on optics were used
as references by all the European scientists who came after him.
- 54 -
21. Al-Biruni
(363-439H/973-1048AD)
Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Abu Raihan Al-Biruni al-Khawarizmi was

born in the Persian region of Khwarizm (now in Uzbekistan) in 973 C.E.
The date of his death is not known exactly, but most likely he is believed
to have died in 1048.
Al-Biruni’s interests included mathematics, natural science,

astronomy, medicine, philosophy, religion, history, language and
literature. But he is most known as a mathematician and astronomer.
Eminent orientalists consider him as one of the most outstanding Arab
and universal encyclopedic scholars(1). The historian George Sarton
acknowledges Al-Biruni’s scientific prominence : “Al-Biruni was an
outstanding traveller, philosopher, mathematician astronomer and
geographer. He was one of the greatest encyclopedic Muslim scholars in
all times”(2).
Little is known about Al-Biruni‘s family, childhood and first

education. However, he is known to have received education from three
teachers: Abu Nasr Ibn Iraq, Abu Sahl Ibn Yahya al-Massihi and Abu
al-Hasan Ibn Ali al-Jabali. He is also known to have been a contemporary
of the famous physician Ibn Sina and to have corresponded with him.
Besides Arabic, he mastered Greek, Persian, Hebrew.
At the age of 25, Al-Biruni moved to Jorjan, where he joined the

court of sultan Abu al-Hasan Kabus Ibn Washkamir. He went back to
Khawarizm several years later and served under the patronage of Abi
Abbas al-Mamun ibn al-Mamun, the last ruler in the Maâmuunid
dynasty. When Mahmud Ghaznavi seized power in Kwharizm, he invited
(1) Arnold, the Heritage of Islam, p. 476.

- 55 -
Al-Biruni to his court and took him along with him in his journeys to
India several times(1). Al-Biruni is thought to have stayed in India for a
long time and to have studied Indian culture, sciences and knowledge. He
became, in this respect, the Arab scholar who learned the most of India’s
history and sciences(2).
Al-Biruni contributed in various fields of science. He made accurate
calculations of latitude and longitude and discussed whether the earth
rotated on its axis. He studied the specific weight and accurately
determined the mass of eighteen varieties of metals and precious stones.
He stated that the speed of light is immense as compared with the speed
of sound. He also explained the working of natural springs and artesian
wells by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels. His
investigations included descriptions of unusual phenomena such as the
Siamese twins(3).
In the first part of his "History of Mathematics", Smith considers

al-Biruni as the most prominent mathematician of his time(4). Moreover,
Al-Biruni was an outstanding astronomer. He studied the world’s
configuration and the nature of stars. He elaborated a method to calculate
the earth’s diameter. This method is known to Western scientists as the
"al-Biruni Law". Al-Biruni described dawn, solar eclipse and other
phenomena. He argued that the earth rotated on its axis. Furthermore, he
was versed in trigonometry and did research on the trisection of angles (5).
Al-Biruni was known for scientific his objectivity, truthfulness and

accurate research and observation.
(1) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 2. p. 406.

(2) Tukan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 311.
- 56 -
Major works
Al-Biruni left more than 150 works, most of which were mentioned
in his treatise known as "Al Fahrass". These works involve various fields,
such as geography, mathematics and astronomy. Among his famous
works :
-"Al-Athar al-Baqia fi al-Qurun al-Khalia" (Chronology of
Ancient Nations): Al-Biruni discussed the Earth’s rotation on its
axis and its flatness. He initiated the rules of drawing on plain
earth surface. This book was translated by Edward Sachau into
English and edited in London in 1789. "Al-Athar al-Baqia fi
al-Qurun al-Khalia" was also translated into German and English
in the 19th century.
-"Al-Qanun al-Masudi fi al-Hai'a wa al-Nujum" (The Mas'udi
Canon) was written in 1030 AD upon the request of Mas'ud ibn
Mohammad Ghaznawi. It contains 143 parts and discusses several
subjects related to astronomy and mathematics. This book was
printed in Haidarabad, India.
-"Tarikh al-Hind" (A History of India) provides a detailed account
of Al-Biruni’s study of Indian languages, sciences and cultures.
Sachau translated it into English and was printed in London in
1887.
-"Al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina'at al-Tanjim" (Elements of Astrology)
deals with mathematics, geometry, algebra, numerals and
astronomy. It was written in a question-answer model and
illustrated with forms and figures.
In addition to this heritage, Al-Biruni wrote many treatises in

geometry, numerals, astronomy, mechanical, medicine and chemistry. He
corresponded with Ibn Sina and translated a number of books from
Sanskrit into Arabic.
Al-Biruni’s works were translated into French, German and English

and were edited in the 19th and 20th centuries.
- 57 -
22. Ibn Ridouane
(389-453H/998-1061AD)
Distinguished Egyptian physician, he was the doctor of the Caliph

Al Hakim bi Amr Allah and the dean of Cairo’s physicians.
His full name is Abu al-Hasan al-Masri Ali Ibn Ridouane Ibn Ali Ibn
Jaâfar. He was born in 998 in Jizzah, near Cairo, where he lived until his
death between 1061 and 1067 AD(1). He was a physician, a mathematician,
an astrologer and one of the outstanding Muslim philosophers(2).
Little is known about Ibn Ridouane’s life. Some say that his father
was a baker or water carrier. Ibn Ridouane had to start work at an early
age in order to have the necessary money to buy the books he needed.
Ibn Ridouane gave great importance to observing his patients and
recognizing the disease through the observation of the patient’s body
parts, skin and face and examining visible and non-visible parts, the
patient’s way of walking, talking and seeing, his heart’s beats and his
mood and by asking him some questions(3).
Ibn Ridouane stated that a physician must treat his enemies and
friends with the same degree of devotion and keenness.
He corresponded with Ibn Batlan, the physician of Baghdad, about
small birds and other subjects, in particular the learning of Greek
medicine.

- 58 -
Major Works
Ibn Ridouane wrote several books on medicine, among the most
famous of which :
-"Kitab fi Dafîa Madar al-Abdan bi Ardi Missra". Max Mayrhuf
translated a part of this book in his "Study of Climate and Health in
Ancient Egypt" (1923).
-"Sharh Assinaâ Assaghira li Galion’s". This book became very
well known and Gerard of Cremonia translated it into Latin. It was
edited in Venice in 1494.
-"Sharh al Makalat al Arbaâ fi al Kadaya bi Annujum li
Batlimus".
-"Kifayat Attabib fi ma Sahha Ladaya mina Attajarib"
-"Al Kitab Annafiî fi Taâlumi Sinaâti Attib". This book presents
Ibn Ridouane’s ideas and those of his colleagues about ancient
Greek medicine, its evolution, value, and the way to acquire it(1).
- 59 -
23. Al-Zarqali
(420-480H/1029-1087AD)
Al-Zarqali was the foremost astronomers of his time. He was also a

unique reference in algebra, astronomy and astrology. He was an Arab
Muslim from Andalusia, born in Toledo, where he carried out most of his
astronomic observations; then he moved to Cordoba, where he spent the
rest of his life(1).
His full name is Ibrahim ibn Yahya an-Nakash, known as ibn

Zarqala or al-Zarqali. His Latinised name is Arzaquiel.
Al-Zarqali invented a new astrolabe, known as Safihah Zarqalia and
referred to in astronomy as "al-Zarqali astrolabe". In the 15th century,
Ragio Montanous published a manuscript in which he detailed the
advantages of Sahifa al-Zarqalia. Al-Zarqali was the first to prove the
motion of the apogee of the Sun relative to the stars. He measured its rate
motion as 12.04 minutes per year (the actual value is 11.8 minutes)(2).
Al-Zarqali also compiled tables on planets, known as Toledan Tables,

based on the observations he made in Toledo from 1061 to 1080(3).
Al-Zarqali corrected geographical data from Ptolemy and

al-Kawarizmi. Specifically, he corrected Ptolmey’s estimate of the length
of the Mediterranean sea from 62 degrees to the correct value of 42
degree(4).

- 60 -
When talking on the influence of Arab astronomers in the West,
Hunkah says that al-Zarqali’s works were carefully studied by Western
scholars. In the 12th century, Gerard of Cremonia translated al-Zarqali’s
works into Latin. Ragio Montanous wrote a book in the 15th century on
the advantages of the Sahifah al-Zarqalia. In 1530, the German scholar
Ziegler Jacob wrote a commentary on al-Zarqali’s book. In his "De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium" -1530-, Copernicus quotes the
works of al-Zarqali and al-Battani (Albategnius)(1).
Major Works
Zarkali cites the following among al-Zarqali’s major works :
-"Al Amal bi Assahifa Az-Zijia";
-"Attadbir";
-"Al Madkhal fi Ilm Annoujoum";
-"Rissalat fi Tarikat Istikhdam as-Safiha al-Moushtarakah li
Jamiâ al-ouroud";
Al-Zarqali’s works influenced Spanish astronomers who designed

the "Alfonso's Tables", by the name of Alfonso, king of Castile, who, 200
years after al-Zarqali’s death, ordered all his works to be translated into
Castillan(2).

(2) Hunkah, ibid., p. 137.
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24. Ibn Jizla
(Died in 493H/1100 AD)
Abu Ali Yahya ibn Isa Ibn Jizla was an Arab Muslim physician from
Baghdad. While his birth date is not known, he passed away in 1100 AD.
Europeans know him as Bengesla. He was Christian and embraced Islam
in 1074. He was influenced by his teacher Abu Ali ibn al-Mouâtazili. He
received his education in medicine from Said ibn Hibat Allah, the doctor
of the Abbasid caliph al-Mouqtadi bi Amr Allah. Ibn Jizla was known for
treating his acquaintances and relatives and giving them medicines for
free. He was also known for his care and generosity toward the poor”(1).
Ibn Jizla was the medical reference in his time. His major
contribution was the elaboration of tables describing in detail a wide
range of diseases and presented the epidemic diseases, their seasons, the
countries where they are endemic, their diagnosis and treatment. He
adopted a systematic method for the monitoring of the body parts and
their diseases, and designed tables that are easy to use by ordinary
educated people in providing treatment(2).
Ibn Jizla was also one of Baghdad’s famous pharmacist. He
described drugs, plants and medicines and all other materials used in
treatment such as meat and chemical preparations (3).
A distinctive feature of Ibn Jizla in medical treatment was his deep
conviction of the important role of music in the treatment and prevention
of diseases. In this respect, he said : “The effect of music on ailing
psyches resembles that of medicines on ailing bodies.(4)
(1) Ibn Khalkan, Death of Eminent Figures, vol 2, p. 267.
(2) Marizen, Scientific Life in Iraq during Seljouqi Rule, p. 493.
(3) Marizen, Ibid., p. 501.
(4) The Simplified Arab Encyclopedia, p. 12.
- 62 -
Major Works
Among the famous works of Ibn Jizla, the following can be
mentioned :
-"Taqwim al-abdan fi tadbir al-insan" : Ibn Jizla classified the
names of diseases in tables and described the treatment of 352
diseases(1). A Latin translation of this book was edited in
Strasbourg in 1532;
-"Minhaj al-bayan fi ma Yastaâmiluhu al-insan" written for the
Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadi. It contains an alphabetical listing of
medicines and plants;
-"Al Ishara fi Talkhis al-i'bara";
-"Rissala fi Madh Tib wa Mouafakataho li Sharâ" (Treatise
Lauding Medicine and its Compliance with the Islamic Precepts);
-"Rissala fi Ar-rad ala Annasrania" (Treatise Responding to
Christianity).
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25. Omar Al-Khayyam
(440-518H/1048-1124AD)
Abu al-Fath Umar Ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam was a Persian

philosopher, poet, mathematician, astronomer, linguist, historian and
religious scholar. He was born between 1038 and 1048 AD and died
between 1123 and 1124 AD in Nishapur. He was called al-Khayyam
because he used to make tents (1) (Khyam in Arabic) in the beginning of
his life. When his friend "Nizam al-Mulk" became a vizier of the sultan
"Alb Arsalane", then of his grandson "Malikshah", he allocated to
al-Khayyam an annual income from Nishapur’s treasury that allowed him
to live at ease and spend most of his time studying and doing research.
He lived in Nishapur and Samarqand for most of his life. He also
travelled to reputed institutions of learning in Bukhara, Balkh, and
Ispahan in order to acquire knowledge and exchange experiences with
scholars(2). He settled down in Baghdad later on.
Al-Khayyam gained fame due to his work in mathematics. He
developed a geometrical and algebraic approach to solving second-degree
equations. He also classified equations and found partial geometric
solution to most of them. He developed the binomial expansion for the
case when the exponent is a positive integer in order to find qualitative
mass(3).
Al-Khayyam was also an outstanding astronomer. In 1074, the

sultan "Malikshah" asked for his assistance to modify the old Persian

(2) Hakim Mohamed Said, Eminent Figures and Thinkers, p. 47.
- 64 -
calendar. According to Sarton, al-Khayyam’s calendar was more accurate
than the Gregorian one.
Major Works
Al-Khayyam wrote many references in mathematics, philosophy and
poetry. Most of his books were written in Persian. Among the books he
wrote in Arabic :
-"Al Jabr wa al Mukabala’ : The book was translated in French by
the scholar Franz Woepc, and edited in Paris in 1851(1). It was
translated into English by Daoud Kassir in 1931(2).
-"Sharh ma Ashkala min Mussadarat kitab Euclid"
-"Al Ihtial Limaârifat Mikdarai Addahab wa al-Fidda fi Jismin
Murakkab Minhouma", describing a method to measure
qualitative mass.
-"Rissala fi Al Mussika" (Treatise of Music).
Omar Al-Khayyam is best known for his poetic work "Rubaiyat"

(quatrains) which was written in Persian and translated in Arabic, Latin,
French, English, German and other languages.

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26. Ibn Bajja
Andalusian philosopher, astronomer, physician, and mathematician.

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya at-Tujibi as-Saraqusti known as Ibn
Bajja (according to ibn Khalkan, Bajja is a word of a European origin,
meaning silver). He was also known as ibn-Say'igh or Avempace in the
West. Little is known about his life. He is known to have been born in
Saragossa, Andalusia towards the end of the 15th century (1).
He studied most of the flourishing sciences of his time such as

medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and music. He was also a
politician. He was appointed vizier by Abu Bakr Ibrahim, gender of Ali ibn
Yussef al-Murabiti, the then governor of Grenada, then of Saragossa(2).
When Alfonso seized power in Saragossa, Ibn Bajja moved to

Seville, then to Grenade. Later on, he went to Fez and worked as
physician in the Al-Muravid court. His rivals accused him of atheism and
ignorance. Ibn Bajja was poisoned and died in 1138(3).
Although Ibn Bajja was famous mainly as a philosopher, he also
excelled in natural science, mathematics, astronomy and music(4).
According to Hafid Kadri Tukan, Ibn Bajja made valuable

commentaries on the astronomic system developed by Ptolemy. He
criticized this system and underlined its inaccuracies. This fact was
(1) The Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 95.

(2) Ibid., p. 95.
- 66 -
supported by Sarton, who thinks that al-Batrouji was influenced by Ibn
Bajja’s ideas in astronomy. In his "Al Adouia al Mufrada", Ibn al-Baitar
cites arguments made by Ibn Bajja and evidences from his treatise in
medicine(1).
Major Works
Ibn Bajja wrote more than 30 books in logic, philosophy,
mathematics, natural science, botany and medicines, but most of these
works were lost. Only the Latin and Hebrew translations of some
treatises and papers survived.
Among his scientific illustrations and commentaries(2) :

-"Taâlik fi al-Handassa wa Ilm Al-Haiâa";
- Explanation of Aristotle’s "Natural Hearing";
- Commentary of parts of Aristotle’s "Universe and Corruption";
- Commentary of parts of Galileo’s "Non-compound Medicines";
- A synthesis of Al-Razi’s "Al Hawi";
- "Attjribatain ala Adwuiate ibn Wafid".
In addition to these scientific references, Ibn Bajja wrote a number

of philosophical illustrations and works, the most famous of which :
-"Rissalat al Wadaâ";
-"Rissalat Tadbir al Moutawahid".
Some of Ibn Bajja’s works still exist in a several world libraries such
as Oxford, El Escorial and Berlin.

(2) Human Heritage Magazine, p. 823.
- 67 -
27. Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr
(465-557H/1072-1162AD)
Ibn Zuhr was a surname of family of Muslim scientists who

flourished in Andalusia from the beginning of the 10th century to the
early years of the 13th century AD(1). The most famous of them was the
physician Abu Marwan 'abd Al-malik Ibn Abi Al-'ala' Zuhr, commonly
called abu Marwan and known for the Europeans as Avenzoar. He was
the descendant of a family of physician; his farther Abu Al-'ala' was a
skilful doctor in diagnosis and curing, and his grand father was a doctor.
He was born between 1091-1094 AD (484-487 H)(2). After having
studied literature, doctrine, and jurisprudence, he learned medicine under
his father. He was a friend of Ibn Rushd, the physician and philosopher.
Abu Marwan served first for the Almoravid Emirs and suffered
under the reign of "Ali Ibn Yussuf Ibn Tachfine" as much as his father
beforehand. He was imprisoned for nearly ten years in Marrakech. After
the fall of the Almoravids and the establishment of the Almohad dynasty,
he served as a physician and Vizier for Abdelmoumen, the founder of the
state who surrounded him with his solicitude. This allowed him to
compile his most interesting works. He died in Servile, his native city.
Ibn Zuhr was a unique case of his time. Despite his vast and
encyclopedic knowledge, he specialized in medicine and practiced it all
his life. He made many innovations, such as the description of various
internal and skin diseases, and surgery. He led researches on the ulcers
and diseases of the head, ears, nose, lips, teeth, eyes, neck, lungs and

(2) Ibn Zuhr, “At-Taysirfi al-mudawat wa at-tadbir (Manual of Treatments and Diet).
- 68 -
heart. He was concerned by the different kinds of fever. He described
pericardium inflammation and distinguished it pneumonitis.
Ibn Zuhr based his researches on empiricism and scientific

examination. He was able to discover some diseases that were unknown
before, such as lung diseases. He operated on trachea, and was the first to
use hypodermics for artificial feeding (1).
He was one of the leading physicians who directed their interest to

the study of diseases found in particular environments, like diseases that
were widespread in Marrakech. Just as he was among the first doctors to
stress on the curing and nutritional value of honey (2).
Ibn Zuhr was one of the greatest Andalusian physicians. He earned

the esteem of most of his contemporaries, on top of whom was his friend
Ibn Roshd, who qualified him in his book “al-Kuliyat” as the greatest
doctor after Galen. Thanks to the translation of his books into Latin and
Hebrew, Ibn Zuhr had been an influential figure in European medicine
until the 17th century.
Major Works
The most famous books of ibn Zuhr are :
-“Kitab his at-Taysirfi al-mudawat wa at-tadbir” (Treatments and
Diets), is a medical encyclopedia that gives evidence of the medical
skillfulness and talent of ibn Zuhr. He offered it to his friend ibn
Roshd who later compiled his book “Generalities in Medicine”(3).
The two books, in fact, complemented each other. This book was
translated into Latin in 1490 AD and had a considerable impact on
European medicine until the 17th century(4).
(1) Marhaba, "Al-Jame'a fi Tarikh al-Ulum 'inda al-Arab" (History of Arabian Sciences), p. 272.
(2) Mohamed Larbi Khattabi, Medicine and Doctors in Islamic Andalusia, vol. 1, p. 285.
- 69 -
Copies of it are still preserved in many libraries among which the
Public Library in Rabat, and the libraries of Paris, Oxford in
England and Florence in Italy(1). In 1991, the Academy of the
Kingdom of Morocco edited it after its annotation and preparation
for printing by the researcher Mohammed Ibn Abdellah Rudani.
-“Kitab al-Iktisad fi Islah an-Nufus wa al-Ajsad” (Curing souls and
bodies). It’s a sort of summary of diseases, cures, health prevention
science and psychotherapy. Many copies of this book are conserved
in libraries, including in the Royal Library in Rabat(2).
- “Kitab al-Aghdia wa al-adwya” (Nutrition and medication). Ibn
Zuhr describes in this book various kinds of nutriments and drugs
and their effects on Health. It was translated in Latin. It is still in
the manuscript form. Two copies are preserved in the Royal
Library in Rabat(3).
Along with these three books, abu Marwan has written other books
and treatises in medicine.
(1) Ibn Zuhr, op. cit., p. 29.

(2) Khattabi, op. cit., p. 283.
(3) Khattabi, op. cit., p. 283.
- 70 -
28. Ibn Tufayl
His full name was Abu Baker Muhammad Ibn Abdulmalik Ibn
Muhammad Ibn Tufayl, al-Qaysi al-Andalusi. He hailed from the Arab
tribe of beni Qays. He was born near Cordoba in Andalusia. The exact
date of his birth is unknown, but it’s likely that he was born at the
beginning of the 12th century. Nothing also is known of his family and
education(1). What is known of him is that he was educated under the
scientists and scholars of his time. He had a deep and comprehensive
knowledge of various sciences, especially medicine, philosophy and
astronomy.
He held numerous positions. He first worked as a scribe in the

Diwan of the Governor of Cordoba, then in the Diwan of the Emir Abu
Said Ibn Abdulmoumen, the Governor of Tangier. He later became a
vizier and doctor of the Almohad Sultan Abu Yakub Yussef. Ibn Tufayl
is said to have had a great influence on the Sultan, which he invested to
bring scientists to the Sultan’s palace. Among these scientists there was
particularly the philosopher and doctor Ibn Roshd (2), who was introduced
to the Sultan by Ibn Tufayl, at his late age, to comment on Aristotle‘s
books and to replace him as a doctor. Ibn Tufayl served in the Sultan’s
Palace until his death in Marrakech in 1185 AD / 501 H.
In medicine : Lissan Uddin Ibn al-Khatib stated that Ibn Tufayl compiled
a book of two volumes in medicine. Ibn abi-Usaibi'a for his part stated
that Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Roshd had consultations and in discussions
(1) Encyclpaedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 212.

(2) Ibid., p. 203.
- 71 -
concerning the "prescription of medicines" which were included in Ibn
Roshd's “Generalities”. Ibn Tufayl also composed a poem on medicine,
made up of 7700 verse.
In Astronomy: Ibn Tufayl had reportedly innovative ideas in

astronomy, and theories in the composition and movements of the
celestial bodies.
The researcher Lyon Gauthier says in his book on Ibn Tufayl:
"Though there is no writings on astronomy were left by Ibn Tufayl,
except for the few short paragraphs he included in his “Hayy Ibn
Yaqdhan”, we know that he did not agree with Ptolemy's astronomical
system and thought of another one. To substantiate his statement, the
author quoted Ibn Roshd and al-Batruji. In his mid-explanation on
“al-Athar al-Ulwya” (the Supreme Deeds) of Aristotle, Ibn Roshd
criticized the Ptolemaic theories on the composition and motion of
celestial bodies, saying that Ibn Tufayl came up in this domain with
excellent theories which could be very useful. Al–Batruji for his part
stated in the introduction of his famous book on astronomy that Ibn
Tufayl devised a new astronomical system along with principles for its
motion different from Ptolemy's. The French researcher wonders if Ibn
Tufayl's hypotheses did not contain the basic elements for the great
astronomical reform, brought about by Copernicus and Galileo four
centuries later(1).
Major Works
- “Muraja'at wa Mabahith”: (Consultations and Discussions) which
took place between him and Ibn Roshd on the prescription of
medicines, compiled by Ibn Roshd in his book “Generalities”;
-“Urjuza fi Tib” (A Poem on Medicine). It is conserved in the
library of al-Qaraween in Fes, Morocco;
- The philosophical “Rissala fi Nafs” (A treatise of the Psyche);
(1) Ibn Tufayl, Texts and Studies, p. 53.
- 72 -
- “Haiy Ibn Yaqdhan”. This is the most famous of his works. It is a
philosophical story in which Ibn Tufayl enshrined his
philosophical views, arranged in the form of a narrative story,
where he tried to conciliate between religion and philosophy. This
story has been known in the West since the 17th century, and was
translated into many different languages, such as Latin, Hebrew,
English, French, German and Dutch(1).
- 73 -
29. Ibn Roshd
(520-595H /1126-1198AD)
His full name was Abu al-Walid Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn
Muhammad al-Andalusi, known in the West as Averroes(1). He was a
Arab Muslim Philosopher, physician and jurisconsult. He was born in
Cordoba and grew up in a family of Islamic scholars. Both his father and
grandfather were judges. He learned Islamic sciences under his father,
and then learned medicine and philosophy. He was a contemporary of the
philosopher and physician Ibn Tufayl and the famous doctor Ibn Zuhr(2).
He visited Marrakech the first time in 1153 AD/548 H at the

invitation of the Almohad Sultan Abdalmoumen Ibn Ali who asked his
advice about the construction of several schools in Morocco. In his
second visit, he was introduced by the philosopher and physician Ibn
Tufayl to the Sultan Abu Yaqub Yussef who asked him in 565 H/1169
AD to comment Aristotle’s philosophy and assigned him as a judge in
Sevilla and then was as a supreme judge in Cordoba. In 578 H/1182 AD
Abu Ya’aqub called upon him in Marrakech to be his private doctor, and
then assigned him as a judge in Kordoba. The Caliph Abi Ya’aqub was
succeeded after his death by his son Abu Yussef Yaqub who had shown
favor to Ibn Rushd. But this did not last for long, as some of his fellow
scientists severely attacked him and he was taken to court. His books
were burnt, except those on medicine and astronomy. He was banished to
Lucena near Cordoba, then was forgiven afterwards. He returned to
Morocco in 1198 and died in the same year(3).

- 74 -
He was a medical researcher and a practitioner, but he was actually
more interested in research and study than in practice(1). He made a
reference in his book “Generalities” to his practice of medicine though it
was limited. He emphasized the necessity to rely on observation and
experimentation, and to acquire state-of-the-art natural science
developments, such as in anatomy and the functions of body organs. As
regards ethics, he preached consultation between doctors. Of his medical
contributions, his finding that smallpox affects people only once in life,
and that rabies is transmitted by the saliva of a rabid dog. He agreed with
Ibn Sina about the hereditary nature of some diseases. Sir Stewart Duke
Elder pointed out in his encyclopaedia “System of Ophthalmology” that
Ibn Rushd was the first to say that, it is the retina that receives light (2).
Ibn Rushd believed that good health is synonymous to a good

nutrition, clean water and pure air. He considered medicines as a
foreigner substance to the body, capable of causing harm to some organs
because of their various negative side effects, particularly to liver and
kidneys, the organs in charge of the detoxication of the body. He also
described many diseases, their symptoms and their complications. He
tackled psychological syndromes such as anger, nervousness and
epilepsy. He was also concerned by the medication means and devoted
accordingly a big part of his book “Generalities” to the varieties of food
and medicines and their effects. He also laid down the basic principles to
follow in drug dosage(3).
Major works
- “Al-Kulyat fi Tib” (Generalities in Medicine). It is the foremost of
Ibn Ruchd's books in medicine, in which he tackled the general
principles of medicine. It was divided into seven thematic sections.
(1) Preface of the Annotator of the book " Ibn Rushd's Generalities in Medicine, pp. 6-9.
(2) Ibid., pp. 6-9.
(3) Talili, Ibn Roshed, the philosopher, pp. 69-72.
- 75 -
This book was translated into Latin in the 13th century AD under
the title of “Colliget” and then into Hebrew. It was re-printed a
dozen of times during the 15th and 16th centuries. The Arabic
version was not published until 1984 in New Delhi. In 1989, the
Algerian Higher Council of Culture in Association with the
International Union of Academies published it after its verification
and annotation by Dr. Said Shiban and Dr. Ammar Talbi.
- Aristotle's “Talkhis Kitab an-Nafs” (Summary of the book of the
Psyche)
- Commentary of “Sharh Kitab an-Nafs” of Aristotle.
- “Talkhis al-Ilal wa al-Amrad” (Summary of Diseases) by Galen.
- “Massala fi Ilm an-Nafs” (An issue of psychology).
-“At-Tiriaq” (Antidote) where the author indicated the diseases that
can be cured by an antidote, and explained further when and how it
should be used.
-“Sharh Urjuzat ibn Sina” (Explanation of Ibn Sina’s poem).
In addition to these medical books, Ibn Rushd wrote several books in
philosophy, the most important of which is “Tahafut at-Tahafut”
(Incoherence of Incoherence) in which he responded to al-Ghazali’s book
“Tahafut at-Tahafut” (Incoherence of Philosophers).
In the field of astronomy, he compiled “A treatise on the motion of
celestial bodies”.
In summary, it can be said that Ibn Rushd was one of the greatest
thinkers and scientists in the 12th century AD, and that he has been an
influential figure in the West, until the 16th century(1).
He played a major role in the theoretical development of medicine.

He paved the way to the understanding of Greek medical theories by the
critical summarizing of Galen’s books and others, and by criticizing their
theories and formulating different views(2).
(1) Hakim Muhammad Said, Eminent Figures and Scientists, p. 34.

(2) Muhammad Larbi al-Khattabi, op. cit., p. 328.
- 76 -
30. Ibn Al-Razaz Al-Jazari
(6th century H/ 12th century AD)
His full name was Badi’u Zaman Abu al-Iz Ismail Ibn ar-Razaz
al-Jazari. He was named al-Jazari as he hailed from the Isle located
between the Tigris and Euphrates. He lived in Diar Baker (modern
Turkey) in the 6th century of Hegira, where he served its kings for 25
years, beginning from 570 H. (1174 AD) (1).
Though al-Jazari was one of the most prominent inventors in

mechanics, details of his life are rare. All that we know about him is what
he himself wrote about himself in “al-jamea bayna al-ilm wal amal anafe'
fi sina't al-hiyal" (theory and practice in designing artifices).
He contributed in designing a number of different mechanic engines,
such as the compressor, the crane, the carrier and the conveyor. He also
gave an accurate description of the exact assembly of watches that took
their names following the particular design appearing on them : an
elephant's watch, a monkey's watch, an archer's watch, an author's watch,
or a drummer's watch (2) …
We conclude from his book that he devised a large number of

mechanic models, but he limited himself to the description of only fifty
models. Ibn ar-Razaz was intent on associating between theoretical
mechanic sciences known at that time, and practical applied aspects(3).
Donald Hill states that al-Jazari worked out water watches using
wicks of lamps, measuring instruments, fountains, musical instruments
(1) Marhaba, The exhaustive book about the history of Arab sciences, p. 372.
(2) Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 11, p. 56.
(3) Marhaba, ibid., p. 372.
- 77 -
and instruments to lift water. He also devised a kettle with a cover in the
form of a bird, which made a hiss for a short time whenever it is used
before water settled down. Aldo Milli states also that al-Jazari devised a
water watch with two arms pointing to time(1).
Major Works
- “Al-jamea bayna al-ilm wal amal anafe' fi sina't al-hiyal” (theory
and practice in designing artifices) is by far the most interesting
book of al-Jazari. He was charged by king Nacer ed-Din
Muhammad Ibn Qura, one of Beni Artaq Sultans, in Diar Baker to
compile this book. That occurred in 1181 during the reign of the
Abbassid Caliph Nacer ed-Din ibn al-Abbas Ahmed. The book was
completed in 1206 AD, which means that it took 25 years of
studies and research in the mechanics of watches, fountains and
water and heavy material lifting engines. This book was the most
wonderful book ever written in the Middle Ages on mechanic and
hydraulic engines(2).
Many copies of this book are conserved in a number of museums

worldwide such as Tobi Kari in Istambul, and the museum of fine
arts in Boston, the museum of the Louvre in France and Oxford
Library(3).
The book enjoyed a wide reputation in the West. Wiedmann and

Hawser translated parts of it into German in the first quarter of the
20th century. Donald Hill who is specialized in the history of Arab
technology also translated it into English. The Institute of Arabic
Scientific Heritage issued the Arabic version in Alepo, Syria, in
1979 after its annotation by Ahmed Yussuf(4).
(1) Mrizen, Scientific Life in Iraq under the Seljukid Rule, p. 516.
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31. Al-Batruji
(Died 600H/1204AD)
Abu Ishac Nur ed-Din al-Batruji al-Ishbili, known in the West as

Alpetragius, was an astronomer from Andalusia. It is reported that he was
born in Seville in the 12th century AD, while Doctor Dr. Zahur says he
was born in Morocco and immigrated to Spain where he lived in Seville.
He died at the beginning of the 13th century, towards 1204 AD(1). He was
a contemporary and a student of Ibn Tufayl.
Al-Batruji described a new theory on astronomy that revived the
Eudoxos theory on celestial bodies with multiple centers, but with
introducing a basic modification on it. He also criticized the famous
theory of Ptolemy on declination of planets and their circular rotation,
thus paving the way for Copernicus. His contemporary fellow scientists
viewed an important positive innovation in his ideas. They even talked
about New Astronomy(2).
Cara de Faw says about him "As for al-Batruji, he had innovative
ideas on the movement of planets"(3).
Major Works
-“Kitab al-Falak" (Treatise on astronomy). This book was known in
Europe in the 13th century. It was translated by Michael Scot into
Latin in the 13th century and was also translated into Hebrew in the
16th century. The Greek translation was printed in Vienna in 1531.

(2) Honkeh, The sun of Arabs, p. 201.
(3) Arnold, Islamic Heritage, p. 588.
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32. Ibn Al-Bytar
(593-646H/1197-1248AD)
Ibn al-Baytar was the greatest botanist and pharmacologist in Islam

and of all the Middle Ages (1). He was the unique scientist in his time to
specialize in botany.
His full name was Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Dhiya
al-Din al-Andalusi al-Malaqi, known as Ibn al-Bytar, and surnamed the
herbalist. He was born in Malaqa (Malaga), Andalusia, in 593 H/1197
AD(2). His father was a veterinarian. He learned botany from Abu
al-Abbas al-Nabati, known as Ibn Rumia. When he reached twenty
years old, he traveled to many different countries, including Greece,
Roman Europe, North Africa, and Sham (now Syria and Lebanon) and
Egypt to search for medicinal herbs and see them and identify them. In
Egypt, he entered in the service of the king al-Kamil al-Ayyubi who
appointed him as chief herbalist. After the king’s death, he continued
serving for his son al-Malik as-Salih Najm ed-Din who was residing in
Damascus. From there, al-Bytar began studying plants in as-Sham, and
Asia Minor in his capacity as a physician herbalist(3). He was the teacher
of Ibn Abi Usaibia who accompanied him in his journeys and travels in
search for plants.
Ibn al-Bytar earned fame for his many travels, which led him to
numerous regions worldwide, seeking the profound study of herbs(4). He
died in Damascus in 646 H/1248 AD.
(1) Ad-Difaa, Contribution of Muslim Arab Scientists in Zoology, pp. 334-335.

(2) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 329.
(3) Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 104.
- 80 -
Contributions in Botany and Pharmacology
Ibn al-Bytar described 1400 medicinal plants, 30 of which were
never described before. He mentioned their names, uses and other
alternative plants. He also discovered several other plants unknown
before. He followed in his studies a scientific methodology based on
empiricism, referencing, and sincerity and accuracy.
He was the first scientist to concern himself about studying harmful
weeds, and classified them according to the crops they affect.
Besides his interest in plants, he was also concerned by the study of

marine and land animals. He showed their benefits in curing diseases. He
was thus one of the greatest zoologists.
Ibn al-Bytar was equally a prominent pharmacologist. Said Hassan

says in his book “Islamic Sciences and Civilization”: “Ibn al-Baytar was
one of the greatest Muslim scientists in botany and pharmacy. His wide
reputation was unrivalled in the Middle Ages. He was undoubtedly the
greater pharmacologist from Dioscorides up to Modern era.” Ibn
al-Baytar did not limit himself to extract medicines from plants, but he
also used animals and metals as sources of medicines(1).
Major Works
Ibn al-Bytar compiled many books, the most famous of which are :
-“Jamia Mufradat al-Adwya wa al-Aghdya” (Index of medicine and
food terms). It was printed in 1291 H. It is an alphabetically
organized compilation of simple medicines extracted from metals,
plants and animals. Some of these medicines were taken from Greek
and Arabic books, and the others were the result of the author’s own
experience in this domain. It was translated into Latin and constituted
a reference for the West until the European Renaissance. George
Sarton says in his book: “Introduction to the History of Science”: “
Ibn al-Baytar organized this book following the alphabet order for
- 81 -
easy use. He listed the names of medicines in all languages.” The
Europeans relied on this book up until the European Renaissance(1).
- “Kitab al-Maghni fi al-Adwiya al-Mofrada” It’s a book about
drugs, where the author dealt concisely with the treatment of
diseases affecting every organ in order to maximize its profitability
for doctors.
- 82 -
33. Nasir Al-Din Tussi
(597-672AH/1201-1274AD)
He was one of the few extraordinary scientists to have flourished in

the 6th century H. and one of the distinguished Muslim scholars. He was
as “Al-Allama” (The professor)(1).
Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Hassan Nasir al-Din

al-Tussi was born in Tus near Neyshabur(2) in Persia in 507 H (1201 AD),
and died in Baghdad in 672 H (1274 AD). He studied under Kamal
al-Din Ibn Yuness al-Musili and Abdelmun’im Salem Ibn Badran al-
Mu’atazili(3).
He served as an astronomer to the governor Nacir al-Din

Abderrahman Ibn Abu Mansur in Sartekht. He attained a privileged
position in his time and was honored by the Caliphs and sat with Emirs
and Viziers. He was as a result smitten by the jealousy of his fellow men
and was defamed. As a consequence he was sentenced and imprisoned in
the castle of “Alamut”, but allowed to continue his researches. It was in
its reclusion that he compiled his most interesting books.
When Hulagu Khan, the Mongolian ruler, took hold of Baghdad, in

656 H (1258 AD), he wanted to benefit from his Abbassid enemy scientists.
So, he freed Tusi, favored him and appointed him as administrator of waqf
(religious bequests). Later, Tusi was appointed at the head of the
observatory of Maragheh (Iran), build at Tusi's request. In this observatory,
he supervised the work of many astronomers, brought by Hulagu from
different regions of the world, including al-Muayed al-Urdi from Damascus,
al-Fakhr al Maraghi from al-Musil, Najm al-Din al-Qazwini, and Mohi
(1) Tuquan, The Arab scientific heritage in mathematics and astronomy, p. 407.
(2) Zerkali, op. cit., vol. 7, p. 30.
(3) Tuquan, ibid., p. 407.
- 83 -
al-Din al-Maghribi. This observatory was famous for its sophisticated
instruments and its higher observational capacity and for its splendid library
that contained books pillaged from Baghdad, as-Sham and the Arabic
Peninsula. Its books were estimated at 400,000 volumes(1).
Scientific Contributions :
Tusi wrote on trigonometry, astronomy, algebra, and on the
manufacturing and use of astrolabes. He was the first to separate
trigonometry from astronomy, making it an independent science. He
came up also with new evidences for various astronomical matters. He
also presented new evidence for various astronomical issues. He was the
first to use the six cases of the spherical right-angled triangle(2). Cara de
Faw says that Tusi simplified and clarified trigonometry in his treatise
“As-Shakl Ar-Rubai”. First, he used the methods of Manalaus and
Ptolemy, then used his own methods, showing their results. The rule he
called “the rule of complementary forms” differs from the Ptolemaic
theory on the rectangles(3).
The genius of Tusi in geometry matched his genius in astronomy(4).

He excelled in dealing with parallelograms, basing his demonstrations on
hypotheses. Sarton says that Tusi demonstrated in his treatise
“at-Tadkira” numerous geometric matters. He was characterized in his
researches on geometry by his mastery of the basic principles related to
geometry, especially concerning parallelograms(5).
He made important contributions and additions in astronomy. He

clarified a number of astronomical theories, and criticized the "almajest"
treatise and suggested an astronomical system simpler than the Ptolemaic
one. Thus, he paved the way for the reforms brought up by Copernicus
later. He also wrote treatises on the celestial sphere and the planets system.
(1) Zerkali, ibid., p. 30.

(3) Arnold, op. cit., p. 591.
(4) Arnold, op. cit., p. 590.
- 84 -
Major Works
Nasr al-Din wrote on trigonometry, astronomy, algebra, geometry,
mathematics, calendars, medicine, geography, logic, ethics, music and
other subjects. He also translated some of the Greek books and made
comments and critics on their topics.
Among his most famous books there are :

-“Kitab Shakl al-Kitaa” (The form). It was the first book to
differentiate between trigonometry and astronomy. Cara de Faw
says about it : “it was translated into Latin, French and English and
constituted a reference for the Europeans for many centuries.”
-“At-Tadkira an-Naciria” It is a general reference book on
astronomy in which the author explained a number of astronomical
theories, and criticized Ptolemy's “almajest”. Sarton admits that
this criticism was a proof of Tusi’s genius and deep knowledge of
astronomy.
-“Zij-i Ilkhani” A table of planetary movements containing the
calculations of the observations he made during 12 years.
- “Kittab Kawaid Al Handassa” (The rules of geometry)
- “Kitab fi Al Jibr wa al-mukabala”.
- “Kitab dahirat al-falak” (The astronomical phenomena).
- “Kitab tahrir al-manadir” in optics.
Tusi wrote his books in Arabic and Persian and were translated into
Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages. Most of them
were printed.
Tusi was indeed one of the greatest Muslim scientists and one of
their prominent mathematicians. He contributed a lot to the progress of
sciences, especially astronomy and mathematics, His books constituted
references for many centuries and gained a wide reputation for their
author’s precious contributions.
- 85 -
34. Ibn Al-Nafis
(607-687H/1210-1288AD)
Ala' al-Din Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi, surnamed ibn an-Nafis.
He was horn in the outskirts of Damascus where he was brought up and
educated. He studied medicine under Dakhouar, the chief doctor of Nuri
hospital, and other famous teachers, such as Amran al-Israeli, and Radi
ed-Din Rehabi. He taught in his turn medicine and supervised a whole
department at Nuri hospital. Then he moved to Cairo, where he served in
Nasiri hospital. He was appointed in many medical positions until he
became chief of all doctors in Egypt(1). His contemporaries compared him
to ibn Sina as regard his scientific position and medicinal knowledge. He
is said to have learned by heart ibn Sina’s “al-Conon”, and to have had a
deep knowledge of Galen’s books (2). “His method of compiling books
was characterized by his capability of relying on what he memorized, his
own experiences, observations and his deductions” without referring to
any other source.(3)
He was also well versed in other fields of knowledge such as
philosophy, logic, grammar and Islamic sciences. He was not prepared to
accept ideas without discussions and argumentation even if they taken
from very known scientists. In this context, he rejected Galen’s medical
views on grounds that they were weak and complicated(4).
Ibn an-Nafis's Contributions in Medicine

Ibn an-Nafis was a leading figure in medicine in his time, and a
prominent physician in Damascus. He was discovered lung blood

(2) Ibid., p. 69.
(3) Zerkali, Scientists, vol. 4, p. 270.
(4) Honkeh, op. cit., p. 264.
- 86 -
circulation, providing an accurate scientific description of it. He preceded
thus Miguel Servede to whom Europeans attribute this discovery(1).
Ibn an-Nafis used anatomy as a method of work, and reached many

results, among which(2) :
1. Discovery of blood circulation in coronary arteries;
2. Blood feeds lungs with air and not with nutriments;
3. Lung vessels are not filled with air or remnants (as Galen
believed) but they contain only blood.
Major Works
Ibn an-Nafis left behind a number of books, including the following(3) :
- “Sharh Tashrih al-Canon” (Explanation of Anatomy Section of
al-Canon). The author explained and criticized the section of
anatomy included in Ibn Sina “al-Canon”. This book had fallen
into oblivion in libraries until the Egyptian physician Dr. Mohy
ed-Din Tettawi stumbled upon it in 1924 in Berlin Library and
chose it as his subject of research for obtaining his doctorate from
Friburg University in Germany.
- “Al-Kitab as-Shamel fi Tib” (Exhaustive Medical Book). It is an
encyclopedia in eight volumes. Only some paragraphs of this book
are conserved in Oxford Library.
- “Al Mohaddab fi al-Kohl” (4)A book about ophtalmia.
- “Al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdiya” (Selected Foods) : A book on
nutrition.
- “Sharh Fusul Abukrat” (Explanation of Epicures' Articles). A
copy of it is kept at Paris National Library, and in El Escorial
library. It was printed in Iran in 1298 H/1881 AD.

(2) Honkeh, p. 265.
(3) The human heritage, pp. 70-71.
(4) Published by ISESCO.
- 87 -
- “A Summary of al-Canon” It’s a five-volume summary of Ibn
Sina’s al-Canon. Copies of it are still kept in Paris, Oxford,
Florence, Munich and El Escorial. It was translated into Turkish
and Hebrew, and printed in English for the first time in 1830 in
Calcutta, India, under the title “al Moghni fi Sharh al- Mujaz”.
- 88 -
35. Al.Hassan Al-Murakchi
(660H/1262AD)
Abu Ali al-Hassan Ibn Ali Ibn Umar al-Murrakchi was one of the
Moroccan scientists. He lived during the rule of the Almohads in the first
half of the 17th century H / middle of the 13th century AD(1).
He earned fame in astronomy, mathematics, geography and the

fabrication of sundials.
Scientific Contributions(2)
He led many researches in trigonometry, introducing a number of
innovations. He introduced the co sinus, sinus and tangent. He developed
co sinus tables and came up with solutions for some astronomical
problems. He provided more details on more than 240 stars for the year
622 H. He was also the first to use lines for equal hours.
In addition, he introduced many important geographical corrections,

and put a new map of Morocco
Major Works
-“Jamea al-Mabadi' wal Ghayat fi Ilm al-miqat” (Book of
Principles and Goals of Time Measurement). Thanks to this book,
al-Murakchi gained a wide reputation among European scientists
and was even considered as one of the greatest Muslin and Arab
astronomers(3). Hajji Khalifa considered this book as the most
interesting work ever compiled in this field and said it is divided
(1) Tuquan, Aforementioned reference, p. 416.

(2) Tuquan, ibid., pp. 17-416.
(3) Abdallah Guennun, The Moroccan genius in the Arab literature, p. 156.
- 89 -
into four sciences: mathematics, engines design and utilization, and
a section including useful debate to acquire the skill of deduction.
The book includes also some issues on algebra and opposition (1).
Sarton says, “It is among the best books including precious
researches on trigonometry and various sundials.” The book was
translated by Emanuel Sidue and published by his son Louis Emily
Sidue in 1834-1836. Cara De Faw published the section on
astrolabes.
Al-Murrakchi compiled other treatises on mathematics, among

which :
- “Kitab al-Kotua al-Makhrutia” (Conical Sections)
-“Rissalat Talkhis al-Amal fi Ruayat al-Hilal”. A treatise on the
observation of the moon.
(1) Ibrahim Harakat, Morocco throughout history, v. 1, p. 360.
- 90 -
36. Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi
(634-710H/1236-1311AD)
Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi Muhammd Ibn Massud Ibn Muslih

al-Farissi(1) was born in Shiraz (Iran). He studied medicine under his
father and uncle; then became a student of “Nasir Al-Din Tussi”. He
made several journeys that led him to Khurasan, Iraq, Persia and Egypt.
Besides his scientific activity, he practiced justice and diplomacy, as he
was appointed judge in one of Persia’s cities and served its kings. He was
sent by one of them in a mission to al-Mansur (Syff Al-Din Kalawun),
the Sultan of the Mamluk state in Cairo, to conclude a peace treaty
between the two parties. He prolonged his stay in Egypt for a certain time
before he returned back to Tabriz (Persia) where he died in (710
H/1311AD)(2).
Georges Sarton considers Qutb Al-Din ash-Shirazi to be one of the
prominent scientists in mathematics, astronomy, physics and philosophy(3).
His main contributions in physics was his “unprecedented comprehensive
explanation of the rainbow, as he demonstrated that the rainbow
phenomenon occurs when sun rays fall on the small water drops that
prevail in the air when it’s raining. The sun rays then undergo an internal
reflection and become apparent to the eye”(4).
In the domain of astronomy, he continued the researches of his

teacher Nasir Al-Din Tussi, and developed an astronomical model of
(1) Zerkali, Scientists, v. 8, p. 65.

(2) Tuquan, aforementioned reference, p. 425.
(3) Ad-Difaa, The exact sciences in th Muslim Arab civilization, p. 338.
(4) Tuquan, aforementioned, p. 426.
- 91 -
Mercury that this latter had already begun. He also provided simplified
explanation for his teacher’s hermetic ideas on astronomy and geometry.
His methodology was based on observation, experimentation and
deduction, stressing on mathematical evidence in physic and
astronomical issues(1).
Major Works
Qutb ed-Din compiled many books, among which :
-“Nihayat al Idrak fi Dirayat al-Aflak”. It is a book - as says Sarton
- that includes different subjects about astronomy, the earth, seas,
seasons, atmospheric phenomena, mechanics and optics.
-“ Kitab at-Tuhfa as-Shahia fi al-Haya”.
-“ Kitab at -Tabsira fi al-Haya”.
-“Kitab Nuzhat al-Hukama wa rawdat al-Atiba” (Scholars and
Physician's Guide). It is an explanation of and a commentary on
ibn Sina’s Canon.
- “Kitab Rissala fi Bayan al-Haja ila Tib wa arab al-Atiba wa
Wassayahum”.
- “Rissala fil Burss” (A treatise on Leper).
Ash-Shirazi wrote many other books in astronomy and in other

fields of science. He devoted the rest of his life to Sufism, and the
compilation of books on the Qur’an and Hadith sciences.
(1) Ad-Difaa, aforementioned reference, p. 341.
- 92 -
37. Ibn Al-Banaa
(654-721H/1256-1321AD)
“He was a scientist from Marrakech well-versed in many fields of

knowledge, especially in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, hermetics
and also medicine”(1).
His full name was Ahmed Ibn Mohammed Othman al-Azali, known
as Abu al-Abbas Ibn al-Banaa al-Murrakchi. His father was a bricklayer.
He was born in Marrakech, Morocco in 654 H/1256 AD where he spent
the majority of his life, whence his name(2). It is there also where he
learned grammar, hadith and jurisprudence, then he went to Fez where he
studied medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Among his teachers there
was Ibn Makhluf Sigilmasi Falaki and Ibn Hajla Ryadi(3).
He gained the esteem of the Fatimid Sultans in Morocco who

continually called on him to come to Fez. He died in Marrakech in 721
H/1321 AD.
In mathematics, he contributed in clarifying the difficult theories and
complicated rules. He led ample researches on fractions. He developed
rules for the addition of square and cube numbers, and the rule of two
errors to solve first degree equations, and other calculus. He also
introduced new rectifications on the method known as “the method of
one error” and formulated it into a law(4).

(2) Ahmed Jabbar, Mohammed Ablagh, Life and works of al-Banaa, p. 26.
(3) Ibrahim Harakat, Moroco throughout History, p. 158.
(4) Tuquan, The Arab scientific heritage in mathematics and astronomy, p. 430.
- 93 -
It is mentioned in the Encyclopedia of Islam that Ibn al-Banaa
outshone all his mathematician predecessors from the Orient, especially
in the calculation of fractions. He was also considered to be one of the
prominent mathematicians who used the Indian numerals in the way they
are used by Moroccans(1).
Major Works
He compiled more than seventy books in mathematics, geometry,
algebra, astronomy and astrology. Most of them were lost and only a few
of them have reached us. The most famous of them are :
- “Kitab Talkhis amal al Hissab” (A summary of mathematics),
Smith and Sarton admit that it is one of the best books on
mathematics. It remained a reference in the West until the end of
the 16th century AD. Several Arab scientists wrote explanations of
it, and many western scientists borrowed from it. He attracted the
attention of scientists during the 19th and 20th centuries (2). It was
translated into French in 1864 by Marre, and the translation was
published in Rome. It was translated once again into French by Dr.
Muhammad Suissi. The original text its translation a preface and
annotations were published in 1969(3).
-“Maqualat fi al-Hissab”, it’s a treatise about true numbers,
fractions, radicals and proportion;
-“Kitab al-Gibr wa al Muquabala” (The Book of Integration and
Equation);
-“Kitab al Fussul fi al-Faraid”;
-“Kittab fi al-Missahat” (The Book on Surfaces);
-“Kitab al Usterlab wa Istiamaluhu” (A Book on the Astrolabe and
its Uses);
-“Kitab al-Yassara fi Taquim al Kawakib as-Syara”;
(1) The Islamic Encyclopaedia, v. 1, p. 102.

(2) Tuquan, aforementioned reference, p. 430.
(3) Mohemmed Mannuni, pages on the Merinid civilization, 338.
- 94 -
-“Minhaj at-Talib fi Taâdil al Kawakib”, the Spanish Orientalist
Verne Jines annotated its introduction and some of its sections and
translated them into Spanish in 1952.
-“Kitab Ahkam an-Nujum” (The Book on the Law of Stars);
The two professors Muhammad Ablagh and Ahmed Jabbar

published a book under the tile “Life and Works of Ibn-Bamaa” within
the framework of the publications of the Faculty of Literature and Human
Sciences, University of Mohammed V, Rabat, in 2001.
- 95 -
38. Ibn Al-Shatir
(704-777H/1304-1375AD)
A scientist from Damascus who excelled in mathematics, geometry,

and astronomy. Abu al-Hassan Ala'-Din Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Mohammed
al-Ansari al-Muakit, known as Ibn ash-Shatir was born and died in
Damascus. He was surnamed al-Mutaem because he used to inlay ivory
when a child(1).
His father died when he was still a child and was taken in charge by
his grandfather, and then by the son of his father’s uncle and his aunt’s
husband who taught him how to inlay ivory. He then accumulated an
important sum of money, which enabled him to visit numerous countries
such as Egypt where he studied astronomy and mathematics in Cairo and
Alexandria.
He spent the majority of his life in his position as timing officer and
chief Muezzin in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus(2).
He had contributed in the invention of many instruments such as the
astrolabe, his rectifications of sundials. He also came up with many
valuable astronomical theories. His books on the astrolabe constituted a
reference for many centuries in ash-Sham and Egypt, and throughout the
Othoman Empire and in other Islamic countries as they were essential in
defining time in the Islamic world(3).
He also succeeded in accurately measuring the angle of deviation of

the circle of constellations, as he estimated it at 23° 31 minutes. In this
(1) Zerkali, Scientists, vol. 4, p. 251.

(2) Ad-Difaa, op. cit., p. 421.
- 96 -
context, Sarton Says: “Ibn ash-Shatir was a scientist of a great genius. He
studied the movement of celestial bodies in a very precise way, and
demonstrated that the angle of deviation of the circle of constellations
was 23° 31 min in 1365, whereas the exact value that has been calculated
by 20th century scientists by means of computers is 23° 31 minutes 19.8
seconds(1).
Ibn as-Shatir proved also, thanks to his astronomical observations,

the deficiency of Ptolemaic theory. He said that the earth evolves around
the sun, and the moon evolves around the earth, and this is what
Copernicus discovered many centuries later(2).
Major Works
Ash-Shatir has compiled many books, the majority of which are still
lost. Among his books, mentioned by Zarkali in his book “al aâlm”.
-“Zij al-Jadid” (The New Astronomical Table). This book was
written at the request of the Othoman Caliph Murad I who reigned
over ass-Sham between 1360 and 1398. It contains astronomical
models based on experiments, observation, and deduction(3).
- “Idah al-Moghib fi al-Amal bi ar-Robi al-Mojib”;
- “Urjuza fi al-Kawakib” (Poem on Planets);
- “Rissala fi al-Ostorlab” (Treatise on Astrolabe);
- “Mukhtasar al amal bi al Usturlab” (Summary of Astrolabe
Uses);
- “An-Nafa al-Aam fi el-Amal bi ar-Robi’ at-Tam”;
- “Rissalat Nuzhat as-Samis fi al-Amal bi ar-Rrobi al-Jamia”;
- “Rissalat Kifayat al-Qunua fi al-Amal bi ar-Robi al-Maqtua.”

- 97 -
39. Al-Kashi
Ghaiat ed-Din Massud Ibn Muhammad al-Kashi was born at the end
of the 8th century H in Kashan (Iran). He studied grammar, conjugation,
fiqh and logic, and learned and excelled in mathematics. No wonder since
his father was one of the prominent scientists in mathematics and
astronomy. He lived most of his life in Samarkand, where he built an
observatory, he called as “the observatory of Samarkand” (1).
He provided explanations for most of the output of scientists who
worked with Nacir ed-Din Tussi, in the observatory of Meragha. He also
revised the tables of stars devised by observers in this observatory. He
gave very precise estimation of the solar eclipses during three years
(between 1407 and 1409 AD / 809 and 811 H) and was the first to
discover that the orbits of mercury and the moon are elliptical (2).
In mathematics, he devised the decimal fractions. Smith says in his

book “The History of Mathematics”. “The discord between
mathematicians is indeed bitter, but the majority of them agree that it was
al-Kashi who devised the decimal fractions.”(3)
He also developed a law concerning a group of natural numbers
raised to power four. Cara de Faw in his comment on the Muslin
astronomers says: “Al-Kashi devised a method to add numbers of a
chain, raised to power four. It is indeed a method that requires a lot of
genius to find out.”(4)
(1) Ad-Difaa, The summary in the Muslim Arab scientific heritage, p. 184.
(2) Ibid., p. 184.
(3) Ibid., p. 185.
(4) Arnold, Islamic Heritage, p. 588.
- 98 -
Major Works
He compiled books in many sciences, here are a few :
-“Kitab Zij al-Khaquani” : It contains adjustment of the star tables
developed by the astronomers at Meragha observatory;
-“Rissala fi al-Hissab” (A Treatise of Arithmetic);
-“Rissala fi al –Handassa” (A Treatise of Geometry);
-“Rissalat al-Jib wa al-Watr”
-“Rissala an Ihliligiat al Kammar wa Atarid” (A treatise on the
elliptical moon and mercury)
Abdullah ad-Difaa says in his comment on the importance of

al-Kashi's books, in particular “Miftah al hissab” (Key of Arithmetic),
“This book was a source of inspiration for scientists either from East or
West. They used it as reference in the education of their sons in schools
and universities for several countries. They also used many of his
theories and laws.”
- 99 -
40. Ulugh Beg
(796-853H/1393-1449AD)
Ulugh Beg Muhammed Targai Ibn Shah Rakh Ibn Timur was born
in 796 H/1393 AD in Sultaniyeh, in Asia Minor. He grew up as a prince
as his father was reigning on many countries and large regions.
Before the age of 20, his father appointed him Emir on Turkistan
and Transoxania. He made of Samarkand his capital and a center of
Islamic civilization. During his long reign that lasted nearly 40 years, he
rendered great services to science and arts(1).
He devised many new astronomical instruments that helped
astronomers in their researches. L. Bouvat says on this point : “In his
work with astronomers, he succeeded in creating new powerful
instruments, capable of helping them in their researches.” He also worked
on trigonometry, and his co sinus and sinus tables helped a great deal in
the progress of science. He was also concerned by other branches of
mathematics, especially geometry and came up with solutions to some of
its complicated issues(2).
He built in Samarkand an observatory and equipped it with engines

and instruments known at the time. This observatory “was considered at
the time as one of the wonders of the world”(3). He summoned in this
observatory many great astronomers and mathematicians, such as “Kadi
Zadah Rumi” and “Mu’in ed-Din al-Kachani” and others, with whom he
undertook (from 827 to 839 H) to correct the Greek astronomical
observations.
(1) Tuquan, Scientific Heritage of Arabs in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 444.

- 100 -
Ulugh Beg was not only a scientist in astronomy, observation and
mathematics. He was also involved in literature, a historian and a
jurisprudent. He studied the Qur’an, learned it by heart and recited it in
the Seven Readings(1).
Major Works
- “Zij Ulugh Beg” (Ulugh Beg Astronomical Table). He included in
this book the results of twelve years of observation. It contains
practical ways to calculate the solar and lunar eclipses, tables of
stationary stars, the movement of the sun, the moon and the
planets, and the latitudes and longitudes of big cities throughout
the world(2). There is a discord over the language in which this
treatise was written, whether in Arabic, Persian or Turkish (3).
This book was first printed in London in 1650 AD. It was

translated afterwards into European languages. Sidue translated the
introduction into French and published it in Paris in 1847 and 1853
in two volumes. In 1419/1998, Fuad Sizekin, in cooperation with a
group of researchers, assembled and reprinted all Ulugh Beg’s
astronomical works in German.

(2) Omar Ferrukh, History of sciences of the Arabs, p. 175.
(3) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.
- 101 -
Biographies of some Muslim Scientists
Name of Sciences in which he Most famous Country where Date of
scientist contributed works he flourished Death* AD
Jabir Ibn Chemistry Kitab ar-Rassail Iraq 815

Hayyan as-Sabin
Al-Khawarizmi Mathematics-Astronomy - Hissab al-Jibr wa Iraq 850

Geography al-Mukabala
Ibn Rabban Medicine Firdaws al-Hikma Iraq 861
at-Tabari
Al-Farghani Astronomy-Astrology- Jawamii Ilm Iraq After 861
Geometry an-Nujum wa
al-Harakat
Samawiya
Sanad Ibn Ali Astronomy-Mathematics Kitab al-Jama wa Iraq After 864
at-Tafriq
Banu Mussa Geometry-Astrology- Kitab al-Hiyal Iraq 872

Mechanics
Al-Kindi Mathematics-Astronomy- Rissala fi Istiamal Iraq 873

Geometry-Physics- al-Hissab
Medicine-Chemistry al-Handassi
Al-Razi Medicine-Alchemy Al-Hawi Iran-Iraq 925

Al-Battani Astronomy-Geometry- Zig as-Sabi Iraq-Syria 929
Mathematics
Al-Farabi Mathematics-Music Ihssaa al-Ulum Turkistan-Syria 950
As-Sufi Astronomy-Astrology Kitab al-Kawakib Iraq 986

at-Tabita
Abu al-Wafaa Geometry-Astronomy- Kitab al-Majesti Iraq 998
al-Buzjani Mathematics
Al-Majriti Alchemy-Astronomy- Rutbat al-Hakim Andalusia 1007

Mathematics-Zoology
Ibn al-Jazzar Medicine Zad al-Mussafir Tunisia 1009
Ibn Yunnes Astronomy-Mathematics Zig al-Kabir Egypt 1009

al-Hakimi
Al-Zahrawi Medicine (Anatomy) At-Tasrif liman Andalusia 1013

Ajaza ani Taalif
Al-Kuhi Astronomy-Mathematics Massail Handassia Iraq 1014
(*) Since the date of death of scientist in the Middle Ages is not always agreed upon, we have
opted for the use of dates that recur throughout the references we have relied on.
- 102 -
Al-Karkhi Mathematics Al-Fakhri fi Iraq 1029

al-Jibr
Ibn Sina Medicine-Physics- Al-Canon fi Tib Iran :Hamadan 1037
Geology and Asfahan
Ibn al-Haytham Optics-Mathematics- Kitab al-Manadir Iraq and Egypt 1038

Astronomy-Medicine
Al-Biruni Mathematics-Astronomy- Kitab al-Atyhar Iran and India 1048
medicine al-Bakia anii
al-Qurun
al-Khalya
Ibn Riduan Medicine Kitab fi Dafi Egypt 1061 ?
Madar alAbdan bi
Ardi Misr
Zerkali Astronomy Al Amal bi Safiha Andalusia 1087
Zijya
Ibn Jazila Medicine-Chemistry Takwim al-Abdan Iraq 1100

al-Insan fi Tadbir
Omar al-Khyam Mathematics-Astronomy Al-Jibr wa Iran and Iraq 1124
al-Mukabala
Ibn Baja Medicine-Astronomy- Taalik fi Andalusia- 1138
Mathematics al-Handassa wa Morocco
Ilm al-Haya
Ibn Zahr Medicine Kitab at-Tayssir fi Andalusia- 1162
al-Mudawat wa Morocco
at-Tadbir
Ibn Tufayl Medicine-Astronomy Hay ibn Yaqdan Andalusia- 1185
Morocco
Ibn Roshd Medicine Al-Kuliat fi Tib Andalusia- 1198
Morocco
Ibn ar-Razzaz Mechanics Al-Jamia byna Iraq 12th C
al-Jazari al-Ilm wa
al-Amal an-Nafia
fi Sinaat al-Hyal
Al-Batruji Astronomy Kitab al-falak Andalusia 1204
Ibn al-Bytar Veterinary-Chemistry- Jamia Mufradat Andaluisia-Egypt 1248

Botany al-Adwya wa -As-Sham
al-Aghdya
Tussi Astronomy-Mathematics Kitab Shakl Iran-Iraq 1274

al-Kitaa
Ibn an-Nafis Medicine Al-Kitab As-Sham-Egypt 1288

as-Shamil fi Tib
- 103 -
Al-Hassan Astronomy-Mathematics- Jamia al-Mabadia Morocco 1262

al-Murakshi manufacture of watches wa al-Ghayat fi
Ilm al-Miquat
Ash-Shirazi Astronomy-Mathematics- Nihayat al-Idrak Iran-Egypt 1311

Physics fi Dirayat
al-Aflak
Ibn al-Banaa Mathematics-Astronomy Kitab Talkhis Morocco 1321
Amal al-Hissab
Ibn ash-Shatir Mathematics-Astronomy Zij al-Jadid Damascus 1375
Al-Kashi Mathematics-Astronomy Kitab Zij Iran-Uzbekistab 1436

al-Khakani (Samarkand)
Ulugh Beg Astronomy Zij Ulugh beg Iran-Uzbekistan 1449

(Samarkand)
- 104 -
Bibliography
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Century H" Pan-Arab Studies Center, National Heritage Series ;
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2- Ahmed Jabbar – Mohammed Ablagh : "Life and Works of Ibn

al-Banaa al-Murrakushi", Publication of the Faculty of Letters,
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4- Arnold, Sir Thomas : "Islamic Heritage" Translated in Arabic by

Jarsis Fathallah, Beirut, Dar Talia, 1972.
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Ihssan Abbas, Beirut, Dar Sadir .
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Dr. Amar Talbi, Algerian Higher Council of Culture, 1989, Algeria.
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wa Tadbir", annotated by Mohammed Ibn Abdallah Rudani,
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Serkis, Institute of the History of Islamic and Arab Sciences,
Frankfurt University, Germany
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Yussef Hassan, Halab University, Institute of Arab Scientific
Heritage, Damascus, 1981
- 105 -
10- Human Heritage Magazine, Ministry of Culture and National
Guidance, Egyptian General Establishment for editing, translation,
printing and publishing, Egypt.
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the Renown Scientists and Thinkers in the Islamic Golden Ages" 2nd
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Andalusia", Dar Al-gharb al-Islami, Beirut
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in Zoology" 1st Ed., Rissala Foundation, 1986
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1st Ed., Rissala Foundation, Beirut, 1981
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Heritage", John Wyli and sons, New York, 1979
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Development of the World Science", translated by Dr, Abdalhalim
Najjar and Dr. Yussef Mussa, Dar al-Qalam
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Arabs, Arabists and Orientalists ", 4th Ed., Beirut, Dar Ilm Malayeen,
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Heritage" 3rd Ed., Cairo, Dar Kalam, 1963
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23- Guenun, Abdallah, "Morocco's Genius in Arab Literature", Dar
al-Kitab, Beirut, 2nd Ed., 1961
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Arabs History, 2nd Ed., Beirut, Aouidat Publications, 1988
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Mohammed Shafik Gharbal, 2nd Ed., 1972, Cairo
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Middle Ages, summary of the lectures given at the Egyptian
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Arab civilization on Europe, translated by Faruk Bydun and Kamal
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- 107 -

Architects of Scientific Thought in Islamic Civilization

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Architects of the Scientific Thought

Hallmarks from the Biographies

Publications of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Legal number : 1683/2003

Printing : Imprimerie Beni Isnassen

The publication of this book in its Arabic, English and French

This book, which the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Professor Halima Ghirari has been successful in shedding light on 40

We have decided to publish this book in a medium-size form to present

Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri

Jabir Ibn Haiyan, an outstanding personality and one amongst the

Amongst Jabir's major scientific achievements was the introduction

(1) Sarton. op. cit., p. 532.

Jabir's corpus includes a great number of books. Apart from

(1) Zarkali, Ibid., p. 103.

Al-Khawarizmi was one of the greatest Arab and world scholars

In addition to his great contributions in arithmetic, al-Khawarizmi

The other scientific contributions of al-Khawarizmi were the

(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 161.

In fact, he was the founder of algebra and left several treaties in

(1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 154.

(1) Firdaous al-Hikma, Annoted by Mohamad Zubair Seddiki.

Az-Zarkali(1) added to his works the book entitled Addin wa Dawla

(1) Zerkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 4, p. 288.

Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Kathir al-Farghani, known

Aldo Milli says : "Al Farghani's measurements of planet distances and

(1) Sarton, op. cit., t. 1, p. 567.

Besides, Sanad explained nine essays from Euclid's treatise on geometry

(1) Sarton, op. cit., t. 1, p. 566.

The method consists in planting two pins at two separate points,

In the fields of astronomy, Banu Musa brothers assessed the mean

Banu Musa brothers played also an important role in the development

(1) Ahmad Yussuf Hassan, ibid., p. 19.

Al-Kindi was known as the Philosopher of the Arabs and was

Al-Kindi grew up and studied in al-Basra. Later he moved to Baghdad

(1) Tawkan, Kadri, Arabian Sciences, p. 112.

(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 170.

Only some of his works will be presented, based on the statements

Gerard of Cremona translated a large number of al-Kindi's books

(1) Tawkan,: Ibid., p. 175.

He is Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi, Abu Bakr, known by

Al-Razi was born in Ray in the south of Teheran. Initially, he

Ar-Razi Contributions to Medicine

(1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 463.

Westerners recognize the innovations of Al-Razi in the fields of

(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 220.

(1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 463.

Among its most famous books in chemistry, the following can be

In astronomy, the most famous of al-Razi's books was :

Al-Razi had several other books in medicine, pharmacy, astronomy,

In brief, we can say that al-Razi made a considerable contribution

(1) Hunkah, Ibid., p. 247.

He is Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan ar-Raqqi

Al-Battani was born in "Battan" near Harran, located on one of the

The Islamic Encyclopedia refers to al-Battani was famous for the

(1) Human Heritage Magazine, Vol. 3, p. 183.

(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 241

-"Zij Assabi" is by far his most important writing. It contains the

In summary, "Al-Battani was among the greatest geniuses of the

(1) Tawkan, op. cit., p. 241.

"Al-Farbi was a celebrated philosopher and mathematicians as well

He is Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan Ibn Uzalagh, Abu

(1) Hunkah, Arabs' Sun Shines on the West, p. 162.