Manufacturing Process I

3rd
NAGPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Manufacturing process‐I semester

Question bank with solution
QUESTION BANK WITH

SOLUTION
Manufacturing Process-I
B.E. III Semester

Mechanical Engineering
By
Prof. Naresh R. Tawale
H.O.D (Mechanical)
Nagpur Institute Of Technology, Nagpur

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STUDY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

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UNIT‐I
Q‐1 Explain the tool geometry of single point cutting tool used on lathe with neat
sketches?
Classification of cutting tools: All the cutting tools used in metal cutting can be broadly
classified as:
Single point tools, i.e., those having only one cutting edge; such as lathe tools, shaper
tools, planer tools, boring tools, etc.
Multi‐point tool, i.e. those are having more than one cutting edge; such as milling
cutters, drills, broaches, grinding wheels etc. These tools may, for the sake of analysis,
be considered as consisting of a number of single point tools each forming a cutting
edge. The cutting tools can also be classified according to the motion as:
a) Linear motion tools‐ lathe, boring, broaching, planning, shaping tools, etc.
b) Rotary machine tools‐ milling cutters, grinding wheels, etc.
c) Linear and Rotary tools‐ drills, boring tools, boring heads, etc.
Important terms: Before proceeding further, it would be advisable to be acquainted
with a few important terms related to the Geometry of single point tools. (See Fig)

Fig 1.1 different parts of single point cutting tool
1. Shank. It forms the body of a solid tool and it is this part of the tool which is
gripped in the tool holder.

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2. Face. It is the top surface of tool between the shank and point of the tool. In the
cutting action the chips flow along this surface only.
3. Point. It is the wedge shaped portion where the face and flank of the tool meet. It
is cutting part of tool. It is also called nose, particularly in case of round nose
tools.
4. Flank. Portion of tool which faces the work is term as flank. It is the surface
adjacent to and below the cutting edge when tool lies in a horizontal position.
5. Base. It is actually the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in a tool
holder or clamped directly in a tool post.
6. Heel. It is the curved portion at the bottom of tool where the base and flank of
the tool meet, as shown in Fig 1.
7. Nose radius. If the cutting tip (nose) of a single point tool carries a sharp cutting
point the cutting tip is weak. It is, therefore, highly stressed during the operation
may fail or lose cutting ability soon and produces marks on the machined surface.
In order to prevent these harmful effects the nose is provided with a radius called
nose radius. It enables greater strength of the cutting tip, a prolong tool life and a
superior surface finish on the work piece. Also as the value of this radius
increases, a higher cutting speed can be used. But if it is too large it may lead to
chatter. So a balance has to be maintained. Its value normally raises from 0.4 mm
to 1.6 mm depending on several factors like depth of cut, amount of feed, type of
cutting, type of tool (solid or with insert), etc.
Principles angles of single point tools: The different angles provided on single point
tools play a significant role in successful and efficient machining of metals. The
thorough study of these tools angles is therefore must the main angles provided on
these tools are shown in Fig 5.4 and the average values of these cutting different
metals are given in chapter 6.

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Fig 1.2 Principles angles of single point of cutting tools
1. Rake angle. It is the angle form between the face of tool and plane parallel to its
base. If this inclination is towards the inclination it is known as back rake or top
rake. When it is towards the side of tool it is called the side rake. These rake
angles guide the chips away from cutting edge thereby reducing the chip
pressure on face and increasing the keenness of the tool so that less power is
required for cutting. It is important to note that an increased rake angle will
reduced the strength of cutting edge. With the result, the tools used for cutting
hard metals are given smaller rake angles whereas those used for softer metals
contain larger rakes.
Negative rake. The rake angles described above are called positive rake angles.
When no rake is provided on the tool, it is said to have a zero rake. When the
face of tool is so ground that it slopes upward from the point it is said to contain
a negative rake. It obviously reduces the keenness of the tool and increases the
strength of the cutting edge. Such a rake is usually employed on carbide tipped
tools when they are used for machining extra‐ hard surfaces, hardened steel
parts and for taking intermittent cuts. A tool with negative rake will have a larger
lip angle, resulting in a stronger tool. Another advantage of negative rake,
particularly in case of tipped tools is that the tendency of the chip pressure is to
press the tip against the body of the tool. This is obviously, a favorable factor for
tipped tools. The value of negative take o these tools normally vary from 5 to 10
degree.
2. Lip angle. The angle between the face and the flank of the tool is known as lip
angle. It is also sometimes called the angle of keenness of the tool. Strength of
the cutting edge or point of the tool is directly affected by this angle. Larger the

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lip angle stronger will be the cutting edge and vice‐versa. It would be observed
that since the clearance angle remains practically constant in all the cases, this
angle varies inversely as the rake angle. It is only for this reason that when harder
metals are to be machined, i.e., a stronger tool is required, the rake angle is
reduced and consequently the lip angle is increased. This simultaneously calls for
reduced cutting speeds, which is a disadvantage. The lip angle is, therefore, kept
as low as possible without making the cutting edge weak, that it becomes
unsuitable for cutting.
3. Clearance angle. It is the angle formed by the front or side surfaces of the tool
which are adjacent and below the cutting edge when the tool is held in a
horizontal position. It is the angle between one of these surfaces and a plane
normal to the base of the tool. When the surface considered for this purpose is in
front of tool, i.e., just below the point, the angle formed is called front clearance
and when the surface below the side cutting edge is considered the angle formed
is known as side clearance angle. The purpose of providing front clearance is to
allow the tool to cut freely without rubbing against the surface of the job, and
that of the side clearance to direct the cutting thrust to the metal area adjacent
to the cutting edge.
4. Relief angle. It is the angle formed between the flank of the tool and a
perpendicular line drawn from the cutting point to the base of the tool.
5. Cutting angle. The total cutting angle of the tool is the angle formed between the
tool face and line through the point, which is a tangent to the machined surface
of the work at that point. Obviously, its correct value will depend upon the
position of the tool in which it is held in relation to the axis of iob.
Q‐2 What are the various tool materials? Explain desirable properties of cutting tool
materials?
Various cutting tool materials have been used in industry for different applications. A
number of developments have occurred in the 20 th century thanks to aerospace and
nuclear programmer. A large variety of cutting tool materials has been developed to
cater to the variety of materials used in this programme. The important characteristics
of a cutting tool material are:

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i) Higher hardness than that of the work‐piece material being machined, so that it
can be penetrating into the work material.
ii) Hot hardness, which is the ability of the material to retain its hardness at
elevated temperatures in view of the high temperatures existing in the cutting
zone. This requirement becomes more and more stringent with the increasing
emphasis on higher cutting speeds to bolster productivity.
iii) Wear resistance‐ The chip tool and chip work interfaces are exposed to such
severe conditions, that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. The cutting
tool material should, therefore, have high abrasion resistance to improve the
effective life of tool.
iv) Toughness—the tool, even though is hard, should have enough toughness to
withstand the impact loads that come in the beginning of the cut or to force
fluctuations due to imperfections in the work material. This requirement is going
to be more useful for interrupted cutting, for example milling.
v) Low friction—the coefficient of friction between chip and tool should be low,
which would allow lower wear rates and better chip flow.
vi) Better thermal characteristics—Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting
zone, it is necessary that the tool material should have higher thermal
conductivity to dissipate this heat in the shortest time, otherwise the tool
temperature will become too high thus reducing its life. All these properties may
not be found in a single tool material. A comparison of the several of the cutting
tool materials is presented in Table 2.3. Improvements in tool materials have
been taking place over the past century to give us better cutting performance.
Q‐3 Explain the necessity of a coolant in machining and its properties?
Cutting fluids sometimes referred to as lubricants or coolants are liquid and gases
applied to the tool and work‐piece to assist in the cutting operations.
Purpose of Cutting Fluids: Cutting fluids are used for the following purposes:
1. To cool the tool. Cooling the tool is necessary to prevent metallurgical damage
and to assist in decreasing friction at the tool‐chip interface and at the tool‐work‐
piece interface. Decreasing friction means less power required to machine and
more important increased tool life and good surface finish. The cooling action of

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the fluids is by direct carrying away of the heat developed by plastic deformation
of shear plane and that due to friction. Hence, a high film‐coefficient for heat
transfer is necessary for a good coolant. For cooling ability, water is very
effective, but is objectionable for corrosiveness and lack of friction reducing
wear.
2. To cool the work‐piece. The role of cutting fluid in cooling the work‐piece is to
prevent its excessive thermal distortion.
3. To lubricate and reduce friction. (a) The energy or power consumption in
removing metal is reduced: (b) abrasion or wear on the cutting tool is reduced
thereby increasing the life of the tool; (c) by virtue of lubrication, less heat is
generated and the tool, therefore, operates at lower temperatures with the
tendency to extend tool life; and (d) chips are helped out of the flutes of drills,
tapes, dies, saws, broaches, etc. An incidental improvement in the cutting
operation is that built‐up edge will be reduced which, in turn, will decrease
friction at the tool‐work‐piece area and contribute toward a cooler tool. It is
important to give the optimum cooling effect and lubrication condition in metal
cutting.
4. To improve surface finish.
5. To protect the finished surface from corrosion. To protect the finished surface
from corrosion, especially in cutting fluids made up of a high percentage of
water, corrosion inhibitors are effective in the form of sodium nitrate or
triethanolamine.
6. To cause chips break up into small parts rather than remain as long ribbons which
are hot and sharp and difficult to remove from work‐piece.
7. To wash the chips away from the tool. This is particularly desirable to prevent
fouling of the cutting tool with the work‐piece.
Properties of Cutting Fluids: A cutting fluids should have the following properties:
1. High heat absorption for readily absorbing heat developed.
2. Good lubricating qualities to produce low‐coefficient of friction.
3. High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.
4. Stability so as not to oxide in the air.
5. Neutral so as not to react chemically.
6. Odorless so as not to produce any bad smell even when heated.
7. Harmless to the skin of the operators.

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8. Non‐corrosive to the work on the machine.
9. Transparency so that the cutting action of tool may be observed.
10. Low viscosity to permit free flow of liquid.
11. Low priced to minimize production cost.
Choice of cutting fluids: The choice of cutting fluid depends upon the following factors.
1. Type of operation
2. The rate of metal removal
3. Material of the work‐piece
4. Material of the tool
5. Surface finish requirement
6. Cost of cutting fluids
Q‐4 What is machinability of metal? What factors affect the machinability?
Machinability: Machinability of a material gives the idea of the case with which it can be
machined. The parameters generally influencing the machinability of a material:
1. Physical properties of the material.
2. Mechanical properties of the material.
3. Chemical composition of the material.
4. Micro‐structure of the material.
5. Cutting conditions.
Since this property (machinability) of the material depends on various variable
factors, it is not possible to evaluate the same in terms of precise numerical values,
but as a relative quantity. The criteria of determining the same may be as follows:
1. Tool life. The longer the tool life it enables at a given cutting speed the better
is the machinability.
2. Surface finish. It is also directly proportional, i.e.., the better the surface finish
the higher is the machinability.
3. Power consumption‐ Lower power consumption per unit of metal removed
indicates better machinability.
4. Cutting forces—The lesser the amount of cutting force required for the
removal of a certain volume of metal or the volume of metal removed under
standard cutting forces the higher will be the machinability.

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NAGPUR R INSTITUTE OF TECHNOL LOGY Manufacturin
ng process‐I semesteer

Question b
bank with solution
5. Shear angle—Larger shear anggle denotes better macchinability.
6. Rate of m
metal removval under standard cutting condittions.
Q‐5 Whaat are types of chips fformed during machin
ning variouss materials on lathe.
The chipps produced during machining

m o various metals
of m can be broadlyy classified into
the follo he producttion of anyy particularr type will largely dep
owing three types. Th pend
upon thee type of mmaterial beinng machineed and the ccutting conditions.
1) Discontinuo
D ous or segm
mental chipss.

Fig 1.3 D
Discontinuou
us or segmeental chips
This type of chips is produced during machiningg of brittle m materials likke cast iron
n and
bronze. These cchips are prroduced in tthe form off small segm ments, as illustrated inn Fig .
In machining off such mateerials, as th he tool advaances forwaard, the shear‐plane aangle
gradually reducces until th
he value off compressiive stress acting
a on the
t shear plane
p
becoomes too lo ow to preveent rupturee. At this staage, any fu urther advancement of the
tool results in the fracturee of the mettal ahead oof it, thus producing a segment of the
t processses of mettal fracture and
chip.. With further advanccement of the tool, the
production of chip segmen nts go on beeing repeatted, and this is how thee discontinuous
chipss are produuced. Such chips are also somettimes prod duced in the machininng of

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ductile materials when how cutting speeds are used and adequate lubrication is not
provided. This causes excessive friction between the chip and tool face, leading to
the fracture of the chip into small segments. This will also result in excessive wear on
the tool and a poor surface finish on the work‐piece. Other factors responsible for
promoting the production of discontinuous chips are smaller rake angle on the tool
and too much depth of cut.
1) Continuous chip.

Fig 1.4 continuous chip
As is evident from the name, the presence of separated segmental elements is
totally eliminated in this case. This type of chip is produced while machining a
ductile material, like mild steel, under favorable cutting conditions, such as high
cutting speed and minimum friction between the chip and the tool face. If
otherwise, it will break and from the segment chip. The friction at the Chip‐tool
interface can be minimized by polishing the tool face and adequate use of
coolant. Also, with diamonds tools the friction is less. The basis of the production
of a continuous chip is the continuous plastic deformation of the metal ahead of
the tool, the chip moving smoothly up the tool face. Other factors responsible for
promoting its production are bigger rake angle, finer feed and keen cutting edge
of the tool.

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2) Continuous chip with built‐up edge:‐

Fig 1.5 Continuous chip with built‐up edge
Such a chip is usually formed while machining ductile material when high friction
exists at the chip tool interface. The upward flowing chip exerts pressure on the
tool face. The normal reaction NR of the chip on tool face is quite high, and is
maximum at the cutting edge or nose of the tool. This gives rise to an excessively
high temperature and the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose gets
welded to it. The chip is also sufficiently hot and gets oxidized as it comes of the
tool and turns blue in color. The extra metal welded to the nose or point of the
tool is called built up edge. This metal is highly strain hardened and brittle. With
the result as the chip flows of the tool, the built of edge is broken and carried
away with chip while the rest of it adheres to the surface of the work piece,
making it rough. Due to the built up edge the rack angle is also altered and so is
the cutting force. The common factors responsible for promoting the formation
of built of edge are low cutting speed excessive feed, small rake angle and lack of
lubricant.

Adverse effects of built up edge formation:‐
a) Rough surface finish on the work piece.
b) Fluctuating cutting force, causing the vibration in cutting tool.
c) Chances of carrying away some material from the tool by the built‐up surface,
producing crater on the tool face and causing tool wear.
For avoiding the formation of built up edge the following precaution are
required.

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i) The coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface should be minimized by
means of polishing the tool face and adequate supply of coolant the
operation.
ii) The rake angle should be kept large.
iii) High cutting speeds and low feeds should be employed because at high
speed the strain of the weld becomes low. Similarly at very high
temperature also the strain of the weld becomes low.
Q‐6 writes short notes on‐
i) Effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on tool life
Effect of cutting speed‐ Out of all the above factors the maximum effect on tool life is of
cutting speed. The tool life varies inversely as the cutting speed, i.e., higher the cutting
speed the smaller the tool life. Generally, the reduction in tool life corresponding to an
increase in cutting speed is parabolic, as shown in fig 3. Based on pioneer work of F.W.
Taylor, the relationship between cutting speed and tool life can be expressed as:
.
Fig 1.6 Curve showing parabolic reduction in tool life with the increase in cutting speed.
VTn = C
V = Cutting speed (m/min)
T = Tool life (minutes)

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N = An exponents, whose value largely depends on the material of the tool, called tool
life index. Up to a certain extent, its value is also influenced by some other variables
like tool material, cutting conditions, etc.
C = A constant, called machining constant, which is numerically equal to the cutting
speed in meters per minute that would give a tool life of one minute.

Fig 1.7 Cutting speed‐tool life curves for different tool materials.
For all practical purposes the average values of exponent ‘n’ for common tool materials
can be taken as:
n = 0.1 to 0.15 for high speed steel tools
= 0.2 to 0.5 for cemented carbide tools
= 0.6 to 1.0 for ceramic tools
For measuring tool life the tools are operated at different cutting speeds to failure and
the results recorded. If the relationship between different cutting speeds and the
corresponding tools lives are plotted on log‐log graph, straight lines obtained as shown
in Fig. 1.7 which reveal that the tool life decreases with the increase in cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut‐
Feed rate and depth of cut are the other important cutting variables which also effect
the tool life appreciably. An increase in the feed rate and depth of cut has a similar
effect i.e., reduction in tool life, as is experienced by the tool when cutting speed is
increased. However, the effect is not to severe as produced in the latter case. The

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different variable, cutting speed, tool life, feed rate and depth of cut are interrelated as
given in the following imperical formula:

257
V = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ m/min
T 0.19 x f 0.36 x t 0.30
Where, V = Cutting speed in m/min
T = Tool life in minutes
f = Feed rat in mm/min
and, t = Depth of cut in mm

For a given tool life the relationship among the other variables is also given by the
following imperical formula:
C
V = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Fa x tb

Where, V = Cutting speed in (m/min) for the given tool life
f = Feed rat in mm/min
t = Depth of cut in mm
C = A constant
The expression ‘a’ and ‘b’ of (f) and (t) will depend upon the mechanical properties
of the workpiece material. From the expression‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐above it is quite clear that if the
tool life is considered as constant the cutting speed (V) will decrease if the feed rate (f)
and depth of cut (t) are increased.

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ii) Tool Signature (ASA system)
The term tool signature or tool designation is used to denote a standardized system of
specifying the principal tool angles of a single point cutting tool. Some common systems
used for tool designation or tool nomenclature are the following:
1. American (or ASA) System. It declines the principal angles like side rake, back
rake; nose etc., without any reference to their locations with regard to the
cutting edge. As such, this system of nomenclature does not give any inclination
of the tool behavior with regard to flow of chip during the cutting operation. The
three reference planes adapted for designating different tool angles are similar to
those used in conventional machine drawing, i.e., X‐X, Y‐Y and Z‐Z, the last one
containing the base of tool and the two planes being normal to this plane, as well
as mutually perpendicular. Thus, this system is a coordinate system of tool
nomenclature.
2. British system. This system, according to B‐S 1886‐ 1952, defines the maximum
rate. The various tool parameters in this system are indicated in the order of Back
rake, Side rake, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting angle, Side cutting
edge angle, and Nose radius.
3. Continental systems. This category of tool nomenclature systems includes the
German or DIN System (DIN‐6581), Russian System (OCT‐BKC 6897 and 6898) and
Czechoslovakian System (CSN‐1226). The various tool parameters in these
systems are specified with reference to the tool reference planes.
4. International systems. It is an internationally adopted system, developed
recently. It incorporates the salient features of tool nomenclature of different
systems in it.

It is a method of identification of tool angles standardized by the American Standards
Association (ASA), according to which seven important elements compromise the
signature of the single point cutting tool and are stated in the following angle.
Back rake angle, Side rake angle, Side relief angle, End cutting angle,
Side cutting edge angle, and Nose radius. It is used to omit the symbol for degrees and
mm, simply starting the numerical value of each element. For example a tool having tool
signatures as 10. 10, 6, 6, 8, 8, 2 will have the following angles.
Back rake angle = 10
Side rake angle = 10

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Question b
bank with solution
End relief anggle = 6
de relief anggle = 6
Sid
End cutting ed
dge angle == 8
de cutting e
Sid edge angle == 8
No
ose radius = 2

Chip breeakers: A co ontinuous‐ttype chip ffrom long ccu is usuallyy quite trou ublesome. Such
chips fo
oul the tools clutter up
u the macchine and workplace,, besides being
b extremely
difficult to remove from the sswarf tray. TThey should d be broken into comparatively ssmall
pieces foor case of h handling annd to prevent it from b becoming aa work hazaard., Hence chip
breakerss are used tto reduce th he swarf intto small pieeces as theyy are formeed. The factt that
the mettal is alreaady work‐hhardened helps
h the chip
c breakeer to perfo
orm effectiively.
Various types of chip breakeers are madde, but all of them co
onsist mainnly of a steep of
groove gground into o the leadin
ng edge of ttool or a piece of cutting‐ tool material clam mped
on the toop of the cu utting‐ tool (see Fig 5)

Figure 1.8 Chip breakers
ormal shop
In the no p practice common meethods of b
breaking thee chips are summarizeed as
follows:
1. B
By clamping a piece of sheet metaal in the patth of the co oil.
2. By a stepped
B d type breaaker in whicch a step is ground on n the face o
of the tool aalong
th
he cutting e
edge.
3. By
B a groovee type breaker in whicch a small groove is ground
g beh
hind the cutting
edge.

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4. By a clamp type breaker in which a thin‐carbide plate or clamp is brazed or
screwed on the face of the tool.
Effective control of the chip, as it moves across the face of the tool, may also be
achieved by proper selection of tool angel, feed, depth of cut and cutting fluids used.
A large positive front rake gives rise to a looser chip formation, which flows down
the face of tool, and away from the work‐piece, leaving the newly cut surface
unscratched. A small positive or negative side rake has the effect of decreasing the
radius at which the chip coils. Hence the tendency to produce short, easily managed
chip. Slightly increased feed gives a thicker chip which breaks more quickly. A small
depth of cut with a fine feed allows the chip to form into comparatively small pieces
or direct it into swarf tray. The use of a good stream of coolant that acts as a
quenching medium causes the hot chip to become harder and break into small
pieces.

iii) Machinabiity index:

As mentioned in the previous article, the machinabiity of a material is
relative quantity. The machinabilites of different materials are compared
to in terms of their machinabiity indexes. For this purposes machinabiity
indexes are compared. The machinabiity index of this steel is taken
asd100. For computing the machinabiity index of any other material the
following relationship is used:

Machinabiity index (%)

Cutting speed of metal for 20 min. tool life
= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ x 100
Cutting speed of standard free‐cutting steel for 20 min. tool life

But, this is only one methods used for determining machinability ratings of different
materials. The selection of a suitable criterion or method for evaluating the
machinability will depend upon the type of cutting operation. For example, a
comparison between the cutting forces required for machining a particular material
and those required for a standard material may form the basis of evaluating relative

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Question b
bank with solution
mach hinability. Similarly,
S a comparisoon between n the rate of wear on
n a cutting tool
whilee machiningg certain m material with that obtaained with a standard material under
similar conditioons may alsso form a basis
b for evvaluating machinabilit
m ty. Howeveer, all
thesee methods fail to proovide standdard ratingss due to thhe involvemment of sevveral
variaable factors and, hencee, not consiidered veryy reliable.
Considering that the machinability ind dex for freee cutting steeel is 100 %% the
relative machin nability indeex for some materialss given in Table
T 1. as representative
figures.
Tablee 1. Representative maachinabilityy index for ssome materials.
Mateerial Mach hinability in

ndex Mateerial Machinability index
(%) (%)
Stain
nless steel 25 Red brass 150
Low carbon steel
s 55‐655 minum alloyys
Alum 300‐‐1500
coppper 70 Magnesium allooys 500‐‐2000

Q‐7 Whhat do you mean by o
oblique and
d orthogon
nal cutting?? How do they differ ffrom
each oth
her?
A compaarison betw ween these two metho ods is clearly illustrated
d in Figs. 6 (a) and 6 (b
b). In
Fig. 6 (a) is shown as to how these two cutting meethods diffeer while turrning a job on a
lathe. Similarly, Fig 6 (b) show
ws the differrence betwween these ttwo methods as applieed to
the planning worrk, in whiich the to ool remainns stationaary and th he work piece
p
reciproccates.

(aa) Orthogon
nal cutting (b) Obllique cuttin
ng
Orthogonal and obliqu
Fig. 1.9 O ue cutting p n planning.
processes in

1
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Basically in Orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool remains at right angles to
the direction of cutting velocity [Fig. 1.9 (a) or work feed, Fig. 1.9 (b)]. This type of
cutting is also as known as two‐dimensional cutting. In oblique cutting, the cutting edge
of the tool is inclined at an acute angle with the direction of the tool feed or work feed,
the chip being disposed of at a certain angle. This type of cutting is also called three‐
dimensional cutting. The main features of the two types of cutting are summarized as
below:
Orthogonal cutting
1. The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed or work
feed.
2. The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
3. The angle of inclination‘t’ of the cutting edge of the tool with the normal to the
velocity Vt is ‘zero’.
4. The chip flow angle ‘β’, i.e., the angle between the direction of chip flow and the
normal to the cutting edge of the tool, measured in the plane of the tool face is
‘zero’.
5. The cutting edge is longer than the width of the cut.

The last condition may not be fulfilled in some cases. It is then called semi‐
orthogonal or restricted orthogonal cutting.
Oblique cutting
1. The cutting edge of the tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to the
direction of too feed or work feed.
2. The direction of the chip flow velocity is at angle ‘β’ with the normal to the
cutting edge of the tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
3. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at angle ‘t’ with the normal to the
direction of tool feed or work feed. i.e., the velocity Vt.
4. Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces act at the cutting
edge of the tool.
5. The cutting edge may or may not be longer than the width of the cut.

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Question b
bank with solution
An interestin
A ng feature to note herre will be thhat most off the metall cutting carried
out in worrkshops is through oblique
o cu
utting meth hod, but all
a our furrther
discussions o on metal cu utting will b
be in the coontext of o
orthogonal ccutting beccause
of its simpllicity. However, it wo
on’t matteer much since most of the genneral
principles off orthogonaal cutting arre equally aapplicable to
o oblique cutting.
Orthogo
onal and oblique cuttin
ng:
The proccess of mettal cutting iss divided in
nto the follo
owing two m
main classees:
1. Orthogonal
O cutting, and
d 2
2. Oblique ccutting.

(a) Orthogonal (b) Obliq
que
FFig. 1.10 Orthogonal annd oblique cutting pro ocesses in tu
urning.

2
21
3rd

LATHE MACHINE AND IT’S OPERATIONS

22
3rd


UNIT II
Q‐1 with block diagram explains the working of a lathe machine mentioning various
directions in which the cutting tool can move.
Q‐2 Name the various methods available for taper turning on a lathe machine. Explain
Set over method with a neat sketch.
Q‐3 Why feed mechanism is used in lathe? Describe the working of feed mechanism.
Q‐4 Explain in brief the Apron mechanism with neat sketch?
Q‐5 what is the use of back gear? Explain the use of back gear?
Q‐6 Explain threads cutting operation on Lathe machine
Q‐ 7 Writes short notes on:
I) Lathe operations.
II) Time estimation for turning operation.
III) Carriage
IV) Dial chasing indicator
V) Lathe size and its specification

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3rd

Q‐1 with block diagram explains the working of a lathe machine mentioning various
directions in which the cutting tool can move.

Fig 2.1 Block Diagram of a lathe machine showing various parts.
From the fig 2.1 the head stock is at the left end of the bed and is fixed on the bed and is
houses the power source, the power transmission, the gear box and the spindle. The
spindle is hollow and is should be sufficiently rigid to provide accurate rotary motion
and maintains accurate alignment with the lathe axis. The live center fits into the Morse
tapper in the spindle hole for the purpose of locating the work piece axis. The main gear
box provides the necessary spindle speed considering the range of material to be turned
in the lathe. The head stock also houses the feed gear box to provide various feed rates
and thread cutting ranges.
The tail stock is towards the right end on the bed which provides the tail stock spindle
for the purpose of locating the long components by the use of centers. The tail stock is
movable on the inner guide ways provide on the bed to accommodate different length
of the work piece .It also serves the purpose of holding tools such as twist drill, center
drill, reamer etc. for making and finishing holes in the components which are located in
the line with the axis of rotation.

24
3rd

The third major element in the lathe mechanism is the carriage which provides the
necessary longitudinal motion to the cutting tool to generate the necessary surface.
This also houses the cross –slider for giving the motion (cross feed) to the cutting tool in
a direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation, the compound – slide, which provide
auxiliary slide to get the necessary special motion for specific surface generation and
tool post which allows mounting of the cutting tool.
The motion of the spindle motor is communicated to a carriage through the lead screw.
Engament of the lead screw with the carriage is through the use of the half nut. Though
the lead screw can be used for feeding the cutting tool in a direction parallel to the axis
of rotation, many a times a separate feed rod is provided for this function. The main
reason is that the lead screw is more accurate and is sparingly used only for thread
cutting, such that it maintains its accuracy. For routing feeding, the feed rod is used.

Fig 2.2
A large no. of surfaces can be generated by the relative motion between the work piece
and the cutting tool. The shape of the cutting tool is also responsible for the generation
of a particular shape surface. The combination of two motion i.e.
1) Primary motion of the tool or the work piece constitutes the Cutting speed which
causes the relative motion between the work piece and the cutting tool such that the

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3rd

face of the tool approach the material to be cut. Usually the primary motion consumes
most of the cutting power.

Fig 2.3 Generation of a cylindrical surface by single point cutting tool.
2) The secondary motion is the one which feeds the tool relatively past the work piece.
The combination of the primary and the secondary motion is responsible for the
generation of the desired surface.
Plane surface generation in shaping:‐
Plane surfaces can be generated when the work piece or the tool reciprocates for the
primary motion without any rotation. With the multi point tool generally plane surfaces
are generated. In this situation a combination of forming and generating is used to get a
variety of complex surfaces which are otherwise impossible to get through single point
tool operation. Some typical examples are spur gear hobbing and spiral milling of
formed cavities.

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fig. no. 2.8 Generating a flat surface with a linear motion of a single point cutting tool
Q‐2 Name the various methods available for taper turning on a lathe machine. Explain
Set over method with a neat sketch.
Various methods are used for tapper turning on a job. The most common on these are
the following:‐
1. Tail stock Set Over method
2. By swiveling the compound rest

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3rd

Question b
bank with solution
3. Using the tapper turnin
U ng attachmeent
4. U
Using a form
m or broad n
nose tool
5. B
By combing a longitudinal and cro
oss feed in aa special latthe.
1. T
TAIL STOCK SET OVER M METHOD
When tapper tu urning is peerformed aat that timee the work rotates and the tool feed

but tthe tip of th uld move att an inclinattion to the center axiss of the job.. This
he tool shou
anglee of inclinattion should be equal to i.e. hallf of the tottal tapper aangle. Theree can
wo methods for accom
be tw mplishing th
hese relativee movemen nts.

Fig.2.9 Tap
per turning b
by tail stockk set over
1) The job revolves in a posittion, i.e. in perfect aliignment wiith the heaad stock spindle
and two o centers, while
w the tool
t moves along the straight lin ne which iss inclined at
a an
angle to the centerr line of the job.
2) An allternative m method can n be to shiftt the center line of thee work at aan angle from f
the origiinal position and movee the tool p parallel to th he axis of th
he spindle.

Out of the two the tail stock m method utilizes the seecond meth hod. For this the nut of the
clampingg bolt of the tail stockk is loosened d. Then, byy means of tthe set screew, provideed on
both thee front and rear end of the tail sttock, the deead center is shifted frrom the original
position by a pre d determined amount off set over. If the largeer diameterr of the tap pered
part is to
t be obtaained on th he tail stocck side thee center wiill be shifteed towardss the
operator and if the e same is to o be obtain ned on the head stockk side the d dead centerr will
be shifteed towardss the operaator. Gradu uations pro ovided on the
t flat surrface of thee tail
stock, faacing the he ead stock h help in adju usting the rrequired set over. In aabsence of such
graduatiions a steel rule can bee used for tthis purposee.
The requ uired amou unt of tail sttock set oveer can be caalculated ass follows:‐
On referrring to fig 2 2.9 it will bee seen thatt
x = LL sin

2
28
3rd

For a very small angle it can be safely considered that:
sin tan

x= L tan
D ‐ d

But, tan can also be taken = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (considering triangle EFG or KLM)
2 l
D – d total taper
Therefore, x = L ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ = Total length x ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
2 l 2 x Taper length
Where x = required set over in mm
D = larger dia. In mm
d = small dia. in mm
L = Total length of work in mm
L = length of tapered portion in mm

In case the job is to be tapered over its full length, l will be equal to = L. Therefore, the
set over will be given by:
D ‐ d Total Taper
x = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
2 2

2. BY SWIVELLING THE COMPOUND REST:‐
Steep and short external taper can easily be turned in lathe by swiveling the compound
rest on the carriage through an angle which is equal to half the total included angle of
the taper. The compound rest carries swivel plate under it. It is screwed to the cross
slide by means of a bolt and nut. The graduations on its periphery are in degrees. For
swiveling the compound rest the swivel plates is unscrewed and then rotated, along
with the compound rest, through the required angle. The graduations on the swivel
plates help in setting the compound rest at the desired inclination. Tool is then feed by
hand by rotating the compo und rest hand screw. The required inclination is calculated
by the formula:

29
3rd

Question b
bank with solution

Fig.2.1 mpound rest
10 turning ttaper swiveeling the com

D ‐‐ d
taanα = −−−−−−−
2L

3. BY USSING THE TTAPER – TURNING ATTTACHMENTT:‐
It is a veery suitable method off taper turn ning which provides a very wide rrange of tapers.
As the attachmen nt travels along
a with the saddle, it is po
ossible to turn
t the paper
p
anywhere along th he length off the job. AAll the tapeer attachmeents though h vary in deesign
with diffferent manufacturers have a com mmon principle of workking.
I t is cap pers of whicch the totall included aangle is 160 as a
pable of turrning all claasses of tap
maximum, and the maximum length of the taper that can be turned in on ne setting iss 235
mm.

3
30
3rd

Question b
bank with solution

Fig.2.11Use off taper turn
ning attachm
ment
CONSTR
RUCTION:‐
The attaachment coonsists of a bracket atttached to the rear side of the bed.
b It carrries a
guide pllate G whicch can be swung andd set at a desired
d incllination to the axis off the
work. Gu uide plate G
G carries a slot which can be swu ung and sett at a desireed inclinatio on to
the axis of the work. Guide plaate G carriees a slot S, ffitted with a sliding block B. the ccross
‐ slide provided
p with
w a tie T at its rearr. Block B is
i connecteed to this tie
t through h the
locking lever and iss free to slid
de along guide plate th hrough the slot S.
WORKIN
NG:‐
First, th
he cross‐ slide is discon nnected froom the sadd dle so that it is free to
o move alon ng its
ways. A A graduated d scale is provided
p on the braccket, as sho
own in diaagram, whicch is
calibrateed in degreees. The hallf taper anggle ( ) is calculated an nd the guide plate is set at
this angle. This means, the gu uide plate iss set in such a way thaat its centeer line makees an
angle with the ce enter line o of the brackket. Thus, w
when the lo ongitudinal feed is giveen to
the sadd dle, the guiide block B B will slide aalong the ccenter line of the guid de plate. Ass the
block B is connecte ed to the crross slide it will guidee the tool to o travel parallel to its own
line of mmovement, that is an aangle to tthe axis of tthe job.

3
31
3rd

After every cut, the feed to the tool is given by moving the compound restwhich is
poisoned parallel to the cross‐ slide, i.e. , at 900 to the axis of the job. The required
angle can easily be found out from the relation:
D – d
Tan = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ all dimensions are in mm
2L
D ‐ d
= tan‐1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (degrees)
2L

Or
In some taper turning attachment it will be observed that the bracket instead of having
graduations in degrees carries divisions in mm. in such cases we have to find out no. of
mm divisions through which the guide plate should be swiveled instead of calculating
the angle . These divisions can be found out from the formula:
D ‐ d
M= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ x C
2L
Where, M = the required no. of mm divisions through which the guide plate is to be
swiveled.
D = Larger dia. In mm
D = Smaller dia. In mm
L = Length of taper in mm
C = half of the total length of guide plate in mm.
ADVANTAGES OF USING A TAPER TURNING ATTACHMENT:‐
1. Its setting is very easy and can be done very quickly.
2. Its use does not call for too much of skill on the part of the operator.
3. Accurate can be readily be obtained in a single setting.

32
3rd

Question b
bank with solution
4. N
Normal set‐‐ up and alignment off the lathe and its maain part is not distrib
buted
during the o operation, aas in other mmethods eitther in two o centers are thrown out of
alignment or the compound rest iss to be swivveled.
5. Itt is equally ssuitable forr external as well as internal tapeers.
6. Its use enab ble a better surface finish and ensure an in ncrease ratee of producction
because longgitudinal po ower feeds can easily be employeed
4. USING A FORM OR BROAD
D NOSE TOO
OL:‐

Fig. 2.12 Tap
per turning by using brroad nose ttool
Very shoort tapers can

c easily be b turned with the foorm or broaad nose tool in which h the
cutting edge of the tool is grround to contain halff taper anggle Use of such
s a tool will
cause a lot of vibraations and cchatter because the fu ull cutting eedge of the tool is invo olved
in cuttin
ng. Therefo
ore while using
u this method
m for turning veery short taaper, say up
u to
maximum 20 mm le ength. Use of heavy an nd rigid typ
pe of lathe w will increasee this limit.
Q‐3 Why feed mechanism (ttumbler revversing mecchanism) in

n used in lathe? Desccribe
the working of feed mechanissm?
The gear mechanissm operated by meanss of the feeed reverse lever is callled the tum mbler

reversin
ng mechanism. This is
i used forr providingg power feeeds to thee carriage. The

3
33
3rd

motion from the spindle to the lead screw or to the feed rod is transmitted through this
mechanism.
Refer fig

Fig.2.13 Feed mechanism and change gears
Gear G1 is mounted on the rear end of the spindle S. the feed mechanism consist of the
gears G2, G3 and G4 and is operated by means of feed reverse lever F. When the lever
operated from the center position to either the top or the bottom position one of the
gear G2 or G3 will mesh with the gear G1 where as these two gears always mesh with
each other mutually. Thus, it will be seen that in top position of the lever F motion is
transmitted from gear G1 to G4through gear G3 and gear G2 plays no role with the
result the gear G4 will have the same direction of rotation as the spindle fig (a).
Against this, in lower position of the lever F, motion from G1 is transmitted to G4
through G2and G3 respectively as shown in fig (b). This will enable G4 to rotate in a
direction opposite to that of the spindle S. It will be evident that when the lever will be
in its central position neither of gears G2 and G3 will be meshing with G1 and thus the
feed mechanism will be disengaged. The above mechanism is usually enclosed in the
head stock except the lever F which is kept projecting outside.

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On the same end, as the above mechanism, but outside the headstock, there is another
set of gears called Change gears. This consist of gears G5, G6, G7and G8. Etc. Gear G5 is
mounted on the same spindle as G4 and thus rotates at the same speed as the latter.
This transmits the motion to gear G8 through G6 and G7, which further transmit it to
the lead screw or the feed rod. These four gears are known as change gears for the
reason that they can be removed and replace by the other gears having different no of
teeth. A desired speed of lead screw or feed rod can be obtained by selecting the
suitable change gears having proper no of teeth. Gears G6 and G7 are usually mounted
on the stud and are known as stud gears. A quadrant is provided and the stud can be
shifted along its straight slot to enable proper meshing of change gears. Also, this
quadrant can be swung vertically along the slot P to enable meshing of gear G5 and G6.
When proper meshing has been acquired the quadrant is locked in position. Gear G8 is
mounted directly on the lead screw on those lathes which do not have a feed gear box,
where it is mounted on the gear box driving shaft in those lathe which carry the gear
box.
Q‐4 Explain in brief the Apron mechanism with neat sketch?
Apron:‐
It is the hanging part in front of the carriage. It serves as housing for no of gear trains
through which power feed can be given to the carriage and cross‐ slide. Also it carries
the clutch mechanism and split half nut. Out of these two, the former (clutch
mechanism) is used to transmit motion from the feed rod, whereas the latter, in
conjunction with the lead screw, moves the whole carriage in thread cutting.
Apron Mechanism:‐
Through this mechanism power feeds can be given to the carriage and cross‐ slide.
Construction:‐
H is the hand wheel for providing the longitudinal hand feed to the carriage.H1 is the
hand wheel for providing hand feed to the cross slide. Lever L1 is for engaging or
disengaging the power feed to the carriage and cross slide. Star wheel S is operated
when power feed is to be engaged. Lever L2 operates the split half nut N to engage or
disengage the same from lead screw L. D is the chasing dial used in thread cutting.

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3rd

Question b
bank with solution
Inside th he apron th here are 5 sspindles S1, S , 2, S3, S4 aand S5.Spinddle S1 carriees gear G1 at its
a
rear end d and hand d wheel at the front. G1 is in mesh
m with G2 mounted d on spindle S2.
Spindle S2 carries aanother geaar G7 at its rrear end, outside the apron, which meshes with
the rackk provided aat the frontt of the lathe. Spindlee S3 carries gear G3 wh hich is operrated
by leverr L1. This levver has threee positions 1, 2 and 3 3. In positio
on 1 i.e. low
west, it enggages
gear G3 with G4which is moun nted on spindle S4.In position 2 i.e. the mid ddle; Gear G3 is
free and d is not me esh with any other geaar. In position 3 i.e. to op, the geaar G3 mesh with
the Gear G2. Spindlle S4 in addition to geaar G4 carriees another ggear G5 at itts rear end. It is
always in mesh witth gear G6 which is mo
w ounted on the screwed d spindle off the cross sslide.
Spindle S5 is just below
b the spindle
s S3 and
a it carriees gear G8 and G9 with the wormm W.
Gear G9 is not rigid dly secured to S5. Cluttch T is pro ovided at th he rear end d of this spindle
which caan be draw wn in or pusshed out byy rotating the spindle by means o of star wheeel S.
when we want to ttransmit the motion frrom the leaad screw to o the spindle S5 the spindle
drawn in n. this enab ble temporaarily rigid faastening beetween S5 and G9, with h the result that
the S5 driven by thhe lead screew through h the worm m W and geear G9. Whhen we wan nt to
disengagge the same e, the star wwheel is rotated in thee reverse direction to push the cllutch
of G9 and the transmission is sstopped.

Fig. 2.14 Apron meechanism u
use in lathe

3
36
3rd

WORKING:‐
When hand feed is required to be given to the carriage or the cross slide, lever L1 is put
in position 2 so that the gear G3 neither engaged with G4 nor with G2. When power feed
is to be given to the carriage, lever L1 is put in position 3 so that G3 meshes with G8 and
G2 simultaneously. Star wheel is tightened to connect G9 with S5. Motion is transmitted
from the lead screw to the G9, through the worm and hence to S5 and G8. It is further
transmitted to G2 and hence G7, they being on the same spindle. G7 meshes with the
fixed rack and, therefore, the carriage is moved. To give power feed to the cross slide
lever L1 is put in position 1, so that the gear G3 meshes with the G4. Now the
transmission of the motion from the lead screw is to the worm then to G2 and G8 and
finally to G3 through G4 and G5.
This mechanism is not capable of providing power feed to both lead screw and cross
slide simultaneously.
Q‐5 what is the use of back gear? Explain the use of back gear?
Back geared Headstock:‐
CONSTRUCTION:‐
The back geared head stock consist of a casing accommodating the main Spindle, the
three or four step cone pulley and the back gears. The internal mechanism of this type
of head stock is shown in fig. In this, a step cone pulley is mounted on the main spindle,
which carries a spur gear G1 at its one end and a pinion P1 at the other. Gear G1 is firmly
keyed to the spindle so that it can never revolve free. The spindle carries a sleeve over it
which is a loose fit. The cone pulley is firmly secured to this sleeve. Also, the pinion P1 is
firmly secured to this sleeve. This arrangement forces the pinion P1 to revolve with the
cone pulley under all conditions. A spring knob K engages the gear G1 with the cone
pulley. The cone pulley is driven by means of a belt, through a countershaft, by an
electric motor. This spindle enables four different speed of spindle.
Use of back gears (WORKING):‐
The back is used for effecting reduction in spindle speeds, there by facilating a wider
range of speeds. The back gears are mounted on an eccentric shaft which is operated by
means of hand lever known as back gear engaging lever (L). The back gears consist of
spur gear G2 (opposite pinionP1) and a pinion P2 (opposite gear G1). When speed

37
3rd

reduction is desired, the knob is pulled out to make the cone pulley free of gear G1 and
hence the spindle. The back gears are put into mesh with the spindle gears by pulling in
the eccentric shaft. Now the sequence of transmission of motion and power is such that
the cone pulley is driven by the motor through the belt. With the result the pinion P1
revolves. This being in mesh with gear G2, transfers the motion to latter which, in turn,
revolves the eccentric shaft and hence the pinion P2.This, further being in mesh with
gear G1, transmit the motion to the latter and hence to the Spindle.
Q‐6 Explain threads cutting operation on Lathe machine
PRINCIPLE OF THRESD CUTTING:‐
Thread cutting is one of the important operations performed on lathe. The principle of
thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by
feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between centers or by a chuck.
The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution
of the work piece. The leadscrew of the lathe, through which the saddle receives its
traversing motion, has a definite pitch. A definite ratio between the longitudinal feed
and rotation of the headstock should therefore be found out so that the relative speed
of rotation of the work and the leadscrew will result in the cutting of a screw of a
desired pitch. This is affected by change gears arranged between the spindle and
theleadscrew or by change gear mechanism or feed box used in a modern lathe where it
provides a wider range of feed and the speed ratio can be easily and quickly changed.
THREAD CUTTING OPERATION:‐
In thread cutting operation the first step is to remove the excess material from the
work‐piece to make its diameter equal to the major diameter of the screw thread.
Change gears of correct size are then fitted to the end of the bed between the spindle
and the leadscrew. The shape or form of the threads depends on the shape of the
cutting tool to be used.
In a metric thread, the included angle of the cutting edge should be ground exactly 600.
The top of the tool nose should be set at the same height as the center of the
workpiece. A thread tool gauge is usually used against the turned surface to check the
cutting tool so that each face of the cutting tool may be equally inclined to the center

38
3rd

line of the workpiece. The speed of the spindle is reduced by one half to one fourth of
the speed required for turning according to the type of the material being machined,
and the half nut is then engaged. The depth of cut which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.2
mm is applied by advancing the tool perpendicular to the axis of the work or at an angle
equal to one half of the angle of the thread, and 300 in the case of the metric thread, by
swiveling the compound rest. Except when taking very light finishing cuts, the latter
method is superior to the former as it
1. Permits the tool to have a top rake;
2. Permits cutting to take place on one edge of the tool only.
3. Allow the chips to slide easily across the face of the tool without crowding.
4. Reduces cutting strain that acts on the tool.
5. Reduces the tendency to cause the tool to “dig‐in”.
After the tool has produced a helical groove up to the end of the work this is quickly
withdrawn by the use of the cross‐slide, the half nut disengaged, and the tool is brought
back to the starting position to give a fresh cut. Before re‐engaging the half nut it is
necessary to ensure that the tool will follow the same path it has traversed in the
previous cut, otherwise the job will be spoiled. Several cuts are necessary before the full
depth of thread is reached. Arising from this comes the necessary to “pickup” the
thread.
Cutting right hand and left hand threads:
When cutting the right hand threads the carriage must move towards the head stock,
for a left hand thread the carriage must moves from the headstock and toward the
tailstock. The job moves as always, in the anticlockwise direction when viewed from the
tailstock end. As previously mentioned the direction at which the carriage moves in
relation to the lathe headstock is controlled by means of the tumbler gears or bevel gear
feed reversing mechanism.
Cutting multiple threads:
In a piece of the work it is possible to have several separate and independent threads
running along it. Accordingly, there may be single threaded screw and multiple or multi‐
start threaded screw. The independent threads are called starts. For one complete turn

39
3rd

round the screw when there is a movement of one threads the screw is called single
threaded screw but when there is a movement of more than one thread the screw is
called multi or multi‐ star threaded screw. In the case of, a three start thread, for one
complete turns the thread advance three times as far as if it was a single thread. The
distance the multiple screw thread advances along its axis in one turn is called lead.
The calculation for the multi –start thread are identical with those required for a single
start thread. The ratio depends upon the relationship between the pitch of the lead
screw of the machine, and the lead, but not the pitch, of the thread to be cut.
This may be written as:
Driver Pitch Lead o f the screw to be cut
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Driven Pitch Pitch of the Lead screw
The cutting procedure of multi start thread is similar to that of single start threads. In
multi‐ start threads, circumference of the job should be divided equally in to as many
part as there are starts on the threads, and every parts or division of the circumference
of the job becomes the starting point for the new thread.
Cutting tapered thread:‐
The surface is first turn taper to the required angle by any one of the taper turning
methods described before. The thread cutting tool is then set perpendicular to the lathe
axis and not to the tapered surface. To produce an accurate thread a taper turning
attachment is used. This is swiveled to be the half taper angle. The thread is finished in
the usual manner.
Q‐ 8 Writes short notes on:
I. Lathe operations:‐
The various operations have been performed on the lathe machine to generate the
desired shape.
a) Turning:‐

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3rd

Turning is by far the most commonly used operation in a lathe. In this, the work held in
the spindle is rotated while the tool is fed past the work piece in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation. The surface thus generated is a cylindrical surface.( fig 4.1)
b) Facing :‐
Facing is an operation for generating flat surfaces in lathes. The feed, in this case, is
given in a direction perpendicular to the axis of revolution. The tool used should thus
have an approach angle suitable so that it would not interfere with the work piece
during the tool feeding.
Also, the radius of work piece at the contact point of tool varies continuously, as the
tool approaches the center. Thus, the resultant cutting speed continuously varies in
facing, starting at the highest value at the circumference, to almost zero near the
center. Since the cutting action and the surface finish generated depend on the actual
cutting speed of the work piece, due carte has to be taken of this fact.
c) Knurling:‐
Knurling is a metal working operation done in a lathe. In this, a knurling tool having the
requisite serrations is forced on to the work piece material, thus deforming the top
layer, as shown in fig. this forms a top surface, which is rough and provides a proper
gripping surface.
d) Parting :‐
Parting and grooving are similar operations. In this, a flat‐ nosed tool would plunger cut
the work piece with a feed in the direction perpendicular to the axis of revolution, as
shown in fig. This operation is generally carried out for cutting off the part from the
parent material. When the tool goes beyond the center, the part would be severed.
Otherwise, a rectangular groove would be obtained. It is also possible, in similar
operation, to use a special form of a tool to obtain the specific groove shape.
e) Drilling:‐
Drilling is the operation of making cylindrical holes into the solid material, as shown in
fig. A twist Drill is held in the quill of the tailstock, and is fed into the rotating work piece
by feeding the tailstock quill. Since the work piece is rotating, the axis of the hole is well‐
maintained, even when the drill enters at an angle initially. The same operation can also

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be used for other hole making operations, such as center drilling, counter sinking, and
counter boring. This operation is limited to holes through the axis of rotation of the
ends.
f) Boring:‐
Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole already made by a single point boring tool
turned as boring bar, as shown in fig. The operation is somewhat similar to the external
turning operation. In view of the internal operation, it is more restricted. The cutting
forces experienced are somewhat more than the external operation. Also, the tool used
is less rigid compared to tuning tool, and as a result, it cannot withstand the large
cutting forces. Thus, the process parameters used are somewhat lower than those used
for turning. Boring is used for generating an accurate hole with good surface finish.
II. Time estimation for turning operation:‐
The total time in completing the job by machining will includes many factors such as
actual time taken in machining (cutting time), time required in setting of job, time
required in setting of tool or tools and handling time, etc. The method of computing the
actual machining or cutting time is given below:
Suppose the work is to be turned through the length of l mm
l1 = the distance required for feeding the tool crosswise, to increase the depth of cut in
mm.
l2 = over travel of the tool in mm at the end of the each cut.
t = Depth of cut in mm.
f1= feed in mm per revolution.
N = speed in rpm of the work.
n = total no of cuts taken for obtaining the required diameter of the feed.
L1 = total distance, in mm that the tool travels in the direction of the feed.
Now, the distance travel by the tool in the direction of the feed in a single cut
= l + l1 +l2 = L (say)

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Therefore, the total distances L1is given by:
L1 = L x n mm
Also the amount of feed (f) per minute is given by
f = f1 x N mm
The Time T, in minutes, required for the tool to move through the complete length L1
mm will be computed by the formula:
L1
T = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ minutes
f

L x n
= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ minutes
f 1 x N

III. Carriage:‐
The lathe carriage serves the purpose of the supporting, guiding and feeding the tool
against the job during the operation on the lathe. It consists of the following main
parts.

Fig. the carriage

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a) Saddle:‐
It is the part of the carriage which slide along the bed ways and supports the
cross slide, compound rest and tool post.
b) Cross slide:‐
It is mounted on the top of the saddle and always moves in a direction normal to the
axis of the main spindle. It can either be operated by hand by means of the cross
feed screw, or may be given power feed through the apron mechanism.
c) Compound rest:
It is also known as tool rest. It is also mounted on the cross slide and carries a
graduated circular base, called a swivel plate. The latter is graduated in degrees and
enables the former to swivel to any angle in a horizontal plane. The upper part,
known as compound slide, can be moved by means of the compound rest feed
screw.
d) Tool post:
It is a top most part of the carriage and it is used for holding the tool or tool holder in
position.
e) Apron:
It is the hanging part in front of the carriage. It serves as housing for no of gear trains
through which power feed can be given to the carriage and cross‐ slide. Also it
carries the clutch mechanism and split half nut. Out of these two, the former (clutch
mechanism) is used to transmit motion from the feed rod, whereas the latter, in
conjunction with the lead screw, moves the whole carriage in thread cutting.
IV) Chasing dial or thread indicator:‐
The chasing dial is a special attachment used in modern lathes for accurate “picking
up” of the thread. This dial indicates when to close the split or half nuts. This is
mounted on the right end of the apron. It consists of a vertical shaft with a worm
gear engaged with the leadscrew. The top of the spindle has a revolving dial marked
with lines and numbers. The dial turns with the leadscrew so long the half nut is not

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engaged. If the dial turns, the graduations pass a fixed reference line. The half‐ nut is
closed for all even threads when any line on the dial coincides with the reference
line. For all odd threads, the half nut is closed at any number line on the dial
determined from the charts. If the pitch of the thread to be cut is an exact multiple
of the pitch of the lead screw, the thread is called even thread otherwise the thread
is called odd thread.
In case of dial the rule for determining the dial division is:
In the case of metric thread, the product of the pitch of the lead screw and the
number of the teeth on the worm wheel must be an exact multiple of the pitch of
the thread to be cut. In the case of the English threads, the product of the threads
per inch to be cut and the number of teeth on the worm wheel must be an exact
multiple of the number of threads per inch of the lead screw. For example, if the
pitch of the lead screw is 6 mm and the worm wheel has 15 teeth, the product will
be 90, such as 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.25, 3, 3.75, 4.5, 6, 7.5, 9, 10, 15, 30, 45, 90, may be
pick up when any line of the dial coincide with the reference line. For picking up the
threads of different pitches, a set of worm wheel is used to give desired value.
V) Lathe size and its specification:
In order to specify the lathe, the no. of parameters is used based on the specific
applications. The major elements used for specification should invariably be based
on the components that are manufactured in the lathe. The following are the basic
elements generally specified for the capability of the lathe machine. Fig
• Distance between centers:‐ specifies the maximum length of the job that can be
turned in the lathe.
• Swing over the bed: ‐ specifies the maximum diameter of the job that can be
turned in the lathe machine, generally restricted to small length jobs.
• Swing over the cross slide:‐ specifies the maximum diameter of the job that can
be turned in the lathe machine with the job across the cross slide, which is
generally the case

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Through the above gives the basic capacity of the machine as shown in fig. there are a
no. of other factors that should also be specified to fully describe the lathe machine.
They are:‐
• Horse power of the motor.
• Cutting speed range.
• Feed range.
• Screw cutting capacity
• Accuracy achievable
• Spindle nose diameter and hole size.

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SHAPER MACHINES AND SLOTTING MACHINES

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Unit III

Q‐1 Explain with neat sketch crank and slotted lever mechanism used in shaper? Show how the Quick
return of tool is accomplished.
Q‐2 what are the various shaper operations?
Q‐3 Explain with neat sketch Whitworth quick return mechanism used in shaper?
Q‐4 what are various parts and their functions of slotter machine?
Q‐6 Explain in short with neat sketch the Hydraulic mechanism in shaper machine.

Q‐7 Explain with neat sketches:‐
i) Table feed mechanism in shaper.
ii) Q‐13 describes in brief the puncher slotter and tool room slotter.
Q‐8 State the function of the following parts of shaper.
i) Cross rail
ii) Clapper box
iii) Tool head

Q‐ 9 what are the various parts and their functions of shaper machine?

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Question b
bank with solution

Q‐1 Explain with n neat sketch crank and slotted lin nk mechaniism used in n shaper? SShow
how the e Quick retu urn of tool is accomplished.
Ans‐ craank and slo otted link mechanism m is as shoown in fig. The motio on or powwer is
transmittted to the bull gear 1 14 through the pinion 1 which reeceives its m motion from m an
individual motor orr overhead line shaft tthrough speeed controll mechanism m. Speed of the
bull gear may be ch hanged by d different coombination of gearing for simply sshifting thee belt
on the sstep cone p pulley. Bull ggear 14 is aa large gearr mounted within the column. Bo olted
to the ceentre of the e bull gear is radial slid de 16 which h carries a ssliding blocck 10 into wwhich
the cran nk pin 11 is fitted. Rotaation of thee bull gear will cause tthe crank p pin 11to revvolve
at a uniform speed d. Sliding block 12 wh hich is mouunted upon the crank pin 11 is fitted
f
within the slotted link 9. Thee slotted lin nk 9 whichh is also known as thee rocker arrm is
pivoted at 15 at itss bottom en nd attached d to the fraame of the column. Th he upper en nd of
the rockker arm is forked
f and connected d to the ram block 8 by a pin. As
A the bull gear
rotates ccausing the e crank pin to rotate the sliding b block 12 fasstened to the crank piin 11
will rotaate on the ccrank pin circle, and att the same time will m move up and d down thee slot
in the slotted link 9 giving it a rocking movement
m which is communicatted to the ram.
Thus, the rotary motion of the bull gear is converteed to reciprocating movement of the
ram.

4
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Fig. 3.1 Principle of quick return mechanism Fig.3.2 Quick Return Motion

The principle of quick return motion is illustrated in fig. when the link is in the position
PM, the ram will be at the extreme backward position of its stroke, and when it is at PN,
and the extreme forward position the ram will have been reached. PM and PN are
shown tangent to be crank pin circle. The forward cutting stroke, therefore, takes place
when the crank rotates to the angle C2L C1. It is evident that the angle C2K C1 made by
the forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle C2L C1 described by the return
stroke. The angular velocity of the crank pin being constant the return stroke is,
therefore, completed within a shorter time for which known as quick return motion.
The ratio between the cutting time and the return time may be determined by the
formula:
Cutting time C2K C1
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Return time C2L C1

Cutting time to return time ratio usually varies between 2:1 and the practical limit is 3:2
The only disadvantage lies with this mechanism is that the cutting speed and the return
speed is not constant throughout these stroke. It is minimum when the rocker arm is at
the two extremities and the speed is maximum when the rocker arm is vertical.

Q‐2 what are the various shaper operations?
Ans‐ A shaper is a versatile machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by
a single point cutting tool. But it may also be used to perform many other operations.
The different operations which a shaper can perform are as follows:‐
1) Machining horizontal surface.
2) Machining vertical surface.
3) Machining angular surface
4) Cutting slots, grooves, and keyways
5) Machining irregular surfaces

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6) Machining splines or cutting gears.

Machining horizontal surface: ‐

Fig.3.3 Machining horizontal surface

Machining horizontal surface on a work piece. A shaper is mostly used to machine a flat,
true surface on a work piece held in a vise or other holding devices. After the work is
properly held on the table, a planning tool is set in the tool post with minimum
overhang. The table is raised till there is a clearance of 25 to 30 mm between tool and
the work piece. The length of stroke should be nearly 20 mm longer than the work and
the position of stroke is so adjusted that the tool begins to move from distance of 12 to
15 mm before the beginning of the cut and continues to move 5 to 8 mm after the end
of the cut. Proper cutting speed and feed is then adjusted. Short strokes should be given
with slow speed. Both roughing and finishing cuts are performed to complete the job.
For roughing cut speed is decreased but feed and depth of cut increased. Depth cut is
adjusted by rotating the down feed screw of the tool head. The amount of depth of cut
is adjusted by a micrometer dial. The depth of cut for roughing work usually ranges from
1.5 to 3 mm while the finishing work it ranges from 0.075 to 0.200 mm. feed is adjusted

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about one half the width of the cutting edge of the tool so that each cut will overlap the
last cut giving a smooth surface finish.

Machining vertical surface: ‐

Fig. 3.4 Machining vertical surface
1) Apron 2) work

Machining vertical surface on a work piece. A vertical cut is made while machining the
end of a work piece, squaring up a block or cutting shoulder. The work is mounted in the
vise or directly on the table and the surface to be machined is carefully aligned with the
axis of the ram. Aside cutting tool is set on the tool post and the position and length of
stroke is adjusted. The vertical slide is set exactly at zero position and the apron is
swiveled in a direction away from the surface being cut. This is necessary to enable the
tool to move upwards and away from the work during return stroke. This prevents the
side of the tool from dragging on the planed vertical surface during return stroke. The
down feed is given by rotating the down feed screw by hand. The feed is about 0.25 mm

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Given at the end of each return stroke. Both roughing and finishing cuts are performed
to complete the job.

Machining angular surface: ‐

Fig. 3.5 Machining angular surface
1) Work 2) Apron 3) Swiveling angle

Machining of an angular surface on a work piece. An angular cut is made at any angle
other than a right angle to the horizontal or to the vertical plane. The work is set on the
table and the vertical slide of the tool head is swiveled to the requires angle either
towards left or towards right from the vertical position. The apron is then further
swiveled away from the work so that the tool will clear the work during return stroke.
The down feed is given by rotating the down feed screw. Angular surface can also be
machined in a universal shaper or by using a universal vise without swiveling the tool
head.
Cutting slots, grooves, and keyways: ‐

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Fig. 3.6 Cutting slots, grooves, and keyways
1) Vise 2) Tool 3) Work 1)Too bit 2) Work 3) Vise
With suitable tools a shaper can very congenitally machine slots or grooves on a work or
cut external keyways on shafts and internal key ways on pulleys or gears. For cutting
slots or keyways a square nose tool similar to a parting tool is selected illustrates cutting
of external keyways and cutting of internal keyways in shaper. External keyways are cut
on a shaft by first drilling ahole at the blind end of the keyways. The diameter of the
holes should be 0.5 to 0.8 mm oversize than the width of the keyway and the depth
should be about 1.5 mm larger than the depth of the keyway. This necessary to leave a
clearance on the tool at the end of the stroke. The length and position of stroke is
carefully adjusted so that the stroke will terminate exactly at the clearance hole. The
speed is reduces while cutting a keyways. Internal keyway is cut by holding the tool on
special tool holder so that the tool post will not hit against the work at the end of the
stroke. The clapper block is locked in the clapper box to prevent the tool from lifting
during return stroke. Lubrication is necessary on the work to prevent the cutting edge of
the tool from wear due to dragging.

Machining irregular surfaces: ‐

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Fig.3.7 Machining irregular surfaces

A shaper can also produce a contoured surface i.e. a convex or concave surface of
combination of any of the above surface. To produce a small contoured surface a
forming tool is used. If the curve is sufficiently large, power cross feed in conjunction
with a manual down feed is so adjusted that the tool will trace the required contour. If
the counter has too many ups and downs both the feeds are operated by hand. A round
nose tool is selected for machining irregular surfaces. For a shallow cut the apron may
be set the vertical but if the curve is quite sharp, the apron is swiveled towards right or
left away from the surface to be cut. Machining of a concave surface using a round nose
tool.

Machining splines or cutting gears:‐ By using and index centre, illustrated in gear or
equally, spaced spline may be cut. The work is mounted between two centers and spline
is cut similar to the cutting of a keyway. After the first spline is cut, the work is rotated
through a predetermined amount by using the index plate and index pin. The periphery
of a gear blank is divided, and equally spaced grooves are cut by using an index plate
having proper hole circles. While cutting gear a formed tool is used.

Q‐3 Explain with neat sketch Whitworth quick return mechanism used in shaper?
Ans‐ Whit worth quick return mechanism is simple line diagram of the mechanism. The
bull gear mounted on large fixed pin upon which it is free to rotate. The crank plate 4 is
pivoted essentially upon the fixed pin at 5. Fitted on the face of the bull gear is the crank

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Question b
bank with solution

FFIG.3.8 Whiitworth quick return m mechanism

pin 2 on n the top of is moun nted the slliding blockk 3. Slidingg block 3 fix into thee slot
provided d on the craank plate 4 4. At the oth her end of the crank p plate 4, a co onnecting rrod 6
connects the crankk plate by a a pin 9 andd the ram 8
8 by a pin 7. When bull
b gear wiill be
rotate at a constan nt speed thee crank pin 2 with thee sliding blo ock 3 will rootate on a ccrank
circle off a reduce A A2 and slid ding block 3 3 will causee the crank plate to ro otate aboutt the
point 5 w with a variaable angular velocity. P Pin 9 fitted on the other end of th he crank plaate 4
will rotaate in a circle and rotary motion o of the pin 9 9 will be co onverted intto reciprocaating
movemeent of the rram similarr to the craank and con nnecting ro od mechaniism. The axxis of
reciproccating of the e ram passees through the pin 5 an nd is normaal to the line A5.
W
When the p in 2 is at th
he position C the ram w will be at eextreme bacckward possition
but wheen the pin iss at the possition B, thee extreme fforward po osition of thhe ram will have
been reached. When the pin 2 travels ffrom C to B B the crankk pin 9 passses through h the
backwarrd position to the forw ward positio on in the cu utting strokke, and the return stro oke is
completted when the t pin 2 trravels from m B to C orr the pin 9 passes fro
om the forw ward
position to the bacckward position. As the angle velocity of thee crank pin is uniform, the
time takken by the crank pin 2 2 to travel through an nd an arc covering BD DC. Thus a q quick
return m motion is ob btained by tthe mechan nism.
The length o of stroke off the ram m may be chan nged by shifting the p position of p pin 9
closer or away from the pivo osition of stroke may be altered by shiftingg the
ot 5. The po
position of pin 7 on n the ram.

Q‐4 whaat are vario ous parts an nd their fun nctions of slotter mach hine?
Ans‐ Thee different parts of a slotting macchine are:‐
1) Base
B
2) Column
C

5
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3rd

Question b
bank with solution
3) Saddle
4) C
Cross‐ slide
5) R
Rotating tabble
6) R
Ram and too ol head asseembly
7) R
Ram drive mmechanism
8) Feed mechanism

G.3.9 main parts of slo
FIG otter.
Base or Bed: ‐ the base is rigid
dly built to take up alll the cuttingg forces and entire loaad of
the macchine. The ttop of the bed is accu urately finisshed to pro ovide guide ways on w which
dle is mounted. The gu
the sadd uide ways are perpend dicular to thhe column fface.
Column: ‐ The colu umn is the vertical meember which is cast integral witth the basee and

houses ddriving mecchanism of the ram an nd feeding m
mechanismm. The frontt vertical facce of
the column is accurrately finish
hed for provviding way on which th
he ram reciiprocates.
Saddle: ‐ The sadd

dle is moun
nted upon the
t guide ways
w and may
m be moved toward ds or
away froom the colu umn either by power o or manual ccontrol to ssupply longgitudinal feeed to
the work. The top fface of the saddle is accurately fiinished to pprovide guide ways for the
cross slid
de. These gguide ways are perpendicular to tthe guide w ways on the base.
Cross‐ slide:‐ The ccross slide is mounted upon the gguide ways of the saddle and maay be
moved p parallel to tthe face of the column
n. The movement of th
he slide maay be contro
olled
either byy hand or p
power to supply cross ffeed.
Rotatingg table: ‐ Th he rotary taable is a cirrcular tablee which is m
mounted on n the top of the
cross slide. The tab
ble may bee rotated by
b rotating a worm wh hich meshees with a worm
w
gear con nnected to the undersside of the ttable. The rrotation of the table m may be effeected

5
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either by hand or power. In some machines the table is graduated in degrees that
enable the table to be rotate for indexing or dividing the periphery of a job in equal no
of parts. T‐slots are cut on the top face of the table for holding the work by different
clamping devices. The rotary table enables a circular or countered surface to be
generated on the work pieces.
Ram and tool head assembly: ‐ The ram is the reciprocating cutting members of the
machine mounted on the guide ways of the column. It supports the tool at its bottom
end on a tool head. A slot is cut on the body of the ram for changing the position of
stroke. In some machines, special type of tool holders is provided to relieve the tool
during its return stroke.
Ram drive mechanism:‐ A slotter removes metal during downward cutting stroke only
whereas during upward return stroke no metal is removed. To reduce the idle return
time, Quick return mechanism is incorporated in the machine. The usual types of ram
drive mechanism are
i) Whitworth quick return mechanism
ii) Variable speed reversible motor drive mechanism.
iii) Hydraulic drive mechanism.
Q‐5 Explain in short with neat sketch the Hydraulic mechanism in shaper machine.
Ans:‐ In hydraulic shaper the ram is moved forward and backward by a piston moving
in a cylinder placed under the ram. The machine mainly consists of a constant discharge
oil pump 2, a valve chamber, a cylinder and a piston 7. The piston rod 6 is bolted to the
ram body; the oil under high pressure is pumped from the reservoir 1 and is made to
pass through the value chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder 5 exerting pressure
on the piston 7. This cause the ram 4 connected to the piston 7 to perform forward
stroke, and any oil present on the left side of the cylinder is discharge to the reservoir
through the throttle valve 3. At the end of extreme forward stroke, the shaper dog 8 hits
against the reversing lever 9 causing the valve 12 to alter their positions within the valve
chamber.oil under high pressure is now pumped to the left side of the piston causing
the ram to perform return stroke. Oil present on the right side of the piston is now
discharge to the reservoir. At the end of the return stroke another shaper dog hits

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against reservoir lever altering the direction of stroke of the piston and the cycle is thus
repeated.

Fig.3.10 hydraulic shaper mechanism.
The quick return motion is affected due to the difference in stroke volume of the
cylinder at both ends, the left hand end being smaller due to the presence of the piston
rod. As the pump is constant discharge one, within a fix period, the same amount oil will
be pumped into the right or to the left hand side of the cylinder. This will mean that the
same amount of oil will be packed within a smaller stroke volume causing the oil
pressure to rise automatically and increasing the speed during the return stroke.
The length and position of stroke is adjusted by shifting the position of reversing dogs.
The cutting speed may be changed by controlling the throttle valve 3 which regulates
the flow of oil. When the throttle valve is partially closed the excess oil flows out
through the relief valve 11 to the reservoir maintain uniform pressure during cutting
stroke. A hydraulic shaper is now widely used for having many advantages.
Q‐6 Explain with neat sketches:‐
Table feed mechanism in shaper
Ans‐ The automatic cross feed mechanism of the table is very simple. This is done by
rotating a ratchet wheel, mounted on cross feed screw C by the same amount each
time. This enables a corresponding equal rotation of the cross feed screw after each
stroke. The complete mechanism is as follows:

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Question b
bank with solution

Fig. 3.11
1 automaticc table feed d mechanism m of a shap per.

It consissts of slotte ed disc, whiich carries aa T‐slot, in this slot is fitted and adjustable pin
and to this is attach hed a conneecting rod. The other eend of the cconnectingg rod is attached
to the lower end of the rockker arm off the pawl mechanism m. The rockker arm swwings
about th he screw C,, and at its upper end d carries a spring load ded pawl, aadjustable p pin is
set ecceentric with tthe slotted disc centree. The slotted disc at its back carrries a spur gear
which is driven by tthe bull geaar. As the d disc rotatess through this gear thee adjustablee pin
being ecccentric witth the disc centre, cau uses the co onnecting rrod to recip procate. This, in
turn, maakes the ro ocker arm tto swing ab bout the screw C to m move the paawl over on ne or
more teeeth and th hus transmit an interm mittent mo otion to the cross feeed screw which
w
moves the table.
N
Note, that t he lower eend of the p pawl is beeveled on o one side. Th his facilitiess the
power feeed to operate in eith her direction n, but the ssame should be set to operate du uring
the retu urn stroke o only. If otheerwise the mechanism m will be subjected to a severe sttress.
In somee latest types of shapers, cam driven feed mechanism m are provvided which h are
comparaatively morre efficient aand provideed a wider range of feeds.
V
Variation in the feed caan be proviided by varrying the distance R beetween thee disc
centre aand the cen ntre of adjustable pin. Larger the set distancce greater w will be the feed
and vicee versa. The e amount o of feed to b be given largely depen nds upon th he type of ffinish
required d on the job. For rouggh machining heavier cuts are employed and therefore, a
coarse feeed is need mployed in finishing o
ded. Againstt this, a fineer feed is em operations.

6
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Q‐7 Describes in brief the puncher slotters and tool room slotters.
Ans‐ Puncher slotters: ‐ Puncher slotters are heavy duty machines. Usually such jibs are
machined on these machines which are comparatively heavier and have been previously
brought roughly to the required shape through other operation like sawing, forging or
stamping etc. the slotting machine is then used to cut of the surplus metal and finished
the work to the required shape and size. According to the nature of the work, either a
square or circular table can be fitted on the machine.

Tool room slotters: ‐ these slotting machines are precession type is used for accurate
machining. Usually titling type of frame is provided in these machines to enable
machining at different angles. Slotted link type drive is commonly used in these
machines. Rest of the construction is similar to that of a production slotter.

Q‐8 State the function of the following parts of shaper.
Cross rail: ‐ The cross rail is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. It
has to parallel guide ways on its top in the vertical plane that are perpendicular to the
ram axis. The table may be raised or lowered to accommodate different sizes of jobs by
rotating an elevating screw which causes the cross rail to slide up and down on the
vertical face of the column. A
Horizontal cross feed screw which is fitted within the cross rail and parallel to the top
guide ways of the cross rail actuates the table to move in cross wise direction.

Clapper box: ‐
The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the clapper block which is
connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post of is mounted upon the clapper
block on the forward cutting stroke the clapper block feeds securely to the clapper box
to make a rigid tool support. On the return stroke a slight functional drag of the tool on
the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a sufficient amount preventing the tool
cutting edge from the dragging and consequent wear.

Tool head: ‐ The tool head of a shaper holds the tool rigidly provides vertical and angle
feed movement of the tool and allows the tool to have and automatic relief during its
return stroke. The vertical slide of the tool head has a swivel base which is held on a

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circular seat on the ram. The swivel base is graduated in degrees, so that the vertical
slide may be said perpendicular so the work surface or at any desired angle. By rotating
the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool executes down feed or
angle feed movement while machining vertical or angle surface. The amount of feed or
depth of cut may be adjusted by of micrometer dial on the top of the down feed screw.
Apron consisting of clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical
slide by a screw. By releasing the clamping screw, the apron may be swiveled upon the
apron swivel pin either towards left or towards right with respect to the vertical slide.
This arrangement is necessary to provided relief to the tool while making vertical or
angle cuts. The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the clapper
block which is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post of is mounted upon
the clapper block on the forward cutting stroke the clapper block feeds securely to the
clapper box to make a rigid tool support. On the return stroke a slight functional drag of
the tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a sufficient amount preventing
the tool cutting edge from the dragging and consequent wear. The work surface is also
prevented from any damage due to dragging illustrates the tool head of shaper.

Q‐ 9 what are the various parts and their functions of shaper machine?
The working principle of shaper is illustrated in fig. in case of shaper, the job is rigidly
held in a suitable device like vice or clamp directly on the machine table. The tool is held
in a tool post mounted on the ram of the machine. This ram reciprocate to and fro and,
in doing so, makes the tool to cut the material in the forward stroke. No cutting of
material takes place during the return stroke of the ram. Hence, it is termed as idle
stroke. In case of draw cut shaper, the cutting takes place in the return stroke and the
forward stroke in an idle stroke. The job is given and the index feed (equal amount after
each cut) in a direction normal to the line of action of the cutting tool.
Principle part of a shaper:

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Question b
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Fig.3.12 parts off a shaper
1) Taable support 2) Table 3) Cllapper box 4)) Apron Clamp
ping bolts 5) d
down feed haand wheel

a) B
Base: ‐ it is a heavy and robust caast iron bod dy which accts as a sup pport for alll the
other parts o of the mach hine which are mounteed over it.
b) Column: ‐ It
C is a box typpe cast iron
n body mou unted on the base and acts as hou using
foor the operrating mech hanism of tthe machin ne and the electrical. IIt also acts as a
suupport for o other partss of the macchine such aas cross rail and ram.eetc.
Inn case of thhe hydraulicc shaper, it carries thee hydraulic drive mech hanism insid de it.
O
On its top it t carries maachined waays, in whicch the ram reciprocattes, and verrtical
guide ways aat its front.
c) Cross rail:‐
C
The cross rail is mounteed on the ffront verticaal guide waays of the co olumn. It has to
parallel guid de ways on its top in tthe vertical plane thatt are perpeendicular to o the
raam axis. Th he table maay be raised d or lowereed to accommmodate different sizees of
joobs by rotaating an eleevating screew which causes
c the cross rail to
t slide up
p and
down on the e vertical faace of the coolumn.
H
Horizontal c ross feed screw which h is fitted w
within the crross rail andd parallel to
o the
toop guide waays of the ccross rail actuates the table to mo ove in crosss wise direcction.

d) Table:‐
T

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It is made of cast iron and has a box type construction. It holds and supports the
work during the operation and slides along the cross rail to provide feed to the
work. T slot are provided on its top and sides for securing the work to it

.
e) Ram:‐
It is also an iron casting, semicircular in shape and provided with rib construction
in side for rigidity and strength. It carries the tool head and travels in dovetail
guide ways to provide a straight line motion to the tool. It carries the mechanism
for adjustment of ram position in side it.
f) Tool head: ‐
The tool head of a shaper holds the tool rigidly provides vertical and angle feed
movement of the tool and allows the tool to have and automatic relief during its
return stroke. The vertical slide of the tool head has a swivel base which is held
on a circular seat on the ram. The swivel base is graduated in degrees, so that the
vertical slide may be said perpendicular so the work surface or at any desired
angle. By rotating the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool
executes down feed or angle feed movement while machining vertical or angle
surface. The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by of micrometer
dial on the top of the down feed screw. Apron consisting of clapper box, clapper
block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical slide by a screw. By releasing the
clamping screw, the apron may be swiveled upon the apron swivel pin either
towards left or towards right with respect to the vertical slide. This arrangement
is necessary to provided relief to the tool while making vertical or angle cuts. The
two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the clapper block which
is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post of is mounted upon the
clapper block on the forward cutting stroke the clapper block feeds securely to
the clapper box to make a rigid tool support. On the return stroke a slight
functional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a
sufficient amount preventing the tool cutting edge from the dragging and
consequent wear. The work surface is also prevented from any damage due to
dragging illustrates the tool head of shaper.

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g) Vice:‐
It is a job holding device and is mounted on the table. It holds and supports the
work during the operation. Alternately, the job can be directly clamped to the
machine table.

MILLING MACHINE AND IT’S OPERATIONS:‐

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UNIT‐IV
Q‐1 Explain with a neat sketch Universal Milling Machine.

66
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Question b
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Universaal Milling M Machine: A universal m milling macchine is so named beccause it maay be
adopted d to a very wide rangee of milling operationss. A universsal milling m machine caan be
distinguished from a plain millling machin ne in that tthe table off universal m milling macchine
is mountted on a cirrcular swiveelling base w which has d degree graddations and d the tale caan be
swivelled to any an ngle up to 4 45 degree o on either side of the n normal possition. The ttable
can be swivelled
s about is verrtical axis and
a set an angle otheer than righ ht angles too the
spindle. Thus in a a universal milling machine,
m in
n addition to three movementts as
incorporrated in a p plain millingg machine, the table m may have a fourth movvement wh hen it
is fed att an angle to the millling cutter. This additional featu
ure enables it to perfform
helical mmilling operration which h cannot bee done on aa plain milling machinee unless a sspiral
milling attachment
a t is used. The capacityy of a univeersal milling machine is considerrably
increaseed by the usse of speciaal attachmeents such ass dividing heead or indeex head, verrtical
milling attachment, rotary attachment
a t, slotting attachmen nt, etc. Thee machine can
producee spur, spiraal, bevel gears, twist d drills, reameers, milling cutters, etcc. besides d doing
all conveentional miilling operaation. It mayy also be employed w with advantaage for anyy and
every tyype of ope erations thaat can be performed on a shap per or on a drill presss. A
universaal machine is, thereforre, essentiaally a tool room machine designeed to produ uce a
very acccurate workk.

Fig 4.1 Un
niversal milling machin
ne
Table 2. Hand wheel for selection off spindle 3. Adjustable stop for f longitudinal
movemeent 4. Table stop 5. Hand
H wheeel for feed selection 6. 6 Terminall box for mains
m
connections 7. Mo
otor for auttomatic feeed 8. Leverr for verticaal and crosss feed 9. Hand
H
wheel for
f longitudinal feed 10. Overrran 11. Co over for main
m drive 12. Arborr 13.

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Longitudinal feed changing lever 14. Hand wheel for cross travene 15. Handle for
vertical traverse of knee 16. Base.
Q‐2 Name the various types of cutters used in milling operation. Sketch a Plain milling
cutter showing its elements.
Common type of milling cutters is the following:
1. Plain milling cutters
2. Side milling cutters
3. End milling cutters
4. Face milling cutters
5. Metal Slitting cutters (Slitting saws)
6. Angle milling cutters
7. Formed milling cutters
8. Woodruff‐key milling cutters
9. T‐slot milling cutters
10. Fly cutters
Plain milling cutters
These milling cutters may have the cutting teeth on their periphery. The teeth may be
either straight, i.e., parallel to the axis, or helical. Their end faces are either ground
square with the axis or slightly concave to reduce friction. Thus no cutting action is
provided by the side faces. These cutters are employed for milling flat surfaces parallel
to the axis of rotation.

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Question b
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Fig 4
4.2 Plain milling cutterr Fig 4.3 Coarse helical teeth sslab mill

These cutters includde the light duty plain milling cuttter or key w wary cutterr (Fig

1.) and tthe helical or slab milling cutterss (Fig 2. and d Fig 3.). Thhe former ttype is available
up to 20 0 mm in wid dth and carrries straigh ht teeth. It is usually eemployed fo or key waryy and
sot cutting. The later type, i..e., slab miilling cutterrs are enou
ugh long an nd carry heelical
teeth. These cutterrs are madee to have eeither fine p pitch or coaarse pitch. FFine pitch tteeth
cutters are used fo or light wo
ork and finishing workk. The coarrse pitch teeeth cutterss are
called heeavy duty sslab milling cutters. They

Fig 4.4 Fine heliccal teeth slaab mill
carry lesss number of teeth, having a steep helix an ngle. They aare commonly used w where

very heaavy cuts are e to be employed, since they aree capable o of removingg more matterial
with lesss power con nsumption.. A recomm mended pracctice is not to use veryy long cutteers. If
d, a preferaable practicce is to have the desired length built
at all very big lengtth is needed
up with a number of short length cutterrs with theiir teeth run nning altern
nately rightt and
left handd to neutralize the endd thrust.
Side Milling Cutterss: These cu
utters, apartt from haviing teeth on the peripphery, also have
ne or both ssides. Theyy are alwayss provided with a centtral hole for the
cutting tteeth on on

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Question b
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purposee of mounting them on n the arborr. They are also called
d straddle m
mills when used
in pairs. The main ttypes of side milling cu
utters are th
he following:
1. Plain side mmilling cutteers. They arre made to have cutting teeth on n the perip phery

as well as on wn in fig 4. They are normally used
o both sides, as show u for cutting
sllots or in faace milling.. They can also be useed in pairs ffor straddlee milling. TThese
cutters are available in different widths ranging from 5 mm to t 25 mm and
diameters up to 200 mm.

Fig 4. 5 SStandard or plain side milling cuttters

2. Half
H side miilling cutterrs. These cutters havee teeth on the periph hery and onn the
siide only. Th hey can be used for faace milling.. The teeth may be either straigh ht or
helical. Also they can b be either right hand o or left hand
d. Actual cu utting operaation
performed by teeth provided p on the periphery while the sidee teeth do o the
finishing and d sizing worrk. A distincct feature o of these cuttters is thatt their teeth
h are
loonger than those of plain millingg cutters. Th hey are frequently useed in pairs (one
leeft hand an nd one righ wo parallel surfaces simultaneou
ht hand) for milling tw usly ;
operation be eing known n as straddlee milling.
3. Sttaggered te eeth side milling
m cuttters. These cutters carry alternaate teeth inn the
periphery on nly. These alternate teeeth are off opposite h helix angle, staggered ffrom
siide to side, just as thee teeth of w wood saw, aand cut alteernatively o on one sidee and
thhen on the other. Theey are comm monly used d for keywaay cutting aand slot cuttting.
They prove very efficieent in millin ng deep slotts but narro ow in width h. A typicall one
of staggered d tooth sidee milling cuttter is show wn in Fig 4.5
5
4. Innterlocking side millin ng cutters. These cuttters are similar
s in design
d the side
m
milling cutte ers but are u used as uniit, consistinng of two cuutters joined together such
thhat their te eeth interlocck, as show wn in Fig 4.6 6 They can be adjusted d to acquiree the

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Question b
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reequired width by inserting shimms or spacers betweeen them. These
T shim
ms or
sppacers are also used tto make go ood the reduction in w width of thee cutters du ue to
w
wear and frrequent shaarpening of the teeth
h. These cu
utters are used
u for milling
reelatively wider slots too exact widtth. Also, theey find a wiide use in ggang millingg.

6 Staggered
Fig 4.6 d teeth sidee milling cuttters Figg 4.7. Interlo
ocking side milling cuttters.
5. End milling cutters: These are so

olid circular cutters which
w are manufacture
m ed in
twwo differennt varieties;; those having the shank and the others which do not have
thhe shank. TThey carry tteeth on th he peripherry as well as on the en nd. These tteeth
m be straaight i.e., parallel to the axis of rotation, or
may o helical ass in slab milling
cutters. Helical teeth m may be rightt hand or leeft hand. En nd milling ccutters are used
foor milling slots, keywaays, groovees and irreggular shapee surfaces. SShank typee end
m may have either taper shan
mills nk or straigght shank and are avvailable in wide
raange of diaameters from 3 mm to 50 mm m. Shank tyype end mills
m are either
m
mounted dir rectly on thhe spindle o or held in ccollets (straight shank type mills o only)
or in an adap ptor. The fo ollowing aree the main classificatio on of these end mills:

1. Common n type. Theese milling cutters carrry multiplee teeth on their perip
phery
and also on the end d. The teeth may be sstraight or h helical; the former typ pe is,
howeverr, available in small sizes only, sayy below 8 m mm dia. A ttypical desiggn of
this type is shown in n Fig 7.

Fig 4..8 Common
n type end mmilling cutter
2. Two‐lipped end mill. These milling m cutteers are alsoo known as slotting mills.
m
These cu utters havee two straigght or heliical teeth on
o the perriphery and d the

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Question b
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correspo onding two teeth on th he end, whiich meet att the end ceentre. The m main
advantagge of these cutters is that they caan be fed straight into the metal like a
drill and then fed longitudina
l ally to prod ove of desiired length and
duce a groo
depth. Also,
A they can
c be useed for taking heavy cuts
c in soliid stock. These
T
cutters may
m have either
e nk or taper shank. The latter type is
a strraight shan
howeverr, more com mmonly useed (see Fig 4 4.9.)

Fig 4.9. Two‐lipp
ped taper sshank end m
milling cutteer.
3. Shell end utters. Thesse cutters are larger and heavieer than most of
d milling cu
the otheer types of end mills. They have teeth on the peripheery and thee end
both. Generally they are madee in over 50 0 mm size (d diameter). The end facce of
these cuttters provid ded with a recess to reeceive a cap p screw. Th hey are held d in a
stub arbor, shown in Fig. 4.9. Two slots are made across the back of cu utter,
which en ngage the ccollar keys of the arbo or to get th he drive. GGenerally heelical
teeth aree provided on these ccutters. Theese teeth m may be rightt and left h hand.
These cuutters are em mployed fo or heavy dutty work. Milling of flatt surfaces, u using
the end o or face, and d cutting slots, etc. aree the comm mon operattions perforrmed
by them. The former operatio on is called
d facing. A shell end milling
m cuttter is
shown in n Fig 9.

FFig 4.10 Sheell end milling cutters.

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Face milling cutterrs: These cu utters are made in tw
wo common n forms. Thhe smaller type
almost rresembles aa shell end milling cuttter and is kn nown as Sh hell‐type facce milling cuutter
(See Figg 10). It carries teeth on the peeriphery as well as thhe end of face.
f Maximmum
cutting is done by the teeth periphery and those on the en nd face perrform a typpe of
finishingg operation n. The largeer type of cutter, callled the bu
uilt‐up facee milling cu
utter,
consists of a steel b body, alongg the periph hery of which are inserted the cu utting teeth (see
Fig 11). The forme er type is used for small work whereas the latter for larger surfaaces.
The shell type cutter is usually held in a slub arbor and the larger type ccan be mounted
directly on the spin ndle nose.

Fig 4 milling cutter Fig 4.12 Built‐u
4.11 Shell‐ttype face m up type facee milling cu
utter
Metal slitting cutte
ers: These cutters aree also frequently called
d metal slittting saws. TThey
are usedd for cuttin
ng thin slotss for partin
ng off. Theyy are commmonly manu ufactured inn the
following two varieeties:
1. Plain slittting saws. They are plain milling cutterss which arre very thin as
compare ed to otherr types of milling cuttters. Theirr teeth aree provided with
some sid de relief in
n order to prevent ruubbing. They are maade in diffeerent
widths, rranging bettween apprroximately 1 mm and 5 mm. A plain slittingg saw
is shown in Fig 4.13

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Fig 4.13 Metal sslitting saw..
2. Staggere
ed teeth miilling cutterr (saw). Theese saws are used forr comparattively
heavier work.
w Theyy have their teeth staaggered altternatively and have side
teeth alsso, similar tto the staggered teeth h side milling cutter. These sawss are
generallyy made in ddifferent wid dths rangin ng from 4 m mm and 10 m mm.
milling cutters
Angle m
utters carryy sharp anggular teeth which aree neither paarallel nor normal to their
These cu
axes. Th
heir specificc use is in m
milling V‐groooves, notcches, dovetaail slots, reamer teeth h and
other an
ngular surfaaces. The fo ollowing two o types of aangle cutterrs are in common use::
1. Single angle cutters (Figg. 4.14). Th hese cutterss may havee their teeth h either only on

thhe angular face or on b both, the angular facee and the sid de. The lattter type enaables
m
milling oth the flanks of the included angular
of bo a gro
oove simultaneously; Their
T
teeeth may have an inclu uded angle of 45 or 60 0 degree.

Fig 4.14 SSingle anglee cutter Fig 4.15 D
Double anglle cutter
2. Double‐ angle
a 15). These cutters difffer from the single angle
cutters (Fig. 4.1 a
cutters in th
hat they havve two angular faces w which join ttogether to form V‐shaaped
teeeth. The included an ngle of this ‘V’ is eitheer 45, 60, 9
90 degree, tthough it iss not
necessary th hat the facees should bee equal.

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Question b
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Form milling
m cutte
ers: They are also kno
own as forrm relievedd milling cu
utters or raadius
cutters. This categoory includes a fairly large variety of milling ccutters used for produ ucing
differentt shaped coounters. Their teeth arre provided d with a cerrtain angle of relief so that
their form and sizze are retaained even harpeninngg. The following aree the
n after resh
common n types of form relieveed cutters:
1. Corner rounding
r cuutters:‐ Theese cutterss are used for milling the edgess and
corners o
of the jobs to a requirred radius. TThey are m manufactureed separateely as
single cu
utters or doouble cutters. Single cutters mayy be right hand (Fig. 15) or
d (Fig. 16). TThe doublee cutter (Figg. 17) has a combinatio
left hand on of both right
hand andd left hand in a single uunit.

Fig 4.16 R.H. Corrner Fig 4 4.17 L.H. Fig 4.1
18. Double rounding cu utter
rounding cutteer Cornerr rounding
cutteer

2. Concave and conve ex cutters:‐ These cuttters are verry commonly used types of
form relived cutterss. They are used for milling conveex and conccave surfacees or
circular ccontours off half circle or less. Thee above nam mes sometimes misleaad. It
should th herefore, be carefully noted thatt the namess concave o or convex, ggiven
to the cu utters, do not n indicatee the shape of the su urface to bee produced d but
the shap pe and the cutter teeth. As such h a concave cutter (Fig 4.19) wiill be
used for milling to convex surrface and convex c cuttter (Fig 4.2
20) for milliing a
concave surface.

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Fig. 4
4.19 A concaave cutters Fig. 4.20 A con
nvex cutter

3. Gear cuttters:‐ Theyy are also designed as inviolate gear cutterss. They are used
for millin ng gear teeeth on a milling
m macchine. The two comm mon gradess are
roughingg and finishiing, shown in Fig. 4.21 1 and Fig. 4..22 respectively.

Figg 4.21. A fo orm relieved gear Fig 4.22 A fform relieveed gear
cutteer (roughingg) cutter (finishing))

4. Tap and reamer flu uting cutterrs:‐ These fformed aree used for m milling flutees on
reamers and taps. In appearaance, they look like double d anglle cutters, such
that their two inclin ned faces mmeet to form m a rounded corner. A A typical tap p and
reamer ffluting cutteer is shown in Fig 4.23
5. Gear Hobs:‐ A gear hob is a fo ormed milling cutter w which cutteer carries heelical
cutting teeth
t on its peripheryy. It is useed for a nu umber of different
d milling
operations, such ass cutting teeeth of worm m wheels, helical and spur gearss and
spine shaafts, etc. A sstandard fo orm of such h a cutter is shown in FFig 4.24
6. Thread milling cuttters:‐ Theese are alsso formed cutters ussed for milling
differentt types of threads,
t moostly for worms and acme a type threads. These
T
cutters can c be singgle or multi‐teeth. Thee included angle of th he cutting teeth
t
will corre espond to the angle of the threads to bee produced. These cutters
have alre eady been d described inn detail in A Art. 12.23

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Fig 4.23 Tap and rreamer flutting cutters Fig 4.24 G
Gear Hobs

Woodru
uff‐key milliing cutter:‐‐
mall type off end milling cutter wh
It is a sm hich resemb bles with pllain and sid de mills. Sm
maller
sizes sayy up to 500 mm diammeter, are made to have solid shank,
s to be
b fitted in
n the
machinee spindle, whereas
w the larger sizzes are proovided with h a hole for mountingg the
same on n an arbor. Smaller sizzes generallly have straaight teeth on the perriphery with h the
sides haaving a little clearancee. Larger sizes are ussually madee to have staggered
s t
teeth
both on the periph hery as well as the sides. A smaall size woo
odruff‐key milling
m cuttter is
shown in n Fig. 4.25

Figg 4.25 Woo
odruff‐key m
milling cutteer
T‐Slot‐MMilling Cutter:‐ It is a

a single opeeration cutter which is i used only for cuttin
ng T‐
slots. In smaller sizzes it is mad de to have the shank integral wiith the cuttter, as show wn in
Fig 4.26 Large size cutters aree mounted on a separate shank.. In operatiion, the narrow
groove aat the top iis first milleed by mean ns of slottin ng cutter orr end milling cutter. Th he T‐
slot‐milling cutter is then em mployed forr milling th he wider grroove. Notee the thin neck
provided d between the shank and the cu d movement of
utter. It faccilitates an unhindered
the cutteer through the upper ggroove as the cut procceeds.

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Fig 4.26 T‐slot‐milling cutter
Fly cutteer: ‐ It is acctually a single point tool. It is eeither moun nted on a ccylindrical b body

held in aa stub arbor or held in n a bar, exactly in the ssame way aas a boring in a boringg bar.
Screws are
a used fo or tightly holding the tool in thee above holders. Cuttiing edge off the
tool can
n be ground d to any deesired shapee. It can, th hus consideered as a fo ormed tool.. It is
generally used for experimen ntal purposses since su uch a cutteer, if propeerly designeed, is
capable of producin ng a very acccurate surfaces.
Angles o
of a plain m
milling cutte
er:‐
A millingg cutter can n be consid dered as a b built up unit of a num mber of singgle point cutting

uch that eacch tooth off the cutter is a single point cutting tool, as shown by ‘‘A’ in
tools, su
Before p proceeding on to the sstudy of too ol angles, note the nam mes of vario ous parts of the
cutter teeeth, such aas face, cuttting edge, back, flute, fillet, land d, etc.., Toooth thicknesss ‘T’
and the depth are tthe principlles dimensiions of the cutter teeth. represen nts the diffeerent
angles oof a plain m milling cutteer. The relieef angle (oK K) is the anngle betweeen the plain n P1,
which iss normal to the axial plane PP at a point, on the cuttingg edge, and d the tangent to
the relieeved land o of the cutter tooth. This angle is m measured in n a plane pperpendicular to
the axis of the cuttter. Due consideratio
c on must bee given to the various factors which
w
influence the selecction of a proper
p relieef angle. Higher the value
v of thiis lesser wiill be
friction and hence the wear o on the land. Also a larrger relief aangle will in ncrease thee tool
life betw
ween two grinds and eensure a beetter surfacee finish, but at the sam me time, du ue to
a conseq quent redu he lip angle (β), it will make the tooth weak, normallyy the
uction in th
relief an
ngles betwe een 10 and 3 30 degree.
The rake angle

a (γ) is the angle between the axial plaane PP and
d the
face of the t cutter tooth, meaasured in a a plane norrmal to thee cutting ed
dge. Rake angle
a
facilitatees free cutting by the ttool by allow wing the ch hip to flow ssmoothy. TThis ensuress less
consumption of power, p bettter surfacce finish, less
l wear on the to ooth face and
consequ uently a gre eater life off the tool b between tw wo grinds. H However, itt should no ot be
increaseed beyond 2 20 degree o otherwise tthe resultin ng smaller lip angle will again weaken
the tool.

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Question b
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The angle between the face and the lan
nd of the c
c utter too
oth is
called lip p angle (β).. Its value d depends up pon the valu ues of rake and relief angles. A laarger
lip anglee conservess a strongerr tooth. As such, endeeavor should be to keeep it as largge as
feasible,, taking into o consideraation the faactors explaain in the fo
orgoing parragraphs. Th his is
particulaarly importtant while milling harder metals and wheen deeper cuts are to be
employeed. Cutters having helical teeth are made to t contain a helix anggle betweeen 10
and 50 d degree. The e recommen nded value of principlees angles arre given in TTable 1.
Q‐3 Differentiate b
between Up
p Milling an
nd Down M
Milling.
Milling methods:
m Milling,
M as has
h alreadyy been statted, is a prrocess of metal
m cuttin
ng by
means o of a multi‐teeeth rotatin ng tool, called cutter. The form o of each tooth of the cu utter
is the saame as thatt of a singlee point tooll. However,, an importtant featuree to be noted is
that eacch tooth, affter taking cut, comes in operatio on again affter some interval of ttime.
ows the tooth to coo
This allo ol down beefore the next
n cuttingg operation n is done by
b it.
Obvioussly, minimizzes the effeect of heat developed in cutting on the cuttting edge. With
wing two meethods are commonlyy used for performingg this
cylindriccal cutters, the follow
operatio on:
1. U
Up or conventional milling.
m In this methodd of milling the cutter rotates in a
direction opposite to th hat in which h the work is fed [see Fig 1].
2. Down
D or cliimb millingg. In this method
m thee direction of rotation
n of the cu
utter
cooincides with direction n of work feeed, as shown in Fig 2..

Fig. 4.27 C
Conventionaal milling Fig. 4.28 Climb milling

The abovve relative d of movemeents of the ccutter and work shoulld be
directions o
noted att the point of contactt between the t two. On O comparin ng Figs 1 and 2

7
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you will find that the shape of chip (shaded area between points A and B)
removed by the cutter in both the cases is same, but an difference is that in
conventional milling, as the cut proceeds, the chip thickness increases
gradually; as from A to B. Against this, the chip thickness decreases in case of
climb milling. In other words we can say that the chip thickness in
conventional milling is minimum (zero) at the start of cut and maximum at the
end of the cut, whereas in climb or down milling. It is a reverse case, i.e.,
maximum in beginning and zero at the end.
The selection of a particular method, of the above two,
depends upon the nature of work. The former method, i.e., conventional
milling is commonly used for machining castings and forgings since this
method enables the cutter to dig‐in and start the cut below the hard upper
surface. The second method i.e., climb milling is particularly useful for
finishing operations and small work, such as slot cutting, milling grooves,
slitting, etc. It gives a better surface finish but it should be ensured, before
employing this method, that there is no backlash in the feeding mechanism of
the table and the work is rigidly held.
Q‐4 writes short notes on:
i) Milling machine specification:
Size and specifications: Size of milling machine is usually denoted by the
dimensions (length and breadth) of the table of the machine. Different
manufactures, however, these sizes by different numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
etc. Each of these indicates a particular standard size adopted by the
manufacturer and the relative literature from the manufacturer should be
thoroughly consulted before for a particular number. The corresponding
dimensions to a particular should be known before ordering for it so that it
can meet the requirement. Other main specifications of the machine to be
considered at the time of orders are the horse power of driving motor,
number of spindle. Speeds, drive, taper of spindle nose, required floor
area, gross weight, etc.

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Question b
bank with solution
ii) Drum
m type millin
ng machine
e
It is another h heavy duty production n machine in which thee two end ffaces

of the work w piece es are machined simu ultaneouslyy. It consistt of two veertical colu
umns
amounteed on stud dy base. A heavy drum m is mountted verticallly, betweeen the columns,
which rotates abo out a horizzontal axis. The millin a mounteed on the two
ng heads are
columnss. These heads carryy horizontaal spindles and can be b adjusted in a verrtical
direction n along the column. A typical design carrying 4 spiindles is sh hown in Fig. 1.
Cutters mounted on these spindles are faace mills. The upper tw wo spindless carry rougghing
cutters and a the low wer two finnishing cuttters. Well designed
d fixxtures are mounted along
a
the periphery of drrum to carrry the jobs tto be mach hined. The d drum rotates continuo ously
and the work piece es are mounted on thee fixtures o on the rear side of thee machine. TThey
come in contact with the loweer cutters.

Fig.4.29 A D
Drum type milling macchine

8
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Question b
bank with solution
iii) Differrent attach hment of milling mach hine:
Millin
ng machinee attachmeents‐ The attachment
a s are standdard or sp
pecial
auxiliary devicess intended to be fasteened to orr joined witth one or more
m
comp ponents of the millingg machine for the pu urpose of augmenting
a g the
rangee versatilityy, productivvity or accuracy of opperation. Some
S classees of
millin
ng machinee attachmeents are ussed for po ositioning and
a drivingg the
cutter by alterinng the cuttter axis and speed, whereas
w other classess are
used for position ning, holdin
ng and feed ding.

Verticcal milling attachment: It is also
o sometimees called sw wivel head. It is
used both on ho orizontal ass well as un niversal milling machine. For fixiing it
on thhe machine the over‐arm of the t latter is pushed back and the
attachment boltted on to th he front facce of the co olumn, as sshown in Fig. 2.
With the use of o this attaachment the horizon ntal and universal milling
mach hine can bee made to act as verttical millingg machiness. An important
point, which neeeds attention here, is that the universal milling
m macchine
canno ot be adjustted in a verrtical directtion. As such, the deptth of cut has got
to bee adjusted by raising the table of the machine. But it has an
advan ntageous feeature thatt it can bee swivelled to a desired angle, in a
verticcal plane, too make the spindle and d hence thee cutter, rotate at an aangle
to maachine an in nclined surfface on the work‐piecee.

Fig 4.30 milling attachment
0 Vertical m

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Question b
bank with solution
For provviding the d drive to verrtical spindle of the atttachment an adapterr is fitted to o the
horizonttal spindle o of the mach hine. It drivves a horizo
ontal spindlee in the attachment. TThen,
through a train of sspur gears and finally a pair of bevel gears tthe drive iss transmitteed to
the verttical spindle
e. It may, however, be
b noted that even though the horizontal and
universaal milling mmachines can be conveerted into vvertical milling machines by usingg this
attachm i will not be as effficient as a regular vertical milling
ment, still it m machine.
Operatio ons like facce milling, ggrooving, TT‐slot cuttin ng, etc. can easily be pperformed with
this attaachment.
Spiral milling
m attacchment: This is a univversal type of vertical milling attachment which
w
can be swivelled in two plaanes. This enables the spindle of the attaachment to o be
adjusted d at any desired inclination in tw wo differentt planes. Th he drive is o obtained byy the
spindle eexactly in tthe same w way as in a vvertical milling attachment descrribed in thee last
article. It thus provvides a greaat flexibilityy to adjust tthe cutter iin any posittion to macchine
a surfacee on the wo ork withoutt disturbingg the settingg of the work.
Slotting attachmen nt: In machhine shopss, simple sllotting macchine operations, succh as
keyway cutting, grrooving, slootting, and internal geear cutting,, etc., may be requireed to
perform he bulk of work may not justifyy the existtence of seeparate slo
med, but th otting
machinee. In such cases
c the milling
m d with a slotting attachment can be
macchine, fitted
used forr this purpoose. This atttachment ((Fig 3) is fittted to the front face of the macchine
column in the sam
me way as a vertical milling
m attachment. Its body carries an inteernal
mechanism which cconverts th he rotary motion of the machine spindle in tto reciprocaating
motion of the ram of this atttachment. A A slide or rram works in the guid des provideed on
the front of the attachment. Itt carries thee slotting to ool.

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3rd

Fig 4.31 A Slotting attachment
Rack milling attachment: This attachment is used for cutting teeth in racks. It can also be
employed, conjunction with the universal dividing head, for cutting worm, It is mounted
on the machine column and cutter is mounted on the arbor provided in this attachment.
The arbor means parallel to the longitudinal traverse of the machine table on which the
work piece is held for cutting the teeth.
Q‐5 Give the classification of milling machine.
Types of milling machine: A large variety of different types of milling machines is
available and it is really difficult to account for all these types in this small chapter. The
broad classification of these machines can be done as follows:
1. Column and knee type milling machines,
2. Fixed bed type or manufacturing type milling machines.
3. Planer type milling machines.
4. Production milling machines.
5. Special purpose machines.
Further detailed classification and descriptions of these machines will follow in the
forthcoming articles.
Column and knee type milling machines: These machines are all general purpose
machines and have a single spindle only. They derive their name ‘Column and knee’
type from the fact that the work table is supported on a knee like casting, which can
slide in vertical direction along a vertical column. These machines, depending upon
the spindle position and table movements, are further classified as follows:
a) Hand‐milling machine,
b) Plain or horizontal milling machine,
c) Vertical milling machine,
d) Universal milling machine, and
e) Omniversal milling machine.

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Fixed bed type or manufacturing type milling machines: These machine in comparison to
the column and knee type, are sturdy, heavier in weight and larger in size. They are not
suitable for tool rooms of these machines are either automatic or semi‐automatic in
operation, carry a single or multiple spindles. The common operations performed
machines are slot cutting, grooving, gang milling, and facing. Also further classification is
as follows:
a) Plain type (having single horizontal spindle)
b) Duplex head (having double horizontal spindle)
c) Triplex head (having two horizontal and one vertical spindle)
d) Rise and fall type (for profile milling)

Planer type milling machines: They are used for heavy work. Up to a maximum of four
tool heads can be over it, which can be adjusted vertically and transverse directions. It
has massive construction like a planer. Its detailed description will follow articles.
Production milling machines: They are also manufacturing machines but differ from the
above described in that they do not have a fixed bed. They include the following:
a) Rotary table or continuous type.
b) Drum type, and
c) Tracer controlled.
Special purpose machines: These machines are designed to perform a specific type of
operation only. Include the following machines:
a) Thread milling machine,
b) Profile milling machine,
c) Gear milling or gear hobbing machine,
d) Cam milling machine,
e) Planetary milling machine,
f) Double end milling machine,
g) Skin milling machine,
h) Spur milling machine,

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Question b
bank with solution
Q‐7 Draw a neat ssketch of co
olumn and knee type milling maachine? An
nd explain m
main
parts of it.
Vertical milling maachine: It derives its name

n from the vertical position of the spindle.
This macchine is avaailable in both types; tthe fixed bed types ass well as co olumn and knee
type. Principles parrts of the laatter type aare illustrated by mean ns of block diagrams in Fig
1 and 2.. It carries a vertical column on a heavy base. The ovver‐arm in this machine is
made inntegral with h the colum mn and caarries housiing at its front.
f This housing, called
head, caan be of fixxed type (FFig 1) or sw pe (Fig. 2) In fixed tyype, the spindle
wiveling typ
always rremains vertical and ccan be adju usted up an nd down. In n swiveling type, the head
can be sswivelled to o any desireed angle to machine th he inclined ssurfaces.

Fig 4
4.32 Verticaal milling maachine with
h fixed head
d
The kneee carries an enclosed screw jackk, by means of which it is moved up and d down

he parallel vertical gu
along th uide‐ways provided
p on he column, The
n the frontt side of th
saddle iss mounted on the knee and can b be moved, aalong the

Fig 4.33 Veertical millin
ng machinee with swiveelling head..

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Q‐8 Explain milling machine power feed mechanism?
Milling machine mechanism: The milling machine mechanism is composed of spindle
drive mechanism and the table feed mechanism.
The spindle drive mechanism is incorporated in the column. All modern machines are
driven by individuals motors housed within the column, and the spindle receivers’
power from a combination of gears and clutch assembly, Multiple speed of spindle may
be obtained by altering the gear ratio.
Fig. 1. illustrated the power feed mechanism contained within the knee A of the
machine to enable the table C to have three different feed movements, i.e. longitudinal,
cross, and vertical. The power is transmitted from the feed gear box H consisting of
change gears to shaft 23 in the knee A of the machine by a telescopic shaft 11. Both
ends of the shaft 11 are provided with universal joint 10 and 12. Telescopic shaft and
universal joints are necessary to allow vertical movement of knee A, gear 14, attached
to the jaw clutch 20, is keyed to the shaft 23 and drives gear 13 which free rotate on
shaft 23 and is in mesh with gear 19 fastened to the evaluating screw 15, 16 serves as a
nut for 15, and as screw in nut 17. 15 and 16 therefore serves as telescopic screw
combination and a vertical movement of the knee is thus possible. As soon as the clutch
20 is engaged with the clutch attached to the bevel gear 22 y means of a lever 4, 22
rotates and this being in mesh with gear 19 causes the elevating screw 15 to rotate in 16
giving a vertical movement of the knee. Like‐wise, when the clutch 21, which is keyed to
the cross feed screw 7 through gears 14 and 13. This causes the screw 7 to rotate in nut
6 of the clamp bed giving a crossfeed movement of the clamp bed D and saddle B.
Gear 18 is fastened to shaft 23, and meshes with gear 25 which is fastened to the
bevel gear 24. Again 24 meshes with gear 5 attached to a vertical shaft which carries at
its upper end another bevel gear 3. Gear meshes with gear 2 which is fastened to the
table feed screw1. Therefore, longitudinal feed movement of the table is possible
through gears 18, 25, 24, 5, 3, and 2.

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Question b
bank with solution

Fig. 4.34 M
Milling mach
hine power feed mechaanism
A Kn
nee, B. Sadd
dle, C. Tablee, D. Clamp bed, E. Feeed hand‐wh
heel,
F. Bed, G
G. Column, H H. Feed geaar box.
1. Longitudinal fed screew, 2, 3, 5,19,22,24. B Bevel gears,, 4. Clutch o operating leever,
6. Nut, 7. Crross‐feed screw, 8, 20 0, 21. Poweer‐feed cluttch, 9. Sadd
dle nut, 10
0, 12.
U
Universal jo
oint, 11. Teelescopic feeed shaft, 13, 14, 18
8, 25. Gearrs, 15 Elevaating
sccrew, 23. Fe eed shaft.

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GRINDING PROCESS AND SUFERFINISHING

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Unit‐ V
QUE:‐1) HOW GRINDING WHEELS ARE CLASSIFIED? STATE HOW THE GRINDING
WHEELS ARE SPECIFIED?
COMMON WHEEL SHAPES
The most common shapes of grinding wheels are shown in Fig. 5.1 and those
of wheel faces in Fig. 5.2. The straight sheels shown at (a), (b) and (c) are used for
internal grinding, tool grinding, centreless grinding, cylindrical and off hand grinding and
snagging. The recesses are provided to accommodate the manufacturing flanges. The
plain wheel is commonly used for parting off and is not more than 3 mm thick.

Fig. 5.1 Common shapes of grinding wheel
So as to prevent the wheel pieces from flying off, if the same gets broken during the
operation. Straight cup wheel (e) is mainly employed for surface grinding on both the
horizontal and vertical spindle grinders. Cylindrical wheel (f) has the same application as
straight cup wheel. The Saucer wheel (g) is principally used for sharpening the saws.
Dish wheel (h) finds its principal application on tool and cutter grinders for grinding the
teeth of various cutting tools, like milling cutters broaches, etc., for the reason that its
thin edge can easily enter the narrow spaces between adjacent teeth on tool. Flaring
cup wheel (i) is also mainly used on tool and cutter grinders. It may have a plain edge or

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beveled edge. The common shape of wheel faces is shown in Fig 5.2. The proper
selection of a particular type of face will depend on the nature of work.

Fig.5.2. Common shapes of grinding wheel faces.
BUILT‐UP WHEELS:‐
These wheels are made in many ways. Essentially, they consist of a number of
bonded abrasive blocks, held together by suitable means. A typical example of these will
consist of a these blocks fastened to a metal wheel, which consist of formed abrasive
blocks held in a circle by a chuck. Spacers are always provided between the blocks. It is
mainly employed on vertical spindle grinders with reciprocating or rotary type tables.
They are mainly used in surface grinding and carry the following main advantages:
¾ It is easier to manufacture these wheels in large
sizes in comparison to the solid wheels of same size. Fig. (5.3 segmental grinding
wheel)
¾ They cut intermittently, and hence cool grinding
is the result.
A segmental grinding wheel is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Other than those shown in Fig.5.1, there is a special variety of grinding wheels
which possesses ‘Cone’ and ‘Plug’ shapes. They are employed to grind intricate
shapes to which their outer surfaces suit. They carry threaded bushings on the
mounting side, as shown at (d) in Fig.5.4. This figure shows the standard Shapes
of ‘cone and plug’ grinders as per IS: 2324 (Part I)‐1985. Their detailed

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dimensions are also given in this standard. An imported point to note is that in
this type of wheels grinding is performed by all the surfaces except the flat
surface on the mounting side.

Fig. 5.4 cone and plug grinding wheel as per IS: 2324 (PART‐ I)‐ 1985
Cone(type 16), (b) Cone (type 17), (c) Cone (type 17R), (d) plug(type 18), (e) Plug
(type18R), (f) Conical plug –square tip (type 19), (g) Conical plug –round tip (type 19R)

MOUNTED WHEELS AND POINTS:‐
These are small grinding wheels with shanks attached to them. They are
made in various different shapes and sizes so as to enable grinding even in those places
which are not easily accessible otherwise. (see Fig 5.5).

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Fig 5.5. Common shapes of mounted wheels and points
They are commonly used on portable grinders and run at extremely high speeds up to
100,000 r.p.m. A few of the applications of these wheels and points are in finishing dies,
metal moulds, recesses, small circular and tapered holes, fillets and other small
curvatures. Such requirements frequently occur in foundry, forging and tool room work,
such as for cleaning the surfaces of casting and forgings and production and
maintenance of tools and dies for die‐casting, plastic moldings, pressing (hot), drop
stamping and metal extrusion, etc.
DIAMOND WHEELS
These wheels are also made in almost similar shapes as of aluminium oxide or
silicon carbide wheels. They are also provided with the central hole for being mounted
on a spindle. Alternatively, they can be attached or fastened to metallic backing.
Artificial diamond bonded wheels are now preferred over the natural diamond bonded
wheels, particularly in grinding carbide tipped tools. The wheels may have a vitreous or
resinoid bond. It is reckoned that the artificial diamond bonded wheels are more free
cutting and enable more stock removal with less power consumption as compared to
the natural diamond bonded wheels.
METHOD OF SPECIFYING A GRINDING WHEEL
The methods of specifying a grinding wheel differ slightly in different
countries. In order to maintain uniformity throughout the country in the system of
marking grinding wheels the Bureau of Indian Standards has devised a standard system
to be followed by all manufactures. Its details are given in (IS: 551‐1954). According to
this system the various elements and characteristics of grinding wheels are represented
on all the wheels in definite sequences as follows:
1. Abrasive 2. Grain size or gril,
2. Grade 4. Structure and 5. Bond.
In addition, a manufacturer can use a suitable ‘prefix’, presiding the abrasive notation,
to indicate his own trade brand of the abrasive used and a ‘suffix’ at the end of all the
notations to indicate the manufacturer’s own symbolic representation for that
particular type of wheel. The use of prefix and /or suffix is, however, optional. The

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marking system recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards in there IS code No.
551‐1989 is given in Fig.(5.6).
Apart from the above information, in order to specify a grinding wheel completely, the
size, i.e., diameter and width or thickness and the diameter of bore are also required to
be mentioned.
Thus, a grinding wheel carrying the markings, 250 x 25 x 32 W A 46 L 4 V 17 will
confirm to the following specifications:
Wheel dia. = 250mm
Thickness of wheel = 25mm
Bore dia. = 32m
W‐‐‐‐ Manufacturer’s prefix to abrasive. It is optional. Here it denotes ‘White’
A‐‐‐‐‐Abrasive (AL₂O₃)
46‐‐‐‐It is a grain size (medium)
L‐‐‐‐‐It is a grain medium grade.
4‐‐‐‐Represents a dense structure
V‐‐‐‐Stands for vitrified bond.
17‐‐‐‐It is a suffix denoting the ‘bond type’ of the manufacturer.
QUE‐2) DRAW A NET SKETCH TO GRINDING MACHINE, HORIZONTAL SPINDLE

RECIPROCATING TABLE TYPE SURFACE AND EXPLAIN FUNCTIONS OF ITS VARIOUS
PARTS?
RECIPROCATING TABLE TYPE SURFACE GRINDERS
The principal of grinding, as applied to reciprocating table type surface grinders, is
illustrated by means of the diagram of relative movements in Fig. 5.6 and 5.7 A
reciprocating table type surface grinder Wheel (see Fig. 5.6 or a vertical Spindle of the
same, as shown in Fig 5.6 The former will carry a straight wheel and the latter a cup type
wheel. Hydraulic drives are commonly used in all such grinders. Cutting is done on the

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periphery of the straight wheel in case horizontal spindle type, and on revolving edge of
the cup wheel on vertical spindle machines.

Fig.5.6 working principle of a horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder.
The horizontal spindle machines are widely used in tool rooms. The work piece is usually
held on a magnetic chuck on these machines. They are vastly used for grinding flat
Surfaces. The machine size is designed by the dimensions of the working area of the
table. A typical design of a Grinder is shown in Fig.5.7 illustrating its main Parts and
controls. The longitudinal feed to the work is given by reciprocating the table. For giving
cross feed, there are two methods. One is to mount the table on a saddle and give the
cross feed by moving the saddle. Alternatively, the cross feed can be given by moving
the wheel‐head in and out. It is this method which is employed in the machine shown in
Fig. 5.7 In feed is provided by lowering the wheel‐head along the column.
In case of vertical spindle reciprocating table grinders the table, along with the work
piece, reciprocates under the wheel. The wheel covers all or a major portion

Fig. 5.7 Working principle of a vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

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Fig.5.8 Reciprocating table hydraulic surface grinder.
1.“Stop” push‐button for hydraulic pump motor, 2.”Start” push‐button for hydraulic
pump motor, 3.Adjustable travel cum‐dog, 4.Master “Stop” push‐button. 5. Push button
for engaging rapid upward traverse of the wheel head. 6. Control lever of
Electromagnetic ebuck(“switched on”, “switched off” and “demagnetized”).7. Signal
lamp indicating that electromagnetic chuck is switched on. 8. Electromagnetic chuck
operation switches (“with chuck” or “without chuck”). 9. Feed switch on and off. 10.
“Start” push‐button for coolant pump motor. 11. Work light switch. 12. Push button for
engaging rapid downward traverse of the wheel head. 13. Change‐over switch for
starting coolant flow either together with grinding wheel rotating or together with table
travel. 14. “Stop” push‐button for grinding wheel rotation. 15. “Start” push‐button for
grinding wheel rotation. 16. Lever for table travel. (“Start”, “stop”).17Lever for manually
reversing table travel. 18. Knob for setting table speed. 19. Push‐ button for disengaging
band wheel and dial.20. Hand wheel for vertical wheel head feed. 21. Lever for setting
the positive stop.22.Lever for engaging rapid vertical traverse of wheel head. 23. Knob
setting rate of automatic vertical feed of wheel head. 24. Knob for setting rate of
intermittent cross feed. 25. Knob for setting rate of continuous cross feed. 26. Lever for
engaging either intermittent or continuous cross feed. 27. Adjustable table cam‐dog. 28.
Coolant feed cock. 29. Hand wheel for cross traverse of wheel head. 30. Hand wheel for
cross traverse of wheel head. 31. Reversing cam‐dog for hydraulic cross feed of wheel
head. 32. Lever for reversing hydraulic cross feed of wheel head. 33. Table reversing
lever of the width of the job, as shown in Fig. 5.8. Cross feed to the work can be given as

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usual by moving the saddle. A manual or power feed can be employed to feed the
wheel‐head vertically. An individual motor drive is usually provided to rotate the wheel.
QUE‐3) WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND FROM ‘GRAIN’,’GRIT’ STRUCTURE AND GRADE
OF GRINDING WHEEL EXPLAIN?
GRAIN OR GRIT
The term ‘Grain’ or ‘Grit’ denotes the approximate size of the abrasive particles and give
an idea of the coarseness or fineness of the grinding wheel. A grinding wheel may have
the abrasive particles of same size or different sizes. The former is known as a straight
wheel and the latter compound wheel. The choice of grain‐size or grit depends upon
many factors, viz,, quality of finish required, amount of stock material to be removed
and physical properties of the material to be ground. The coarser grit will remove the
stock at a faster rate and finer finish will always require a finer grit. Coarse grit wheels
are more suitable for grinding soft and ductile materials hard and brittle materials are
best ground with finer grit wheels.
The grit or grain size of an abrasive is denoted by a number representing the
number of meshes per inch of the screen through which the grains of crushed abrasive
are passed for grating. The standard numbers representing different grain sizes are
given in Table.

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Grit Grain size or Grit No.
designation
Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24
Medium 30 36 46 54 60
Fine 80 100 120 150 180
Very fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600
Standard grain size for grinding wheels
Note. The first three types i.e. coarse, medium and fine, are used in grinding work and
the ‘very fine’ grit, i.e., having grain size no. from 220 onwards, in honing work.
GRADE:‐
The term ‘Grade’ indicates the strength of bond in a wheel, i.e., the power of the
abrasive particles to hold together and resist disintegration under the cutting pressure.
Higher the proportion of bond for a specified quantity of abrasive particles the harder
will be the wheel and a lower proportion will render it ‘soft’. The abrasive grains of a
soft wheel will easily be broken away from the bond whereas the hard wheel will retain
these particles for a much longer period. The selection of a particle grade of wheel is
largely governed by the nature of work, its composition, size and hardness, etc. Softer
wheels are preferred for grinding harder materials and vice‐versa. Similarly, smaller the
size of the work, the harder should be the wheel and vice‐versa. The machine condition
also plays an important role in this selection. Where vibrations are likely to occur harder
wheels are employed, such as in tool post grinders on lathes. All wheels manufacturers
always provide tables of recommended grits and grills for specific operation and
materials to be machined and it is advisable to follow the same in selecting a wheel for a
specific job.
Different wheel grades are represented by English alphabets from A to Z, ‘A’
being the softest and ‘Z’ being the hardest. The standard grouping is as follows:
Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Different grades of grinding wheels

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STRUCTURE
This term denotes the spacing between the abrasive grains, or in other
words the density of the wheel. The proportion of the bond in a certain volume of the
wheel affects the structure. A higher proportion will render an open structure and a
lower proportion will lead to a closer structure. If two wheels of same grit and grade are
used on the same material, one having an open structure and the other close structure,
the former will be found to cut faster and more freely in comparison to the latter and
will have more life as compared to it.
The above two types of structures are represented by numbers as follows:
Structures of grinding wheels
Structure type Represented by Nos.
Dense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Open 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 or
up

Note. Selection of a particular structure will depend upon the hardness of work
material, Type of grinding operation and quality of surface finish needed on the work
surface. Brittle and hard materials and finish grinding work will need a dense structure,
while a soft and tough work material and rough grinding operation will need an open
structure.
QUE‐4) EXPLAINS DIFFERENT TYPES OF SURFSCE GRINDERS?
SURFACE GRINDERS:‐
Surface grinders do almost the same operation as the planers, shapers or milling
machines, but with more precision. Primarily they are intended to machine flat surface,
although irregular, curved or tapered surfaces can also be ground on them. The
common classification of surface grinders can be made as follows:
1. According to the table movement:
(a) Reciprocating table type. (b) Rotary table type.
2. According to the direction of wheel spindles:

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(a) Vertical spindle type. (b) Horizontal spindle type.
3. Special type and single purpose machines.
(a) Face grinders (b) way grinders (c) Wet belt grinders.
RECIPROCATING TABLE TYPE SURFACE GRINDERS
The principal of grinding, as applied to reciprocating table type surface grinders, is
illustrated by means of the diagram of relative movements in Fig. 5.9 and 5.10 A
reciprocating table type surface grinder Wheel (see Fig. 5.9 or a vertical Spindle of the
same, as shown in Fig The former will carry a straight wheel and the latter a cup type
wheel. Hydraulic drives are commonly used in all such grinders. Cutting is done on the
periphery of the straight wheel in case horizontal spindle type, and on revolving edge of
the cup wheel on vertical spindle machines.

Fig.5.9 Working principle of a horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder.
The horizontal spindle machines are widely used in tool rooms. The work piece is usually
held on a magnetic chuck on these machines. They are vastly used for grinding flat
Surfaces. The machine size is designed by the dimensions of the working area of the
table. A typical design of a Grinder is shown in Fig.5.10 illustrating its main Parts and
controls.

Fig. 5.10 Working principle of a vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

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The longitudinal feed to the work is given by reciprocating the table. For giving cross
feed, there are two methods. One is to mount the table on a saddle and give the cross
feed by moving the saddle. Alternatively, the cross feed can be given by moving the
wheel‐head in and out. It is this method which is employed in the machine shown in Fig.
5.10. In feed is provided by lowering the wheel‐head along the column.
In case of vertical spindle reciprocating table grinders the table, along with the
work piece, reciprocates under the wheel. The wheel covers all or a major portion

Fig. 5.11 Reciprocating table hydraulic surface grinder.
1. “Stop” push‐button for hydraulic pump motor, 2.”Start” push‐button for

hydraulic pump motor, 3. Adjustable travel cum‐dog, 4. Master “Stop” push‐
button. 5. Push button for engaging rapid upward traverse of the wheel head. 6.
Control lever of Electromagnetic ebuck (“switched on”, “switched off” and
“demagnetized”).7. Signal lamp indicating that electromagnetic chuck is switched
on. 8. Electromagnetic chuck operation switch (“with chuck” or “without chuck”).
9. Feed switch on and off. 10. “Start” push‐button for coolant pump motor. 11.
Work light switch. 12. Push button for engaging rapid downward traverse of the
wheel head. 13. Change‐over switch for starting coolant flow either together with
grinding wheel rotating or together with table travel. 14. “Stop” push‐button for
grinding wheel rotation. 15. “Start” push‐button for grinding wheel rotation. 16.
Lever for table travel. (“start”, “stop”).17. Lever for manually reversing table
travel. 18. Knob for setting table speed. 19. Push‐ button for disengaging band
wheel and dial.20. Handwheel for vertical wheel head feed. 21. Lever for setting

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thhe positive stop.22. Leever for enggaging rapid d vertical trraverse of w wheel headd. 23.
K
Knob setting g rate of au
utomatic veertical feed d of wheel h head. 24. K Knob for seetting
raate of intermittent crooss feed. 255. Knob for setting ratee of continu uous cross ffeed.
26. Lever for
f engaging either intermitteent or con ntinuous cross feed. 27.
A
Adjustable table cam‐‐dog. 28. Coolant feeed cock. 29. 2 Handw wheel for cross
c
trraverse of wheel heaad. 30. Han
ndwheel for cross traverse of wheel
w head. 31.
R
Reversing ca am‐dog for hydraulic ccross feed o of wheel heead. 32. Levver for reversing
hydraulic cro oss feed off wheel heaad. 33. Tablle reversingg lever of the width of the
jo
ob, as show wn in Fig. 5.10 Crossfeeed to the w work can bee given as u usual by mooving
thhe saddle. A manual or power feed
f can bee employed t wheel‐head
d to feed the
vertically. Ann individuall motor drivve is usuallyy provided to rotate th he wheel.
ROTTARY TABLEE SURFACE GRINDERS
Rotary tablee surface grinders aree also madee in two tyypes, i.e., either
R
havin ng a horizzontal wheeel spindlee or a veertical wheeel spindlee. The relative
moveements of tthe wheel aand table off a horizonttal spindle ttype are sho own in fig. 5.12

Fig.5.12. Relative movements of different parts of
o a horizo
ontal spind
dle rotary table
t
surface ggrinder.
Usuaally a circulaar shaped m magnetic ch huck is mou

unted on the circular taable to hold d the
jobs. The work pieces aree normally arranged in n a circle, concentric
c with the ro
ound
chuck. If it is a single piecce, it can be mounted
d centrally on
o the chuck. The tab ble is
madee to rotate e under thee revolving wheel, botth rotating in oppositee direction.. The
vertical feed to the wheel is given by moving thee wheel‐heaad along a column and d the

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cross feed by the horizontal movements, of the wheel spindle. a straight wheel is
used on these machines, which cuts on its periphery. Same machines carry the
provision to raise or lower the table also and also to incline the same.

Fig.5.13. Relative movement of different parts of vertical spindle rotary table surface
grinders
Fig.5.13 illustrates the relative movements of the wheel and table of a Rotary
table vertical spindle surface grinder. A cup wheel has to be used on these machines,
as shown in diagram. Vertical feed to the wheel is given by moving the wheel‐head.
The work piece is mounted on the round chuck in the same way as in the horizontal
spindle type. The table rotates in a direction opposite to that of the wheel and brings
the work piece one after the other under the rotating wheel. The table is usually
mounted on a slide so as to give cross feed. Some rotary table surface grinders are
provided with two tables instead of one so that, while the work pieces are being
ground on one table, the other table can be used for loading the fresh batch of work
pieces.
OTHER TYPES OF SURFACE GRINDERS
1. Face grinder: ‐ It is more or less similar in operation to a horizontal spindle
reciprocating table surface grinder, but differ in that a vertical flat surface is
ground instead of a horizontal one. The cutting is done on the face of the
wheel and not the periphery. Usually cup, ring or segmental type wheels are
used, which are mounted on a horizontal spindle and fed on to the vertical
surface of the work piece, mounted on the reciprocating table. This type of

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machine is used for llarge and h heavy work pieces. Thee work can also be helld on
angle platte or in well designed fflexures.
2. Way grin nder: ‐ It is actually a single purpose
p maachine used normallyy for
grinding tthe bed ways of differrent machin nes. It is a very large and heavy duty
machine carrying a vertical spindle. Cup,, ring or seegmental tyype wheelss are
used on this
t machin ne. The whheel spindlee can be tittled to a desired angle to
grind inclined surfacces of the ways.
w The table is of reciprocating type, which
w
carries thee work pastt the rotatin ng wheel.
3. Wet belt grinders: ‐ ‐ These maachines carrry vertical plates, wh hich supporrt an
endless abrasive beltt revolving in a verticaal direction n. The tablee moves to feed
work agaiinst the belt and the fformer also o oscillates across the latter to eeffect
desired grrinding. Thee abrasive used on the belt carriies the resinoid bond. This
type of machine
m is specially
s ussed in grind
ding low fuusion pointt materials as a
large amoount of heaat generateed is absorb bed by the coolant, which
w is useed in
ample quaantity.
QUE‐5) EXPLAINS THE PRIN

NCIPAL OF CENTRELESS GRINDIING. EXPLA
AIN ‘THROUGH
LEED’ IN
N‐FEED’ AND
D ‘END FEEED’ METHODDS OF CENTTRELESS GR
RINDING?
CENTRELESS G
GRINDER
These grrinders are also a typee of cylindrical grinders only, but the princip

ple of
centre leess grinding differ fro om centre ttype grindin ng in that tthe work, in nstead of b
being
mounted between n centers, is supported by a combination
c nding wheel, a
n of a grin
regulatin ng wheel an nd a work rrest blade.

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Fig 5.14 Simplified dia. of a centre less grinder.
The relative movements of the work piece and the two wheels are shown in fig.5.14.
The principle of centre less grinding is used for both the external grinding as well as
internal grinding. Many hollow cylindrical and tapered work pieces, like bushes, pistons,
valves tubes and balls, etc, which either do not or cannot have centre, are best ground
on centre less grinders.
A simplified diagram of centre less grinder is shown in Fig. 5.14 illustrating its main
parts and controls. It carries a heavy base and two wheel heads, one carrying the
grinding wheel (large one) and the other regulating wheel(smaller one3). The work
piece rests on the blade of the work rest between these two wheels. Each head carries a
separate wheel truing mechanism for the wheel it carries. A housing can provide on one
side of the machine body to house the main driving motor. There are two control panels
on the front. The left hand panel carries control of speed adjustment of the two truing
mechanism and the in‐feed grinding mechanism. The right hand panel carries for
hydraulic mechanism, speed adjustment of regulating wheel, automatic working cycle
switch, start and stop switches, etc.
In operation, grinding operation is performed by the grinding wheel only while
the function of the regulating wheel is to provide the required support to the work
pieces while it is pushed away by the cutting pressure of the grinding wheel. This helps
the work pieces to remain in contact with the grinding wheel. At the same time,
required support from bottom is provided by the work rest as the work piece, while
rotating, and rests on the blade of the work rest. The regulating wheel essentially carries
rubber bond and helps in the rotation of work piece due to friction. The direction of
rotation of the two wheels is the same. The common methods used for feeding the
work are:
1. Through feed 2. In‐feed 3. End feed

1. Through feed grinding: In this method of centre less grinding, the work piece is
supported and revolved as described above but, is simultaneously given an axial
movement also by the regulating wheel and guides so as to pass between the
wheels.

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Fig. 5.15 Principle off through feeed centre less grindin
ng
For this, thee axis of the regulating wheel is inclined att 2 to 10 deegrees with
h the
vertical (seee angle α in Fig.5.15). TThe amoun
nt of stock tto be removved determmines
as to how m many time aa work piece has to paass between n the wheeels. This method
iss used for sttraight cylin
ndrical objeects.
The actu
ual feed (f) can be deteermined byy the following relation
nship:
f=
= пdn.sin α
Where,, f= feed in m
mm/min.
п
п= revolutio
ons/min.
d= dia. Of reegulating wheel (in mm
d m)
α
α= angle of inclination of regulating wheel.
n‐feed grinding: This m
2. In method is ssimilar to tthe plunge cut grindin ng method used
on cylindrical grinders. Both regulating and d grinding wheel are more in width
w
th
han the wo ork length to
o be groundd. Axis of thhe regulatinng wheel is inclined a llittle,
saay about half h a degreee, from th
he horizonttal. This meethod is ussed for grin
nding
shhouldered o or formed ccomponentts.
B
Before the operationn, the reggulating wheel is drrawn awayy to
accommodaate the worrk piece. Affter placingg the work piece on th he blade off the
w
work rest, t he regulating wheel iss again pusshed in to press again nst the worrk. In

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thhis operatio
on, the worrk rest doess not carry gguides; insttead, it is m
made to havve an
end stop at tthe rear end, as shown n in Fig. 5.1
16

Fig. 5.16
6 in‐feed ce d‐feed centre less grinding
entre less ggrinding. Fig. 5.17 End

3. End feed griinding: Thiss method iss, in a way, a sort of fo orm grindin
ng. It is beccause
both the wh he grinding wheel and the regulating wheel,, are dresseed to
heel, i.e., th
coontain the required shape or fo
orm. The wor5k piece is fed longgitudinally from
f
thhe side of the wheels. As it advan nces between the revo olving wheeels, its surfaace is
ground till its further end touchees the end stop. Thiss method can
c be used d for
grinding of bboth spherical and tap pered surfacces, but it suits best to o the grindin ng of
shhort tapereed surfaces.. The metho od of end‐feeed grindin ng is shown in Fig. 5.17 7
ADVANTTAGES OF C
CENTRE LESSS GRINDIN
NG
1. The need d for centerring and usee of fixturess, etc, is tottally avoideed.
2. It can be applied eqqually to botth external and internal grinding..
3. Once a seet‐up has bbeen made, it is a fasteer method tthan centree‐type grind ding.
4. In througgh‐feed meethod, the p process is continuous aas there is no idle time for
the machine, because loadingg and unlo oading is done duringg the operaation
itself.
5. In in‐feed method aalso no chu ucking of w work is needed and, as such, thee idle
time of the3 machin ne is almostt negligible.

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6. Since there is no end thrust, there are no chances of any springy action or
distortion in long work pieces.
7. The operation condition automatically provides a true floating type centre for
the work pieces and, as such, the common errors normally associated with
the centre and centre holes are automatically eliminated.
8. The work piece is supported rigidly during the operation and can be subjected
to heavy cuts, resulting in a rapid and more economical grinding.
9. Since the need for marking and making centre holes is totally eliminated and a
smaller grinding allowance is needed, the grinding time is considerably
reduced.
10. Large grinding wheels are used and errors due to wheel wear are reduced. So,
the requirement of wheel adjustment is minimum.
11. A heavy little maintenance is needed for the machine.
12. Very highly skilled operations are not needed for operating centre less
grinders.
13. Direct adjustment for sizes can be made, resulting in a higher accuracy.
14. A fairly wide range of components can be ground.
Some disadvantages are:‐
1) In hollow work there is no certainly that the outside diameter will be concentric
with the inside diameter.
2) Work having multiple diameters is not easily handled.
QUE‐6) EXPLAINS THE PROCESS OF HONING AND LAPPING?

LAPPING
It is an abrading process employed for improving the surface finish by
reducing roughness, waviness and other irregularities on the surface. It is used on both
heat‐treated and non heat‐treated metal parts. It should however, be noted that where
good appearance of the job surface is the only requirement, it should not be employed,
since there are other finishing methods which will give the same desired result with low

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cost. It should be used only where accuracy is a vital consideration in addition to the
surface finish. The basic purpose of lapping is to minimize the extremely minute
irregularities left on the job surface after some machining operation.
In brief, we can say that Lapping is basically employed for removing minor
surface imperfection, obtaining geometrically true surfaces, obtaining better
dimensional accuracy and, thus, facilitate a very close fit between two contacting
surfaces.
The material to be selected for making a lapping tool or lap largely depends
upon the individual choice and the availability, and no specific rule can be laid for the
same. The only consideration that has to be made is that the material used for making a
lap should be soft so that the abrasive grain can be easily embedded in its surface. In
case a hard material is used for making the lap, the abrasive particles will quickly go out
of their places. The commonly used material is soft cast iron, copper, brass, lead and
sometimes hardwood.
Abrasive: All the abrasive, i.e., natural as well as artificial are used for lapping.
Aluminium oxide is preferred for lapping soft ferrous and non‐ferrous metals. Silicon
carbide and natural corundum are used for hardened steel parts. Powdered garnet is
used for lapping soft ferrous and non‐ferrous metals, emery for hardened steel
components and diamond for extremely hard material like cemented carbides.
Vehicle:
The term ‘vehicle’ in lapping denotes the lubricant used to hold or retain the abrasive
grains during the operation. To some extent it also controls the cutting action of the
latter. Some common vehicle used in lapping includes the vegetable or olive oil, hard oil,
water so9luble oil, mineral oil, kerosene mixed with a little machine oil, alcohol, and
heavy grease. For cleaning the laps, naphtha is commonly used. No specific
recommendation can, although, be laid for the selection of a particular vehicle, still the
vehicle used should posses the following qualities:
1. It should be able to hold the abrasive particles uniformly during the operation.
2. Its viscosity should not be considerably affected by temperature changes.
3. It should not evaporate quickly.

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Question b
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4. It should be non‐corro osive.
5. Its viscosityy should su
uit the operaating speed
ds.
Pressure
e and speed
d for Lappin
ng
he followingg magnitudes of pressure are recommended
Th d for lapping:
or soft material 0.07
Fo 7‐‐‐‐0.2 kg/ccm²
or hard material 0.7 kkg/cm²
Fo
Norm
mal speed raange used in rotary lapping, i.e., when thee work and
d lap
have a rotary motio on relative to each othher, varies ffrom 1.5m//sec to 4.0 m m/sec.
LAPPING
G METHODS AND MAC
CHINES
Lapping is done in ffollowing tw
wo ways:
1. By han
nd‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ccalled hand
d lapping.
2. By maachines‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐called m
machine lappping.
Hand laapping:
In hand lapping, eiither the lap or the wo ork‐piece iss held by haand and thee motion of the
other en
nables the rrubbing of the two surfaces in co ontact. Thiss method iss widely useed in
lapping press workk dies; mou ulding dies aand metal moulds forr casting, limmit gauges,, etc.
In some cases the lapping com mpounds iss placed beetween the two surfacces and thee two
are rubb
bed togethe er by movin ng one of tthese by haand, the oth her re4maining station nary.
A few exxamples of this method are lappin ng of surfacce plates, engine valvee, and valvee
belt, etcc.

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Fig. 5.18 An example of Hand Lapping
Machine lapping:
Machine lapping is performed for obtaining a highly finished surface on many articles
like races ball and roller bearings, gears, crankshafts, machine bearings, pistons, pins
and gauges, gauge blocks, various automobile engine parts and micrometer spindles,
etc.

Fig 5. 19 working principle of a vertical spindle lapping machine.
HONING
It is also an abrading process, used for finishing previously machined surfaces. It
is mostly used for finishing internal cylindrical surfaces such as drilled or bored holes.
The tool used, called a hone, is a bonded abrasive hone made in the form of a stick.
Although honing cradles the maximum stock removal out of the surface finishing
operation, still it is not primarily a metal removing operation. However, this higher stock
removing capacity enables the application of honing for correcting slight out of
roundness or lapper. Hole location cannot be corrected through it. The usual amount of
stock left for removal by honing is form 0.1 mm to 0.25 mm; although it is capable of
removing the stock up to 0.75 mm. Honing is performed at relatively slow speeds in the
range of 10‐30 m/min.
The honing stock are so held in a holder or mandrel that they can be forced outwards
by mechanical or hydraulic pressure against the surface of the bore. Aluminium oxide,

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Question b
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silicon carbide
c or diamond grains
g of su
uitable grit are bondeed in resinoid, vitrifieed or
shelter bond to form the honning stoness, usually carrying
c traces of sulp
phur or wax for
longer toool life and better cuttting action.

Fig.5.20 A
A hand hon
ning tool an
nd honing p
process.
Both internal cylin

ndrical and flat surfaces can be honed.
h Butt, the proceess of honing is
largely aapplied to internal cylindrical surrfaces only.. A bond ho oning tool is shown in n Fig.
5.20.
The hannd honing p process: Hooning is a ‘w wes’ proceess and it iss necessaryy that a suittable

coolant be used in
n ample quuality during the operration. In small parts, honing can be
done byy hand. In this, the hon ne is rotateed and the work piecee moved ovver rotatingg tool
back andd forth by hand. The length of sttocks used is about half of that of the holee and
the overr travel at the end of eeach stroke is about on ne‐third of tthe stone leength.
Machine e honing: The proceess of hon ning can be

b done on n many geeneral purpose
machinees also, such as lathees and drilling machines. Wherre the stattionary typ pe of
machinees do not suit
s the natture of worrk, a portab ble electricc drill can be
b used forr this
purposee by fitting a hone in p place of the drill, the reciprocatiing motion being giveen by
hand. In n production work, wh here honingg is to be ddone on a large scale, such mach hines
will fail to give sattisfactory and
a econom mical resultts. In such cases, the use of reggular
honing m machines o only will givve the desirred results. These hon ning machin nes are madde in
various ttypes and ssizes. The m most commo on classificaation of theese is as folllows:
1. Hoorizontal ho
oning machine.
2. Veertical honin
ng machinee:

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Figg. 5.21 Honing tool head for vertical machin
ne
QUE‐7
7) EXPLAINS METAL SP
PRAYING O
OPERATION
N?

Fig.5.22 mettal sprayingg
1)Oxyy‐ Fuel gas 2. Compressed air 3. Flame 4. W/P
W 5. Ato
omized spraay 6. Meltin
ng 7.
Wire

Explan nation: Me etal spraying is basically intended d to confer ssome physiical propertty on
a surfface. The appearancea e of poor surface
s on casting caan be imprroved by metal m
sprayiing. Spraye ed metal caan be deco orative, likee aluminum m or bronzze on cast iron.
Some can even b be colored.

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Question b
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Metal sprayin
ng is done b
by melting aa metal in aan oxy‐ gas flam & blowing
it forrm the nozzzle of sprayy gun. In most guns th he metal in the form o of wire is feed by
powd dered rollers to the flaame, but so ome guns usse powder or granule metal.
QUE‐8) EEXPLAINS H
HOW SURFA H IS MEASURED?
ACE FINISH
The most important p parameter ffor measureement of geeometrical deviation is the
roughneess or micro paced surface irregularrities
o irregularitties. These are relativeely finely sp
& depen nd on the machining condition such
s as ratte of metal removal characterist
c tic of
tool, etc. A numb a in use for the purpose
ber of insttruments are p off surface finish
f
assessm ment; one off them is eleectrical inteegrating styylus instrum ments.
Thesse instrumeents provid ndamental informatio

de the fun on required d for
surface measurement i.e., a numerical assessmen nt displayed
d on a metter or grap
phical
traces.

Fig. 5.22 Electronic Stylus Instrruments
Electricaal integratin ng instrumeents employy an arm on n which a diamond styylus is moun nted.

The stylus is drawn n across the stylus surface and itts vertical movement transducteed to
electricaal signals. Figure
F ws the instrruments in which thee movemen
show nt of arm which
w
constitutes an arm mature variees the air gap
g at the outer limbs of shaped core, thee coil
wound limbs form branches o of a bridge ccircuit. A carrier wave is supplied to the bridge &
the effect of varyin ng the air gaaps is to mo odulate or vary the ammplitude off the wavefform.
The modulated waave is then n amplified d; demodullated & eitther filtereed to provide a
meter reead out or p provides graphical tracce.

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Surface roughness is specified by referring to the centre line average or the
root mean average of the micro irregularities. Instrument gives the direct reading of CLS
& RMS values.
QUE‐9) EXPLAINS THE PROCESS OF GALVANIZING GIVING ITS APPLICATION?
GALVANIZATION:
It is a process of providing thin layer of zinc coating ( highly corrosion resistance) or iron
or low carbon steel by dipping them in a bath of molten zinc. It improve the resistance
against corrosion due to atmosphere and water. Since zinc is anodic to iron or steel
(which serve as cathodic), therefore the zinc coating (also called anodic coating) is
obtained by electro‐chemical reaction between zinc and the iron or steel. The process is
carried out as follows:
First of all the work is cleaned by picking with dilute sulphuric acid,
to remove any scale, rust and impurities. After washing and drying it is dipped in the
bath of molten zinc maintained at temperature at about 450°c. The surface of the bath
kept covered with a molten flux layer usually of zinc ammonium chloride to prevent
oxide formation. The deviation of immersion in a zinc bath depend upon the size of the
work to be coated, it is then taken out of the bath a passed through the pair of rollers to
remove and excess of zinc. Finely, the work is cooled and dried.
The galvanizing process is widely used for sheeting for roofs and walls of
buildings, structural parts, pipes, container, fencing material, nails, wires, etc. Since the
zinc get dissolve in dilute acids to form highly toxic compound, therefore the galvanized
utensils should not be used for preparing and storing foodstuffs especially acidic one.
Applications:
1) it is mainly use for large sheeting for roofs and walls of the buildings.
2) it is used for structural parts, pipes, containers, fencing material, nails, wires, etc.
QUE‐10) WRITE SHORT NOTES ON
a) SUPER FINISHING PROCESS
b) ELECTROPLATING

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Question b
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c) CYLLINDRICAL GRINDING

a) Super finishing: ‐
Itt is more orr less like a lapping pro ocess with aa specific difference th hat the abraasive
used is aa bonded aabrasive. Th he abrasivees are used in a particular way under contro olled
conditio
ons to prod duce a high
h quality suurface finish on the work
w surfacce. It should be
particulaarly noted that it is not essen ntially a metal
m remo oving operaation and it is
necessary, therefo i order to have a rapid ratee of production, all the
ore, that in
compon nents to be super finish hed should first be finiished, throu ugh other ooperations, very
nearly to o the final size. On an n average the best ressults can bee obtained by leaving only
0.0025 m mm to 0.00 05 mm stocck to be rem moved by ssupper finisshing bringing the work to
the corrrect size, allthough up to 0.025 mm
m can bee removed through
t this operatio on. In
order too bring the e work to such a close dimen nsional accuracy, grinnding is usually
employeed pior to super finishiing.

Fig. 5.2
23 Principle of superfin
nishing operation.
b) Electro
oplating:‐
It is the most popu ng metallic coating on

ular meanss of applyin n the surfacce of the metal
m
and som metime on non‐metal. This is do one for pro
otection against corroosion or against
wear an nd abrasionn, for appeaarance to re‐work
r waarn part by increase in
n size, to make
m
pieces eeasy to shou ulder and tto slot of arrea on steeel parts from m being carburized du uring

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heat treatment common plating metals are chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium,
and tin. The more precious metals‐ silver, gold, platinum, and rhodium and also applied
by plating surface to be
Platted must be buffered smooth work is then cleaned in suitable cleaning solution to
remove all grease, dirt, buffering, compound etc. After rinsing the part is ready for
platinum
=> Four essential elements of the platting process are the cathode, anode,
electrolyte and direct current (shown in fig)
=> The current leave the bar of anode which is a bar of platting metal, and
migrate through electrode (water solution of salts of the metal to apply) to the cathode,
or part to be plated. As the ions deposited on cathode, they give up their charge and are
deposited as metal on cathode. Part to be platted should be designed with generous
filtrate and radii instead of sharp corners, since current concentration occurs at sharp
points, resulting in excessive deposits.

Fig 5.24 Electroplating
1) Plating tank 2) D.C source 3) workpiece 4) Anode

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c) Cylindrical grinder Machine:‐
The principle of cylindrical grinding as illustrated in Fig. 13.14 involves holding the work
pieces rigidly on centers, in a chuck or in a suitable holding fixtures, rotating it about its
axis and feeding a fast revolving grinding wheel against the same. If the work surface to
be ground is longer than the face width of the grinding wheel. The work is traversed
past the wheel or the wheel past the work. Traversing of wheel or work is done either
by hydraulic or mechanical power or by hand. Feed is given to the work or the wheel at
the end of each traversing movements. In case width of wheel face is more or equal to
the length of the work surface to be ground, the wheel may be fed in with no traversing
movement of it or that of the work. This is known as plunge grinding. The simplest and
quite commonly used type of cylindrical grinder is a tool pass grinder used on lathes.
When wheels of large diameters are used, they can be mounted directly on the motor
shaft. For mounting small wheels an auxiliary shaft is provided, which runs at a relatively
much higher speed than the motor. Both external and internal cylindrical grinding can
be done on lathe by this equipment. A typical type of tool post grinder is shown.
Cylindrical grinding machines are mainly of the following three types:
1) Plain cylindrical grinders
2) Universal cylindrical grinders
3) Centreless grinders
Other forms of cylindrical grinders include roll grinders, camshaft grinders,
crankshaft grinders, etc. these machines differ a lot in their designs to suit the
particular requirements but they all work on the common principle of cylindrical
grinding, involve the following necessary basic movements:
1) The work must revolve 2) the grinding wheel must revolve. 3) either the
wheel or the work must have a traversing movement past the other.
4) Either the wheel should be fed into the work or the work on to the wheel. These
cylindrical grinders are special purpose machines and will, therefore, be dealt
with separately.
Plain cylindrical grinders.:‐ on these grinders, the workpiece is usually held between
two centers. One of these centers is in the headstock and other in the tailstock. In
operation, the rotating work is traversed across the face of the rotating wheel. At the
end of each traverse, the wheel is fed into the work by an amount equal to the depth
of cut. While mounting the work between centres , the head stock centre is not

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disturbed. It is the tailstock centre which is moved in or out, manually or
hydraulically, to insert and hold the work. Tailstock and headstock both can be
moved along the table to suit the work. The table is usually made in two parts. The
upper table carries the tailstock, headstock and the work piece and can be swiveled
in a horizontal plane to a maximum guideways to provide longitudinal traverse to the
upper table, and hence the work. Table is usually preferred.
Universal cylindrical grinders.:‐
A universal cylindrical grinder carries all the parts and movement of a plain
cylindrical grinder and, in addition, carries the following advantageous
features.
a) Its headstock, can be made to carry a live or dead spindle, as desired the former
being needed when the work is held in a chuck.
b) The headstock can itself be swiveled in a horizontal plane.
c) Its wheel head can be raised or lower and can also be swiveled to +_ 900 to grind
tapered surface having large taper angle.
All these factors contribute towards the greater versatility of these grinders. All the
modern universal type cylindrical grinders carry hydraulic drive for wheel head
approach and feed, table traverse and elimination of backlash in the feed screw nut.
A typical hydraulically operated universal cylindrically grinders, with its main parts
control.
Most of the modern universal grinders are provided with necessary extra equipment
like work rest to support slender work, wheel trueing device, arbour for balancing
the wheel, internal grinding spindle and three jaw self‐centering chuck, etc.

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DRILLING MACHINE, BORING, BROACHING AND REAMING MACHINES

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UNIT‐VI
DRILLING MACHINE, BORING, BROACHING AND REAMING MACHINES
Q‐1 Describe the different operations which are performed on drilling machine with
neat sketches.
There is no. of operations done on a drilling machine, as shown in Fig 6.1. these are as
follows:
1. Drilling 5. Counter‐ sinking
2. Reaming 6. Spot facing, and
3. Boring 7. Tapping
4. Counter‐ boring
1. Drilling:‐
It is the main operation done on this machine. It is the operation of producing the
circular hole in a solid metal by means of a revolving tool called drill.
2. Reaming:‐
It is the operation of finishing a hole to bring it to accurate size and have a fine surface
finish. The operation is performed by means of a multi‐tooth tool called reamer. The
operation serves to produce a straight, smooth and accurate hole. The accuracy to be
expected is within ± 0.005 mm.

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Fig.6.1. Operations done on drilling machine
3. Boring:‐
It is an operation used for enlarging a hole to bring it to the required size and have a
better finish. It involves the used of an adjustable cutting tool having a single cutting
edge. In addition to the above objective, this operation can be used for correcting the
hole location and out of roundness, if any, as the tool can be adjusted to remove more
metal from one side of the hole than the other. It is a slower process than reaming. The
accuracy to be expected is within ± 0.0125 mm.
4. Counter‐ boring:‐
The operation is used for enlarging only a limited the portion of the hole is called
counter‐ boring. It can be performed either by a means of a double‐tool boring bar, or a
counter‐ boring tool. In order to maintain alignment and true concentricity of the
counter bored hole with the previously drilled hole the counter‐ boring tool is provided
with a pilot at its bottom.
5. Counter‐ sinking:‐
It is the operation used for enlarging the end of a hole to give it’s a conical shape for a
short distance. This is done for providing a seat for the counter‐ sunk heads of the

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screw, show that the letter may be flush with the main surface of the work. The
standard counter‐ sinks carry included angles of 600, 820 or 900.
6. Spot facing:‐
This operation is used for squaring and finishing the surface around and at the end of
hole, so that the same can be provide smooth and true seat to the underside of bolt
heads or collars, etc. This is usually done on casting or forgings. The whole may be spot
faced below the rough surface or above it. i.e., on the upper surface of the boss, if the
same is provided.
7. Tapping:‐
It is the operation done for forming the internal threads by means of the tool called tap.
To perform this operation the machine should be equipped with a reversible motor or
some other reversing mechanism. Alternatively, a collapsible tight typing attachment is
used.
Q‐2 Explain with neat sketch planer type horizontal boring machine.
This machine resembles in construction with the table type only the difference is in the
construction and operation of the work supporting mechanism. In this, a heavy cross
bed is incorporated between the spindle column and the end support column. This is
mounted across the axis of the spindle and carries a table over it. On its two sides it
carries the two columns. The main column carrying the head‐stock, rigidly fixed
whereas the end‐support column can move towards or away from this bed along the
horizontal ways provided on the top of the cross bed, at right angles to the former bed.
The job is mounted on the table. In operation it resembles a planer

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Fig. 6.2. Block diagram of a planer type boring machine.
1. End support column. 2. Spindle head column. 3. Table. 4. Spindle. 5. Spindle
head. 6. Cross bed. 7. Electric motor for spindle head. 8. Longitudinal bed.
In that tool is held between the two columns or mounted on the headstock only and the
work, mounted on the table, moves past the tool. (See Fig 6.2). This type of machine is
very suitable for long jobs.
Q‐3 Draw neat sketch of a twist drill and show its various elements clearly?
The most common type of drill in use today is the twist drill. It was originally
manufactured by twisting a flat piece of tool steel longitudinally for several revolutions,
then grinding the diameter and the point. The present day twist drills made by
machining two spiral flutes or grooves that turn lengthwise around the body of the drill.

Fig. 6.3. Principle parts of twist drills

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Twist drill is an end cutting tool. Different types of twist drills are classified by Indian
Standard Institution according to the type of shank, length of the flute and overall
length of the drill.
Twist drill elements:
The following are the twist drill elements.
Axis: The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
Body: That portion of the drill extending from its extreme point to the commencement
of the neck, if present, otherwise extending to the commencement of the shank.
Body clearance: The portion of the body surface which is reduced in diameter to
provide diametric clearance.
Chisel edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the flanks. The chisel edge is also
sometimes called dead centre. The dead centre or the chisel angle acts as a flat drill and
cuts its own hole in the work‐piece. A great amount of axial thrust is required to cut a
hole by the chisel edge. In some drills chisel edge is made spiral instead of a straight
one. This reduces the axial thrust and improves the whole location. Chances of
production of oversize holes are also reduced.
Chisel edge corner:‐
The corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the chisel edge.
Face:‐
The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the chip impinges as it is cut
from the work.
Flank;‐
That surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to the following flute.
Flutes:‐
It is the groove in the body of the drill which provides the lip.
The functions of flutes are:‐

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1. To form the cutting edges on the point.
2. To allow the chips to escape.
3. To cause the chips to curl.
4. To permit the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
Heel: ‐ the edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance.
Lands:‐
The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of the drill flutes. The width of the
land is measured at the right angles to the flute helix. The drill is full size only across the
lands at the point end. Land keeps the drill aligned.
Lip (cutting edge):‐
The edge formed by the intersections of the flank and the face. The requirements of the
drill lips are:‐
1. Both lips should be at the same angle of inclination with the drill axis, 590 for
general work.
2. Both lips should be of the equal length.
3. Both lips should be provided with the correct clearance.
Neck:‐
It is the diametrically undercut portion between the body and shank of drill. Diameter
and other particulars of the drill are engraved at the neck.
Outer corner:‐
The corner formed by the intersection of the flank and face.
Point:‐
The sharpened end of the drill, consisting of all that part of the drill which is shape to
produce lips, face, flanks and chisel edge.
Right hand cutting drill:‐

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A drill which cuts when rotating in counter ‐ clockwise direction viewed on the point end
of the drill.
Shank:‐
That part of the drill by which it is held and driven. The most common types of the shank
are the taper shank and the straight shank. The taper shank provides the means of
centering and holding the drill by friction in the tapered end of the spindle.
Tang:‐
The flattened end of the tapered shank intended to fit into a drift slot in the spindle,
socket or drill holder. The tang ensures positive drive of the drill from the drill spindle.
Web:‐
The central portion of the drill situated between the roots of the flutes and extending
from the point towards the shank; the point end of the web or core forms the chisel
edge.
Linear dimensions: ‐
The following are the linear dimensions of the drill:
Back taper (longitudinal clearance):‐
It is the reduction in diameter of the drill from the point toward the shank. This permits
all parts of the drill behind the point to clear and not rub against the sides of the hole
being the drilled the paper varies from 1:4000 for small diameter drills to 1: 700 for
larger diameters.
Body clearance diameter:‐
It is the diameter over the surface of the drill body which is situated behind the lands.
Depth of the body clearance:‐
The amount of radial reduction on each side to provide body clearance.

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Diameter:‐
The measurements across the cylindrical lands at the outer corners of the drill.
Flute length:‐
The axial length from the extreme end of the point to the termination of the flute at the
shank end of the body.
Lead of helix:
The distance measured parallel to the drill axis between the corresponding point on the
leading edge of the flute in one complete turn of the flute.
Lip length:‐
The minimum distance between the outer corner and the chisel end corner of the lip.
Overall length:‐
The length over the extreme ends of the points and the shank of the drill.
Web (Core) taper:‐
The increase in the web or core thickness from the point of the drill into the shank end
of the flute this increase in thickness gives additional rigidity to the drill and reduces the
cutting pressure at the point end.
Web thickness:‐
The minimum dimensions of the web or core measured at the point end of drill.
Considerable power is required to force portion the work, and web thinning is employed
to reduce the web thickness.
Drill angles:‐ Following are the drill angles which are ground on a twist drill for efficient
removal of metal.
Chisel edge angle: The obtuse angle included between the chisel edge and the lip as
viewed from the end of the drill. The usual value of this angle varies from 1200 to 1350.

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Helix angle or rake angle: The helix or rake angle is the angle formed by the leading edge
of the land with a plane having the axis of the drill. If the flute is straight, parallel to the
drill axis then there would be no rake; if the flute is right handed then it is positive rake;
and if it is left handed then the rake is negative. The usual value of rake angle is 300,
angle, greater will be torque required to drive the drill at a given feed.
Point angle: This is the angle included between the two lips projected upon a plane,
parallel to the drill axis and parallel to the two cutting lips. The usual point angle is 1180,
but for harder steel alloys, the angle increases.
Lip clearance angle: The angle formed by the flank and a plane at right angles to the drill
axis. The angle is normally measured at the periphery of the drill. Lip clearance is the
relief that is ground to the edges in order to allow the drill to enter the metal without
interference. The lip clearance angle should increase toward the centre of the drill than
at the circumference. This is due to the fact that different cutting edges follow different
helical paths. Any point on the cutting edge near centre. This happens to be such due to
the lead of the helix being same in each case and hence the clearance angle given to the
drill cutting edge should increase towards the centre/. The clearance angle is 120 in most
cases. The clearance angle should be minimum to add rigidity and strength to the
cutting edge.

Q‐4 Draw a neat sketch of radial drilling machine, Name the various parts and their
functions.
The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling medium to large and heavy work‐
pieces. The machine consists of a heavy, round, vertical column mounted on a large
base. The column supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to
accommodate work‐pieces of different heights. The arm may be swung around to any
position over the work bed. The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and
feeding the drill is mounted on a radial arm and can be moved horizontally on the guide‐
ways and clamped at any desired position. These three movements in a radial drilling
machine when combined together permit the drill to be located at any desired point on
a large work‐piece for drilling the hole. When several holes are drilled on a large work‐
piece, the position of the arm and the drill head is altered so that the drill spindle may
be moved from one position to the other after drilling the hole without altering the

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setting of the work. This versatility of the machine allows it to work is very large it may
be placed on the floor or in a pit. Fig 6.4 illustrates a radial drilling machine.

Figure 6.4 Radial drilling machine.
1. Base, 2. Column, 3. Radial arm, 4. Motor for elevating the arm, 5. Elevating screw,
6. Guide ways, 7. Motor for driving the drill spindle, 8. Drill head, 9. Drill spindle,
10. Table.
Plain radial drilling machine: In a plain radial drilling machine provisions are made for
vertical adjustment of the arm, horizontal movement of the drill head along the arm,
and circular movement of the arm in horizontal plane about the vertical column.
Semi‐universal machine: In a semi‐universal machine, in addition to the above three
movements, the drill head can be swung about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
arm. This fourth movement of the drill head permits drilling hole at an angle to the
horizontal plane other than the normal position.

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Universal machine: In a universal machine, in addition to the above four movements,
the arm holding the drill head may be rotated on a horizontal axis. All these five
movements in a universal machine enable it to drill on a work‐piece at any angle.
Q‐5 Explains jig boring operation.
Jig boring machine is the most accurate of all machine tools. This was first developed in
the year 1910 in Switzerland and used as a locating machine. The real jig borer was first
built in the year 1917 by Pratt and Whitney. They are characterized by provisions of
highest accuracy through rigidity, low thermal expansion and precise means of
measuring distance for accurately locating and spacing holes. The machining accuracy is
very high, within a range of 0.0025 mm. A jig boring machine resembles in appearance
to vertical milling machine, but so far its operation and accuracy are concerned there
cannot be any comparison between the two. The spindle and other parts of the machine
are extremely rigid to resist deflection and the vibration is minimum. The spindle runs in
preloaded anti‐friction bearings. The spindle housings are made of invar having a very
low coefficient of linear expansion. The jig boring machine requires to be operated in
temperature controlled rooms where temperature can be maintained constant. This is
essential to prevent inaccuracy in the machine.
Types of Jig boring machines: There are mainly two types of jig boring machines:
1. Vertical milling machine type.
2. Planer type

1. Vertical milling machine type: It resembles in construction to a vertical milling
machine. The spindle rotates on a vertical column and the horizontal table rests
on the bed in front of the column. The positioning of the work mounted on the
table may be obtained by compound movements of the table, perpendicular and
parallel to the column face.
2. Planer type: It consists of two vertical columns at the two sides of the table and a
mounted on the base. The table has reciprocating movement for adjustment of
the work. The spindle is mounted on the cross‐rail bridging the two vertical
columns. Ina planer type jig borer, two co‐ordinate movements for hole location
are provided by the longitudinal movement of the spindle along the cross‐rail.

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Question b
bank with solution

Q‐6 Whaat is reamin
ng? Draw aa sketch of reamer.
Reamingg: It is not p practically p possible to p produce a h hole of the exact size tthrough drilling.

e this, i.e., to producee an exactly round an
In orderr to achieve nd smooth hole of correct
size, thee same is drilled a little undersizee and then reamed. R Reaming can be done both
by hand and machine. The op peration of reaming in nvolves the multi‐tootth tool calleed as
reamer.
Elementts of reame
er:
ments of reamer are described ass below:
The elem
Axis: The longitudin
nal centre line of the rreamer.
Backer taper: The reduction in a diam

meter per 100
1 mm length of reamer from
m the
enteringg end towarrds the shan
nk.
Bevel le
ead: The angular cuttin o facilitate tthe entry of the
ng portion aat the enteering end to
reamer in to hole. IIt is not pro
ovide with aa circular land.

Fig 6.5 mach
hine reamerr
Body: Th
hat portion ding from the enteringg end of thee reamer to
n of the reamer extend o the
commen ncement off its shank.
Circular land: The cylindricallly ground surface ad

djacent to the cuttingg edge, on
n the
leading eedge of the
e land.
Clearancce:

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1. Primary: That portion of the land removed to provide clearance immediately
behind the cutting edge.
2. Secondary: That portion of the land removed to provide clearance behind the
primary clearance or cutting edge.
Cutting edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the circular land or
the surface left by the provision of primary clearance.
Face: The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting edge on a which the chip
impinges as it is cut from the work.
Flutes: The grooves in the body of the reamer to provide cutting edges, to permit the
removal of chips and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
Heel: The edge formed by the intersection of the surface left by the provision of
secondary clearance and the flute.
Land: That portion of the fluted body left standing between the flutes, the surfaces
included between the cutting edge and the heel.
Pilot: A cylindrically ground portion of the body at the entering end of the reamer to
keep the reamer in alignment.
Recess: That portion of the body which is reduced in diameter below the cutting edge,
pilot or guided diameter.
Shank: That portion of the reamer by which it is held and driven.
Diameter: The maximum cutting diameter of the reamer at the entering end.
Rotation of cutting: A reamer is named, according to the direction of rotation as:
Left hand cutting reamer: A reamer which cuts while rotating in a clockwise direction,
when viewed on the entering end of the reamer.
Right hand cutting reamer: A reamer which cuts while rotating in a anti‐clockwise
direction, when viewed on the entering end of the reamer.

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Reamer angles: The reamer angles are given below.
Bevel lead angle: The angle formed by the cutting edges of the bevel lead and the
reamer axis.
Clearance angles: The angles formed by the primary or secondary clearances and the
tangent to the periphery of the reamer at the cutting edge.
Helix angle: The angle between the cutting edge and the reamer axis.
Rake angle: The angles, in a diametric plane, formed by the face and a radial line from
the cutting edge.
1. If the face and the radial line coincide, the angle is zero degree and the face is
called radial.
2. If the angle formed by the face and the radial line falls in behind the radial line in
relation to the direction of cut, the rake angle is negative, and the face is known
as over‐cut.
Taper lead angle: The angle formed by the cutting edges of the taper lead and the
reamer axis.
Q‐7 Differentiate with neat sketches between counter boring and countersinking
operations. Also sate their necessity.
Counter‐boring Counter‐sinking

• This operation is used for enlarging • This operation is used for enlarging
only limited portion of the hole. the end of the hole to give it a
emical shape for a short distance.
• The tool is used for counter‐boring • The tool is used for counter‐sinking
is called as counter‐bore. is called as counter‐sink.
• The enlarged hole forms a square • The enlarged hole form emical

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shoulder with a original hole. shape with original hole.
• This is necessary in some cases to • This is necessary in some cases to
accommodate the heads of bolts, provide a seat for the counter‐sunk
studs and pins. heads of the screws.

Fig 6.6 Counter‐boring Fig 6.7 Counter‐sinking
Q‐8 Differentiate operations of drilling, boring and reaming clearly?
Drilling Boring Reaming

• The hole is • It is the operation of • It is the operation of
generated by a enlarging and finishing and giving
rotating edge of turning a hole dimensions accuracy
cutting tool known produced by to hole or bore hole.
as the drill and punching, casting or
operation known as forging.
the drilling.
• The speed of spindle • The speed of spindle • The speed of spindle
is double than that is half than that of is less than that of
of boring and much drilling but more drilling and boring.
more than reaming. than reaming.
• A 12 mm drill may • The material • The accuracy is as
produce a hole as removed by this high as ± 0.00125
much as 0.125 mm process is around mm.
oversize and 22 mm 0.375 mm and for
drill may produce as accurate work
much as 0.5 mm should not be

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oversize. exceed 0.12 mm.
• In this process, • In this process, • In this process,
removes large removes very small removes very rare
amount of metal. amount of metal. amount of metal.
• Tool used for drilling • Tool used for boring • Tool used for
is known as drill. is known as bore reaming is known as
tool. reamer tool.

Q‐9 Write short notes on:
a) Vertical boring machine:
A vertical boring machine illustrated in Fig 6.8 is so named because the work
rotates on a horizontal table about a vertical axis and the tool is stationary except
for the feed. The machine may be looked upon as a vertical lathe with its head‐
stock resting on the floor and its large face‐plate or chuck lying in a horizontal
plane. This specific design of the machine provides certain distinct advantages
over a lathe for a particular class of work.
The advantages are:
1. Large diameter and heavy work‐pieces, similar to chucking jobs on
lathe, may be set‐up more conveniently and quickly than on a lathe. It
is easier to lay a work‐piece down on the table rather than to hang it
up.
2. The table and the work it carries rotate in a horizontal plane, and there
is no, overhang as in the case lathe spindle, and consequently any
chance of bending the spindle which supports the heavy work‐piece is
eliminated.
3. The table being horizontal, the diameter of the table may be designed
as large as possible to support large work‐pieces.
4. Multiple tooling may be adapted in the case of a vertical boring
machine with its turret type tool post increasing the rate of production.

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Question b
bank with solution

Fig.6.8 Verticaal boring maachine
A verticaal boring machine is particularly aadapted forr holding annd machining large, heeavy,
and cum mbersome w work‐piecess. The typical works arre: larger geear blanks, locomotivee and
rolling stock tires, steam and water turbbine castinggs, fly wheeels flanges and number of
circular shaped parrts. The size of the wo ork is limiteed by the d
diameter off the table.. The
machinee can take o only circularr cut.
The verttical boring machine iss of two typ
pes:
(1
1) Vertical tturret lathee, and
(2
2) Standardd vertical bo oring machiine

1. Vertical turr
V ret lathe:

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fig 6.9 Vertical turret lathe
This type of boring machine combines the advantages of the vertical boring mill and the
turret the lathe. A vertical boring machine of smaller size is called a vertical turret lathe.
It has an indexible turret mounted upon the cross‐rail above the table for multiple
tooling. A four station square turret side‐head which enables facing‐turning under‐
cutting and many other operations is mounted at the side of the lathe. The cross‐rail
may have vertical adjustments and for case of operation it is counter balanced. The
turret mounted on the saddle may be moved cross‐wise by hand or power. The turret
may also be moved in a vertical plane. The side‐head also has up and down and to and
fro adjustments from the centre of the table. The machine is suitable for boring and
turning railroad wheels, piston rings, gear blanks, etc. A vertical turret lathe is shown in
Fig 6.9

2. Standard vertical boring machine: Vertical boring machines are larger in size
than vertical turret lathe and there is no turret head. The machine is provided
with two vertical heads and one or two side‐heads. The tool‐heads are mounted
on the cross‐rail which may be adjusted up and down. The saddle of the tool‐
head may be fed cross‐wise and the tool head ram fed in vertical direction.

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Fig. 6.10 Standard vertical boring machine
The ram heads can be swiveled to incline the ram up to 600 on either side of the vertical
axis for machining tapers. The machine is particularly intended for boring large,
cylindrical and symmetrical work‐pieces. Turbine castings, locomotive tires, etc. are
some of the common examples which need vertical boring machine is shown in Fig 6.10
b) Time estimation for drilling operations:
Machining time in drilling is determined by the formula:
L
T = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ min.
n x s r
Where, n = r. p. m. of the drill
s r = Feed per revolution of the drill in mm
L = Length of travel of the drill in mm
And T = Machining time in min

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Question b
bank with solution

Fig. 6.11 Drillling

Where, l1 = lenggth of the w
work‐piece
l2 = ap
pproach of drill,
l3 = len
ngth of the drill point
l4 = ovver‐travel
iii) A broach
hing tool:

Figg 6.12 broacch terms
Broachin ng of inside surfaces ccalled intern nal or hole broaching and of outtside
surfaces,, external o or surface b broaching. Internal brooaching too
ols are desiggned
to enlarge and cu ut various contours in holes already
a maade by drilling,
punchingg, casting, forging, etc..

Fig 6.13 Broach teeth
h details

14
40
3rd


Broach elements: Ordinary cut broaches for machining previously drilled or
bored holes consist of the following elements (Fig. 6.9)

Pull end: This is designed to permit engagement of the broach with the
broaching machine through the use of a puller head.
Front pilot: This centers the broach in the hole before the teeth begin to cut.
Roughing and semi‐finish teeth: They remove most of the stock in the hole.
Finishing teeth: They are for sizing the hole and must have the shape required
of the finished hole.
Rear pilot and follower rest: They support the broach after the last tooth
leaves the hole.
The form of broach teeth reveals features like those of other cutting tools.
Land: The top portion of a tooth is called the land and in most cases ground to
give a slight clearance.
Back off or clearance angle: This corresponds to the rake angle on a lathe
tool. This is 1.50 to 20 for both cast iron and steel. Finish teeth have a smaller
angle ranging from 0 to 1.50.
Rake or hook angle or face angle: This corresponds to the rake angle on a
lathe tool. The rake angle varies from according to the material being cut, and
in general, increases as the ductility increases. Values of this angle for most
steels range from 12 to 150.
Pitch: The linear distance from the cutting edge of one tooth to the corresponding
edge on the next tooth is called the pitch t and differs for cutting and finishing teeth.
For the cutting teeth, the pitch is selected in accordance with the length l of the hole
being broached (t=1.25√ to1.5√ ). On an average, the pitch of finishing teeth is
usually equal to one half of the cutting teeth pitch. The pitch should vary by 0.2 to
0.3 mm after several teeth.
The height of the roughing and semi finish teeth gradually increases from shank
to the finishing teeth. This increment, called the cut per tooth, depends on the
material being machined and the hole size. The cut per tooth is usually taken from
0.01 to 0.2 mm.

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;

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144

Manufacturing Process I

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3rd

NAGPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Manufacturing process‐I semester

QUESTION BANK WITH

B.E. III Semester

The chipps produced during machining

Mateerial Mach hinability in

When tapper tu urning is peerformed aat that timee the work rotates and the tool feed

Very shoort tapers can

Q‐3 Why feed mechanism (ttumbler revversing mecchanism) in

The gear mechanissm operated by meanss of the feeed reverse lever is callled the tum mbler

Column: ‐ The colu umn is the vertical meember which is cast integral witth the basee and

Saddle: ‐ The sadd

These cutters includde the light duty plain milling cuttter or key w wary cutterr (Fig

carry lesss number of teeth, having a steep helix an ngle. They aare commonly used w where

1. Plain side mmilling cutteers. They arre made to have cutting teeth on n the perip phery

5. End milling cutters: These are so

1. Single angle cutters (Figg. 4.14). Th hese cutterss may havee their teeth h either only on

T‐Slot‐MMilling Cutter:‐ It is a

Fly cutteer: ‐ It is acctually a single point tool. It is eeither moun nted on a ccylindrical b body

A millingg cutter can n be consid dered as a b built up unit of a num mber of singgle point cutting

The rake angle

It is another h heavy duty production n machine in which thee two end ffaces

Vertical milling maachine: It derives its name

The kneee carries an enclosed screw jackk, by means of which it is moved up and d down

QUE‐2) DRAW A NET SKETCH TO GRINDING MACHINE, HORIZONTAL SPINDLE

1. “Stop” push‐button for hydraulic pump motor, 2.”Start” push‐button for

Usuaally a circulaar shaped m magnetic ch huck is mou

QUE‐5) EXPLAINS THE PRIN

These grrinders are also a typee of cylindrical grinders only, but the princip

Both internal cylin

The hannd honing p process: Hooning is a ‘w wes’ proceess and it iss necessaryy that a suittable

Machine e honing: The proceess of hon ning can be

Thesse instrumeents provid ndamental informatio

Electricaal integratin ng instrumeents employy an arm on n which a diamond styylus is moun nted.

It is the most popu ng metallic coating on

Reamingg: It is not p practically p possible to p produce a h hole of the exact size tthrough drilling.

Backer taper: The reduction in a diam

Circular land: The cylindricallly ground surface ad

Drilling Boring Reaming

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