TethersinSpace

APropellantlessPropulsionInOrbit
Demonstration
Kabelsinderuimte
Eendemonstratievanstuwstoflozevoortstuwing
ineenbaanomdeaarde
PROEFSCHRIFT
terverkrijgingvandegraadvandoctor
aandeTechnischeUniversiteitDelft
opgezagvandeRectorMagnificusProf.ir.K.Ch.A.M.Luyben;
voorzittervanhetCollegevoorPromoties
inhetopenbaarteverdedigenopmaandag30mei2011om10.00uur
door
MichielKruijff
IngenieurLuchtenRuimtevaart
geborenteDenHelder.

Ditproefschriftisgoedgekeurddoordepromotoren:
Prof.dr.W.J.Ockels
Prof.dr.E.K.A.Gill
Samenstellingpromotiecommissie:
RectorMagnificus voorzitter
Prof.dr.W.J.Ockels TechnischeUniversiteitDelft,promotor
Prof.dr.E.K.A.Gill TechnischeUniversiteitDelft,promotor
Prof.dr.E.Lorenzini UniversitdiPadova
Prof.ir.B.A.C.Ambrosius TechnischeUniversiteitDelft
Prof.C.Nicollier colePolytechniqueFdraledeLausanne
Dr.P.A.Swan SouthwestAnalyticNetwork
Dr.C.Menon SimonFraserUniversity
Prof.dr.ir.J.A.Mulder TechnischeUniversiteitDelft,reservelid
DeltaUtecSpaceResearchandConsultancyheeftinbelangrijkematefinancielbijgedragen
aandetotstandkomingvanditproefschrift.
ISBN9789088912825
Cover: ByM.Kruijff&Proefschriftmaken.nl.TheYES&YES2spaceexperiments
andTREXtetherinorbit.YESimagebyM.Kruijff,YES2imagebyESA
(S.Corvaja),TREXimagekindlyprovidedbyJAXA.
Printedby: Proefschriftmaken.nl||Printyourthesis.com
Publishedby: UitgeverijBOXPress,Oisterwijk
Copyright2011byM.Kruijff.
WritteninOpenOffice.PrintedinTheNetherlands.

FormyfatherwhoonlycaughtaglimpseandMariawhocaughtme

Contents 5
Contents
CONTENTS 5
1 INTRODUCTION 9
1.1 Sustainabilityandtheappealofspacetethers..............................................................................9
1.2 Examplesoftetherapplications....................................................................................................10
1.3 Flighthistoryofspacetethers.......................................................................................................14
1.4 Objectiveofthisthesis....................................................................................................................17
1.5 Surveyofthisthesis........................................................................................................................18
PARTITETHERSANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS 21
2 TETHERDYNAMICS 23
2.1 Deployingatetherinspace..........................................................................................................23
2.1.1 Gravitygradienttensionforahangingtetherincircularorbit.......................................23
2.1.2 Equationsofmotion...............................................................................................................25
2.1.3 Pendulummotionofaswingingnondeployingtether...................................................26
2.1.4 Tetherdeployment..................................................................................................................27
2.1.5 Impactoftetherproperties....................................................................................................28
2.2 Howthetetherbecomesuseful.....................................................................................................30
2.2.1 Momentumtransfer................................................................................................................30
2.2.2 Electrodynamictetherprinciples..........................................................................................33
2.3 Tethermissionsimulation.............................................................................................................39
2.3.1 Advancedtethermodels........................................................................................................40
2.3.2 SimulatorOverview...............................................................................................................41
2.3.3 Validationandcomparisontoothermodels.....................................................................49
3 ANALYSISOFTETHERAPPLICATIONS 51
3.1 Mechanicaltetherapplications.....................................................................................................52
3.1.1 SpaceMailandwastedisposalfromaSpaceStation.........................................................52
3.1.2 Tetheredupperstageforalaunchassistandupperstagedeorbit.................................57
3.1.3 Multipointsensinginthelowerthermosphere.................................................................64
3.1.4 Artificialgravity.......................................................................................................................69
3.2 Electrodynamicdeboost.................................................................................................................79
3.2.1 AssessmentofOMLperformanceinbaretetherelectroncollectiontesting.................80
3.2.2 Tethereddeboostanddynamicinstability.........................................................................83
3.2.3 Tethereddeboostandcollisionrisk.....................................................................................89
3.2.4 ArotatingtetheraroundJupiter..........................................................................................98
3.3 Responsibleorbitalnichesforuseoftethers............................................................................104
PARTIIDEVELOPMENTOFASPACEMAILSYSTEM 109
4 DESIGNASPECTSOFASAFETETHER 111
4.1 Characterizingthetetherproperties..........................................................................................111
4.1.1 Materialselection...................................................................................................................111
4.1.2 Braidingofthetethers..........................................................................................................114
4.1.3 Breakstrength........................................................................................................................115
4.1.4 Stiffnessandviscoelasticeffects..........................................................................................116
4.1.5 Damping.................................................................................................................................120
4.1.6 Outgassingandextraction...................................................................................................121
6
4.1.7 Frictionbehavior....................................................................................................................122
4.1.8 Twistandinternalbraidingtorque....................................................................................125
4.1.9 Tetherlengtheffects:shapememory,viscoelasticrecoveryandcreep........................128
4.2 Protectingthehostplatform........................................................................................................129
4.2.1 Securingseparationfromthedeploymentplatform.......................................................129
4.2.2 Understandingrecoil............................................................................................................131
4.2.3 Ripstitching.............................................................................................................................133
4.2.4 Dissipativeclamping............................................................................................................139
4.2.5 Passivetetherreleasesolution.............................................................................................140
4.3 Avoidingthreatstotetherintegrity............................................................................................142
4.3.1 Debrisandmeteoroidrisk...................................................................................................142
4.3.2 Otherdegradationmechanisms.........................................................................................147
4.3.3 Thermalloadingduringfrictionbraking..........................................................................147
4.3.4 Designsafetyfactors.............................................................................................................149
4.4 Reducingcollisionriskbyenvironmentaldisintegration.......................................................149
4.4.1 Requirements.........................................................................................................................150
4.4.2 Mechanicsofdegradation....................................................................................................151
4.4.3 Degradationchemistry.........................................................................................................152
4.4.4 Polymerdegradationresearch............................................................................................154
4.4.5 Materialselection...................................................................................................................155
4.4.6 Explorativetestingofselectedpurematerials..................................................................156
4.4.7 UV/VUVexposuretestonenhancedselection.................................................................162
4.4.8 Conclusionsandoutlook.....................................................................................................168
5 DEPLOYERSYSTEMDEVELOPMENT 169
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................169
5.1.1 Technologyheritage..............................................................................................................169
5.1.2 SpaceMailsystemconceptformomentumtransfer........................................................171
5.1.3 Overviewofdevelopmentandchallenges........................................................................172
5.2 Supportfacilitiesfordevelopmentandtest..............................................................................173
5.2.1 Windingmachine..................................................................................................................173
5.2.2 Unwindingmachine............................................................................................................174
5.2.3 Hardwareemulator..............................................................................................................181
5.2.4 Deployersystemtestingoverview.....................................................................................182
5.3 Spooldevelopment.......................................................................................................................182
5.3.1 Coreandcanister...................................................................................................................182
5.3.2 Thelengthdetectionsystem................................................................................................184
5.3.3 Tetherwinding.......................................................................................................................186
5.3.4 Tiedowns...............................................................................................................................189
5.3.5 Flightspoolcharacterizationprocedure............................................................................190
5.3.6 Driversofpatternsinunwindingtension.........................................................................193
5.3.7 Othersystemdesignimpactsonunwindingtension......................................................196
5.3.8 Reproducibilityofunwindingtension..............................................................................203
5.3.9 Conclusionsandrecommendations...................................................................................206
5.4 Barberpoledevelopment..............................................................................................................207
5.4.1 Performancemodeling.........................................................................................................207
5.4.2 Development..........................................................................................................................219
5.4.3 Spoolbarberpolecharacterizationprocedure..................................................................224
5.4.4 Effectofdesignparameters.................................................................................................226
5.4.5 Reproducibility......................................................................................................................231
5.5 Controllerdevelopment...............................................................................................................232
5.5.1 Deploymenttrajectory.........................................................................................................233
Contents 7
5.5.2 Releasetimecontrol..............................................................................................................239
5.5.3 Lengthandvelocitydetermination...................................................................................240
5.5.4 Feedbackcontrolalgorithms...............................................................................................243
5.5.5 Performanceandrobustnesstesting..................................................................................245
5.6 Closedloopdeploymenttesting.................................................................................................248
5.6.1 FirststagedeploymenttestsusingtheTSEunwindingrig...........................................248
5.6.2 FirstandsecondstagetestsonYES2unwindingrig.......................................................252
5.6.3 DiscussionandRecommendations.....................................................................................262
PARTIIITHEYOUNGENGINEERSSATELLITES 263
6 THEFIRSTYESSATELLITE 265
6.1 YESanditsobjectives..................................................................................................................266
6.2 Missiondesign...............................................................................................................................266
6.3 Subsystemsdesign........................................................................................................................269
6.3.1 Tetheranddeployersubsystem..........................................................................................269
6.3.2 Stabilizationofthesatellitebytethertorque....................................................................270
6.3.3 Supportingsystems...............................................................................................................271
6.4 MissionSummary.........................................................................................................................274
6.4.1 Tetherexperimentcancellation...........................................................................................274
6.4.2 ExperimentControlCenter..................................................................................................277
6.4.3 Missionoperations................................................................................................................277
6.4.4 YESmissiondata...................................................................................................................279
6.5 AspectsoftheYESprojectapproach..........................................................................................280
6.5.1 Challengeandopportunity..................................................................................................280
6.5.2 Conceivingasatellitein8months......................................................................................281
6.5.3 Milestonesandmanpower...................................................................................................284
6.6 LessonsLearned............................................................................................................................285
6.6.1 Failureanalysis......................................................................................................................285
6.6.2 Recommendationsforafollowupproject........................................................................289
6.6.3 HeritageoftheYEStethersystemdevelopment.............................................................290
7 YES2 293
7.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................293
7.2 Systemdesign................................................................................................................................294
7.2.1 YES2andFoton......................................................................................................................294
7.2.2 Keyelements..........................................................................................................................294
7.2.3 InterfacestoFoton.................................................................................................................297
7.2.4 Systemcharacteristics...........................................................................................................297
7.3 Missiondesign...............................................................................................................................299
7.3.1 Preparingfordeployment....................................................................................................299
7.3.2 Deploymentofthetether.....................................................................................................300
7.3.3 Fotinoreentry......................................................................................................................302
7.4 Subsystemsdesign........................................................................................................................305
7.4.1 Tetherdesign..........................................................................................................................305
7.4.2 FLOYD....................................................................................................................................307
7.4.3 OBCsoftware.........................................................................................................................312
7.4.4 MASS......................................................................................................................................314
7.4.5 Fotino......................................................................................................................................315
7.5 ManagementoftheYES2project................................................................................................318
7.5.1 Systemsengineeringtoolsandapproach..........................................................................318
7.5.2 Innovationfromeducation..................................................................................................319
8
7.5.3 Projectphasing.......................................................................................................................320
7.5.4 LessonslearnedfromYESandYES2.................................................................................321
8 YES2MISSIONANDRESULTS 325
8.1 Flightpreparation.........................................................................................................................325
8.1.1 Deployercharacterization....................................................................................................325
8.1.2 Developingandtestingofthedeploymentalgorithms..................................................328
8.1.3 Testingtheflightsoftware...................................................................................................330
8.1.4 Testingthesystem.................................................................................................................331
8.1.5 Makinglatechanges..............................................................................................................332
8.2 Missionsummary..........................................................................................................................332
8.3 Dataanalysis..................................................................................................................................336
8.3.1 Analysisobjectives...............................................................................................................336
8.3.2 Datasourcesandediting......................................................................................................336
8.3.3 Deploymentreconstructionandinterpretation...............................................................348
8.3.4 Deployerperformance..........................................................................................................356
8.4 Tetherdeploymentdatamatchingbysimulation....................................................................358
8.4.1 Simulateddeploymentwithmatchingvelocityprofile..................................................358
8.4.2 Controllerperformance........................................................................................................361
8.4.3 Tetheroscillations..................................................................................................................362
8.5 FailureanalysisandextrapolationoftheYES2missionresults.............................................366
8.5.1 Failureinvestigation.............................................................................................................366
8.5.2 ComparisonYES2toSEDSmissiondataandanalysis...................................................375
8.5.3 Simulatorapplicabilityandrepresentationofflightperformancebytests.................378
8.5.4 FotinoandtheSpaceMailpotential....................................................................................380
8.5.5 Lessonslearned......................................................................................................................384
9 DISCUSSION 391
REFERENCES 397
SUMMARY 405
EPILOGUETOWARDSSUSTAINABLESPACETRANSPORTATION 413
SAMENVATTING 417
LISTOFAUTHORSPUBLICATIONS 426
CURRICULUMVITAE 429
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 430
Introduction 9
1 Introduction
Givenshipsorsailsadaptedtothebreezesofheaven,therewillbethosewhowillnotshrinkfrom
eventhatvastexpanse.
JohannesKepler,lettertoGalileo,1610
Tether:acordthatsecuressomethingtosomethingelse
Tether propulsion systems: proposals to use long, very strong cables to change the orbits of
spacecraft.Spaceflightusingthisformofspacecraftpropulsionmaybesignificantlylessexpensive
thanspaceflightusingrocketengines.
DefinitionsasfoundonWikipedia,Jan.2008
In this section the thesis objective is defined following a review that exposes the gap
betweenpotentialtetherapplications,ononeside,andtheflightexperiencesofar,onthe
other.Asurveyofthethesisstructureisthenprovided.
1.1 Sustainabilityandtheappealofspacetethers
Mankindsexplorationofspacehassofarbeenseverelylimitedbythedifficultytoreach
Earthorbit.Ourwayintospaceismuchthesametodayasitwasoriginallyin1957,when
thefirstsatelliteSputnikwascarriedinto space bytheR7rocket. TheSoyuz rocketthat
deliverscosmonautstotheInternationalSpaceStationtodayisadirectdescendentofthat
originalR7andstillsimilartoalargedegree.Allrocketsprovidepropulsionbyexpulsion
ofmatter,andhaveprovensofartobeahighlyinefficientmeansoftransport.Whereasa
shipsailinganoceaniskeptafloatbybuoyancyalone,itrequiresagreatdealofenergyto
getarocketintoorbitandbalancetheEarthsgravityduringitsascent.Rocketscienceisto
prepackallthisenergyintoadrumandreleaseitinacontrolledmanner.Whereasasailing
shipexploitsthewindtopropelitself,arocketcarriesitsenergyalong,plowsthroughthe
atmosphere and hardly benefits from the opportunities that the environment provides.
Worse,forthisgargantuanandnontrivialtasktosucceed,agreatdealofadditionalenergy
andeffortisrequiredtobuilduptheinfrastructurefordesign,productionandtransportof
thatrocket.
Onceweareinspace,formostpurposesitbecomessomewhateasiertotravelaround,and
therearenumerousconcepts,provenorunderdevelopment,toridethebreezesofheaven.
Thesametypeofhighthrust(orimpulsive)rocketenginescouldbeemployedoncemore.
Alternatively,ionenginesusethesameprincipleofexpulsionbuttheyarecharacterizedby
continuous,lowthrustlevels.Moreliterally,solarsails,or,indeed,spacetetherscanridethe
breezesofheaven.Solarsailsarepropelledbytheminutepressureexertedbytheimpactof
10 Chapter1
sunlight. They are especially promising for use in interplanetary space where, over time,
lowaccelerationcanaccumulatetoobtainsignificantchangesinvelocity.Spacetethersare
long thin cables, primal structures that, like solar sails, can be used for essentially
propellantlesspropulsion,butalsotobuildformationsthatwouldbeverycostlyifcreated
inanotherway.Spacetethersprovideauniqueoutlookforsustainablespacetransportation,
becauseenergyandmomentumarenotlostthroughexhaustgases.Thismayexplaintheir
perceivedeleganceandappeal.
Thresultingattractivenesshasmadetethersanacademicfavorite.Aswillbeillustratedin
thefollowingsections,excitingconceptsandthesometimeselusivetetherdynamicshave
beencloselystudiedfordecadesbyagreatmanyscientists.Yetdespiteallthiseffort,there
islittleflightexperienceandnotetherapplicationisinusetoday.
1.2 Examplesoftetherapplications
The potential for space tethers to create a paradigm shift in the way we travel to and
through space is probably best exemplified by the space elevator. This still futuristic
conceptwascreatedin1960byYuriN.Artsutanov[Artsutanov1960]whenheproposedto
physicallyconnectEarthtospacebytether.Theideawasanimprovementofthevisionary
orbitaltowerconceptasconceptualizedbyTsiolkovskyalreadyin1895[Tsiolkovsky1895].
Aselfbalancingconnectionwouldbenecessary,i.e.averticaltetherinorbitaroundandco
rotatingwithEarthwhilejusttouchingitssurface.Alargeendmassonthespaceendof
the tether, beyond geostationary orbit, could be used to achieve such a balance.
Alternatively a tether of 144,000km length and without endmass would fulfill these
requirements[Pearson1975].
In order to obtain access to space using the space elevator one would simply board a
deliveryvehicleontheEarthsurface,exertsomepatienceasthevehicleclimbsthetether,
thendisembarkatthealtitudematchingthedesiredorbit.Themostpopularorbitswould
likelybegeostationaryandinterplanetaryorbits,althoughellipticalonesapproachingEarth
in perigee would also be a possibility. The delivery vehicle would take onboard any
returningcargoanddescendbacktotheEarthsurfacetopickupthenextpassengers.
The space elevator shouldofferaccess tospaceata costorders of magnitudelowerthan
possibletoday,changingtheappearanceandscopeofspacetravelitself.Theelevatorhas
twomajorconceptualadvantagesoverrocketsthatshouldloweroperationalcost.Firstly,
theenergyrequiredtoclimbthetetherdoesnothavetobestoredonboardofthedelivery
vehicle,butcanbee.g.transmittedfromthegroundbylaserorbyelectricalpowerthrough
thecable.Secondly,theenergyspentcanbepartiallyrecoveredasthedeliveryvehicleand
itsreturncargodescends.Asaresultofthesteepdropincost,rapiddevelopmentscouldbe
expected, as have happened in recent years for personal computers and mobile
communication. For large multistage rockets it would mean they would become all but
obsolete.Theuseofsatellitesforanypurposewouldhoweverbecomecommonplace,andso
wouldcommercializationofspaceaswellashumanexplorationofthesolarsystem.
Introduction 11
Manytechnicalchallengesarestilltobedealtwithbeforewecanactuallybuildthespace
elevator.Workisneededtocoverdynamicissues,deliveryvehicleconcept,powersupply
andrecovery,atmosphericinteractionchallenges,deploymentandoperationalissues,and
soon.Nottheleastofthedevelopmentsrequiredisthatofhighstrengthlowdensitytether
materialssuchascarbonnanotubes[Edwards2000,2003].
Fortunately,tetherscanalsobeusediftheyaremuchshorterandinorbitwithoutaphysical
connection to Earth. A large number of applications for space tethers has in fact been
proposed, ranging all the way from modest systems tailored for niche markets to grand
enablingsolutions[foranoverview,seee.g.Cosmo1997,Cartmell2008,Pelt2009].Tether
lengths range from hundreds of meters to hundreds of kilometers. These applications
generally make use of the tether as longdistance mechanical connection, and they may
exploittheabilityofconductivetetherstointeractwiththeEarthmagneticfield.
One of the more futuristic of the proposed mechanical tether applications uses multiple
rotatingtethersystems,orbolos,inorbitaroundEarthandtheMoonorMarstocreatean
interplanetarytransportationsystem.PermanenthabitationofMarsorminingoftheMoon
forraremineralsandrawmaterialscouldthenbecomeapossibility.Eachsystemwouldbe
a hundred kilometers or more in length and feature a tip velocity with respect to the
systems center of mass of at least 1.0km/s. The direction of tether rotation would be
prograde, i.e. identical to that of the orbital direction. By careful timing a payload on a
suborbitalvehiclecouldbegrabbedfromthetipofaloworbitingtetherasitapproachesthe
Earth atmosphere and temporarily matches the suborbital vehicles position and velocity.
Halfaturnofthetethersystemlaterthepayloadcouldbereleasedandhurledintospace.
The system would provide the payload with an altitude increase of twice the distance
betweentipandsystemcenterofmassandwithavelocityincreaseoftwicethe(relative)tip
velocity.Next,a similarandsynchronizedsystemwouldcapturethepayloadandhurlit
onward.EventuallythepayloadscouldbedeliveredallthewaytotheMoonorMars.The
same infrastructure would be used to return cargo from those remote celestial bodies to
Earth.Inthisway,theenergybalancewouldbelargelymaintainedandahighdegreeof
efficiencycouldbeachieved,beitthatsignificantinitialinvestmentwouldberequiredto
developtheinfrastructure[Hoyt1999.I,Forward1999].
Advanced mechanical tether concepts have also been recognized as some of the more
feasiblealternatives to cleanthe busy lowerregionsofspacearoundEarth [Bade 1993,
Bonnal2005].Hundredsofpiecesoflargedebris,mostlyspentstages,canbefoundinLow
EarthOrbit(LEO).Ifnotremoved,suchdebrisislikelytoeventuallybreakupincollision
withapieceoftheevenmorenumeroussmallerdebrisor,insomecases,withafunctional
satellite. Not only would a functional satellite be almost certainly destroyed by such an
incident,thesecondarydebrisgeneratedinthecollisionwouldincreasetheincidencerateof
furthercollisions.Atravelingsystemwithaswingingorrotatingtethercouldmovefrom
debristodebris,captureeachpiecewiththehelpofasuitablegrapplesystemanddeorbitit
subsequentlybymomentumtransfer.
12 Chapter1
The above concepts could be significantly enhanced by using also a conductive tether
material.WithintheEarthsmagneticfieldandplasmasphereitispossibletoconvertsolar
energy to orbital energy without the use of propellant. Using the electrical potential
generatedbye.g.solarpanelsacurrentcanbedriventhroughthetether:electronscanbe
collected from the Earths plasma on one end and be expelled on the other end. In the
magneticfieldoftheEarthaLorentzthrustwillresultactingovertheconductingpartofthe
tetherandcreatinganelectrodynamicformofpropulsion[Johnson1998,Estes2000.I].The
orbital lifetime of large rotating tethers in LEO could be increased by using this Lorentz
thrust for atmospheric drag compensation. The MXER concept for example is an
electrodynamicallyenhanced bolo system [Sorensen 2001]. The abovementioned debris
remover systems could be moved from one debris object without propellant by properly
modulatingtheLorentzthrustsuchthatitwouldinawaysailtheEarthsmagneticfield
[Pearson2000].
Electrodynamic tether performance is dependent on the orbital, magnetic and plasma
environmentwhichprovidesalimitationbutalsocreatesopportunities. AroundJupiteror
Saturn with their strong magnetic fields, high orbital energies and fast rotating, dense
plasmas unique conditions exist in which a tether could effectively convert the planets
rotationalenergyintobothorbitalandelectricalenergywithouttheneedforsolarpower
[Gallagher 1998]. An electrodynamic tether could also be combined with an electric
propulsion system, which would act as efficient provider of electrons, such that the
dependencyontheplasmadensityaroundtheEarthwouldbereduced[Ockels2004].
Such applications require significant investment in tether infrastructure. Furthermore, for
mostofthemareliablerendezvousanddockingsystemwouldhavetobedeveloped.The
tethersorbitwouldhavetobekeptclearofdebrisandothersatellitestoavoidcollisions.
Although indeed carbonnanotube materials could eventually offer extremely strong and
lightweighttethersolutionsandreducethemassoverheadandthustheinvestmentcost,the
question remains whether emerging alternative technologies with equivalent capabilities
willbedevelopedfirst,atlowercostandrisk.However,notallproposedtetherapplications
aresoremote.
Forexample,arotatingtethersystemwithabaselineofaboutakilometerisabletogenerate
acomfortablelevelofartificialgravitythroughthe(apparent)centrifugalforce.Exposureto
long periods of weightlessness has important reversible and irreversible effects on the
humanphysique.HumanstravelingtoMarsforsixmonthsormorewouldbenefitfroman
artificiallygeneratedgravitylikeforcetosecuretheirphysicalfitnessuponarrival.Littleor
noviablealternativeexiststotethersforartificialgravity[Clark1960,Stone1973,Cramer
1985].
Fororbitaltransferlessambitiousthanthebolosystemsonecanavoidtherequirementof
spinupthatisinherenttoarotatingtethersystem.Apendulummotioncanbesufficientin
somecasesanditisreadilyachievedasasideeffectofdeployment.Awelltimedpayload
releasefromaswingingratherthanrotatingtethercanbeaneffectivewayofchangingorbit
forbothendmassesthroughtheprincipleofmomentumtransfer.Anexampleisthedelivery
Introduction 13
ofsamplesfromaSpaceStationbacktoEarth,orSpaceMail.Thintethersofsomekilometers
totensofkilometerscouldbeusedtofrequentlydeorbitsmallcapsulesfromamannedor
unmanned station returning data, biological, medical or material samples for detailed
investigation on the ground [Aerospatiale 1986, Ockels 1995, Heide 1996.I]. At the same
time,theorbitoftheSpaceStationwouldberaisedandtheamountofpropellantrequired
for its orbit maintenance would thus be reduced. A similar system could be used to
efficientlyremovewastefromtheInternationalSpaceStation[AleniaSpazio1995].
Averticallyhangingtetherwithoutpendulummotionormomentumtransfercouldalsobe
ofuse,e.g.toinvestigatetheEarthsthermosphereinmultiple,coordinatedpoints,assisting
scientistsinadvancingitsthreedimensionalunderstanding[Heelis1998].Suchcoordinated
insitumeasurementsforthisaltituderegimeareverydifficultorevenimpossibletoobtain
withconventionaltechniquessuchas(EarthObservation)satellitesorballoons.
Electrodynamic tether applications also have been proposed for the short term. The Mir
ElectrodynamicTetherSystem(METS)hasbeendesignedtoconvertsolarpowerintothrust
andcompensatefortheMirStationsatmosphericdrag.Itwouldhavesignificantlyreduced
thestationsorbitmaintenancecost,andwouldhaveallowedMirtoorbitatloweraltitude
inahigherdragenvironment,reducingcostofaccessbyconventionalmeans[Levin2007].
AlthoughMETShasreachedanadvancedstateofdevelopment,itwasneverlauncheddue
tothedecisiontodeorbitMirin2001.Nevertheless,thesamesystemcouldbeemployedfor
future stations or other large objects in a highatmospheric drag environment [Vas 2000,
Blumer2001].
An electrodynamic tether in LEO to which no electrical power is applied can still be
equippedtoconductacurrent,fedbytheEarthsplasmaanddrivenbytheelectromotive
force(emf),thelatterinducedbytheorbitalmotioninsidetheEarthsmagneticfield.This
currentwouldgenerateelectrodynamicdrag(andelectricalpower)ratherthanthrust.Such
a simple drag tail or Terminator Tether could be used to deorbit a satellite after its
nominal lifetime and help maintain the cleanliness of the orbital environment [Forward
1998,Hoyt1999.II,Vannaroni1999,Dobrowolny2000].
Whatthesevarioustetherapplications,mechanicalorelectrodynamic,distantormoreshort
term, have in common, is that with respect to conventional (rocketbased) solutions they
would significantly reduce the need for propellant, as they tend to keep energy and
momentumwithinthesystemofinterestratherthanlosethosethroughexpulsionofmass.
In addition, for some cases tether technology may indeed be enabling, e.g. for artificial
gravity, applications in highdrag environments, orbital debris removal or an operational
interplanetarytransportsystem.Thephysicalprinciplestheseconceptsarebasedonappear
tobesimple,whereasthecostofconventionalalternativeshassofarproventobeandare
likelytoremainprohibitive.Thequestionnaturallyariseswhethertherealapplicationof
tethersystemswillbeaselegantandtechnologicallysimpleastheirconceptualdescription
appearstoimplyandtherefore,whethertheinvestmentsrequiredtomakethemoperational
areindeedworthmaking.
14 Chapter1
1.3 Flighthistoryofspacetethers
Table 1 provides anoverviewof themajor suborbitaland orbitaltetherexperimentsthat
havebeenbuiltand(inmostcases)flowntodate,aswellasrelevantreferencesforeach.For
convenience the list includes the Young Engineers Satellites, YES and YES2, which are
subject of this work, as well as the recent TREX experiment to which the author also
participated.
Theearliestexperimentstookplaceinthesixties.Intwoseparateexperimentsin1966,the
Gemini 11 and 12 manned capsules were connected by a 36m cable to their respective
Agena upper stage. With considerable difficulty the astronauts manually controlled the
tetheredsystemtheywereapartofusingcoldgasthrusters,inordertobringthesystem
first in a gravity gradient stabilized position and then in rotation. During the Gemini 11
missionabout1mgeeofartificialgravitywascreatedbya0.15rpmrotation.TheGemini12
crewsucceededtoachieveasomewhatstabilizedverticalorientation.
The complexdynamicsencountered during theseboldtrials withshorttethers may have
been the reason it took 14 years before tethers were deployed in space again. Tether
experimentation in the eighties and early nineties was dominated by modest short
suborbitalflights.Japanese,USandlateralsoCanadiansoundingrocketexperimentsused
conducting tethers to investigate their interaction with the Earth ionosphere. The first
Tethered Payload Experiments (TPE) suffered from deployment problems, but with
assistancefromcoldgasthrustersthevariousCHARGE(CooperativeHighAltitudeRocket
Gun Experiment) and OEDIPUS (Observations of Electricfield Distribution in the
IonosphericPlasmaaUniqueStrategy)missionswerecompletedsuccessfully,withtether
lengthsrangingfrom400mto1174m.
Fromthesetechnicallymodestexperimentsitwasalargesteptothe19.6km,2mmthick
andlayeredelectriccablethatwasdeployedfromtheSpaceShuttlein1992aspartofthe
AmericanItalianTetheredSatelliteSystem(TSS).Objectivewastodeploythetetherupward
outoftheShuttle,collectelectronsatthefarendusinga1.6mdiameterendmassasanode
andstudythetetherelectrodynamicsasaresultofthecurrentflowingthroughthetether.
Thecomplex,activelycontrolledreelsystemgotstuckafter268mofdeployment,butthe
tetheredsatellitecouldbesuccessfullyretrievedandreturnedtoEarth.In1996,duringthe
TSS1R reflight of the same equipment 19.6km of tether was deployed exposing the
endmasstoanemfofasmuchas3500V.AcurrentofseveralAmperescausedsignificant
dynamicsinthetether,andasignificantLorentzdragforcemusthaveactedontheSpace
Shuttle.Aclearskipropemotionwasobservedinthetether.Theexperimentalsoprovided
a wealth of information concerning the electron collection behavior of large charged
spheres in a plasma. Unfortunately, the tether was severed near the Shuttle end due to
sparkingafterdamageduetodebrisormeteroidimpact[Chobotov1999].Thiscutprovided
theaccidentalopportunitytowitnessthedynamicsofthefreetetherinspace.Itwasseento
create its own, artificial, lower endmass due to tether recoil in the lowtension end. The
Introduction 15
tetherwastrackedandreenteredwithinafewweeks,providingafirstdatapointontether
orbitallifetime.
A less ambitious orbital electrodynamic tether experiment was performed in 1993, the
Plasma Motor Generator (PMG), a 500m tether attached to a Delta upper stage. PMG
succeededindemonstratingthattheLorentzdragforcecanbeturnedaroundintoathrust
force,byactivelysendingelectronsupwardthroughthecable.
HighlysuccessfulmechanicaltetherexperimentswereNASAsSmallExpendableDeployer
Systemmissions,SEDS1andSEDS2.Theyeachdeployeddownward20kmofa0.78mm
line braided from a special polyethylene fiber material, Spectra, again from a Delta
upperstage. A small subsatellite as endmass transmitted dynamics data to the ground
whereas the deployed length and tension were measured on the Delta side. SEDS
1deployed the tether with an openloop control and ended in a swing and subsequent
releaseandreentryofthetetherandsubsatellite.SEDS2tookastepfurtherwithaclosed
loop controlled deployment to a stable vertical position of the tether. Unexpectedly, the
SEDS2 tether was severed just 3.7 days after successful completion of the mission, most
probablybyadebrisparticle.ThankstoSpectrashighreflectivity, theSEDS2tetherwas
observedfromthegroundwiththebareeye[Carroll1995.I],passingthroughtheskyasa
brightthinobjectwithanangulardimensionsimilartothatoftheMoon.
TheunexpectedcutoftheSEDS2tetherincreasedconcernswithregardstothelimitedin
orbitlifetimeoftethers.TethersUnlimitedInc.(TUI)providedareactionwiththeconceptof
theHoytether,awebbedtetherbelievedtoresistmultipleimpactsandsecuringverylong
lifetimeinspace[Forward1995].ThelastofthelargeUStetherexperimentsflownsofar,the
ATeX(AdvancedTethereXperiment)bytheNationalReconaissanceOffice(NRO),intended
todemonstrateameteoroidimpactresistanttapeshapedtether.Unfortunately,theactively
drivenreeldeploymentofATeXfailed.
RecentdataindicateshoweverthattheSEDS2cutmusthavebeenananomaly.TheNaval
ResearchLabs4kmlong,2mmthicktetherofTiPS(TetherPhysicsandSurvivability)was
unwoundinMay1996,usingalsoSEDSdeployertechnology.Ithasbeenorbitingforovera
decade in vertical orientation, with a slight oscillation, to be cut only in July 2006
[VSO2010].
Nevertheless, especially the TSS1R and SEDS2 tether severings have resulted in the
evidently false, but widelyheld belief that tethers in space are severely prone to failure.
Increasingly,thefearofaccidentallyseveredtethersmovinguncontrollablythroughspace
andcollidingwithothersatellitesoreventheSpaceStation,leadtomissioncancellations.In
1997,theYoungEngineersSatellite(YES)waslaunched,butthetetherdeploymentwasnot
initiatedforfearofpotentialcollision[Kruijff1998].Theimplementationofatetheraspart
of the Shuttlebased SEDSAT [Lorenzini1995] was cancelled. The electrodynamic
PropulsiveSEDSexperimentProSEDSwasbuilt,butnotlaunched[Vaughn2004].Intheir
wakenewtetherproposalsbecamelessfrequentandlessambitious.Theworkreportedin
thisthesiswasperformedinthiscontext.
16 Chapter1
Year Experiment Length
[km]
Technology Objective Success Remark Ref.
1966
1966
Gemini11
Gemini12
0.036
0.04
Mechanicallink
betweenGeminiand
Athenaupperstage
Artificialgravity
Gravitygradient
stabilization
YES
MOSTLY
Spinstable
0.15rpm
Mannedwith
manualcontrol
NASA1967
1980
1981
1983
1985
1992
TPE1
TPE2
Charge1
Charge2
Charge2B
0.04of0.4
0.07of0.4
0.418
0.426
0.4
Conductive
Coldgasassisted
Plasmainteraction
andVHFwave
generation
PARTLY
PARTLY
MOSTLY
YES
YES
Suborbital
Sasaki1987
Sasaki1994
1989
1995
OedipusA
OedipusC
0.959
1.174
Conductive
Coldgasassisted
Passivereel
Ionosphericscience YES
YES
Suborbital Tyc1995
Vigneron
1997
1992
1996
TSS1
TSS1R
0.268of
19.6
19.6
Conductive,activereel
deployment
Electrodynamic
Powergeneration
NO
MOSTLY
Shuttlemissions.
Tetherjammed
Tetherbrokeafter
sciencesuccess
Dobrowolny
1994
Gilchrist
1998
1993 PMG 0.5 Conductiveinsulated
tether,passivespool
Powerandthrust YES 7hrsexperiment
piggybackon
Delta
McCoy
1995
1993
1994
SEDS1
SEDS2
20
19.7
Mechanical,brake+
spool
Swing&cut
Controlled
deployment
YES
YES
SEDS2probably
cutbydebris
aftermission
completion
Carroll1993
Carroll
1995.I
1996 TiPS 4 Mechanical,passive
spool
Studysurvivaland
stability
YES Cutafter
1decadeinorbit
Barnds1998
2005 ProSEDS (13.1) Bareconductive/
mechanical,brake+
spool
Thrust CancelledforISS
safety
Johnson
2003
1997 YES (35) Mechanical,double
strand,brake+spool
Rotation,reentry GTO.Not
deployeddueto
unsafeorbit
Kruijff
1999.II
2007 YES2 31.7 Mechanical,brake+
spool
Accuratereentryof
ascientificcapsule
MOSTLY Fulltwostage
deployment.
Overdeployed.
Kruijff
2009.I,II
1998 ATeX 0.02of6.2 Mechanical,tape,reel,
active
Stability&control NO S/Wstopped
deployment
Zedd1998
2000 METS (5) Bareconductive
tape/mechanical,
passivereel
Thrust(Mirstation) CancelledasMir
wasdeorbited
Levin2007
2007 MAST 0?of1.0 Multistrandplus
inspectorcrawler
Studytether
survivability
NO Minimal
deployment
Hoyt2003
2010 TREX 0.3 Conductivebaretether
tape,passivefolded
Deploymentand
currentcollection
demonstrator
MOSTLY Suborbital
Successfully
deployed,video
Fujii2009
Table 1. Overview of major tether experiments to date, by chronology of experiment family.
Experimentswithlengthbetweenbracketswerenotlaunchedordeploymentwasnotstarted.
Introduction 17
Onlyrecently,nearlyadecadeafterATeX,newtetherexperimentshavebeenlaunched,all
developed in educational context, and with mixed results. The MAST university project
(MultiApplicationSurvivableTether)attemptedin2007todeployatetherbetweenlight
weightcubesatsbutapparentlywithoutsuccess.Inthesameyear,asreportedinthisthesis,
theEuropeanSpaceAgencys2
nd
YoungEngineersSatellite(YES2)deployeda32kmtether
intwostagesaspartofaSpaceMaildemonstration.Thissuccessformechanicaltetherswas
complementedin2010astheTetheredRocketExperiment(TREX)ofTokyoMetropolitan
Universityfeaturedthefirstandsofaronlydeploymentofabareelectrodynamictether.An
innovativepassivedeployersystemsuccessfullyunfoldeda300mtape.
Ofthe22experimentslistedinTable1,19wereinfactflownandagoodmajority,namely14
of those, can be considered largely or fully successful. The flight experiments involved
essentiallyfourtypesofdeployers:theactivereel,thepassivereel,thepassivespoolandthe
TREX (passive) unfolding system. An active reel deployer unwinds the tether from a
motorized drum, in a direction perpendicular to the drum shaft. This in contrast to the
deploymentfromapassivespool,whichisinaxialdirectionovertheheadofthespool.The
morecomplexexperimentsbasedonactivereeldeployers,TSSandATeX,haveencountered
significantdeployment problems.Virtuallyallthepassivesystems haveleadtocomplete
deploymentsofar,withanotablygoodtrackrecordforthecompanyTetherApplications
responsible for SEDS1,SEDS2, PMG andTiPS. The few spoolfailures(TPEand MAST)
suffered from a shared problem, i.e. insufficient initial momentum in relation to the
deploymentfriction.Theimportanceofproperdesignchoicesisthereforeapparent.Based
on flight heritage there is a strong case to move forward with the more simple, passive
deploymentsystems.
1.4 Objectiveofthisthesis
Today,theconceptofusingtethersinspaceisstillinnovativebutcertainlynotunexplored.
True, consideringthe currentstateoftether materialsandtechnologies,sustainable space
transportationbasedontetherassistedlaunchorbolobasedinterplanetaryinfrastructures
iscertainlystillremote.However,tethershavebeenstudiedformanyyears,fundamental
principles have been demonstrated in orbit and several attractive applications have been
identifiedfortheshortterm.Smalldevelopmentstepsalongthelinesofsuchapplications
couldbringtethertechnologyforwarduntilademandarisesformoreambitioussystems.
Nevertheless it has proven difficult to move beyond theory and concept demonstration
towardsafirsttrueapplication.Partlythisisbecausedevelopmentandoperationalrisksare
generallyjudgedtobehigh.Thereisaneedtodemonstratethattetherapplicationscanbe
effective, affordable, predictable and safe. Due to the very nature of tethers their
performance cannot be fully demonstrated in ground testing. Without a first inorbit
demonstrationofanactualtetherapplicationitseemshardtomakeaconvincingcase.
18 Chapter1
Thoseperceivedobstaclesmaybeovercomethrough a systematicand targeted approach
over the full width of the matter. This approach should include a suitable application
selection,asolidmissionanalysis,afullsystemunderstandingandqualification,athorough
coverageofsafetyaspectsand,enabledbytheresults,anaffordable,applicationorientedin
orbit demonstration. By going through this process, first a deeper insight is to be gained
aboutthechallengescurrentlyfacedbytetherinitiatives.Thatachievedinsightshouldnext
allowtoclosethecircleandshedlightontheinitialquestionregardingtheeffectiveness,
affordability, predictability and safety of tether applications and lead to credible
recommendations regarding near term tether initiatives on the road towards the first
applicationsand,eventually,asustainablespacetransportation.
Theobjectiveofthisthesisistoachieveandexploitthisinsightaccordingly.Theapproach
canbethoughttoconsistofthreesteps:
1. definitionoftherequiredtoolsandasuitabletetherapplicationfordemonstration,
2. developmentofanadequatetetherdeploymentsystem,
3. evaluationofitsperformanceandextractionoflessonslearnedfromtheevaluation
processanditsresults.
Followingthislogic,theremainderofthisthesisisstructuredinthreeparts,onepartfor
eachoftheabovementionedsteps.
1.5 Surveyofthisthesis
The three parts of this thesis consider respectively the definition, development and
evaluationofatetherapplication.
Part I of this thesis, the definition, provides the physics background and an analysis of
variousconceptsthatcouldbecandidateforashorttermimplementation.Chapter2first
describestheprinciplesoftethersinspace,bothmechanicalandelectrodynamic,providing
insightintothephysicsbehindtheirpotentialuses.Inordertostudypotentialapplications
moreclosely,anextensivetethermissionsimulatorhasbeendeveloped.Chapter3analyzes
anddiscussessomeofthecandidateapplications,theirbenefitsandtheirlimitations.Special
attentionisgiventotheseeminglyambiguousrolethattethersmayplaybothincreation
and reduction of orbital debris. To take the step from concept to an applicationoriented
demonstrationfocuswillbeontechnologythatisbothlowriskandlowcost,andforwhich
significantheritageexists.
PartII,thedevelopment,thereforenarrowsdownontheSpaceMailapplication.Itfocuses
on the design, development and qualification of a tether system for a demonstration
mission. Chapters4 is concerned with the development and assessment of a suitable
materialandtetherdesign.Astetherinducedcollisionriskhasbeenidentifiedasaprimary
show stopper for past mission proposals, particular attention is paid to the designs
implications for safety. Possibilities are explored to decrease risk both during and after
Introduction 19
deployment,forexampleriskofentanglementwiththedeploymentplatform,andriskof
collision with other satellites after tether release. With the tether design eventually
consolidated, Chapter5 continues by reporting on the development of the hardware and
softwarerequiredforcontrolleddeploymentofthattether. Itincludesthetetherwinding
and unwinding facilities development, as well as SEDSinspired designs for spool and
brake. Furthermore the chapter describes the deployment control algorithms, simulations
and groundbased deployment testing. Simulated performance versus actual deployment
resultsarecompared.
Part III, the evaluation, final part of this thesis, reports on the construction of two space
tetherexperiments,theanalysisofmissiondataandtheextractionoflessonslearnedfrom
the exercise of actual implementation and from the mission results. Chapters6 and 7
describe respectively the process leading to the development of the Young Engineers
Satellite (YES) and the Second Young Engineers Satellite (YES2). These space tether
experimentsdemonstratethefeasibilityofactuallybuilding,qualifyingand,incaseofYES2,
operating the proposed system. Significant challenges had to be met, beyond the mere
productionofthetetheranddeployer,inordertobringtheexperimentsintospace,andto
finallyperformatetherdeployment.AnoverviewoftheYESandYES2systemsandofthe
management processes followed provide insight into these challenges. The YES2 mission
preparation, tether deployment results and problems encountered are analyzed and
evaluated in Chapter8. A comparison of the flight data is provided against simulation
results,groundtestsaswellastheearlierSEDSmissions.Thesuitabilityofthedeveloped
tether system for the SpaceMail application is analyzed. Finally, the work is placed in a
broadercontext.InChapter9,conclusionsareformulatedandfromtheintegratedfindings,
recommendations are derived for further development, as well as implications for tether
applicationsinthenearfuturethataretoleadtoamoresustainabletransportationinspace.
The Epilogue touches upon the same items, but more from the authors personal
perspective.
Following Chapter 9, a summary of the thesis is provided in both English and Dutch
language.
20 Chapter1

PartITethersandtheirapplications
Adastraperligamentum.
RobertForward,sciencefictionauthor,engineerandtetheradvocate,atthebottomofhis
emails
PartIofthisthesisprovidesadescriptionoftetherbasicsandatetherdynamicssimulatorthathas
been developed. Armed with these tools, a number of possible nearterm tether applications is
analyzedtofinallymakeastatementonthesafenichesthatexistfortethersinspace.

TetherDynamics 23
2 TetherDynamics
bx+ay=ac
axx+byy=bcc
ChristiaanHuygens,on29October1651,writesdownwhatmaybethefirsteverphysics
formulae,andwillshortlyaftercorrectlydefinetheconservationlawsofmomentumand
energyinDemotucorporumexpercussione,1652.
This chapterintroducesthereader tothe physicalprinciples of tetherdynamicsinspace.
The fundamentals behind the applications of mechanical and electrodynamic tethers are
workedout. Anewlydevelopedtoolisfinallydescribedforsimulationofdetailedtether
behaviorandrealworldaspectsthataredifficulttotakeintoaccountinanalyticalmodels.
2.1 Deployingatetherinspace
This section discusses basic models for the dynamics of a hypothetical tether that is
massless,straightandnonconducting.
2.1.1 Gravitygradienttensionforahangingtetherincircularorbit
Theorbitalperiodofanobjectorbitingamassivebodydependsontheorbitssemimajor
axis a.Alargersemimajoraxismeansalargerorbitalperiod,asise.g.obviousfromthe
MoonsorbitaroundtheEarthinabout28days(a384400km) ascomparedtothatofthe
SpaceShuttle,inapproximately90minutes(a6700km).
Inthesimpleexampleofacircularorbitthiscanbeeasilyunderstood. Themotionofan
object in an orbit with constant radius r=a, around a homogeneous spherical body with
gravitationalconstantifviewedinacorotatingframecanbethoughttobesubjectedto
abalancebetweenagravitationalforceF
g
andacentrifugalforceF
c
,whichisapparentin
that frame. Whereas the force of gravity decreases quadratically with increasing r, the
centrifugalforceisproportionalwiththeproductofrandthesquareoftheangularvelocity
aroundthecentralbody.Inordertoobtainsaidbalanceforanorbitwithalargerradius,
theangularvelocitymustthereforebedecreased,seeEqs.(2.1)and(2.2).
2
2
mr
r

m = = =
c g
F F
(2.1)
3
r
u
e = (2.2)
Theimplicationisthatiftwoobjectsareconnectedbyaradiallyorientedtether,theseso
called endmasses are each forced to orbit with an angular rate different from that
belongingtothelocalcircularorbitaccordingtoEq.2.2.Gravityforceandcentrifugalforce
24 Chapter2
ontheendmassescanthusnotbeinbalance.Supposetwoendmassesm
1
andm
2
incircular
orbitatrespectiveradii r
1
andr
2
,withr
2
>r
1
asdepictedin Figure1. Endmassm
2
willorbit
theEarthfasterthanitsnontetheredcompanionsatthesameradiusr
2
,whereassimilarly
thelowermassm
1
willbemovingsloweratr
1
thanitsnontetheredcompanionsthere.Both
endmasseswillsharethesameangularrateO matchingthatofacircularorbitatapoint
betweenthemasses,thecenteroforbitr
CO
,
2
3
O
=
u
CO
r
, (2.3)
wherethetermu/O
2
canbederivedfromthebalancebetweengravityforceandcentrifugal
forceforthesystemasawhole,

O =
2
1
2
1
d
d
2
2
r
r
r
r
m r
r
m

, (2.4)
suchthatforamasslesstether
2
2 2
2
1 1
2 2 1 1
3
/ / r m r m
r m r m
r
CO
+
+
=
. (2.5)
Forcomparison,theradiusofthecenterofmassr
CM
is
2 1
2 2 1 1
m m
r m r m
r
CM
+
+
=
. (2.6)
ForaverticaltetherwithlengthL, r
1
=r
2
L,itfollowsthat r
CO
3
/r
CM
3
=1+O(L/r
2
)
2
.Centerof
mass andcenteroforbit canthereforebeassumed to coincideforavertical tether, ifthe
tetherlengthisamerefractionoftheradius,Lr
2
.Thisassumptionremainstrueforanon
zerotethermass[Newlands1994].
Theforcerequiredtohavetheendmassesorbitattheangularrateofthecenteroforbitisthe
tethertensionT.Itcanbeexpressedintermsofdistancel fromm
1
tothatcenteroforbit,
l=r
co
r
1
(seeFigure1).BysubstitutingthisdefinitionoflandEq.2.3intotheforcebalance
onthemassm

oneobtainsforthetensioninthetetheranexpressionforT,
2
1
2 2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
3 ) ( 3
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
) (
O ~ O + O =
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

O = O

= =
l m T
r
l
l m
r
l
r
r
l
r
m l r m
l r
m
T
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
u
c g
F F
(2.7)
Asimilarresultcanbeobtainedforthetensiononmassm
2
.Asatypicalexample,a10kg
masssuspendedfromamassiveplatform(m
2

m
1
) orbitingat400kmbyamassless10km
tether would generate a tension of 0.38N. This tension is commonly but not fully
descriptively known as the gravity gradient tension. In fact it results from the stability
conditionforasystemforwhichwithincreasingradiusnotonlythegravityforcedecreases,
but also the centrifugal force increases. In magnitude, the gravity gradient tension is
TetherDynamics 25
approximatelyequal tothreetimes thatpart of thecentrifugal forcethatresultsfromthe
separation between endmass and center of orbit, under the orbital angular motion. The
equivalentgravitygradientisresponsibleforthetendencyforatetherinorbittoassumea
vertical orientation and can help to drive a tether deployment, once an initial vertical
separationbetweenendmasseshasbeenachieved.
Figure1.Forcebalanceinaverticaltether.
2.1.2 Equationsofmotion
Inordertoobtainafirstinsightintomechanicaltetherdynamicsandtetherdeployment,a
setofsimpleequationssuffices. Forthispurposeitisassumedherethat m
2
isamassive
platformM fromwhichamuchlighterendmassm isdeployedindownwarddirection,or
m
2
=M

m
1
=m.TheorbitofMisnotaffectedbythedeployment.Suchaplatformcoincides
withthecenteroforbit,withconstantradiusr
2
=r
CO
=RandangularrateO. Furthermore,itis
assumedthetetherisastraightlinewithoutflexibility, andits masscanbeignoredwith
respecttotheendmassm.Finallyitisassumedthatthetetherdynamicstakeplaceinsidethe
orbital plane only. The dynamics of the system are thus defined by the endmass m, the
tetherlengthL=l anditsangletothelocalnadiru,asmeasuredfromManddepictedin
Figure2.Thegeneralizedforceonthissysteminudirectioniszero(noperpendicularforces
areexertedbythetether),inldirectionitisthetensionT.
Ignoringhigherorderterms,thefollowingequationscanbederived,forexamplingusing
theLagrangian [e.g.Crellin1994,Heide1996.I]:
0 2 sin
2
3
) ( 2
2
= O + O + u u u

l
l
(2.8)
( ) ) cos 3 1 ( ) (
2 2 2
u u O O + =

l l
m
T
(2.9)

r1
rco
r2
Fc
Fc
Fg
Fg
T
T
l L
m1
m2 m2
m1
CenterofEarth
Freebodydiagrams
26 Chapter2

O
M
m
l
R
u
CenterofEarth
Figure2.Simplemodelfortetherdynamics.
Theseequationsdescribetherelativemotionofobjectsinorbitclosetogether,expressedin
polarcoordinates,inthefamiliarformofthesocalledrendezvousequations[e.g.Lorenzini
1996] however with the only force of influence being the tension between the masses. In
Eq.2.8aCoriolistermandacomponentofthegravitygradientperpendiculartothetether
can be discerned. Note that from Eq.2.9, for a nondeploying vertical tether
) 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 ( = = = = u u

l l Eq.2.7 follows once more. The effect of rotation or swing on the
tension in a nondeploying tether can be recognized in a term of Eq.2.9 relating to the
centrifugalforceontheendmass.Thegravitygradientcontributionontensioncanbeseen
todecreasewithincreasingu duetothedecreasingdifferenceinradiusbetweenmandM
andthereducingcomponentofthegravitygradientforcealongthetetherdirection.
2.1.3 Pendulummotionofaswingingnondeployingtether
Eq.2.8 describesthe inplaneangular motionofthe tether. The hangingtetherof Section
2.1.1 isa specialcase,whereas,inabsenceofdeployment, anoscillationaroundthe local
vertical represents a more general situation, be it intentionally or accidentally achieved.
Such oscillation is driven by the gravity gradient force that acts to accelerate the tether
towardsaradialorientation.
Forsmallangulardeviationsbetweentetherandthelocalnadirdirection,thisoscillation
followscloselyapendulummotion.If 1 , 0 , 0 << = = u l l

,Eq.2.8becomesanexpressionfora
harmonicoscillation,fromwhichthetethersinplanenatural(radian)frequencye
IP
canbe
derived,
0 3
2
= O + u u

O = 3
IP
e . (2.10)
InLEO,atanaltitudeof400km, O ~ 0.00113rad/s,and ittakesabout800sforatetherto
swingfrommaximum(small)amplitudetothevertical.Forlargerangles,thedifferencein
radius between endmasses decreases significantly, and so too the gravity gradient.
Thereforetheperiodofoscillationincreases.
TetherDynamics 27
Theswingamplitudeu
0
andthemaximumangularrate
max
u

at u

=0areusefulparameters
that canbeeasilyderived fromanyarbitrary stateinthe swingbyintegrationofEq.2.8,
takingtheshapeofanexpressionforconservationofenergy:
0
2 2 2
max
2 2 2
sin 3 sin 3 u u u u O = = = O +

const . (2.11)
Byintegrationof u

inthisexpressionthetimet
swing
toswingfromanarbitrarymaximum
angleu
0
totheverticalcanbedetermined.Thefollowingapproximationcanbeusedtosolve
fortheresultingintegral[Heide1996.I]:
0
8
2
2
6 4
2
sin
...
) 8 6 4 2 (
) 7 5 3 1 (
2304
225
64
9
4
1
3 2
u k
k k k
k t
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+


+ + + +
O
=
swing
t
, (2.12)
or t
swing
~ 1200s for u
0
=60 in LEO. This result exceeds by 50% the earlier result for the
durationofaswingfromasmallinitialamplitude.
2.1.4 Tetherdeployment
Thetrajectoryofadeployingtethercanbecontrolledineitheroftwoways,dependingon
tetheranddeployerdesign:
1. byimposingalengthprofilel(t),or
2. byimposingatensionprofileT(t)ortorque
Whendesigningadeploymenttrajectory,certainlimitationsaretobetakenintoaccount.At
any point in time, the potential for deployment acceleration is restricted by the level of
gravitygradient,whereastheinplaneangledevelopmentatagiventetherlengthfollows
fromthedeploymentvelocityprofileandcanthereforenotbearbitrarilyshaped.
For a deployment controlled by length, the deployment trajectory is described by Eq.2.8
alone and the resulting tension follows from Eq.2.9. A risk is that too high deployment
accelerationscanleadtotetherslackness(T=0).Astensioncannotbenegative,afreeorbital
motion will follow.Aboveequationscan stillbe used withthe understanding that l now
describesthedistancebetweenthemasses,notthetetherlength.Controlisonlyregained
when the distance between platform M and endmass m increases enough to reach the
deployedlength,andtensionwillassumenonzerovaluesagain.
Whencontrollingthedeploymentwithtension,thelengthprofilefollowsfromEq.2.9.Next
theinplaneanglecanbedeterminedfromEq.2.8.Suchadeploymentcontrolislessprone
toslackness.However,ifthetensionisimposedthroughfriction,therewillgenerallybea
minimalfrictionlevelinherenttothedeploymentsystemthat,ifnotproperlyplanned,can
causeanearlydeploymentstop.Thetetherthenentersapendulummotion.Tensionisno
longerimposedbythedeployerbutfollowsEq.2.9.Unlessthedeployerfrictionisreduced
belowthependulumtension,deploymentwillnotcontinue.
With regards to influencing the tether motion in udirection, a careful selection must be
madeoftheinitialconditionsandoftheapplieddeploymentvelocityprofile,nomatterthe
28 Chapter2
selectedmeansofdeploymentcontrol.AsshowninEq.2.8,foragivenlengthandinplane
angle,itisthedeploymentvelocitythatdetermineswhethertheinplaneanglewillincrease
or decrease, through the Coriolisterm. By controlling deployment velocity, the inplane
anglecanbeaffected.Inreturn,theinplaneangleinfluenceshowthedeploymentvelocity
develops, through Eq.2.9. A particularly low tension will lead to an initially fast
deployment, such that the Coriolis force pushes the endmass to a high angle from the
vertical, where the gravity gradient is smaller and deployment will slow down. For a
downwarddeployingendmassthisanglewillbeinforwarddirection,asdepictedinFigure
2.Atensionmaintainedclosetothegravitygradientforcelevelwouldalsoleadtoaslow
deployment,thistimealongthelocalvertical.Themaximumdeploymentvelocitycanbe
obtained at intermediate tension levels and angles. If a constant deployment angle is
somehow maintained ( 0 , 0 = = u u

in Eq.2.8), the gravity gradient force will increase with
lengthandsowillthereforetheacceleration,resultinginanexponentialdeployment:
u 2 sin
4
3
O =
l
l

. (2.13)
In this case the increase in gravity gradient force balances that of the Coriolis force.
Minimumdeploymenttimeisobtainedatanangleof45.
2.1.5 Impactoftetherproperties
Tethermassandflexibilityhaveanimpactonthetetherdynamicsdescribedsofar.
Realtethershaveafinitemassm
t
thatmaybesignificantcomparedtotheendmasses.Tether
massdensitywillleadtoavariationoftensionoverthetether.Reconsiderthecaseof Figure
1. If the tether has a finite and constant linear mass density p [kg/m] then according to
dm=p dstensioncanbeintegratedalongthetethertoyieldaquadraticdependency:
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
2
1
1
)
2
1
1 ( 3
2
1
1 O
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ O
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
O O = l
l
s
s m
r
s
r
s r
r
r
s r
r
m T p
u
p
u
(2.14)
withsrangingfrom0to L. ThemaximumtensionT=3(m
1
+m
t
)lO
2
occursinthecenterof
orbitwheres=l. ThecenteroforbitandO are determinedaccordingtoEq.2.3 andEq.2.4.
Becausethetethermasswillshiftthecenteroforbitinthedirectionofthehalfwaypointon
the tether, a finite tether density can have a negative impact on e.g. momentum transfer
(Section2.2.1).
Another relevant effect of tether mass density impacts deployment tension and thus
deploymentdynamics.Supposeatetherbeingpulledfromaresting,untensionedpile(or
coilorspool)atensionwillbeintroducedinthemovingpartofthetether,whichiscalled
therocketterm.Thediscontinuitythatatetherexperienceswhenmakingthetransitionfrom
beingatrestonaspooltosuddendeploymentvelocitycausesashocktension,equaltorate
of change in momentum of the moving section with mass l and velocity dl/dt. If that
velocityisconstanttherockettermequals
TetherDynamics 29
2
) (
d
d
l l l
t
T

p p = =
. (2.15)
Thetetherwillbetensioned eveninabsenceofanygravityordeployerfriction.Thisterm
will influence deployment dynamics especially if control friction F
brake
exercised by the
deployer is low. A tether of 0.001kg/m deploying at 10m/s from a spool without any
frictionwillasaresultstillhaveatensionof0.1N.
ForthesimplecaseofFigure2,i.e.asmallendmassandlightrigidtetherbeingdeployed
fromalargeplatform,theeffectofthetethermassontheendmassdynamicscanbetaken
intoaccountinasimplifiedway,Eqs.2.8and2.9thenbecome[Heide1996.I],
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
2
2
cos 3 1
2
1
0 2 )
2
1
( 2 sin
2
3
)
3
1
(
l F T l l m l l m
l
l
l m l m
brake

p u u p p
u p u u p
+ = = O O
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
= O + +
|
.
|

\
|
O + +
(2.16)
This equation shows how the instantaneous tether mass m
t
=l participates in different
fractionstothevarioustermsoftheequation:linearandangularacceleration,Coriolisterm,
centrifugalterm,gravitygradientandrocketterm.
Anothercomplicationwith impact is that tethers,evenundertension,donot behavelike
rigidbars.Oscillationsarerelevantfortethersinspaceandtheymayhavetobeprevented
or dampened. Three major oscillations are distinguished: springmass, longitudinal and
transverse.
Suddenbrakingofthedeployingtethermayinducealongitudinalspringmassoscillation,
whichistypicallyquiteslow(tensofseconds)andcanstretchthetetherforafewpercentof
itslength.Theresultingoscillationintensioncaninfluencedeploymentandcauseslackness.
Theperioddependsonlength,endmassandstiffness(productofelasticitymodulusEand
crosssectionalareaA).Bysmoothbraking,suchoscillationscanbeavoided[Kruijff1996].
For braided tethers, the stiffness should be taken for the braid rather than for the fiber
(Section4.1).Especiallyifloadedatlowfractionsoftensilestrength,atethersbraidstiffness
canbeordersofmagnitudelowerthanthefiberstiffness.
The longitudinal wave (or sound wave) is generally the fastest disturbance. It transports
tension disturbances. The wave velocity depends on stiffness and tether density not on
tension itself. For a tether braided from uninterrupted fibers, these properties should be
takenforthefiberswithinthebraid.
Transversewavemodesarelateraldisturbancestravelingalongthetether,e.g.afteraperiod
of slackness or bending when tether tension is regained. The period is determined by
tension and tether density. Initial lateral disturbances can be created during deployment.
Liketheendmassesthemselves,eachsegmentofadeployingmassivetetherissusceptibleto
anapparentCoriolisforce ( ) O u p

l l 2 d ,actingperpendiculartoitsmotion.Thedistribution
ofthisforceoverthelengthofthetetherwillleadtoaconcavebendingincaseofdownward
deployment from a platform. Upon subsequent deceleration of a bent tether transverse
30 Chapter2
oscillations are created. Transverse waves can therefore be avoided by maintaining
sufficienttensioninthetether,especiallyathighdeploymentvelocities.
The first resonant mode periods for these three oscillations closely resemble those of the
typicalstringandsuspendedmass[Yost2002,Misra1986]:
EA
m m L
P
t
m
) 34 . 0 (
2
+
= t , (2.17)
EA
L
P
L
2
2
p
= , (2.18)
T
L
m
m
m
m
P
t t
T
2
2
4
)
3
1 (
2 p
t
t
+
=
. (2.19)
Fora10km long tether of0.1kg/kmunder1Noftension, withanEAof 10000Nanda
10kgendmass,thespringmassperiodP
m
isabout20s,thelongitudinalperiodP
L
is6s(so
ittakesonly3sforatensiondisturbancetotravelalongthetether),thetransverseperiodP
T
ismuchslower(622s).Thisrangeoftwoordersofmagnitudeforthevariousfundamental
frequenciesmakesforahighlystiffsystem.
2.2 Howthetetherbecomesuseful
Withthetetherdeployedanditsdynamicsundercontrol,thereistheopportunitytoapply
thenewlyobtainedsystempropertiessuchaslengthandtensiontothebenefitoftheuser.
Twomajorapplicationsaremomentumtransferandelectrodynamicthrustgeneration.
2.2.1 Momentumtransfer
Thetethertensionisaninternalforce,soitdoesnotaffectthesystemstotalmomentum.As
thetethertensionactsonthesystemendmassesduringdeploymentandangularmotion,it
however does affect the individual endmass motion and in this manner is able to
redistribute,ortransfer,themomentumfromoneendmasstotheother.Bythesimpleactof
releasingthetether(orpartoftheendmass)thistransferiscompleted,and,ifpropertimed,
thereleasecanleadtoabeneficialorbitalchangefortheobjectsonbothendsofthetether.
Consider,forexample,acapsulethatistoreturntoEarthfromaheavyplatformincircular
orbitat400kmaltitude.Itrequiresanimpulsivedecelerationbyabout117m/sinorderto
reduce its perigee altitude to zero. A tether can provide this change in perigee altitude
throughacombinationoftwomechanisms:thegravitygradienteffectandtheswingofthe
tether.
The gravity gradient effect is explained in Section2.1.1. During tether deployment, the
endmasses, platform and capsule, are forced by their mechanical connection to orbit the
Earth with the same angular rate. While connected to the tether, the capsule being the
endmass with smaller radius is kept artificially below the local circular velocity. If the
TetherDynamics 31
tetheriscutitisnolongerforcedtoremaininacircularorbitandthecapsulesmotionwill
assumeanellipticaltrajectorymatchingitsmomentaryradiusandvelocity.Inotherwords,
itsperigeewillbereducedandthecapsulewillstarttodropdown.Theupperendmasss
apogeeforthesamereasonswillberaised.
AsexplainedinSection2.1.4 thetethercanbedeployedatlowtensiontoaforwardangle
withrespecttothelocalverticaldirectionandorbitalmotion.Bynextincreasingthetension,
thetetherandlowerendmasscanbebroughtintoaswingbacktowardsthatvertical.Once
deployment has stopped, swing velocity increases according to Eq.2.20, reaching a
maximumattheplatformslocalvertical.Ifthetetheriscutnearthatvertical,thebackward
swingcontributessignificantlytothedecelerationofthelowerendmass(i.e.thecapsule).
Thebeneficialeffectofamomentumtransferincircularorbitisdescribedbythedifference
betweentheinitialcircularorbitradiusr
CO
,i.e.theradiusofthecenteroforbit,and,forthe
lower endmass, the perigee radius r
1,p
that results from the momentum transfer. This
differencecanbeexpressedintermsofthelengthl, referringtothedistancebetweenthe
centeroforbitofthetetheredsystemandthatofthereleasedobject.Itcanbederivedby
substitutingtheexpressionforvelocityv
1,a
ofthelowerendmassattetherrelease,
l v
a max a 1, , 1
r u

O =
, (2.21)
with
max
u

from Eq.2.11, O from Eq.2.3 and r

1,a
=r
CO
l, the apogee radius of the newly
obtainedorbit,intotheequationforconservationoforbitalenergy,
r r
v
a
u u
=
2 2
2
, (2.22)
in which a denotes the semimajor axis, here a=(r
1,a
+r
1,p
)/2. Rewriting yields the desired
result:
l r l
r
l
O r r
CO
CO
CO p
+ ~ + + = ) sin 3 4 7 ( )) ( sin 3 4 7 (
0 0 , 1
u u
. (2.23)
Thereleaseofthelowerendmassfromahangingtetherimpactsitsperigeeradiusbyseven
timesthe(effective)tetherlengthl. Theimpactofareleasefromaswingingtetherpassing
through the local vertical depends on the initial swing angle
0
. The maximal impact is
achieved by a swing from 90, equaling about 14l. However, due to the impact of
deployment friction on deployment dynamics (Section2.1.4), a swing angle of about
60degrees turns out to be more realistic, which would yield an effect of about 13l
[Heide1996.I]. Theseresultsaresometimesreferredtoasthe7lruleforhangingtethers,
andthe13lruleforswingingtethers.
Largereffectivenesscanbeobtainedineccentricorbits.Crellinhasshownthatinorbitswith
eccentricity exceeding 0.44, such as GTO, the gravity gradient and angular rate vary so
muchoveroneorbitthatatetherisdynamicallyunstableandwillstarttorotate[Crellin
1996].Thisfeaturecanbeexploitedbyasynchronizedpumpingstrategysuchthatasmuch
as40lchangeinperigeeorapogeeradiuscanbeachieved[Ockels1996].
32 Chapter2
Ifrequired,theexchangeofmomentumcanbeboostedfurtherbyothermeansofincreasing
the tethers angular rate, such as by thrusters or tether retrieval [Lansdorp2003.II] or by
makinguseofaplanetarymagneticfield[Dijk2003.I].Eventuallyanuntaperedtetherwill
breakunderitsownweightatalimitgivenbythetethermaterialproperties.Supposethe
simple case of a tether without any endmass, under centrifugal load only, with constant
crosssectionalareaA
t
,tensilestrengtho
b
andvolumetricdensityp
V
.Itsmaximumallowable
tipvelocityv
tip,max
canbeexpressedintermsofthecharacteristicvelocity
V
b
ch
v
p
o
=
:
ch
V
b
tip t V
tip
t b
v v A
v
A T = = = = 2
2
2
,max
2
,max
max
p
o
p o
. (2.24)
For modern materials, based purely on theoretical fiber strength, v
ch
is in the order of
12km/s (Table 18). If an endmass m is included, balancing centrifugal force and tether
tensionyields
2
1
,max
+
=
t
ch
tip
m
m
v
v
, (2.25)
withm
t
thetethermassfromcenterofmasstotip.
A tether operating at the limit of its performance can launch only payloads that are
relativelysmallwithrespecttoitsownmass,andthereforeneedtobeusedalargenumber
of times to become beneficial from a launch cost point of view. An untapered spinning
tethercanbeusedfortipvelocitiesupto2v
ch
,inwhichcasetheallowableendmass,and
thuspayload,hasreducedtozero.Bytethertaperingtherangecanbeextended,toobtaina
tipvelocityof2v
ch
,thetetherneedstooutweightheendmassby18times[Cosmo1997].
Forsingleuseapplications,tetheredmomentumtransfercanbemoredirectlycomparedto
conventional,rocketbased,propulsion.Therequiredtethermassperunitofendmassm
t
/m
canbetakenfromEq.2.25andcomparedtotheequivalentratioofpropellantoverpayload
massm
p
/m,basedontherocketequation,
1 =
A
w
v
p
e
m
m
, (2.26)
withwtherocketpropellantexhaustvelocity,andthevelocityincrementvequaltov
tip,max
.
Figure3 plotssuchacomparisonforaDyneematether.OneoftheDyneemacurvesis
based on a theoretical v
ch
=1800m/s, the other includes a safety factor on tensile strength
F
S
=4or,alternatively,v
ch
=900m/s.

Twocurvesrepresentingrocketperformancehavebeen
added, with typical values of specific impulse I
sp
depending on the exhaust velocity
accordingtoI
sp
=9.81w.Ignoringdifferencesinsystemcomplexityandoverhead,singleuse
momentum transfer tethers compare favorably against rocket propulsion for velocity
incrementsbelow200400m/s.Ifatetherisusedforavelocityincrementof1000m/s,mass
benefitsareobtainedafterabouttenuses.ThemassratiocurvesaspresentedinFigure3are
independent of endmass and do not take into account environmental factors. The
TetherDynamics 33
abundance of micrometeoroids in space however precludes the use of very thin tethers
(typicallybelow0.3mm)thatwouldotherwisebeattractiveforverylightendmasses(see
Section4.3.1). Still, in conclusion, disposable tether systems for singleuse momentum
transfer do have an application niche. They are currently mostly suitable for low Av
applications, such as orbit maintenance, circularization and reentry, and with payloads
heavyenoughsuchthatthetetheristobedimensionedprimarilyforstrength.
Figure3.Comparisonbetweensingleusetether
massandrocketpropellant
2.2.2 Electrodynamictetherprinciples
Another feature of long structures in space is exploited by conductive tethers for
electrodynamic (ED) applications. An orbiting conductive tether crossing the Earths
magnetic field B with relative velocity v will be subjected to an induced potential or
electromotiveforce(emf)V
emf
varyingoverthetetherlength,
l B v d ) ( =
emf
V
(2.27)
Inlowequatorialorbittheemfperunitlengthequalsabout200V/km,increasinginradial
direction.Theemfcanthereforereachakilovoltormoreoveratetherlongerthan5km.This
emfcandriveaninteractionbetweentheconductorandtheEarthsplasmaandenablean
electrical current to flow through the tether. The presence of this current in the Earth
magneticfieldgivesrisetoanelectrodynamiceffectthatcanbeputtouse,i.e.theLorentz
force.
Electronscanbecollectedfromtheplasmabyananodeattheendoftheconductivetether
thatispositivelychargedbytheemf.Alargeconductivebody(e.g.aninflatableconductive
balloon)canforexamplebeusedascollector[Dobrowolny1994,Dobrowolny2000].Alsoa
dedicatedsystemlikeanionenginecangenerateelectronsandthushasthebenefitofbeing
independentofionospheric(plasma)electrondensity[Nicolini2003].Ifleftuninsulated(or
bare) the conductive tether itself can function as anode to collect electrons from the
plasma[Dobrowolny1976].
At the cathodic end, electrons can be emitted back into the plasma. A special plasma
contactor device can be used here that provides effective emission at low cathodic
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
0 1000 2000 3000
Velocity increment [m/s]
M
a
s
s

R
a
t
i
o

U
s
e
d
/
P
a
y
l
o
a
d

[
-
]
Dyneema Tether, Fs=4
Dyneema Tether, Theoretical
Rocket, Isp=200 s
Rocket, Isp=350 s
34 Chapter2
potentials,typicallybelow100V.Examplesofplasma contactorsarethe HollowCathode
(HC) and the Field Emitter Array Cathode (FEAC). For Hollow Cathodes the required
potentialislowerthanforFEACs,butasmallcontinuousflowofionizedgasisrequired.
FEACs require no consumables, but the hardware is delicate and suffers from erosion
[Williams1992,Morris2000].Suchaplasmacontactoratthecathodicendessentiallyshorts
oneendofthetethertotheplasmasuchthatmostoftheV
emf
canbeutilizedattheopposite
end as anodic potential for electron collection. The emitted electrons follow the Earths
magneticfieldlinestobeeventuallyabsorbedbytheEarthsplasmareservoir.
The Lorentzforce F
L
will result from integration along coordinate s over the tether
accordingtoEq.2.28.Thisforceistransferredbytethertensiontotheendmassesandcanbe
usedasapropellantlessformofthrust.
) ) ( d ( ) (
0
B l F =

l
L
s s I
(2.28)
ForapassiveconductivetetherinEarthorbit,theemfgeneratedcurrentandLorentzforce
acttodeorbitthetetheranditsendmasses.Theinducedcurrentcanbeusedasanelectrical
powersourcebutattheexpenseoforbitalenergyandonlyaslongasthetetheredspacecraft
remainsinorbit.Alternatively,ifalargeenoughvoltageisactivelyappliedoverthetether,
e.g.usingsolarcells,itispossibletodrivetheelectronsinoppositedirection,suchthata
propulsivethrustisproducedthatraisesthesatellitesorbit.Inthisway,solarenergycanbe
convertedintoorbitalenergy.Thisisapowerfulandpromisingapplicationoftethersinlow
Earth orbit. For this case, the emf acts to reduce the system performance and must be
overcomebytheaddedpowersupply.
Baretetherperformancemodel
Thebaretetheranodehasanumberofnotableadvantagesoverthementionedalternatives.
It allows for a system design without complex endmass and a more effective collection
mechanism [Dobrowolny 1976, Sanmartin 1993]. Simply put, through its potential a thin
tetherexertselectricalinfluencewithinacylindricalvolumearoundthetetherthatislarge
comparedtothetethers owndimensions. The chargedbare tethercanattract andcollect
muchmoreelectronsfromtheplasmathanjustthosethathappentobeinthepathofthe
tether itself. A highly simplified performance model can be derived, from which some
numbersonbaretethercurrentcollectionandLorentzforcegenerationcanbeobtainedand
typicaltethershapes(cylinderandtape)canbecompared.
Supposeacylindricaltether,biasedpositivelywithrespecttothesurroundingplasmaand
attractingelectronsbyacylindricalforcefield.Ifthetetherradiusissmallerthanacertain
qualityoftheplasmacalleditssheaththickness,theelectronflowfromtheplasmaintothe
conductor can be expressed as a function of the conductors bias through the socalled
OrbitalMotionLimitedmodel(OML)[Schott1968].TheOMLisbasedontheconservation
of energy and angular momentum of the attracted electrons, as they orbit magnetic field
lines.AccordingtotheOML,thecurrentincrementdI
OML
collectedbyapieceoftetherata
constantbiasreads:
TetherDynamics 35
2 / 1
2 / 1
) (
1
4
d d
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
pl t
th OML
kT
V V e
I I
t
(2.29)
where V
t
V
pl
is the potential bias of the tether with respect to the plasma,
k=1.380710
23
m
2
kgs
2
K
1
the Boltzmann constant, T
e
the electron temperature (a typical
valueinLEObeingT
e
=2000K)andI
th
istherandomthermalcurrent,accordingto
l d
m
kT
n e I
eff
e
e
pl th
d
8
4
1
d
2 / 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
= t
t
(2.30)
with n
pl
the plasmas electron density, e=1.602210
19
C the elementary charge and
m
e
=9.109410
31
kg the electron mass. Within the OML regime, for long tethers with
concavecrosssections(i.e.withoutindentations),thecollectionofelectronsisproportional
to the exterior surface of the tether, which can be represented by the product of cross
sectionalperimeterpandlengthincrementdl[Sanmartin1999].Analogoustothediameter
of a cylinder we can define for an arbitrary concave crosssection shape an effective
diameterd
efff
=p/,suchthattheexteriorsurfaceisdescribedinEq.2.30asd
eff
dl.
Figure4.Principleofbareconductivetetherinorbit,plasmacontactorinm
1
Consider a vertically oriented bare tether around Earth, configured for deorbit. It is
performingpassivelyapartfromacathodicplasmacontactoroperatingatplasmapotential
placedatthebottomofthetether, Figure4.Forsimplicity,magneticfieldandvelocityare
assumed horizontal, perpendicular and constant over the length of the tether. Also the
plasma density n
pl
is assumed constant. The tether itself is assumed straight and with
negligibleelectricalresistance,suchthatthepotentialofthetetherisconstant.Inthiscase,
V
t
V
pl
=V
emf
.Finallythepotentialis assumedhighlysuprathermal(V
emf
kT
e
/e), whichwill
typicallybetrueifthetetherismuchlongerthan1m,suchthattheunityinEq.2.29canbe
ignored. In Figure 4, to the right of the system schematic, the development of plasma
potentialandcurrentareplottedagainstthetetherlength.Thepositivepotentialofplasma
withrespecttothetetherisshaded.Theshadedareahighlightsthepotentialtobeusedin
Eq.2.29tocomputecurrentcollection.IntegratingEq.2.29overlwefindforthemaximum
current:

B
0
m1
I
m2
FL
L
v
I
0A
e

Vemf
36 Chapter2
2
3
max
9
8
L
m
evB
d en I
e
eff pl
=
, (2.31)
with B the amplitude of the magnetic field vector B. Similarly we can integrate for the
LorentzforceandobtainanexpressionforitsamplitudeF
L
,
2
5
2
3
9
8
5
3
L
m
ev
d en B F
e
eff pl L
=
. (2.32)
Itcanbeseenthatboththecurrentandthrustforcearestronglydependentonthelengthof
thetether.Atypicalsystematn
pl
= 10
11
m
3
, B =26uT, L=10km, d =1mm(cylindrical),at
400kmaltituderesultsinanemfperunitlengthof186V/km,acurrentI=2.7Aandaforce
F
L
=0.42Nactingagainsttheorbitalvelocityvector.Ifthetetherismadeofaluminium,its
massis21kg.MagneticfieldamplitudeBdecreasesrapidlywithradius.Apartfromrather
strongdependenciesonsolarcycleanddiurnalvariations,theplasmaselectrondensityn
pl
peaksaround300400kmaltitudeatalevelintheorderof10
12
m
3
anddecreasesrapidlyat
higheraltitudestolevelofftoaround10
10
10
11
m
3
(Figure5).Ataltitudeshigherthansome
2000km applications and designs for systems relying on these parameters are therefore
muchmorerestricted.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Altitude [km]
M
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

f
i
e
l
d

[
u
T
]
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
1
0
^
1
2

m
^
-
3
]

Magnetic field
Electron density
Figure5.Magneticfieldandanoccurrenceofelectrondensityin
LEO(equatorialplane,IGRFandIRI95models)
Nowsupposeaplasmacontactorisplacedatthetopofthetetherandarelativepotential
V
t
V
plasma
= V
s
is applied there, as sh own i n below Figure 6. If the supply
voltage is smaller than the total emf over the tether length L (or V
s
V
emf,L
=vBL), only a
fractionV
s
/V
emf,L
willbeatpositivepotentialwithrespecttotheplasmaandcollectelectrons.
Thensimilarly,thefollowingequivalentrelationshipscanbederived,
2
3 2
3
,
max
9
8
L
V
V
m
evB
d en I
L emf
s
e
eff pl
|
|
.
|

\
|
= , (2.33)
TetherDynamics 37
2
5 2
5
,
2
3
9
8
5
2
L
V
V
m
ev
d en B F
L emf
s
e
eff pl L
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
. (2.34)
Sucha tetherconfigurationcanmakeforahighlycapablepropulsionsystem. Supposethe
supplyisselectedsuchthatV
s
=V
emf,L
,thenthesamesystemasdescribedabovewouldyield
acontinuousthrustofF
L
=0.28Nalongtheorbitalvelocityvectortether.Thisthrustcanbe
usedtocounteractatmosphericdragortoraiseorbitalaltitude.Theimpactofcontinuous
thrustontheorbitsemimajoraxisa ofthetotalsystemwithmassM
total
canbequantified
fromtheincreaseinorbitalenergy(Eq.2.22)asaresultofthepowerinputF
L
v(ignoringthe
influenceofatmosphericdrag),
u
total
L
M
v F a
t
a
2
2
d
d
=
, (2.35)
TheabovementionedtetherwouldraiseasystemwithM
total
=10000kgby4.3km/day. At
theexpenseof5kWelectricalpowerconsumption,thisperformanceiscomparabletothatof
contemporary ion engines [Saccoccia 2000]. Apart from some gas released for cathodic
plasmacontactorperformance,thetethersystemrequiresnoconsumables.Furthermore,the
systeminthisexamplecanstillbesignificantlyenhancedbypropertetherdesign.
Tapetethers
A tape tether offers a higher effective diameter than a cylindrical tether and thus higher
collectionsurfaceperunitofmass.Atapecanthusbeanattractivedesignoption.Foratape
ofdimensionsa b,theeffectivediameterequals
) (
2
,
b a d
tape eff
+ =
t
. (2.36)
The design limit for a tape is primarily the tape tickness b. Compared to an equalmass
cylindricaltetherwithdiameter d, if b<<d,arelativeincreaseineffectivediameterfollows
accordingtoEq.2.37.Equivalentlythisratiocanbereadtoexpressathintapesreductionof
tethermassforthesameeffectivediameter.
Figure6.Principleofbareconductivetetherinorbitunder
supplyvoltageandplasmacontactoratm
2

m2
m1
I
FL
Vsupply
B
L
0 V
v
I
0A
VsupplyVemf
e

38 Chapter2
b
d
m
m
d
d
d d
tape
cylinder
m m
tape eff
tape eff
cylinder tape
2
,
,
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
(2.37)
A 10um thick nonresistive conductive tether tape (about the thickness of aluminium
kitchenfoil)wouldideallyachievethesamethrustof0.42Nfromaboveexampleatonly2%
ofthecylindricaltethermass,representinga50foldefficiencyincrease(intermsofthrust
perkilogramoftether).
Inpractisehowever,athighcurrentdensitylevels,soespeciallyforathintapetether,Eqs.
2.32and2.34turnsouttobeoversimplifications.OhmiclossesdueorpotentialdropV
R
due
to the tether impedance must be taken into account. Dissipative tether heating further
increasesthetetherselectricalresistance.Thetetherpotentialcannolongerbeassumedto
remain constant. The resulting reduction in bias voltage of the tether with respect to the
plasma can reduce the extent of the tape advantage significantly [Lorenzini 1999].
Furthermore, for tape widths outside the OML regime (typically much wider than a few
centimeters),electroncollectionwillbecomelesseffectivethantheOMLmodelofEq. 2.30
[Estes2000.II].
Althoughtheseconsiderationsmaydriveoptimaltethertapedesigntowardslessextreme
crosssectional dimensions, a tape design does provide a masseffective solution with
significantlyincreasedthrustlevelsascomparedtoacylindricaltether.Theohmiclossesare
takenintoaccountbytheadvancedsimulatorETBSimdescribedinthenextsection.Forthe
deorbitconfigurationexampledescribedabove,withatapeof4cm 10umratherthanthe
1mmdiametercylindricaltether,athrustforceof2.0Nisobtained,comparedtothe0.42N
forthecylindricalcase.Furthermore,thetapetetherhasamassof11kgversusthe21kgof
thecylindricaltether.Allthingsconsideredtherefore, thethintapedesigndoesnotquite
providethe50foldincreaseofefficiencyoveracylindricaltetheraspredictedbyEq.2.37,
butstillarespectable9foldimprovement.
Forthepropulsivecaserepresented by the Figure 6 above, it is noted that the current level
risessteeplynearthecathodicendofthetether.Ohmiclosses

willthereforebeconcentrated
here,andinaverythintapeonlyasmallfractionofthetether,closetothecathode,willbe
chargedpositivelywithrespecttotheplasmaandconductcurrent. Althoughthiscurrent
willbeverylarge,astheLorentzforceisgeneratedonlyoverthatsectionofthetetherthat
actuallyconductsacurrent,theohmiclosses

willhaveasignificantandnegativeimpacton
thegeneratedLorentzforce.Itisthereforesuggestedtolimitthecurrentbutincreasethe
lengthoverwhichitflowsandoverwhichtheLorentzforceisgenerated.Thisisachieved
byinclusionofalargesectionofinsulated,buthighlyconductive,tetherbetweencathode
andtheexposed(bare)tethertape.Theelectroncollectionatthetapewillthenbereduced,
butitwilltakeplaceatmuchincreaseddistancefromthecathode.Thefullcollectedcurrent
will now flow through all of the insulated tether section and the Lorentz force will be
generatedoveritsfulllength(Figure7).Thisdesigndoesnotonlyimprovetetherefficiency
forthepropulsivecase,butalsoisfoundtoreducethedependencyofthrustlevelonplasma
density[Johnson1998,Lorenzini1999.I,Estes2000.III].
TetherDynamics 39

m2
m1
I
FL
Vsupply
B
L
0 V
v
I
0A
VsupplyVR+Vemf
e

VR
VtVplasma
2.3 Tethermissionsimulation
ThissectionsummarizestherationaleandfeaturesbehindthedevelopmentofaBeadSim
tethermissionsimulatorfamily(referredtointhefollowingasMTBSim/ETBSim),Figure8:
Mechanical Tether Bead Simulator (MTBSim), the Realtime Tether Bead Simulator
(RTBSim), the Young Engineers Satellite mission Simulator (YESSim) and the Electrical
Tether Bead Simulator (ETBSim). MTBSim has been developed to simulate mechanical
tether deployment realistically but fast (i.e. computing hours of simulated time within
minutes). From this starting point, the development is split into two directions. YESSim
includes functions for momentum transfer, reentry capsule dynamics, mission planning
andpostflightdataanalysis.ETBSimalsobuildsonMTBSimbutfocusesonelectrodynamic
performanceandstabilityofalreadydeployedelectrodynamictethers.Theexecutableand
sourceofthesesimulatortoolsisavailableforresearchpurposesonrequest.

m2
m1
I
FL
Vsupply
B
L
0 V
v
I
0A
VsupplyVR+Vemf
e

VR
VtVplasma
Figure7.Currentcollectionforresistivetether,withandwithout
insulatedsection
40 Chapter2
2.3.1 Advancedtethermodels
Without thesimplifying assumptionsand when takingintoaccountrealtetherproperties
suchasfinitestiffness,tethermass,tetherbending,tetherdynamicsbecomenaturallymore
complexthane.g.thosedescribedbyEqs.2.8and2.9.Forrealisticsimulation,particularly
whendesigninganactualmission,noncircularorbitsaroundthenonsphericalEarthwith
properenvironmentalmodelsaretobetakenintoaccount.Asfaraselectrodynamictether
applications are concerned it was already mentioned that ohmic effects on the tether
potential and dissipative heating of the tether have a significant impact on tether
performance.Thedistributedforcesonthetetherwillcauseittodeformandremainneither
verticalnorstraight.Inaninclinedorbit,themagneticfieldisnolongerperpendicularto
velocity, causing outofplane dynamics. The current collection and Lorentz force
distributiondependonmanyparametersthatinrealityvaryoverasatellitesorbitandover
thelengthofthetetherinanontrivialmanner.Theseeffectscombinedmakereallifetether
electrodynamicssignificantlymorecomplexthandescribedsofar.
A multitude of tether dynamics models, each with its own strengths and limitations is
availableinliterature[Misra1986,Tyc2001,Cartmell2008].Simulatorsaretypicallybuilton
numericintegrationofadiscretizationofthemodel,beitofthephysicalcontinuumofthe
tether(finiteelementsorlumpedmass)orofthenonlinearpartialdiffentialequationsthat
jointlydescribethevariousmodesofthetethermotion(e.g.byfinitedifferencemethods).
Problemstobeovercomebysimulatorsarethenonlinearityforlargeamplitudesandthe
large stiffness of the system (Section2.1.5) [Schagerl1998]. Some of the models and
simulators that have been encountered and/or compared during the development of
MTBSim/ETBsimarelistedinTable2.
Most of the encountered simulators that take into account complex environmental
influences are based on lumped mass (or bead) models that represent the tether as a
chainofbeadsorpointmassesconnectedbymasslessspringsorspringdamperelements.
The validity of bead models has been demonstrated e.g. by Biesbroek and Crellin
[Biesbroek1999].
Simulation performance comparisons between various models are provided by Van der
Heide&Kruijff[Heide 1996.I, Heide1996.II]. These comparisons show that straightand
inextensibletethermodels(e.g.Eqs.2.8and2.9)canwellrepresentdeploymentatmedium
tension levels, but in the cases of low tension deployment and heavy deceleration tether
BeadSim MTBSim ETBSim
RTBSim
YESSim
Figure8.Tethersimulatorevolution
TetherDynamics 41
flexibility can no longer be ignored. The various lumped mass models give comparable
results althoughatsignificantlydifferent computationaltimes, (atthetime)rangingfrom
minutestohoursforafulldeployment.BeadSimwasfoundtobethefastestsimulator,with
no appreciable difference in predicted dynamics compared to the alternatives [Heide
1996.II].Nopubliclyavailablesimulatorwasidentifiedthathandlesbareelectrodynamic(or
hybrid)tethers.
Simulator Model FeaturesandAssumptions Reference
BeadSim Lumpedmass Newtonianforceandaccelerationmodel,trapezoidalintegratorwith
beadredistributionforlargerstepsize,extensiblemassivetether,2D,
SEDSdeployerfriction,USstandard1976atmosphere
Carroll1993
TetherSimple
Simulation
Endmassdynamics Inextensiblemassivetether,freemovingendmasses,3D,differential
equationsderivedfromLagrangianinmatrixform
Crellin1994
StarTrackmatlab Endmassdynamics Inextensiblemassivetether,freemovingendmasses,2D,differential
equationsderivedfromLagrangianinmatrixform,RungeKutta
integrator
Heide1996
ACM/LRTeth Lumpedmass Circularorbits,3D,variousenvironmentalmodels,reentry,finite
differencesdiscretization,variousintegrators
Sabath1996
MatlabBlanksby Lumpedmass FiniteelementdiscretizationbasedonKanesequations.3D,various
elasticityandenvironmentalmodels,insulatedelectrodynamictether
Blanksby2000
MatlabWilliams Lumpedmass BasedonKanesequations.3D,basicelasticityandenvironmentalmodels Williams2009
Smirnov Continuous 2Dcircularorbit,heavyplatform,openlooptensioncontrolonly,no
environmentalmodels,longitudinalwavepropagation
Smirnov2010
Table2.Sometetherdeploymentmodelsandsimulators
2.3.2 SimulatorOverview
BeadSim
BeadSim,oneofthesimulatorsevaluated,hasthenbeenselectedasthestartingpointforthe
MTBSim/ETBSimdevelopment.BeadSimisabasictethersimulatorwritteninTurboPascal
anddevelopedandsuccessfullyusedforSEDS1andSEDS2intheearly1990sbytheSan
DiegocompanyTetherApplications[Carroll1993].Themodelislimitedtotetherdynamics
withintheorbitalplane(herereferredtoas2D),whichhasbeenshowntobeareasonable
assumption for mechanical tethers [Crellin1994]. The endmasses are regarded as
pointmasses.Thetetherisapproximatedbythelumpedmassmodel,withfixedmassbeads
connectedbymasslesssprings.Dampingbetweenthebeadsisonlytakenintoaccountwhen
thetetherisnot deploying. Initial conditionsarefreelyand convenientlydefinableinthe
localhorizontal,localverticalframe.Duringdeployment,additionalbeadsareinsertedat
deployment velocity on the deployer side. For every bead inserted, deployer endmass is
reduced. The deployment can be controlled in open loop by introducing a profile of
42 Chapter2
deployer friction (or more specifically, SEDS brake settings) versus deployment time or
tether length. For each timestep, individual bead accelerations are derived directly from
NewtonsforcebalanceinaninertialCartesianframe.Theordinarydifferentialequations
aresolvednumericallyusingHeunsmethod.Thetimestepisautomaticallyadaptedbased
onauserdefinedstabilitycriterion.Inthiswayitisstraightforwardtoextendthemodel
and add environmental forces and complex, nonlinear mechanical properties. For these
reasons BeadSim is rather suitable to assess quickly various mission concepts and tether
behavior.
A key feature of BeadSim as compared to other lumpedmass tether simulators is its
approachtodealwiththesystemsstiffnessandenablelargetimestepsandfastintegration.
Conventional simulations of flexible structures like membranes or tethers using lumped
mass models are computationally intensive. They require a large number of elements to
realisticallyrepresenttensionchangesthatmovethroughthecontinuousflexiblestructure
atveryhighspeedsofpotentiallykilometerspersecond.Forconvergenceofthesolution
verysmalltimestepsarerequired,multipleordersofmagnitudebelowthetimeittakesfor
such a tension change to traverse the distance between two mass elements (see also
Eq.2.18). BeadSim prevents unrealistic discontinuities also for large timesteps. Following
eachintegrationstep,aredistributionofbeadsisapplied,undertheartificialassumptionof
acontinuoustensiondistributionwithinthetether,takingintoaccountthegravitygradient,
muchasitappearsinEq.2.14.Thisapproachessentiallyremovesthefastestoscillationthe
longitudinalorsoundwavefromthetetherbehavior.Typicaldeploymentdynamicsand
associatedspringmass,swingandtransversemodesarehardlyaffectedastheyaremuch
slowerandaresimulatedinaccordancewithnonsimplifiedmodels[Heide1996.I].
MTBSim
Inafirstextensionstep,BeadSimhasbeendevelopedintoMTBSim,toperformendtoend
mechanical tether mission analysis, i.e. to study and design deployment and control of
flexibletethersandunderstandthebehaviorofendmassesbeforeandafterrelease.Thetool
hasbeenmovedtothefullygraphicalenvironmentofBorlandDelphiPascal,toallowbetter
realtime visual evaluation of tether and orbital dynamics aspects. Features, inputs and
outputsofMTBSim(combinedwiththoseofETBSim)arepresentedinFigure9,Table3and
Table4.
Thetwodimensional(planar)BeadSimalgorithmshavebeenextendedtothreedimensions.
In addition to the Cartesian inertial and Local Horizontal Local Vertical (LVLH)
coordinates, the classical six orbital elements can now be used to describe the initial
conditionsandoutputstatesoverarotatingEarth.This3Dapproachisalsoanecessarystep
to include realistically outofplane dynamics and environmental influences. The Earth
oblatenessforexampleimpactsinclinedorbitsthroughitsJ2effectongravityandthrough
fluctuationsinatmosphericdragasaroundanoblatebodyorbitalaltitudevariesevenfor
circularorbits.RelativepositionsoftheSunandMoonarealsocalculatedsuchthatgravity
effects,thermalheatinput,lightingconditionsandsolarpressureforcescanbetakeninto
TetherDynamics 43
account.Forthestudyofdeploymentcontrolandrobustness,thetetherdeployerhardware
hasbeenmodeled,includinguncertaintiesandperformancelimitations.
Adevelopmentenvironmentisprovidedfordesignandevaluationoftetherdeployment.
LikeBeadSim,MTBSimincludesamodeloftheSEDStypestaticspooldeployerandfriction
brake(seeSections1.3,5.1.1).Withthissimplesystemdeploymentispassive,byinertiaand
gravity gradient, controlled by an adjustable friction (translating into tether tension
followingEq.2.16).Unwindinglengthorratecannotbecontrolleddirectly(suchaswitha
motorizedreel)andretrievalisnotpossible.Tablesspecifyingthenominal(target)tension
or friction brake settings as a function of length or time can be used as input for the
simulatedcontrol,aswellasreferenceprofilesfordeploymentlengthandvelocityagainst
deploymenttime.AsinBeadSim,deploymenttootheranglescanbedevelopedmanually
withsomelevelofintuition,byadjustingthespoolandbrakehardwareparametersandthe
brake reference profile. One common need for trajectory optimizaton is provided by
MTBSim,namelytoobtainarobustdeploymenttoastableverticalstate,basedonacontrol
algorithmmethoddevisedbyBeletski&Levin[Beletski1993].Duetothelargenumberof
variablesandeffectstobetakenintoaccount,theparameteroptimizerisbasedongenetic
algorithms[Biesbroek1996].Inordertodevelopother(optimal)referenceprofiles,offline
Matlab tools are available [Williams2009]. Trajectories resulting from such optimization
toolstypicallyareverifiedinMTBSiminordertoevaluateflexibletetherbehavior,impactof
environmental effects and control hardware performance. Any of a variety of feedback
controlalgorithmswithvariableorconstantparameterscanbeselected.Theimpactofthe
numerous parameters mentioned above and robustness against environmental and
hardware parameter unknowns and disturbances can be investigated stochastically using
theMonteCarlofeature.Thisfeatureallowsalargenumberofsimulationstobeperformed
autonomously with the required parameters disturbed in each simulation according to a
userdefinedprobabilitydistribution.InSection5.5adetaileddescriptionisprovidedofthe
describedcontrolandanalysisfeatures.
RTBSim
ArealtimeversionofMTBSim,dubbedRTBSim,hasbeencreatedtobeusedinahardware
intheloopsetup.RTBSimtakesactualmeasureddeployerfrictionmeasurementsasinput,
rather than using a simulated deployer performance. The resulting deployment can be
studied, and the simulated velocity can be communicated to the deployment test facility
such that closedloop deployment control can be tested realistically on the ground
(Section5.2.2).
YESSim
In addition, MTBSim has been further extended to YESSim in the context of the Second
YoungEngineersSatelliteproject[Kruijff2003.I,Kruijff2007],particularlywithregardsto
endmass attitude dynamics, integrated reentry simulation and extended environmental
models.Apartfromdynamicssimulation,anumberofmissionsupportfeatureshavebeen
added to YESSim, such as ground track and ground station contacts and tether visibility
opportunitiesfromtheground[Stelzer2006].
44 Chapter2
The YESSim Deimos module [Stelzer2006] propagates the attitude for the tethered
endmassesbasedonpreejectioninitialconditions,ejectionsysteminducedpitchoffrates
and tether torques after ejection. Euler angles with respect to an inertial frame are
computed, as well as relative angles of the endmass with respect to the attached tether.
Throughthearmfromtetherattachmentpointtoendmasscenterofmass,thetethertension
appliesatorqueandthusaffectstheendmassdynamics.Knowledgeoftheattitudeofthe
deployerwithrespecttothetetherimprovestethertensionestimates:adifferentbendingof
the tether around the deployer exit will cause a different level of deployment friction
(Section5.4.1).Attitudesimulationofthesecond,suspendedendmassduringdeploymentis
alsorelevant,namelytoidentifytheconditionsatwhichtheendmasswillstarttorotateand
potentiallywrapitselfintothetether.MTBSimdoesnotyettakeintoaccounttheinverse
influenceofhowdynamics of thesuspended endmassmayaffect thetether tension. Fast
endmassoscillationsmayintroducetensionfluctuationspropagatingthroughthetether,just
as it does in a rope on Earth from which a dangling stick is suspended. Due to the low
stiffnessoflongtethers,thiseffectisrelevantonlywhenthetetherisshortcomparedtothe
torques arm (Eq.2.17). Nevertheless, based on an observed discrepancy between YES2
missionresultsandsimulation(Section8.3)thisinteractionmayhavesignificantimpacton
earlydeployment.
YESSimcanbeusedtosimulateSpaceMailtypecapsulereentrybyendmassreleasefroma
tether. YESSims integrated ReEntry Simulator Tool (or REST) is an extensive reentry
modulethattrackstheendmasstrajectoryasitenterstheatmosphere,aswellasattitude,
external and internal temperature. Apart from the already present US 1976 atmospheric
model[U.S.1976],sophisticatedatmosphericmodelswereincludedthroughdynamiclink
libraries(dllfiles)tostudyseasonalanddiurnaleffectsonthereentrycapsulelandingarea:
MSISE00fordensity[Picone2002],thehorizontalwindmodelHWM93foraveragewinds
[Hedin1996] and the Naval Research Laboratorys Ground to Space model G2S
[Drob2007],thelatterfortheinclusionofmeteorologicalpredictionsataresolutionof60
km,kindlymadeavailablebyNRL.Forthepurposeofvalidationagainstothertools,the
(Russian)standardatmosphericdensitymodelGOST[Cefola2004]hasbeenaddedtothe
already present NASA standard. REST includes a Monte Carlo mode to calculate the
landing area. Detailed investigations using these models are reported by Calzada
[Calzada2004].FurthermoreRESTtakesasinputa2Dor3D(panel)modelofthereentry
capsule,andcomputes(hypersonic)dragandliftcoefficientsandtheimpactontrajectory,
as well as aerodynamic torques using the modified Newton approach [Calzada2004,
Lyaskin2004].RESTattitudepropagationcanbeusede.g.todetermineatwhichaltitudein
theatmosphereareenteringendmass(orcapsule)willstoprotatingandwhatwillbethe
amplitudeofitsoscillationaroundthevelocityvectorduringpeakheating.Tothispurpose
REST includes shockwave and heatflux models valid in the stagnation point, and heat
transport computation inside a 2D capsule (panel model, integrated) and a 3D capsule
model (finite elements model, offline) based on the heatshield design and materials
properties[Lyaskin2004,DePascale2006,DePascale2008,Asma2008].RESTthussupports
heatshieldandcapsuledesigninadditiontolandingareadetermination.
TetherDynamics 45
ETBSim
AdevelopmentfromMTBSimparalleltothatofYESSimisETBSim.Thistoolaimstostudy
performance and dynamics of complex, userdefined designs of electrodynamic tethers
[Kruijff2001.I, Dijk2003.I]. This tool extension is as yet limited to nondeploying
electrodynamictethers.
The user can combine three different types of tether segments: insulated, bare and
mechanical.Theinsulatedpartservestoconductaconstantcurrent,andobtainasignificant
Lorentzforceactingoveralargedistance(Figure7).Thebarepartactsasacollectorsurface
forelectronsand/orions.Themechanicalpartcanbeaddedtoeaseinitialdeploymentand
to increase the distance between the endmasses and thus improve gravity gradient
stabilizationofthetetherasitissubjectedtothelateralanddistributedLorentzforce.Each
segmenthasitsowndimensions,electricalpropertiessuchasohmicresistanceandthermal
dependancyoftheohmicresistance,aswellasmechanicalpropertiessuchasstiffnessand
massdensity.Thecrosssectionalshapeofthesesegmentscanbechosentobeeitherround
orflat(tapeshaped).Crosssectionshapeimpactsnotonlycollectionofchargedparticles,
butalsoatmosphericdragandreflectionofsunlight.
Inadditiontothecylindricalortapeshapedbaretetherelementsthatactasanodicelectron
collectors, a spherical anode can be inserted into the tether system design, similar for
example to the TSS1R satellite [Dobrowolny 1994, Vannaroni1998]. Spherical anode
electroncollectionismodeledaccordingto[Dobrowolny2000].
AtthecathodicendofthetetheraHollowCathodeorFEACplasmacontactorcanbeadded
toemitelectronsbackintotheplasma(Section2.2.2).Suchdeviceshaveacertaincurrent
voltagecharacteristictoacceleratetheelectronsawayfromthetether.Forhollowcathodes
therequiredvoltageislowandlittledependentoncurrent.ItismodeledinETBSimwitha
fixed voltage drop relative to the plasma. FEACs are more complex and have a strong
dependency of ejected current on voltage. It is modeled using a typical exponential
dependency[Dobrowolny2000].
Additional environmental models included into ETBSim are the International Reference
Ionosphere 1995 [Bilitza 1997], the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) and
theT96ExternalMagneticFieldmodel[Tsyganenko1995].
ThecomputationofcurrentandLorentzforceinETBSimfollowstheapproachsuggestedby
Dobrowolny&Vannaroni[Dobrowolny2000]. Anestimateofthecurrentinabaretether
with ohmic resistance can be obtained iteratively through a discrete tether model with a
highnumberofindividuallystraightelements.Eachelementisbiasedwithrespecttothe
plasmabythecombinationoflocalemf,ohmiclossesand,ifapplicable,theappliedvoltage,
assketchedforexampleinFigure7.
Theinitialcurrentprofileestimateforabaretetherisproducedbytheassumptionofanon
resistive,straighttether.Ifanactivecathodicdeviceispresent,thedominatingcontributor
to the current will be electron collection. Each positively charged segment of bare wire
supplies to the tether an increment in current that is computed by Eq.2.29. A simple
46 Chapter2
representation asinFigure 4 or Figure6 can beused to derivethe initialestimate of the
currentprofilethroughthetether.Thebiasestimatecanthenbeimproved.Inthefollowing
iterativesteps,theohmiclossesaremoreandmorerefineduntilconvergenceisachieved.
Forafloatingbaretetherwithoutactivecathodicdevice,ioncollectiononthecathodicside
ofthetethercannotbeignored.Currentinthetetherthenresultsfromthebalancebetween
ionandelectroncollection.Becauseionsaremuchheavierandmoredifficulttodivertfrom
theirpathstowardsthetether,theyaremuchlessefficientlycollected.Thecurrentwillbe
ratherlimitedandohmiclossescantypicallybeneglected. Ionsarecollectedoveramuch
largerpartofthelengththanelectrons[Estes2000.III].
Figure9.MTBSim/ETBSimflowdiagram(combinedforsimplicity)
TetherDynamics 47
EffectiveyieldcandifferbyafewpercentfromthatpredictedbytheOMLmodel,e.g.due
to secondary emissionofelectronsonimpactofthe ions [Estes2000.III], but suchsecond
order effects are ignored by the model. Under the simplifying assumption of a straight
tetherandconstantenvironmentalconditions,aclosedsolutioncanthenbeusedasinitial
estimate[Dijk2003.I].
TheETBSimusercandefineanyofvarioustypesofcontrollawsforthesystem,througha
textfile.Amaximuminappliedpowerorvoltagecanbeapplied,orthecathodiccurrentcan
beforcedtotrackapredefinedlevelversustime.Thiscontrolisassumedtobeeffectuated
byanadjustableresistorinserieswiththecathodicdevice.Aseconditerativeloopadjusts
theleveloftheappliedresistancetomatchthecontroltarget.
Theforcesonthetethersegmentsanddynamicbehaviorofthegenerallynonstraighttether
incomplexenvironmentalconditionsisdeterminedafterthesetwolayersofiterationhave
converged.
48 Chapter2
Mainfeatures Impactonbehavior Model Features
Tethermodeling Dynamics Springmasselements,dampingduring
bounces
Unlimitedsegments,typically50200
used.
Integration Integrationstiffness Newtonslawininertialcoordinates,
constantaccelerationassumedperinterval
Selfadjustingtimestep.Smoothing
usinginfinitespeedofsound
assumption
Electrodynamic
tethers
Propellantlessthrust,
instability
OMLcollection Complextethers(bare,insulated,
mechanical),typesofcathodes.Control
laws.Temperaturedependentelectrical
resistance
Tethertemperature Electricalresistance,
melting,expansion
Opticalproperties,radiationbalance,
aerodynamicheating,resistiveheating
Sun,Earth,albedo,thermalradiation,
reflectionmodels,
Endmassattitude Stabilityofdeployment
andendmass
Tethertorquesduringtetherphase,3D
aerodynamictorquesduringentry.Impact
attitudebackondeploymentandtension,
dragetc.
3Dendmasspanelmodel.Possibilityto
includethrustingschemes.
Hardwareand
controller
Tension,resonance,
robustness
Barberpolebrake,spooldeployment,
feedbackcontroller.
Feedbackusesopticalloopdetection
simulation,velocityfilter,referencefile
oftime,length,velocityetc.with
variablefeedbackgains
Reentry Capsule Dragandlift(modifiedNewton),heatflux
(usingFayRiddlebasedStantonnumber,
Changdissociation,RankineHugoniot
shockwave,Sutherlandviscosity),thermal
propagationinsidecapsule
3Dcapsulemodel,dragandlift
integratedwithattitudesimulation
Errormodels Robustness Configurablestandarddeviationsand
noisedistributiononallparameters
SeeTable50fortypicaldisturbed
parameters.MonteCarloruns.
Simulationofcontrol/hardwarefailures.
Typicallynormaldistributionused.
Other Day/night,groundtrack,groundstation
visibility,3Dgraphics,tethergeometry
andbrightnessasseenfromground.
Runmodes:controlleddeployment,
referencefilemaker,manualcontrol,
trajectoryoptimiser,MonteCarlo,real
timehardwareintheloopetc.
Table3.MTBSim/ETBSimdynamicandinterfacefeatures
Figure10.ETBSimsampleoutput
TetherDynamics 49
Environmental
factor
Impactonbehavior Model Features
Gravitypotentialof
Earth
Outofplanemotion,
altitudevariation
Firstharmonic Newtonian+J2J4
GravityofSunand
Moon
Tidaleffectsonorbit,
lifetime
Newtonian
Earthbulge Altitudevariation Ellipsoid Distinctionbetweengeodeticandgeocentric
coordinates
Atmosphere Lifetime,tetherdynamics,
capsuletrajectory
Exponential
USstandard76
GOST
MSISE2000
USandGOSThavesolaractivitydependency,
MSISEalsoincludesseasonal,diurnal,andlong
termtrend
Wind Capsuletrajectory HWM93 Horizontalwindaverages
Weather Capsuletrajectory G2S 100kmresolutiondailyweatherprediction
Magneticfield PotentialandLorentzforce
ontether
Dipole
IGRF
T96

Ionosphere Electron/ioncollection
affectingpotentialand
current,neutral
temperatureaffecting
atmosphericdensity
Simplemodel
IRI95
Day/night,seasonaleffects,longitude,latitude,
altitudeeffects.
Table4.MTBSim/ETBSimenvironmentalmodels
2.3.3 Validationandcomparisontoothermodels
EarlyMTBSimdevelopmentshavebeenvalidatedagainstreferencecasesfromadynamics
and integrator point of view. For a fully deployed tether, frequencies of oscillations and
swingperiodhavebeenverifiedagainstthesimplifiedequations(Section2.1.5)andother
simulators [Heide1996.I, Heide1996.II]. Deployment dynamics were compared against
those predicted by three alternative simulators in the context of the StarTrack SpaceMail
study:
1. Simplified equations of motion for a straight 2D tether based on Lagrangian
modelsbyHeide&Kruijff[Heide1996.I]
2. TheLRTethsimulatorbySabath[Sabath1996.I]andHeide[Heide1996.I]
3. The simulator of Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, based on Kanes
equations,byBlanksby[Heide1999,Blanksby2000].
In all cases, deviations of only 0.010.1% were recorded in length and time parameters,
whichiswellwithinthetargetedaccuracyrangeofabout1%(Section5.5).
InthecontextoftheYES2mission,independentcomparativeworkswerecommissionedby
theEuropeanSpaceAgencyandtheRussiandesignbureauTsSKBinordertofurtherboost
theconfidenceintheproposeddeploymentandcontrolbasedonYESSim.Theseanalyses
50 Chapter2
byIshkov&Naumov,Sazonov,Crellin,SmirnovandYolkin
1
generallywerebasedonopen
loop rather than closedloop control laws but all resulted in positive recommendations
[Ishkov2006,YES22006,Smirnov2010].
ForETBSim,theelectroncollectionperformancehasbeenconfirmedbyexactduplicationof
resultspublishedbyDobrowoly&Vannaroni[Dobrowolny2000],usingalsothesameinput
conditions.Longtermdynamicsandtheoccurrenceofinstabilityinthetethermotionhas
been qualitatively compared with analytical work in [Kruijff2001.I] and ProSEDS
simulations[Estes2000.IV].
YESSimreentrydynamicsweresuccessfullyverifiedforasphericalcapsuleinthecontext
of the YES2 mission by TsSKB [Stelzer2006, TsSKB2006], using the GOST atmospheric
model, and for the TSeries project by the French space agency CNES [Hyslop2006].
Heatflux estimates were found to coincide with those of Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD)results,forcontinuumconditions,andDirectSimulationsusingMonteCarlo(DSMC)
fortherarefiedregime[Lyaskin2004,Asma2008].
Althoughit hasnot beenpossibletodoafullverificationofsome of themoreadvanced
featuresalsoduetolackofcomparisonmaterial,sufficientconfidencehasbeenobtainedfor
theprimarysimulatorfunctionalities.InSection8.5.3,theapplicabilityofsimulatorresults
tomissionplanningwillbefurtherevaluated,basedoncomparisonagainstflightresults.
1
YES2datapackage,containingtechnicalreportsandnotesfromProf.Ishkov(SSAU,2003),Prof.Sazonov(KIAM,for
TsSKB,2006),Prof.Yolkin(TsNIIMASh,2006),Prof.Smirnov(MoscowM.V.LomonosovStateUniversity,forESA,
2007),Dr.E.Crellin(ESA,2007).
AnalysisofTetherApplications 51
3 AnalysisofTetherApplications
Any good engineer can build a mechanical tether system and it will work as planned. But an
electrodynamic tether is a different story. You may have done everything right and it still wont
work.
JosephA.Carroll,builderoffoursuccessfulspacetetherexperiments
In cooperation with several coauthors, a number of technical investigations has been
performed into possible nearterm applications that provides a taste of their potential,
particularchallengesandconcerns.Theoriginal,referencedworkhasbeenreevaluatedand
elaborated,theresultsaresummarizedinthisChapter.Anoverviewoftheinvestigationsis
providedinTable5.
Tether
Application
Questioninvestigated Reference
SpaceMail Isthereafeasibletetheredalternativetotheretrorocketoption? Ockels1996
Heide1996.I
Launchassist&
spentstage
deorbit
Isthereanapplicationnicheformechanicaltetherassistedlaunchofsmall
payloadsanddeorbitofupperstages?
Hyslop2006
Heide2001.I
Multipoint
sensing
Whatoptionsexistforlowcostlowerthermosphericmissions? Heide2001.II
Artificialgravity Wouldthetethersystemmassbeaprohibitingfactorforamanned
demonstratorinLowEarthOrbit?
Lansdorp2003
Lansdorp2004
Electrodynamic
tetherdeboost
CanOMLelectroncollectionbeconfirmedforarealistictetherapplication
environment?
Kruijff2001
Howdoessystemdesignaffectdynamicinstability? Kruijff2001
Canelectrodynamictetherscontributetoamitigateddebrisenvironment? Heide2001.I
HowcouldasimplepassivetethersystembeputtousearoundJupiter? VanDijk2003.I
Allapplications Whicharethesafeorbitalregimesthatshouldbeobservedfortether
missiondesign?
Heide2001.I
Table5.Analysisperformedforaselectionofneartermtetherapplications
52 Chapter3
3.1 Mechanicaltetherapplications
3.1.1 SpaceMailandwastedisposalfromaSpaceStation
ThecasefortetheredSpaceMail
SpaceMailisafrequentsamplereturncapabilityfromLowEarthOrbitthataimstoenable
inspaceresearchtoprogressatasignificantlyhigherrate.Itisparticularlyapplicabletoan
orbital space station. The 1986 SpaceMail study for Columbus [Aerospatiale1986],
performedinthecontextofthe(then)InternationalSpaceStationAlpha(ISSA),foresawthat
inorbitresearchwouldrequireabiweeklysamplereturncapability,involvingareentry
capsuleof88kg.Payloadofasamplereturncapsulemightconsistofe.g.researchsamples
(for onorbit iteration after ground based analysis), data carriers with large amounts of
video,orbloodsamplesofastronautsformedicalexamination.
Ithasbeenproposedthatasolutioninvolvingtetherassistedreentrythroughmomentum
transfercouldprovideasimpler,saferandlowercostsolutionthantheconventionalretro
rocketorcoldgaspropelleddeorbitsystem,throughthefollowingadvantages:
Ifthereentryofacapsulecouldbeachievedbyatransferofmomentumtothe
station this would provide an elegant, propellantefficient solution. A reentry is
achieved by taking away orbital momentum from the system that is to be
deorbited.Atthesametime,thestationitselfwillbesuppliedwith(muchof)that
momentum. This is beneficial since a Station in Low Earth Orbit loses orbital
energy gradually but continuously through atmospheric drag. Apart from
SpaceMailcapsulesalsoheavycargovehiclescanbedeorbitedbythesamesystem
to the benefit of station altitude. In the case of the International Space Station,
severaltimesperyearavehiclesuchasProgressorATVisdeorbited.
Capsuleanddeorbitsystemdesignrequirementswillbemorerelaxedcomparedto
aconventionalsystem.Thelatterrequiresdedicatedsafetymeasuresforonstation
storage of solid propellant or pressurized gas. With a tether system, multiple
capsules can be conveniently stored within the manned environment, such that
astronautscaneasilyaccessandloadacapsulewhennecessary.
Theenergyrequirementfortheinitialseparationsystemcanbereducedbyabout
an order of magnitude when comparing to the conventional system. The same
holdsfortheshockdisturbancethatresultsfromthesystemsactivation.Beforea
rocket deboost system could be activated, for safety, sufficient initial separation
withthestationneedstobesecuredforwhichaninitialejectionvelocityofabout
4m/sisrequired,about700Jforan88kgcapsule[Aerospatiale1986].Foratether
deploymentanejectionenergyofabout40Jsuffices,equivalenttoabout1m/sfor
thesamecapsule(seealsoSection4.2.1).
Thetetheredcapsulecanbeballisticandcompletelypassiveor,forreducedgloads
andincreasedlandingprecision,canhaveacertainamountofliftcontrolledbyan
aerodynamic guidance system. A retrorocket or coldgas firing would require
AnalysisofTetherApplications 53
thrustvectorcontrolandanattitudedeterminationandcontrolsystem.Acapsule
deorbitedbyatetherobtainsitsvelocityvectorandorientationthroughthecontrol
of tether dynamics which naturally take place inside the orbital plane
[Crellin1994].
Aconsiderationagainsttheuseoftethersonaspacestationmaybethedisturbanceofthe
microgravityenvironmentonthestationasaresultoftethertensionand,possibly,station
attitudecontroltorquesduringtheseveralhoursofdeployment.Withatypicalmaximum
tensionof20Nandastationmassof200,000kgthedisturbancewillhoweverremainbelow
10ug. This level is still compatible with the best available research environments today.
However,inordertolimittheconsumablesrequiredtomaintaintheattitudeofthestation,
thetethersystemmayneedtobeplacedclosetothestationscenterofmass.
Swingingtetherapproach
AnumberofSpaceMailstudieshavebeenperformedintheUnitedStates[Carroll1995.II],
asalreadydiscussed,butalsoinEurope.
Following the Aerospatiale study in which the tethered SpaceMail option has first been
identified, design worktowardsa tethered SpaceMail systemwas done for theEuropean
SpaceAgencybytheTATS/TARGETstudyteamundertheleadofAleniaSpazio[Alenia
Spazio1995].ThisstudyaimedforademonstrationusingaRadugacapsuledeployedfrom
theProgressvehicle.ItalsolookedintothedeploymentofaRadugacapsule,Progressor
ATVdirectlyfromtheInternationalSpaceStationAlpha.Aswingingtetherwasproposed
todecreasetetherlength.Aspartofthisstudyahybridspoolreelsystembreadboardanda
deploymenttestfacilitywereproduced[Licata1995].
Performed in support of TATS, the StarTrack study (Swinging Tether Assisted reentry
ThroughRobustActivelyControlledKinetics)containsinnovationsintendedtoovercome
basicconcernswithrespecttotetherdynamicsandcapsulelandingaccuracy,asachievable
withaswingingtether[Ockels1995,Heide1996.I]:
1. Atwostagedeployment,forimprovedlandingaccuracyandcontrol.
2. A nonlinear tension feedback control, based on length measurements only,
towardsareferencedeploymentprofile.
3. The FlexEnd Brake, a method to stop the deployment, at a large inplane
deploymentangleandwithoutresidualspringmassoscillations.
4. A release time optimized for minimal landing error, based on endtoend
evaluationofsensitivityofdeploymentandreentrytodisturbances.
ThetwostagedeploymentisperhapsthemostdefiningelementoftheStarTrackapproach.
Itisrecognizedthatduringthefirst,inertiadrivenstageofdeployment,forsomehundreds
ofmeters,tethertensionmustbelowtomaintaindeploymentvelocity.Typically,tension
willapproachthesystemsminimalfrictionlevel.Asaresult,largeerrorsinthedeployment
profilecanbeintroducedincaseofoffnominalfrictionlevelsorerrorsininitial(ejection)
velocity. Those early errors in length and inplane angle can significantly impact gravity
54 Chapter3
gradient levels compared to those foreseen. Offnominal levels of acceleration will then
result,and,ifthedeploymentisperformedinonlyone(single)stage,thedeviationbuilds
up further over time. If, however, a stage limited to a few kilometers of tether is first
deployedandstabilizedaroundthevertical,itscontrolwouldnotbetimecritical.Timeis
availabletoachievetheproperlength,dampenanyresidualoscillationsasnecessaryand
assesstheachievedstate.Then,attheappropriatetime,andnowwithawellknowngravity
gradientlevel,whichisalsomuchlargerthanthesystemfriction,thesecondstageofthe
tether can be deployed quickly and robustly. In this way, the sensitivity of the overall
deploymenttoinitialdisturbancesisstronglyreduced.
The deploymentiscontrolledtowards thedesiredfinalstatewiththehelp of theEnergy
Feedback.Thisnonlinearfeedback,asproposedbyStarTrack,isbasedonestimationofthe
systems kinetic and potential energy from length measurements. Excess energy is then
dissipatedusingafrictionbrake(Section5.5).Thesecondstageofdeploymentlastslessthan
one hour, and in this time, sufficient inplane angle is to be achieved for an effective
momentumtransfer.
The deployment is completed by a Flex End Brake [Kruijff1996], a rapid deceleration
performedinsuchawayastoavoidresidualspringmassoscillation.Thefulllengthofthe
tetherisabout2535kilometers.Theexactrequiredlengthdependsonthestationaltitude,
targetswingangleandtherequiredentryangle,thelattertypicallyintherangefrom1.3
1.8degrees.Bydeceleratingquickly,muchofthebuiltupinplaneangleismaintainedand
availablefortheswingback,suchthatashortertetherisrequired(Section2.2.1),whereas
missiondurationisminimized.UsingtheFlexEndBrakeprofile,theintensityofthebraking
can be set with a free parameter, o >1. For this method, the minimal length increment
between final length l
e
and initial length l
0
when decelerating from initial deployment
velocity
0
l

downtozerocanbedeterminedtobe:
k
l
l l
e
0
0
45761 . 1

o = (3.1)
witho =1formaximumbrakeintensity,andkisthetetherstiffness,k=EA/l
0
.TheFlexEnd
Brakedecelerationstrategybringsthedeploymentvelocitydownwithinafewminutesfrom
amaximumof1525m/stozero,afterwhichtheswingtowardstheverticalisinitiated.
Releasefromaswingingtetherisbestperformedaroundthefirstpassageofthevertical.In
subsequentpassagestheerrorinphasingcanbuildupduetotheintegratedeffectofinitial
errors and transverse and longitudinal tether oscillations. Also the tether can get slack
duringtheretrogradepartoftheswing,whichwouldleadtounstableendmassbehavior
andfurtheruncertaintiesintheendmasstrajectory[Heide1996.I].
The optimal time of release during the swing is determined through endtoend Monte
Carlosimulations,coveringthecompletemissionfromcapsuleseparationfromthestation
to its landingon Earth. This endtoendapproachcan becontrastedagainstasegmented
optimizationofmultiplemissionstagestowardsintermediatebutratherarbitrarytargets,
for example an accurate achievement of the capsules atmospheric entry point, which
AnalysisofTetherApplications 55
happenstobeawelldefinedtargetbuthasnoclearrelevance. Theendtoendapproach
howeveroptimizestowardsa singleandfinal parameterof undisputedrelevance, inthis
case,landingaccuracy.Theendtoendapproachobtainsitsbenefitfromthefactthatsome
disturbance sources may be coupled such that their effects cancel each other out when
integratedoverallstagesofthemission.
An optimal inplane angle for capsule release is found to be several degrees before the
vertical[Heide1996.I],theexactvaluedependingonthemagnitudeoftheerrorsexpected.
A striking example of a cancellation of effects occurs at this optimum. Consider for
comparisonthecaseofaretrorocketdeorbitsystem.Ifthedeorbitburnisdelayedbyone
second,duetotheorbitalvelocity,thepositionofthelandingsiteisconsequentlyaffected
by about 8kilometer. For the tether case however, if the release of the capsule from the
tether is delayed by one second, in that second the tether swings further towards the
vertical. Swingvelocityand gravitygradientbothincrease. A steeperentryangleresults,
whichcancelsoutmuchoftheprogressionovertheonesecondduetotheorbitalvelocityof
thesystem.Theremainingsensitivityisonlyabout1kmpersecondofdelay(Section5.5.2).
StarTrackperformanceevaluation
Sabath has compared the StarTrack approach to his concept of a hanging tether release
[Sabath1996.I].Theadvantageofthehangingtetheristhatoncetheverticalstatehasbeen
achieved,thelandingaccuracyismostlydeterminedbyreleasetiming.Itisalsosuitablefor
multiplereleaseapplications(seee.g.Section3.1.3).Thehangingtetherisheavierthanthe
swingingequivalent.Tetherexposuretometeoroidsanddebris,asexpressedinkilometer
hours(Section4.3.1),isincreasedsignificantly,thereforealargerdiametermaybenecessary.
Although the loads encountered for hanging and swinging tethers are comparable, the
hangingtetherissignificantlylonger(Eq.2.23).
In the uncontrolled ballistic entry case, the StarTrack 3 landing accuracy will typically
remain below two hundred kilometers, comparable to a retrorocket deboost
[Schonenborg2000]. Heide&Kruijff describe various methods to improve the landing
accuracyfurther,e.g.byadjustingthesecondstagestarttimeorbyrealtimeselectionofthe
release time based on a lookup table and GNSS measurements at the endmass
[Heide1996.I].
Systemoperationonthespacestation
MostofthesystemcomplexityandcostofanySpaceMailsystemwilllieintheefforttoload
the capsule, inside the station, and next to place the readied system outside. A typical
operationalprocedurecouldrunasfollows.
Astronautsonthestationloadupto5kgofsamplesinacontainerwhichmaybethermally
isolatedorcooleddependingonthecontents.Thecontainerisplacedinsideasmallreentry
capsulethattheastronautmaypickfromastoragerackinsidethestation.Thesizeofthe
capsuleislimitedbythedimensionoftheavailableairlockhatch,typicallyabout70cm.An
inflatableordeployablecapsulecanbeusediflargerpayloadsneedtobereturnedtoEarth.
Thereareseveraloptionsforintegrationofthecapsulewiththetethersystem.
56 Chapter3
A mass effective option involves a reusable deployer system with a retrievable tether
installedbeneaththestation,includinganautonomoussystemforarmingandreleaseofa
springloadedejectionplatformFigure11a.Theastronautdeliversthecapsuletotheairlock,
from where it is picked up by a robotic arm and mounted to the ejection platform. The
ejection platform is designed to be deployed together with the capsule and includes a
functionality toreleasethe capsule attherequiredtime.Itis equippedwith aGNSSand
communication system. The tether is stored on a reel and deployed to a hanging tether
configuration for capsule release and controlled retrieval afterwards. From many
perspectivesthisisacomplexsystemthatwillrequiresignificantflightexperiencebefore
startofservice.
An alternative concept reuses the deployer, but expends the tether. In this scenario, the
astronautmountsbothatetherspoolandacapsuleontothedeployersystem.Inanideal
situation, the station module design takes into account the necessity of these manual
operations,andthetethercanbedeployeddirectlyfromtheairlock,Figure11b.
Aretrorocketorcoldgassystemdeboostwouldtypicallyrequireaconfigurationasina.,
howeverforeachcapsuledeorbited,aretrorocketorientationsystem,theretrorocketitself
and possibly a coldgas separation system would be disposed. In terms of operational
complexitythetwosystemsaretherefore,atfirstglance,comparable.
a. b.
sample
airlock
ejectionsystem
capsule
spool
reel
Figure11.SampleconfigurationsforaSpaceMailsystemonaSpaceStation(seetext).Deployer:left
(a.)retrievabletetheronreel;right(b.)expendabletetherspools.
Masscomparison
TheStarTrackstudy[Heide1996.I]comparesthesystemmassoftheproposedtethersystem
(configuration b.) to the retrorocket case, based on the 1986SpaceMail study
[Aerospatiale1986],takingintoaccountexpendables(propellant,tether,retrorocket&GNC
systems) and reusables (deployer, ejection system), for an 84kg reentry capsule. The
reusablesystemsarecomparableinmass.Fortheswingingtetheroption,amasssavingsof
23kg on system expendables is quoted, per (ballistic) reentry. For a hanging tether, this
advantagereducesto8kg. Inadditionhowever,foreachtetheredreentry,about4kgof
propellant for station altitude maintenance is saved. A retrievable tether would save a
further10kgpersamplereturn(configurationa.).
AnalysisofTetherApplications 57
Various projects and studies since have suggested that indeed a ballistic capsule can be
simpleandlightweight,ifitreliesonthetethersystemforsafeseparation,orientationand
accurate deorbit [Carroll1995.II, DePascale2008]. For more complex (controllable, non
ballistic)capsulesthatalreadycontainactiveguidancesystems,themassadvantageislikely
tobesmaller.Inanycase,onlyifthesamplereturnisindeedfrequent,andthestationis
adaptedforuseoftethers(asinFigure11),thequotedmassadvantagesbecomesignificant
comparedtotheoperationalcost.
Muchmoresignificantbenefitsintermsofsavedpropellantmasscanbeobtainedifheavy
cargovehicleswouldbereturnedusingatether.AccordingtotheTATSstudy,atetheredre
entryof23Progressand12ATVbytethercouldbeforeseenfortheISSA,andwouldsave
about3tonofpropellantcargototheISSA[AleniaSpazio1995]peryear,comparedtothe
4.7ton propellant cargo capacity and 8ton total cargo of a single ATV or the 1.95ton
propellantcargoand2.2tonoftotalcargocapacityforProgressM1.Thesedataincludeboth
thepropellantsavingsforProgress/ATVdeorbitandforISSAorbitmaintenance.Duringa
typical operation of the ISSA a tether system therefore saves about one in two Progress
launches or, alternatively one in four ATVs. In order to reduce required tether length,
deploymenttension,tetherdiameteraswellastheamountofenergytobedissipatedbythe
brake system, such a heavy vehicle would be deployed at low velocity towards a large
forwardangle,closeto80(Section2.1.4),andinasinglestage.
ChallengesoftetheredSpaceMail
Althougharetrorocketmayposeariskforstorage,tetheroperationsarenotwithoutsafety
issues.Unimpededdeploymentmustbesecured.Acontingencyaction(duetoe.g.tether
jam) or unexpected cut can leave a tether in space, free to collide with other spacecraft
(Section3.3).Reliabilityoftetherdeploymentisnoteasilyconfirmedbasedonlimitedthe
flightdataandgroundtestsonly.
InlightofthecurrentrealityofInternationalSpaceStationoperations,withgoodstransport
andcrewactivityheavilyreducedascomparedtotheISSAplanning,thecallforafrequent
samplereturnhasallbutdisappeared.Itcouldbesufficientforasamplereturnsystemto
hitcharideonanATVorProgressanddecouplebeforereentry.Itmayhoweverstillbeof
interesttodeorbitATVorProgressitselfbytether.
3.1.2 Tetheredupperstageforalaunchassistandupperstagedeorbit.
The SpaceMail tethered momentum transfer, with some adaptations, can be used in the
oppositedirection,asameansofassistforlaunchratherthanreentry.Asanaddedbenefit,
the rocket upper stage, acting as a countermass, can at the same time be deorbited in a
controlled manner, thus contributing to best practice in debris mitigation [ESA2000,
IADC2002, NASA2007, Jablonsky2008]. The TSeries case study involving a yettobe
developed microlauncher indicates that a tethered upper stage can indeed service an
increased payload mass when compared to a conventional liquid upper stage alternative
[Hyslop2006]. A detailed analysis is here summarized that highlights the peculiarities,
possibilitiesandlimitationsofsuchasystem.Inaddition,afirstanalysisisreportedofthe
58 Chapter3
existinglaunchermarkettogaininsightintothewiderpotentialforsuchamechanicaltether
application[Heide2001.II].
AnalysisapproachTSeriescasestudy
The TSeries case study starts from a simple and lowcost microlauncher concept under
developmentatCNES,asshowninFigure12.Thismicrolauncheraimstodeliverapayload
of150175kgintoacircularhighlyinclinedSunSynchronousOrbit(SSO)atanaltitudeof
600km.Thelauncherisbasedonthreesolidstages(designatedbyP9P9P2,thenumeral
describestheamountofpropellantintons).Thethirdstage,aP2,canbringthepayloadinto
an elliptical orbit with 100200km perigee altitude, and apogee within LEO as required.
Fromthere,atethersystemplacedontheP2candeployandreleasethepayloadintoits
circular destination orbit. At the same time it delivers, through momentum transfer, a
controlled deorbit of the P2. The tether system will provide the requiredAV for payload
circularization,andcanbeusedtocorrectforthesolidstageorbitinsertionerror.
Conventionalalternativeswouldneedtoincludeareignitableliquidstageandwouldbe
more complex. Possible conventional solutions are a P9P9P2L0.02 using a small fourth
stage of 50100kg with about 2030kg of hydrazine propellant, or a P9P9L2 design
replacingtheP2(andtether)completelybyacapableL2liquidstage(2tonsofN
2
O
4
/MMH).
Figure12.TSeriessuggestedconfiguration
The difference in the launch process for the conventional and tethered alternatives is
illustratedinthefollowingexample(Figure124).Startingfromthesameinitialorbit(here
150x560km)theconventionalsystemwouldrequirethreeburnstoreachatargetorbitof
600x600km, with a total of 138 m/s. The tether system would achieve the same final
situationinadifferentmanner.ItwouldbedeployedbetweenpayloadandP2thirdstage,
andreleasethepayloadinapogee,40kmabovethesystemscenterofmass.TheP2,below
thecenterofmass,wouldbedeorbited.Onecouldsaythetetherappliestothepayloadfirst
AnalysisofTetherApplications 59
achangeinapogeealtitudeof40km,thenaAVof95m/swithrespecttothecenterofmass
ofthetethersystemtocircularize.
Figure13.Comparisonbetweenconventionalandtetheredpayloadcircularization
Theproposedsystemistobedimensionedsuchthatmissionpayloadmassismaximized
andnominalP2perigeeisminimized.ThemassoftheemptyP2is287kg.
Anumberofsystemparameterscanbedeterminedstraightforwardly.Followingacertain
launch, the tether length that needs to be deployed depends on the difference between
target altitude (600km) and the apogee altitude h
a
obtained by the third stage, in
combination with the mass ratio of payload and P2. With higher payload mass a longer
tetherisrequiredtoachievethesameeffectivelengthfromthecenterofmassandputthe
payload at target altitude (Figure 14). From the 13L rule (Eq. 2.23), the +3 allowable
extremeofh
a
cannextbedetermined(h
a,max
),abovewhichthetetherwouldbetooshortto
deorbittheupperstage.TheP2s3burnoutaccuracywasanalyzedtobe32/+24kmon
apogee,fromwhichthenominal(h
a,max
24km)andminimalaltitude(h
a,max
56km)cannow
be derived. For a perigee of 150200km and 150175kg payload, the maximum feasible
altitudeisabout560km.Followingthisreasoning,atypicaltetherlengthrangethatcovers
the quoted launch uncertainties is between 60150km. At perigees below about 175 km
however,MTBSimsimulationsshowthattheatmosphericdragonthetetherwillbringthe
systemdownsignificantlyduringdeployment.Tocompensateforthisaltitudeloss,atether
longerbysometen(s)ofkilometersisthenrequired.
CorrectionofoffnominalorbitinsertionbytheP2isperformedusingtwocontrols.Firstly,
thedeployedlengthofthetetherisselectedtobringthepayloadtothealtitudeofthetarget
circularorbit.Secondly,thedeploymentiscontrolledinsuchawaythatatapogee,where
the payload will be released, the proper swing velocity for circularization is achieved. A
properdeploymentprofileandstarttimeofdeploymenthavetobeselectedtomakesure
the desired state of the tether system is obtained exactly at the apogee of the tethered
systemscenterofmass(Figure13).The+3 apogeeerrorcasefeaturestheshorterdeployed
tether length, selected such that only a maximum swing can deliver the requiredAV for
circularization. For the 3o case, the tether must be deployed much more, just to reach
apogee altitude, in fact to such a length that even release from a hanging tether would
60 Chapter3
increasethepayloadperigeeabovethetargetcircularaltitude.Therefore,thepayloadmust
be released only on the return swing, when the tether rotates against orbital direction
(514.5kmcaseinFigure16).
Figure14.Tetherlengthrequiredvs.payloadandperigee
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Time from ejection [s]
D
e
p
l
o
y
m
e
n
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
542.0 km
564.0 km
514.5 km
P2 burnout
apogee
Figure15.Deploymentvelocityprofileforthree
cases
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Local Horizontal [km]
L
o
c
a
l

V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

[
k
m
]
514.5 km
542.0 km
564.0 km
P2 burnout apogee
Figure16.Inplanetrajectoryforthesamethree
cases
Matching deployment profiles can now be determined (Figure 15 and Figure 16).
Deployments are performed in single stage rather than twostage for several reasons.
Atmosphericdragandeccentricitypreventaproperlyhangingtether,requiredaspartofthe
twostage approach. Furthermore, a single stage deployment is faster and can achieve a
higher deployment angle, at lower tension levels and with a more effective swing
[Ockels1995]. There are further constraints to deployment design. Firstly, ejection cannot
takeplaceshortlybeforeperigee,inthetrueanomalyrangeof345355degrees,becausein
thatcasedragwilldominateoverthegravitygradientandaproperdeploymentbecomes
impossible.Secondly,thedeployabletetherlengthbeforeperigeepassageislimited,asthe
P2 should not be dipped into the dense atmospheric region below about 145km. Such a
situationwouldcauseexcessivedraglosses,heavytetherbendingandevenmelting.Finally,
AnalysisofTetherApplications 61
afterperigee,onlyanadditional30kmoftethercanbedeployedduetotheconstraintthat
deploymentshallbecompletedinapogee.Asaresult,iftherequiredtetherlengthistobe
successfullydeployedforthe3ocase,thereisanupperlimittopayloadmassandalower
limittoinitialperigeealtitude.
Figure17.FeasibilityenvelopeforTSeries(287
kgP2,600kmtargetorbit)
Foragiventetherlengthrequirement,deploymentprofile,survivabilityandsafetyfactor,
thetethersystemcanbedesigned(includingdeployerandbrake)anditsmassestimated.In
order to obtain the useful payload mass, the tether system mass is subtracted from the
launcherperformance.
Fromtheseperformancelimits, the resulting feasibilityenvelope for theP9P9P2plusT
Series can be derived, as shown in Figure 17. Table 6 lists the optimal system design
parametersastheywereidentifiedinthestudy.
Parameter Value
Missionpayload 127kg
Targetorbit 600x600km,i=97.79
Tetheredstagetotalmass YES2type,34.65kgofwhich17.9kgtether
Tether 1spoolDyneema:0.4mm2spoolsZylon:0.35&0.3mm,all6kg
Zylonisheatresistant,requiredduringbrakingphase
Tethersafetyfactor 3tensilestrengthasmeasured(1450MPa3x130MPa)
mustbelargerthan
1.25xstressfrom+3tensionlevel,assimulated(100N)
Tethersurvivability 99.10%
Reliabilityinsertionfrom
MonteCarlo
eccentricity<0.002:99.52%
SMAerror<12km:98.94%
P2burnoutperigee/apogee 175(4)kmx542(32,+24)km
Tetherlength 47159km(nominal81km)
Deploymentduration typically700010200s
Max.deploymentvelocity typically3057m/s
Trueanomalyofejection typically232(nominalorlowerapogee),2584(higherapogee)
Spentstagereentry 1.780.13entryangle,dispersionarea2200x350kmovermidPacific(Kouroulaunch)
Table6.TSeriesdesignparametersfora600x600kmtargetusingP9P9P2launcher.
62 Chapter3
ApplicabilityrangeforTSeries
Asfarasthepayloadtargetorbitisconcerned,theproposedconceptisshowntobevalid
for circular orbits from 300to 1800km altitude (Figure 18). A lower limit is provided by
atmosphericdraginterferingtooheavilywiththetetherdynamics.Hightargetapogeescan
beservedbylongtethers,attheexpenseofpayloadmass.Theupperlimitisprovidedby
thedecreaseinpayloadmassbelowthelevelofcommercialinterest(setto100kginthis
study).
Figure18.Tetherlengthandpayloadvs.circularorbitaltitude
Thetethersystemcaninprinciplebeusedalsoforheavierrocketsandconsequently,larger
payloads. These systems will be less affected by atmospheric drag, but there will be
significant additional engineering challenges, such as high brake tension and high heat
dissipationlevels.
Extensiontoexistingupperstages
Spentstagesareconsideredtohaveaprimeshareincatastrophiccollisionsandthefuture
debris environment [Anselmo1999]. If the spent stage deorbit for debris mitigation
purposes is the primary objective, and if the payload has its own means of obtaining its
(exact)targetorbit,themechanicaltetherapplicationwillbelessrestrictivethanfortheT
Seriescase.
A mechanical tether for spent stage deorbit has some advantages over deorbit by
electrodynamictether(Section3.2).Mechanicaltetherdeploymentandmomentumtransfer
can be completed within hours, the dynamics are bound within the orbital plane. The
deorbitcanbecontrolledstraightforwardlyandaccurately.Thetetherwillbedesignedto
deorbitwiththedebris,limitingcollisionrisk.
Aroughanalysishasbeenperformedtocompareestimatedtethersystemmasstothefuel
mass saved for a representative population of launchers [Anselmo1999]. Assumed is a
specific impulse of I
sp
=300s, a Dyneema swinging tether, deorbit of the spent stage to
60kmperigeeandasafetyfactorontetherstrengthof6.Theassumedtethersystemisusing
AnalysisofTetherApplications 63
a SEDS type deployer as a starting point. An approximate mass relation is assumed by
curvefittingthroughasmallnumberofroughsystemdesignpoints[Heide2001.II].
Basedontheavailablelaunchdata,about 28%ofalllaunchesto(near)circularLowEarth
Orbitsarefoundtobegoodcandidatesfortethereddeorbit,withontheaverageabout3%of
mass reduction (or increase in available payload mass). These are upper stages that are
relativelylightcomparedtothepayloadmass,atrelativelylowaltitudes,usingrelatively
short tethers. For more extreme cases, the situation is generally not favorable (Table 7).
TetheredmomentumtransfercanthusbeseenasacandidateforreducinglowLEOdebris,
if the payloads find advantage in the extra orbital height or (perhaps alternatively) mass
budget.Ontheotherhand,spentstagesinsuchorbitsoftenhavealreadyasufficientlyshort
lifetimetomeetthecurrentinternationalstandardof25years.
Also spent stages in Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) might be deorbited via a tether
system[Ockels1996].Oftheinvestigatedupperstages30%areacandidateforthistypeof
deorbit.StagedeorbitingisofspecialinterestforAriane5,sinceithasaveryhighperigeeof
620km(lifetimeofhundredsofyears)andwillbethemajorcontributortospacedebrisin
GTO.ThetetheredspentstagedeorbitfromGTOhasbeeninvestigatedforallupperstages
[Heide2000.I].Adeploymentonthearctowardsapogeehasbeenassumedat2m/s,witha
releaseinthesecondapogeepassage.Thesafetyfactoronthetetherdesignisassumedhere
as 4, which is considered conservative, because of the less demanding deployment in a
highly elliptical orbit [Kruijff1998]. It is found that the advantages of a tether are only
significantforAriane5,mostlybecauseotherupperstagesinGTOhaveaperigeealtitudeof
onlyabout200km.Controlledexcitationoftherotation[Ockels1996]almostdoublestether
performance,equivalenttoafurtherpayloadgainofabout60kg.However,thisgaincomes
attheconsiderablecostofanadditional3daysormoreoflauncheroperationsanddelayfor
thepayload.
Amoreexoticuseofmechanicaltethersfordebrismitigationcouldalsobeconsidered.A
large traveling system has been proposed, that would rendezvous with existing debris
using conventional propulsion, whereas a tethered momentum exchange between the
systemandthedebrisisthenusedtodeorbitthedebris[Bonnal2005].Thesystemwould
notnecessarilyhavetomakeverylargeorbitalchangestomakeanoticeableimpact.About
half of the debris mass in LEO is clustered in a 83 degree inclination at around 1000km
altitude[Carroll2002].Oneoftheadvantagesofusingamechanicaltethersystemcouldbe
the possibility of docking even at significant distance and relative velocity between the
systemandthedebris(i.e.harpooning).Thiswouldgreatlyreducethemissioncomplexity
andduration.
Fortheneartermhoweveritcanbeconcludedthat,althoughformanyupperstagesinLEO
amassbenefitcanbeobtainedfrommechanicaltetherdeorbit,onlyforafractionofthose
thereisaneedfromadebrismitigationpointofview.Spentstagedeorbitiscertainlyof
importancetoAriane5GTOlaunches,butamechanicaltetherprovidesrelativelylittlegain
considering the impact on system, operations and payload. The TSeries is an example
64 Chapter3
wheretherequirementfordeorbitisimposedbythedeveloperandwhereasuitabletether
solutionhasbeenworkedoutinmoredetail.
Allsuitable Zenit NewElint DeltaII Tselina2 Ariane5
Case Circular
Scaledaverage
Circular
Lowest
orbit
Circular
Highest
orbit
Circular
Loweststage
mass
Circular
Highest
stagemass
GTOsingle
launch,
Bestcase
Massupperstage
&payload[kg]
1954
3678
1976
6500
4185
5000
924
1050
8300
3250
3138
6800
Perigeealtitude[km] 642 275 2125 1000 850 620
Tetherlength[km] 69 22 292 136 216 20
Payloadtargetperigee
&apogeealtitude
951
666
340
280
3853
2258
1827
1064
2868
1005
35869
878
Fuelsavingsstage
&payload[kg]
113
110
43
45
760
601
83
77
638
574
62
60
Est.tethersystemmass[kg] 111 20 2978 161 1696 28
Est.advantagetether[kg] 112 68 1617 1 484 94
Table7.Tetheredmomentumtransferstatisticsforcommonspentstagedeorbit:scaledaverageand
extremecases.Massadvantage,ifpresent,indicatedinbolditalics.
3.1.3 Multipointsensinginthelowerthermosphere
ThereisagapinouraccesstotheEarthsatmosphere.Themesosphere(5090km)andthe
lower ranges of the thermosphere (90250km) have hardly been accessed. Although
satellites can perform insitu research above 250km, at lower altitudes atmospheric drag
severely limits satellite lifetime. Prolonged access from below is precluded as neither
airplanes nor high altitude balloons can reach these layers. Our knowledge of this
atmospheric region is poor and based only on incidental measurements from sounding
rocketsorremotesensing.
The thermosphere for one is of considerable relevance to atmospheric processes. It
representsthe upper layersofthe atmosphere, fromabout 90to2000km altitude, andis
named so because the gases here are heated by solar radiation to temperatures of up to
thousandsofKelvin.Itsbehaviorandstructureishighlydynamicandheavilyinfluencedby
solaractivity,diurnalandtidalvariations.Thegasesarealsoionized,leadingtoeffectssuch
astheaurora,whichoccurswhereEarthsmagneticfieldlinesconcentrateandpenetratethe
thermosphere.Thethermosphereisthefinalbarriertotheexospherefromwhere(mostly
light)molecules, atoms, ionsareabletoescapeinto space. Throughoutthethermosphere
there is little mixing of the different species of gas. Each species features its own scale
height, causing a layered structure with the heaviest species concentrated in the lower
thermosphere.Theseprocessesandinteractionshaveadirectlyobservableimpact,suchas
whenionizedgasesaffectradiosignalsthatarepassingthrough,butmayalsohaveamore
intricate influence, e.g. on weather and climate. Such effects are not all equally well
AnalysisofTetherApplications 65
understood.Inparticularthereisaneedtostudyinsitutherelationshipbetweentheion
and neutral dynamics, as well as composition variations in the charged and neutral
atmosphere[Heelis1998].
From a scientific point of view, it is advantageous to have multiple atmospheric
measurementsatthesameinstant,spreadinaltitudealongacertainmultikilometerprofile.
Althoughitispossibletoinfersuchaprofileusingpenetratingremotesensingtechniques,a
multisatellitemissionwouldprovideinsitumeasurements.Comparedtoasinglesatellite
atlowaltitude,aconstellationprovidesthepossibilityforfasterrevisitsandresolvebetter
for thermosphere dynamics. Even lowcost satellites could provide significant scientific
return[Muylaert2010].Datawithsignificantaddedvaluecanbecollectedforthescientific
communityeveninsideatimeframeofdays,especiallyifglobalcoverageisachieved.For
suchshortmissiondurationsadedicatedlaunchmaynotbeattainable,insteadapiggyback
opportunitymaybeconsidered[e.g.Kruijff1999.III].
Heide,Carroll&Kruijffreportofthreepiggybackconceptsforsynchronizedmultipoint
measurementsovertensofkilometersinthelowerthermosphere.Twoofthoseuseatether.
For each, the use of multiple 3040kg research probes is proposed with a selected set of
instruments[Heide2001.I].Thefirstconcept,theDynamicWheel,usesasingle35kmtether
todropmanyresearchsatellitesintoeccentriccoplanarorbitswithcomplementaryperigee
altitudesandphases.Thesecondconcept,LADDERS,consistsofaverticalstringwithsmall
satellitesdistributedalongthelength.Thecombinedtetherprovidespassivestationkeeping
and2axisattitudecontrol.InbothcasesthetethertechnologycanbefullybasedonSEDSor
SpaceMail technologies. These tether options are compared to a third concept, without a
tether,thatinvolvesthereleaseofmultiplesatellitesattheapogeeofageostationarytransfer
orbit(GTO)intoorbitswithdifferentperigeeheights.
Dynamicwheeltetherconcept
Inthedynamicwheeltetherconcept,adispenserofsmallsatellitesisdeployedbytether
fromamassivehost,suchasanupperstage,incircularLowEarthOrbitatabout400km
altitude.Thedispenserisstabilizedtoavertical,35kmbelowthehost.Fromthere,itdrops
the satellites one by one into eccentric coplanar orbits with a perigee altitude of about
150km,andcomplementaryargumentofperigeeandtrueanomaly.Thetetherdeployment
isverysimilartothatofSEDS2[Carroll1995.I].Figure19depictstheconcept.
Consider the case of a total of 6satellites that are released 200seconds after each other.
Figure20showsthealtitudeoftheresearchsatellitesasafunctionofaplanarangleforthe
firstorbitalperiodofthemission,referencedtothetrueanomalyofthesatellitethatwas
first released. Each angle value represents a specific vertical column in the Earth
atmosphere.Theverticalspacingsofthesubsatellitesattheangleof60degreesare2,7,14,
20and25kmrespectively.Thisatmosphericcolumniscrossedbythesubsequentsatellites
within60sofeachother.Inthisexample,twosubsequentmeasurementsatasingleinertial
anglewillhaveavarianceintimethatislessthen14seconds.Assuminganatmosphereco
rotating with the Earth, this time interval will induce a horizontal atmospheric spacing
between the measurements. For example in a (worstcase) polar orbit, at the equator the
66 Chapter3
horizontalspacingbetweenthetwomeasurementsamountsto6km.Thehorizontalspacing
betweenthefirstandlastsatellitewillthusremainbelow5x6km=30km.Duringhalfof
theirorbitalperiod,thesatellitesareintheinterestingregionbetween150kmand250km
altitude.DuetotherotationoftheatmospherealongwiththeEartheveryneworbitanother
sliceofatmospherewillbemapped.Inseveralweeksalargepartoftheatmospherecanbe
mappedinthreedimensionswhichisinlinewiththeexpectedorbitallifetime.
Figure19.Dynamicwheelconcept
Figure20.PassageofatmosphericprobesreleasedbyDynamicWheel
Itwillbenecessarytoincludeactivecontroltomaintainsynchronizationoftheorbitsduring
thedecay.Thisispartlyduetofinitetethercontrolprecision,partlyduetofinitehostmass
(causingthesystemtoriseaftereachrelease),andpartlytheresultofatmosphericbulges
duetothediurnaleffectandtheEarthflattening.Inparticular,theEarthflatteningcreatesa
100
150
200
250
300
350
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Inertial in-plane angle [deg]
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

[
k
m
]
AnalysisofTetherApplications 67
significantaltitudedifferenceatequatorversuspoleof21kmatthesameradius,threetimes
the Earth atmospheres characteristic height. Ground control or onboard GNSS will be
required,aswellasadragcontrolsystemorthrustersfordragcompensation.
TheLADDERSconcept
LADDERS, or LowAltitude DaisychainDeployed Expendable Research Satellites, is an
alternative concept brought forward by J.A. Carroll in [Heide2001.I]. In the LADDERS
concept, a series of probes is connected to the next by a vertical tether, with a spacing
betweentheprobesof515km,i.e.intheorderoftheatmosphericdensityscaleheightyet
fineratthebottominthehigherdensityregions.
The LADDERS is deployed in stages from a central massive platform, possibly an upper
stageorinterfacecone.Fromtheplatform,afullsetofprobesisdeployeddownwardusing
atether.Eachprobeisequippedwithitsownsmallandpassivetetherdeployer.Oncethe
firsttetherisdeployed,theremainingprobesdecouplefromafirstoperationalprobe,and,
asagroup,theyareloweredfurtherusingthetetheranddeployerthatisinsidethisfirst
probe.Thisprocessrepeatsuntilallprobesofthefirstsethavedeployedtheirtetheranda
verticaldaisychainconfigurationhasbeenachieved.Asecondsetofprobescouldthenbe
deployedupwardinthesamemanner.Withtheplatformcentrallylocated,themaximum
tensionlevel,occurringinthetetherattachedtotheplatform,isminimized.
Deployment of the full system will take several hours. The platformmounted tether
deployerisdesignedforlowfriction.Thedeploymentisactivelycontrolledwhengravity
gradientlevelsarestillsmall.Incontrast,thedeployersontheprobeswouldbesimpleand
similar,withamassbelow1kg.Thetethermassperprobewouldbe12kg.Deployment
velocity is passively kept below 5m/s, making use of the spools tendency to increase
frictionwithdeploymentvelocity(Section5.3.5).Athickertetherneartheendandbuiltin
dampingsysteminthetether(Section4.2.3)couldbeusedtoterminatethedeploymentina
smoothmanner.
The total tether length might be between 40km and 100km with 48probes. The useful
loweraltitudelimitis120130km,belowwhichatmosphericheatinganddragthreatenthe
integrityandstabilityofthesystem.Thelower~15kmoftetherwillexperienceover85%of
thetotalatmosphericdragandwillgoverntheexponentialdecayofsystemaltitude.Ifthe
initial altitude of the lowest probe is 150km, and the platform mass is 1000kg, MTBSim
predictsalifetimeof2days,justsufficienttoobtainaroughglobalcoveragewithaground
trackspacingofabout1250km.Lifetimecanbesomewhatincreasedtoabout3days,ifthe
lowesttethersegmentisreleasedeverytimethebottomprobehasreachedanaltitudeof
120130km. Thereduced daisychainsystemwillthengetan upboostdue tomomentum
exchange.Activedragcancellationbyathrusterontheplatformwouldrequireabout100kg
propellantperdayofmissionextension.Alternatively,anelectrodynamictethersystemon
thetopprobe,includingsolarpanelsandpowersupplywithamassofabout300kgcould
providesufficientLorentzthrusttomaintainaltitudeandcanextendthemissionbymonths
(Section2.2.2).
68 Chapter3
Apreliminarytradeoffhasbeenmadetoselecttetherdiameterandmaterial.Thetradeoff
takes into account survivability for the tether exposed to atomic oxygen and
micrometeoroids, lifetime in the presence of atmospheric drag, while limiting mass and
complexity.Thelowertethersegmentsshouldbeverythinyetresilient.Theycouldconsist
ofasinglestrand0.30.5mmtetheroforientedPTFE(Teflon)orquartz.Fortheuppertether
segmentsaKevlarorDyneemadoublestrandcaduceustethercouldbeused(Section4.3.1).
The main advantage of LADDERS over the Daisy Wheel is that the probes can be very
simple. Instrumentation can be oriented in yaw direction towards the gas flow using
aerodynamictorques,assistedbymagnetotorquers.Pitchandrollcanbehandledbythe
torquefromtethertension.
Solutionwithouttethers:probingfromGTO
Fromahighlyellipticorbititispossibletoentertheloweratmosphereregionmultipletimes
overasustainedperiod.AsuitableorbittomakedeepdipsintotheEarththermosphereis
the Soyuz GTO (200x35786km). Contrary to the dynamic wheel concept there will be
virtually no planar phase shift for subsequently released satellites. However, the perigee
height,andlinkedtothattheorbitalperiod,canbeselecteddifferentlyforeachsatellite.In
the apogee of such a GTO, a change in perigee altitude of 10km is obtained by a AV of
approximately 1m/s. The AV required for this mission is about 6m/s and can thus be
accomplishedwithsimplesprings.Theinterestingaltituderegion(135250km)toacquire
datawillbepassedbythesatelliteswithinapproximately6minutesofatotalorbitalperiod
of10.5hours.Inthistime,asliceofatmosphereofabout500kmlengthcanbeexamined.
Areleasestrategythatmaximizestheamountofverticallysynchronizedmeasurementsisas
follows.Inthefirstorbit,thefirstsatelliteisejectedwiththeweakestspringsandgetsinto
the highest orbit. It is the first of the set to pass perigee. The time between subsequent
releasesissuchthattheintervalbetweenthepassesthroughtheatmospherictargetcolumn
remainwellwithinatypicaltimescaleforatmosphericchange.Intheorbitstofollowthe
measurement delay will at first decrease, because a lower satellite orbits faster and
overtakesthehigherones.AruleofthumbfortheGTOorbitisthatadifferenceinperigee
of10kmwillleadtoadifferenceinorbitalperiodof12seconds.
Assuminganacceptabledelaytimeofhundredsofseconds,acquiringnearlysynchronized
verticallyspaceddatawillthusonlybeaccomplishedforseveralorbits.Byapplyingasmall
AVinapogeeoflessthan3m/susingasmallcoldgassystem,thelowestsatellitecouldbe
broughtintoanorbithigher (andslower)thanthe otherones andviceversa, inorder to
extend the multipoint coordination. In any case, the satellites can be designed such that
theywillkeepoperatingandthuscanstillcontinuegainingsingledatapointsthat,though
notsimultaneous,provideausefullongtermcomplementtothecoordinatedmeasurement
datasetscollectedinthefirstfewdays.
Therealvalueofthisconcept,overtheDynamicWheel,istheexcessenergy,whichallows
far more lowperigee passes (and far lower altitude perigee passes) before reentry. The
AnalysisofTetherApplications 69
disadvantagesarethedifficultyofmanagingtheorbitstogetcomplementarytraversesand
thesmallamountoftimespentatperigee.
Comparison
Table 8 summarizes the findings. The Dynamic Wheel mission time is limited to days
withoutreboostandupto1monthwithreboost;theindividualsatellitesneedtoberather
complex.LADDERSmissiontimeislimitedtodaysbutcanfeatureverybasicprobes.Its
tetheroperationsaremorecomplexhowever.Themissioncanbeextendedwiththehelpof
an electrodynamic tether and further added complexity. The GTO satellites provide
coordinatedtraversesforonlyafewdaysandlessthanonehourofrelevantmissiondata.
Furtherdataoftheindividualsatellitescanbecollectedformonthsthereafter,atthecostof
additionalsatellitecapability,todealwiththelongermissiondurationandhigherexposure
toradiation.Furthermore,sinceGTOorbitstypicallyhavealowinclination,theatmosphere
canonlybestudiedatequatoriallatitudes.Alsoforotherhighlyellipticalorbitsthereisa
limited range of latitudes within which the relevant altitude interval of 150250km is
visited. For a Molniyatype orbit with 150km perigee, for example, this range remains
below30degreestheexactvaluedependingoninclinationandargumentofperigee.
The final selectionshould be driven by a proper analysis of scientific user requirements.
From above comparison the LADDERS concept seems most promising if the tether
operations can be dealt with. The GTO and Dynamic Wheel options are more
straightforward and lowrisk in terms of deployment, but the satellites need to be more
capable than the LADDERS probes. Compared to the GTO option, the Dynamic Wheel
provideswidercoveragewithinashortermissiontime.Moregenerally,theDynamicwheel
conceptcanbeusedtoefficiently,andbasedononlyasinglelaunch,distributewithinan
orbitalplanemultiplesmallsatelliteswithoutpropulsion.
Concept Lifetime Synchronous
measurements
Fractionof
timeinregion
ofinterest
Ground
coverage
Probe
simplicity
Tether
simplicity
DynamicWheel weeks +/ >0.5 + +
LADDERS days + 1 +/ +
LADDER
electrodynamic
years + 1 ++ +
GTOrelease months >0.01 +/ notether
Table8.Qualitativecomparisonoflowerthermosphereinvestigationconceptswith6probes.
3.1.4 Artificialgravity
TheneedforMARSg
Artificial gravity in orbit, through structural rotation, is the only known and most direct
method that can be expected to fully prevent the known consequences of longterm
exposuretoweightlessness [Lansdorp2003.I]. Afterresidinginzerogforhalfayear, the
70 Chapter3
Martian gravity may proof too much for the weakened astronaut bodies to perform
effectively[Hall1997].Furthermore,ifacrewmembershouldfallillduringthetriptoMars,
hecannotalwaysbetreatedproperlyassomecommonmedicineslikeantibioticshavelittle
ornoeffectwithoutgravity[NASA2001].Finally,itisnotyetknownhowthehumanbody
willrespondtoareducedgravitylevellikethatonMars.Somenegativeandchroniceffects
to the human physique known from weightlessness experiments may persist under a
martian gravity level. It may be unwise to leave humans on the surface of Mars for a
sustainedperiodoftime.
Thinkable ways to mitigate the consequences of zerog during transit could be through
medicine, a manrated centrifuge within the habitat, or a habitat which is part of a giant
centrifuge.Sofar,medicinescanonlypartiallymitigatethesymptomsandsomenotatall.
Thesmallmanratedcentrifugeinsideaspacecraftisuncomfortableandtheperiodsspentin
it are necessarily limited. Typical disorienting effects in a centrifuge are Coriolis force,
gravity gradient and gyroscopic crosscoupling. A tether system however may yield a
lightweight solution to rotate the whole habitat with a radius large enough to provide a
comfortableenvironment.
Itisunlikelythataninterplanetaryflightwouldbeundertakenwithoutademonstrationin
Low Earth Orbit (LEO). A LEO precursor to interplanetary travel can be used to help
understand effects of simulated gravity on human physiology (i.e. by having a rotating
reference). The effects on human physique, psychology and performance of living and
workinginareducedgravityenvironmentsuchasonthesurfaceofaplanetcanalsobe
studied. Ideally a LEO research facility would provide the full range of artificial gravity
levelsfromthebenchmarkcaseofonegdowntolunarg.Theoptimalartificialgravitylevel
duringtransitcanthenbeselected.ItisassumedthattheLEOtestfacilityshouldbeableto
spinanddespinmultipletimes,retractthetetherforcrewaccessandperformasuccession
ofdifferentgravitylevels.Theserequirementsaresignificantlymoredemandingthanthose
foranoperationalartificialgravitysystemfortransittoMars[NASA1997].
Thepurposeoftheanalysispresentedhereistoevaluatewhetherindeedthetethersystem
development challenge and the projected system mass is likely to be a showstopper for
manned missions to Mars. The tethered artificial gravity solution for a manrated test
facilityinLEOpresentedhereisdubbedMARSg(MannedAntecedentforReducedand
SimulatedGravity).
Thecomfortzone
Theartificialgravitylevelexperiencedinarotatingsystemisdeterminedby:
e e o
rim
rim
v
r
v
r g = = =
2
2
(3.2)
wherethesystemsangularvelocityise,rotationalradiusisrandv
rim
=reisthevelocityof
thepointaroundthecenterofrotationThegravitylevelasafractionofterrestriallevelis
expressedbytheratioo:o
Earth
=1.0,o
Moon
=0.165ando
Mars
=0.381.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 71
Table9providesanumberofexpressionsandderivationsforsideeffectsandvariationsof
artificial gravity that can be experienced as disorienting or otherwise uncomfortable by
occupants of the MARSg system [Clark1960, Hill1962, Gilruth1969, Stone1973,
Cramer1985, Lansdorp2003.II]. For comparison the effects are expressed, for a given
artificial gravity level, in terms of single possible design parameters, v
rim
, r and e. The
acceptablelimitlevelsaresubjecttointerpretationandbasedonthequotedreferencesand
belowdiscussion.
Eq. Sideeffect Description,effect
onartificial
gravity
Estimated
acceptablelevel
Relationship
1 Radial
gradient
Differenceatr+r
relativetor
0.05
r
g
r
v
g
r
r
rim
A = A =
A
o
e o
2
2
2 Motioneffect Variationdueto
tangentialvelocity
v
t
relativeto
standstill
0.08
( )
r g
v
r g
v
v
v
v
v
v
v v v
t t
rim
t
rim
t
rim
rim t rim
1
2
1
2
2
2
2 2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+
o o
3 Corioliseffect Sideways
accelerationdueto
radialvelocityvr
relativeto
standstill
0.08
rim
r r r
v
v
r g
v
g
v
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 2
1
2
2
o o
e
4 Cross
coupling
Incaseofrotation
rate m

perpendicularto
thereisa
gyroscopicangular
acceleration
perpendicularto
both
0.42s
2
rim
v
g
r
g
o
m o m e m

= =
1
5 Cyclic
variation
Relativevariation
perrotationdueto
Earthgravity
gradienteffects
0.01
g
r
g
v
O
rim
o o e e
O
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
O ~
|
.
|

\
|
O
+
|
.
|

\
|
O
2
2
4 2
5 . 4 5 . 4 5 . 4
6 Crewsafety Altitudedifference
incaseoftether
scission
200km
e
o
o
1
4 4 4
O
=
O
=
O
g
r
g
v
rim
Table9.Limitationsandrelationshipsforartificialgravitysideeffects
Inarotatingsystemarelativechangewillbeexperiencedwhenvaryingthedistancetothe
centerofrotationbyr (Table9.1).Thischangeshouldbekeptwithinlimitsforscientific
purpose, as subjects can spend time at different radii within the habitat, and therefore
experience slightly different glevels over time. Study results should be valid for the
nominal gravity level within a certain margin. Furthermore, radial gradients within the
72 Chapter3
human body can cause internal stresses and disorientation and tidal effects if the body
changesorientation.Littleisknownaboutlongtermeffects,butitseemsthatonthescaleof
the habitat or a human body, a 5% variation would be clearly noticeable and should be
avoided.Thisputsadirectminimumonsystemradius,albeitnotaverystringentone.
Aneffectnotpreviouslyconsideredinthereferencedliteratureisthevariationingravity
experiencedbyanoccupantmovingatvelocityv
t
intangentialdirectionwithintheMARSg
habitat(Table9.2).Theacceptablelevelofvariationis8%,asadoptedfromelevatordesign
parameters[Lansdorp2003.II],consideringatypicalvelocityof1m/s.Crewinsideahabitat
modelcanbeconsideredsignificantlymoreactiveandpronetodisturbingforcescompared
to passengers in an elevator, who are generally immobile and spend little time there.
Limitingthemotioneffectmeanssettingalowerlimittotherimvelocity.
TheCoriolisacceleration,wellknownfromcentrifugetests,willmostlycausedisorientation
andmotionsickness,aswellasdisturbingtangentialaccelerationswhenmovinginradial
direction (Table 9.3). To account for relative disturbance compared to the gravity level, a
similar limitisused asforthe motion effect.Eveniftheselevels are physically bearable,
evenmuchsmallervariations(1%)comparedtothebackgroundgravitylevelwouldlikely
affectthemotorcontrolandmanualprecisionthataninhabitantcanachieve.Onecouldalso
argueforanabsoluteconstraintonsuchacceleration,astheaccelerationsperpendicularto
thedirectionofmotionaffectdirectlythesenseoforientation.Suchanabsoluteconstraint
couldbedirectlyappliedtotheangularrateeofthesystem.
The crosscoupling effect depends on
m

, the angular velocity of the occupants head

perpendicular to (Table 9.4). Also crosscoupling effects can be limited by an absolute
constraintonthesystemangularrate.Theseeffectscauseaccelerationortorqueinanon
intuitivedirectionwhenforexampleturningoneshead,orwhenhandlingalargeobject.
Humanperformancestudiesgenerallyputalimitforhumancomfortat4rpm[Hill1962].
IfthesystemrotatesinLEOandintheorbitalplane,therewillbeavariationinartificial
gravitylevel,asaresultofEarthgravitygradienteffects,reachingamaximumatvertical
orientation of the system (Table 9.5). Contributions are the gravity gradient effect (see
Eq.2.7)andvariationincentrifugalforceduetovariationinthesystemsangularrateasa
result of the action of the Earths gravity gradient (as in Eq.2.16). A minimum on the
allowable angular rate can be derived from this, which turns out to be a not very strict
requirement.
Finally, a maximum rim velocity may be introduced for safety reasons, as in case of
accidental tether scission, the habitat may reach a significantly different altitude
(Section2.2.1). It should be avoided that the habitat in such a case will approach the
atmosphere or altitude increase will be such that safe crew return would be made
impossible(Table9.6).
An envelope of these limits can be created (Figure 21), named the comfort zone. Even
thoughthelimitsasdiscussedarenotconservative,theenvelopeistighterthanthosesetin
previouswork,assummarizedbyHallandrevisitedbyLansdorp,Kruijff&VanderHeide
AnalysisofTetherApplications 73
[Hall1997, Lansdorp2003.II]. This difference is in particular due to the rim velocity
limitation.ItcanbeseenfromTable9thatforacertainlevelofgravity(indicatedasMoon,
Mars,EarthinFigure21),thesignificantsideeffects(i.e.excludingthecyclicvariationeffect)
improvewithincreasedradiusand,alternatively,withincreasedv
rim
.
Notethatthecrewsafetyimprovesasradiusandrimvelocity

decrease.Inordertomaintaina
feasiblecomfortzone,crewsafetyconsiderationswilldriveatradeoffbetweenlaunchcost
and crew return capability versus minimal mission altitude. An altitude of 400500km
seemssensible.
Limitsarisingfromradialgradient,crosscouplingandabsoluteCoriolislevelsapproachthe
boundariesoftheenvelopeneartheEarthgravitydesignpoint.Althoughthedefinitionof
acceptablecomfortlevelsremainssubjective,itsobjectivityisincreasednearthisparticular
design point, because at least at levels near Earth gravity data is available from ground
basedresearchonhumansubjects.ThereforethecomfortzoneasinFigure21isadoptedfor
theMARSgdesign.
Figure 21. Revised comfort zone for artificial gravity in Low Earth Orbit, arrows indicate the
directionofimprovedcondition;notethatv
rim
=re.
FromanalysisofFigure21thedesignpointsforthethreegravitylevelscanbeselected.Ifa
single system is to be designed that can generate all three gravity levels, it would be of
interesttobeabletoreelthetetherin.Whengravitylevelistobeincreased,theabilityto
reelinthetetherwouldkeeptheradiusminimalwhileremainingwithinthecomfortzone.
The minimal radius reduces the amount of tether exposed to the higher artifical gravity
levelssuchthattotaltethermasscanbereduced.Furthermore,propellantforspinupand
spindown can be saved by selection of the minimal rim velocity at each gravity level,
which,ascanbeseeninFigure21,isequivalenttoadesignforminimalradius.Thedesign
pointsMoon,MarsandEarthareindicatedwithradiirangingfrommanytenstohundreds
of meters. Perhaps counterintuitively, the preferred rotational radius increases for
decreasingglevels.
74 Chapter3
Alloperationswillbecarriedoutataminimizedrimvelocityofv
rim,min
=25m/s.TheMARSg
designwillbedrivenfortetherstrengthbytheEarthlevelatradiusr
1
=v
rim,min
2
/(o
earth
g)and
fortetherlengthbythelunarlevelofgravityatradiusr
2
=v
rim,min
2
/(o
moon
g).
MARSgsystemconcept
For the MARSg module design, Lansdorp has performed a tradeoff [Lansdorp2003.I],
fromwhichtentativesystemdimensionscanbederived.Thesystemisproposedtoconsist
of a manned module and a countermass module, connected by a tether system. For the
purpose of the design exercise, the manned module could be an inflatable module (e.g.
Transhabtype, Bigelow Aerospace [Lansdorp2003.I, Sorensen2005]). Its mass, M
a
, is
estimated at 40tons. The artificial gravity experienced is generated as a function of the
distancefrom the rotatingsystems centerofmass(radius r), whichrelates tothe system
dimensionL byratioofendmasses.Aheavycountermassincreasestheeffectiveradiusfor
the manned module. To reduce cost, this unmanned countermass should however be
preferably an expendable, already available in orbit, such as an ATV loaded with waste.
Based on these considerations, the countermass M
c
is assumed to weigh 25tons. An
advantageoftheATVas countermass isthat itcan beactiveandprovide spinupthrust
(Figure22).ThissystemleadstoatetherdimensioningaspresentedinTable10.
TheMARSgsystemdimensionof1017mislargecomparedtothelargestbeamstructurein
space. For comparison, the main truss sections of the International Space Station stretch
about 100m. However, design load levels for the MARSg system are many orders of
magnitudehigherthanfortheISS.Atetherthereforepresentsitselfasanenablingsolution.
glevel(9.81m/s
2
) Rotationalradius[m] Systemdimension
(Ma/Mc=1.6)[m]
Earthg 1 64(r1) 166
Marsg 0.38 167 434
Lunarg 0.16 391(r2) 1017
Table10.Rotationalradius25m/srimvelocity
The MARSg tether deployer shall include reelin capability. Although it will result in a
morecomplexsystem,asalreadyexplained,tethermassandpropellantrequiredforasingle
spinupwillbereduced.Furthermore,areelingcapabilitywillallowforconventionalcrew
dockingandaccesstothecountermassmodule.Atetheredendmass,evenifthesystemis
not spinning, will not be in traditional Keplerian orbit. Therefore, in between two
experiments at different glevel, it is assumed that the spin is stopped and the tether is
reeledin.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 75

Figure22.MARSgconcept
Spinningupthesystem,propellantandtethermass
Both propellant mass and tether mass required are dependent on the approach to
deploymentandspinup.
It was investigated to spin up the tether without use of any propellant, based on
conservationofangularmomentum,bydeployingthetether,nextinducingaswingmuch
asintheSpaceMailapplication(Section3.1.1),thenconvertingthisswingintorotationby
rapidtetherretrieval.Thissolutionwasfoundnotfeasibleforthereelsystemdesigndueto
therequiredretrievalvelocity,about1m/satapowerof500W[Lansdorp2003.I].
Another method for spinup requiring little propellant and a smaller retrieval velocity
would be to increase the spin rate by phased pumping, i.e. reeling in near vertical
orientationandreelingoutnearhorizontalorientation.Thismethodrequiresabout10days
to spinup even with demanding system design parameters, namely a 0.4m/s reelin
capabilityanda3kWpowerconsumption.
Itisthereforeproposedthataconventionalthrusterisusedthatexertsatorquearoundthe
center of mass of the system. With exhaust velocity w, burn time t and the amount of
propellant required m
p
, the thrust equals m
p
/t w. The torque induces an angular
acceleration that can be maintained until the required rim velocity is achieved. The most
efficientwayofspinningupthesystemisobtainedwhentheeffectivearmofthethrustis
maximized.AsM
c
<M
a
,thethrustershouldbeplacedatthecountermass.
The minimum mass of the tether is determined, given a materials break strength o and
designsafetyfactorF
S
,basedontheminimalallowablecrosssectionalareaforeachsection
oftetherandthusbasedonthemaximumloadexperiencedbythosesections:

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
max max
0
max
2
0 0
) ( ) ( 1 ) (
r
S
c
a
a
r L
c
a
t
dr r g
F
M
M
M dr r A
M
M
dL L A m
o
p p p
, (3.3)
inwhichthemaximumdistancefromthecenterofmasstothehabitat r
max
=M
c
/(M
a
+M
c
)L,
A(r)isthecrosssectionofthetetheratanypoint,andg
max
(r)themaximumgravitylevelthat
any point on the tether experiences. This level is dependent on the selected method of
systemspinup.
76 Chapter3
Table 11 and Table 12 compare the propellant and tether mass requirements for three
deploymentandspinupstrategies.Inthisandthefollowingcalculations,theeffectofthe
massofthetetheritselfisneglectedbecauseitisfoundtobeverysmallcomparedtothe
endmasses.
1. The simpleststrategy, the SingleLength method, wouldbe todeploy thetetherto
achieve r
max
=r
2
, the radius required to satisfy the rim velocity requirement even at
minimum gravity level o
min
g, then accelerate the endmass to obtain the required
artificial gravity level, following a horizontal line in the comfort zone (Figure 21),
towards a greater rim velocity v
rim
>v
rim,min
at constant radius r=r
2
as in Eq.3.2.
Neglecting the tether mass and reduction of manned module mass due to ejected
propellant,wecanderivem
p
(Table11.1). ThetethermassisdeterminedfromEq.3.3
withg
max
=o
max
gapplicabletothefulltetherlength(Table11.2).
2. AstrategythatwillbemorefuelefficientistheMinimalRimSpeedmethod.Inthis
scenario,thesystemisoperatedatminimumrimspeedv
rim,min
foreverytargetartificial
gravitylevel.Itisspunuponlyafterthetetherlengthmatchingtherequiredartificial
gravitylevelandminimumrimspeedhasbeenachievedbydeploymentorretrieval.
AsintheSingleLengthmethod,animportantadvantageisthattherequireddeployer
would not have to carry high structural loads: the deployment loads and structural
forcesduringrotationcanbedecoupled.Propellantmassisindependentoftheartificial
gravitylevelpermission(Table11.3).Themassofthetetherisdeterminedforabasic
partofthetetherformaximumgravity(equivalenttor
1
)plusataperedpartforlower
gravitylevels(Table11.4).
3. Afinalalternative that is considered is theOverdeploymentmethod. The tetheris
deployedtoaradiusr
3
=kr
2
,withtheoverdeploymentfactork>1.Anespeciallytuned
butlowangularvelocitywillbeintroducedbythethrusters.Whilerotating,thetether
will be retracted to reach the desired end situation prescribed by the limits of the
comfortzone,usingtheprincipleofconservationofangularmomentumtoincreasethe
angularvelocityandartificialgravitylevel.Thefinalrimspeedis,asintheMinimal
RimSpeedmethod,againtheminimalrimspeedv
rim,min
required

forcomfort.Theinitial
rimspeedv
rim,0
relatestothefinalrimspeedv
rim,min
asthefinalradiustor
3
,fromwhich
therequiredpropellantmasscanbedetermined(Table11.5).Maindisadvantageofthis
alternativedeploymentstrategyisthefactthatahightensiontetherretrievalsystemis
requiredandspinup/spindownoperationswilltakeabout1.5days.Forthesectionof
thetetherfromr=0until r=r
2
itcanbereasonedthattheoptimaltetherdiameterwill
beidenticaltothatoftheMinimalRimspeedtether
.
Additionaltethermassresultsonly
from the additional tether length required for overdeployment and retrieval. During
retrievalfromr
3
tor
2
theglevelincreases.IntegrationofEq.3.3fromr=r
2
tor=kr
2
leadsto
thetotaltethermass(Table11.6).
AnalysisofTetherApplications 77
Strategy(radius) Eq. Propellantmass Eq. Tethermass
SingleLength(r2) 1
min
,min *
o
o
w
v
M
rim
2
min
max 2
,min
2
o
o
o
p
rim
S
c
a
a
v
F
M
M
M
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
MinimalRim
Speed(r1tor2)
3
w
v
M
rim,min *
4
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
min
max 2
,min
2
ln 1
o
o
o
p
rim
S
c
a
a
v
F
M
M
M
Overdeployment
(r1tor3=kr2)
5
o
o
k w
v
M
rim min ,min *
6
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
min
max 2
,min
2
1
1
2
1
ln 1
k
v
F
M
M
M
rim
S
c
a
a
o
o
o
p
M
*
dependsonthelocationofthethruster,respectivelyatM
a
or(baselined)M
c
:
c
a
a a
M
M
M M
2
*
+ = ,
c a c
M M M + =
*
Table11.Propellantandtethermassrelationshipsforlikelydeploymentmethods
Masscase
(propellantforspin
up+downortether)
Singlelength
[kg]
MinimalRimSpeed
[kg]
Overdeployment
[kg]
Propellantomoon
Propellantomars
Propellantoearth
930 930
1420 930
2300 930
190
80
30
Tethermass
(forrangeomoonoearth)
1140 520 610
Table12.Masscomparisonforlikelydeploymentmethods(seetextforassumptions)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Overdeployment factor k [-]
M
a
s
s

[
k
g
]
Tether mass
Propellant mass per cycle (Earth)
Propellant mass per cycle (Mars)
Propellant mass per cycle (Moon)
Figure23.ImpactofOverdeploymentonMARSgpropellantandtethermass
78 Chapter3
Comparison
Acomparisonofthemasspropertiesresultingfrom thedifferentdeploymentstrategiesis
provided in Table 12. Assumed parameters values are w=3500m/s at M
c,
=536kg/m
3
,
F
S
=6,=1.13E9N/m
2
,k=5,v
rim
=25m/s.NotethatthevaluesinTable12refertotherequired
propellantforaspinupplusspindowncycleandtoatethercapabletodealwiththefull
rangeof o
moon
o
earth
. For comparison, thetotalmassrequiredfortetherpluspropellantto
obtainonlyano
mars
glevelonlyonce(asmaybeconsideredforamannedmissiontoMars),
isonly230kg.Fromthedependencyofmassontheoverdeploymentfactork(Figure23)itis
seenthattheadditionaltetherlengthdoesnotaddsignificantlytothesystemmass,because
the additional tether experiences only little stress. The mass gain of the overdeployment
methodwithrespecttothemoresimplealternativesissignificant,andevenmoresoforthe
likelycasethatmultiplespinupsandspindownswillbeperformed.
It should be noted that in an actual application in LEO, and in particular for the
Overdeployment method, the deployment and spinup strategy described above are
somewhatoversimplified.Rimvelocitywillvaryduringtheinitialretractionperioddueto
the action of the gravity gradient (Figure 1). For an inplane spinup from a vertically
deployed tether in LEO, an initial speedv
rim,0
>\3Or
3
is required in order to endup in a
rotation rather than an oscillation (Eq.2.10). On the other hand, much of the initial rim
velocitycaninprinciplebeobtainedfromtheswingobtainedduringdeployment,saving
somepropellant.Tomakefulluseofthispossibilitywouldrequireselectionofanoptimal
valuefork valueforeachgloadcase,andamorecriticaldeploymentcontrol. Theo
earth
g
levelwouldbeobtainedwithk=2.2(max.70kgpropellantratherthan30),o
mars
withk=3.6
(max.110kgpropellantmassratherthan80kg).Alternatively,anoutofplanerotationcan
beconsideredwithfreechoiceofk.Stabilityanddynamicsforthiscasehavenotyetbeen
investigated.Thetethermassisheavilydependentontheminimalrimspeedselected,but
foramultimissionscenarioitisnotthedominantfactor.TheOverdeploymentmethodis
thereforebaselinedfortheinitialdesignofasuitabledeployer.
Tetheranddeployer
A tether and deployer design for a LEO demonstrator has been made for DeltaUtec by
Lansdorp[Lansdorp2004]basedontheOverdeploymentscenario.Thetetherisassumedto
bemadeofDyneema,ahighstrengthfiberproducedbyDSMintheNetherlands. The
tether is proposed to be a very flat tether of ~1mm thickness and ~1m width. Such a
Dyneema UD tether can be produced using standard sheet production methods
(operationalatDSM).Itisasafelifedesigntopreventseriousdamagebyspacedebrisand
meteoroids and is compatible with the proposed deployer, as it provides a large area of
contact,thusreducingpressureloads.Dyneemahasafibertensilestrengthof3.9GPaand
a density of only 975kg/m
3
. Because of losses in the UD design
2
, it will have a tensile
strength of 1.3GPa and a density of 634kg/m
3
. A safety factor F
S
=6 for the tether was
chosenastheproductofanumberofcontributions[Lansdorp2003.II],seealsoSection4.3.4.
Resultingtotaltethermassis622kg.
2
C. Dirks, M. Jacobs, J. Kersjes, Personal correspondence, Meeting at DSM, Heerlen, the Netherlands, 2003.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 79
Thetetherdeployerhasthetasktoreelthetetherinandout,beforeandaftereachcrew
swap.Therequirementsonthedeployerarequitesevere.Theselecteddeploymentstrategy
demands that it must reel the tether while artificial gravity is being generated by the
rotation of the system. The most severe conditions occur during the oneg mission: the
tensioninthetether,justbeforethereelingphaseisover,equals400kN,comparabletothe
performanceofamediumsizedcrane.Anunconventionaldeployerdesignisproposedto
simultaneously meet the requirements of high tension and low mass. A system has been
worked out for which no tribology or transmission is required. Instead a solution with
structuralhingesisproposedandhighforcelineartranslatorsareused.Thestoragesystem
isalwaysdecoupledfromthetethertension. Figure24 illustratestwoseparatesetsofflat
frictionplatesthatautomaticallysqueezethetetherwhentensionisapplied,asocalledself
braking structure. As one pair of plates is squeezed and moves the tether in the desired
direction,theotherpairmovesinpositiontotakeover.Thereelthatcollectsthetetherisin
thiswaynotexposedtoa(significant)tetherloadandcanbelightweight.Afirstdesignof
the deployer indicates that the deployer mass will be comparable to the tether mass, i.e.
some600kg[Lansdorp2004].
TheMARSgsystemcombinescomfortandcapabilityofmultipledeploymentandretrievals
underfullgload,withamassofonlysome3%ofthetotalsystem,orsome2400kg(based
on14cycles).Propellanttomaintainstabilityoftheendmassisnotincludedinthisanalysis.
Figure24.Hingelessmovingplatehighloadtapedeployerconcept(seetext)
3.2 Electrodynamicdeboost
Electrodynamictethersareabletoprovidepropulsionwithlittleornoconsumables,asthey
conduct electrical current and interact with a planetary magnetic field. If equipped with
appropriate power supply, they can provide continuous thrust that can be modulated to
change any of the orbital parameters [Cosmo1997, Levin2007]. These capabilities make
80 Chapter3
them attractive for demanding long term applications such as repetitive deorbiting of
defunctsatellitesoratmosphericdragcompensationofaspacestation.
Someuncertaintiesaretoberesolvedbeforesuchapplicationscanbereliablyimplemented.
Bare tether design and confirmation of electron collection performance is one aspect that
willbedescribedbelow.Beyondthat,acrucialchallengeforelectrodynamictethersisthat
of longterm stability, in particular with reference to light systems where electrodynamic
forces may become comparable to gravity gradient forces. Simulations have been
undertaken to find out how system design can help provide sufficient stability. Two
exampleapplicationsforrelativelysimplesystems,withouthighvoltagesource,andthus
orientedatdeboostonly,arestudiedinmoredetail.Theeffectivenessofanelectrodynamic
tetherformitigationofdebrisrelatedriskiscriticallyconsidered.Anapplicationofaneven
simplersystemisanalyzed,afullypassiveelectrodynamictethersystem,whichmayprove
usefulinorbitaroundJupiter.
3.2.1 AssessmentofOMLperformanceinbaretetherelectroncollectiontesting
No inorbit data is available for long bare tether performance at this time. To support
representativenessoftheETBSimsimulations,aseriesofelectroncollectiontestshasbeen
definedandperformed[Kruijff2001.I]withthefollowingobjectives:
totestthevalidityoftheOMLtheory,
toassessorbitaltethercurrentcollectioncapabilityfromplasma,and
toassesstheapplicabilityoftheOMLmodeltotetherswithotherthancylindrical
geometry.
The approach applied exists essentially in measuring the IV characteristics of several
specimens of tethers, with various geometrical shapes and dimensions, exposed to a
simulatedspaceenvironmentofionosphericparameters.Thespecimensofvariousshapes
andsizesaresummarizedinTable13.Thisselectionhasbeenmadetorepresentvarious
designoptions:asimplecylindricaltether,atapeforincreasedmassefficiencyandadual
strand tether (for increased resistance against micrometeoroids and orbital debris). All
samplesare10cminlength,somuchlargerthanthesamplediameter.Eachspecimenhas
been placed between two guards of equal dimensions, such that the measurements are
madeinacylindricalplasmageometrywithoutsignificantedgeeffects.The experiments
have been designed to investigate the impact on the current collection caused by
perturbationsduetoboththeambientgeomagneticfieldandthemagneticfieldselfinduced
bythecurrentflowinginthetether,neitherofwhichisincludedinthederivationofthe
OML model. They are compared to those of Gilchrist e.a., who has performed electron
collectiontestson(unguarded)cylindricalandtapesamplesof1030cmlength,inaplasma
generatedbyaHallthruster,howeverwithoutgeomagneticandselfinducedfieldeffects
[Gilchrist2002].
ThelargeplasmachamberfacilityofIFSICNRhasbeenselectedasasuitablefacilityforthe
proposed tests. The tests were designed, performed and analyzed by F. de Venuto & G.
Vannaroni[Kruijff2001.I],theresultsaresummarizedhere.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 81
Typeofelectrode Dimensions
Singlewire Diameter0.8mm
Singlewire Diameter2mm(withcurrentcarryingwireincenter)
Bifilarwire Diameter0.8mm,centertocenter2.8mm
Tape Width3.6mm,Thickness0.05mm
Table13.Dimensionsoftethersamplesusedintheplasmatests
TestchambergeometryandconditionsareprovidedinTable14 andFigure25.TheDebye
length
D
isafundamentalplasmascalingparameterintermsofwhichtheOMLvaliditycan
beexpressed[Sanmartin1999].ThetestconditionscanbeconsideredtypicalforaLowEarth
Orbittetheroperation.Althoughthevoltagebiasapplied(200V)islowerthanthetypical
potentialofkilovoltsforspaceapplications,itisstillhighlysuprathermalwithrespecttothe
energy of ionospheric electrons (~ 0.2eV), and therefore can be considered representative
fortheelectroncollectionprocessinhighpotentialregimes(seealsoEq.2.29).
TheresultingIVcharacteristics(Figure26, Figure27)showthecollectedcurrentI
exp
atthe
applied bias voltage V, normalized to theelectronthermal current I
th
(Eq.2.30), I
norm
=I
exp
/I
th.
Duetotheproportionalityofbothcurrentswithbothplasmadensityn
pl
andtheelectrode
surfacethisnormalizationeliminatestheeffectsassociatedtotheplasmadensityvariation
resulting from the samples current collection as well as the effects due to different
dimensions of the various tether samples. Two curves (in solid lines) indicate the OML
uncertainty(Eq. 2.29)duetothespreadoftheelectrontemperature.Afirstobservationis
thatthereseemstobe asystematic tendencytoexceed thepredictionsofthe model.The
discrepancyfromtheorycanbeapproximatelyevaluatedabout25%,thelargestdeviation
beingassociatedtothetapesample.Thetapeandmultistrandtethershavebeeninitially
oriented with minimum crosssection towards the plasma beam. When oriented
perpendiculartotheflow,thetapeshowsa20%reductionincurrent,probablyduetowake
effects. Gilchrist e.a. observe quite a similar trend, with up to 15% increased collection
efficiencywithrespecttoOMLabove50V.Theyfindhoweverthattheperpendiculartape
collects510%morethantheparallel,possiblyduetosampleendeffects,duetothelackof
guards,orsourcedrainage,whichseemstoparticularlyeffecttheparallelsample.
In any case, the OML does provide a good first guess estimate of electron collection
performance,foralltestedtethershapes,includingtapesandmultistrandtethers,atleast
forasamplewidthlessthanorequalto23
D
.Ausefullessonfromthisisthatmultiple(n)
wire tethers of diameter d can be treated (as far as electron collection is concerned) as a
singlewireofdiametern*d.NotethatGilchriste.a.haveperformedteststoasmuchas15
D
tapewidth,andalthoughsomereductioninefficiencyisobserved,possiblyduetosource
drainage,theresultsforthesesamplesdonotgomorethan12%undertheOMLprediction
at300V[Gilchrist2002].
82 Chapter3
Facility SIM.PL.EXatIFSICNR
Ambientplasmaelectrontemperature 2000K
Ambientplasmadensity
5e12

m
3
SamplebiasforIVcurvemeasurement 0200V
AmbientgeomagneticfieldB 0and0.3e4

T(orthogonaltobothplasmaflowandtether
sample)
Debyelength
D
~1.4mm
Currentforselfinducedfieldtest 010A
Samplelength 10cm(plus10cmguardoneitherside)
Sampledistancetoplasmasource 2.25m
Plasmareferencemonitoring LangmuirProbeforplasmadensity,electrontemperature
andplasmapotential
RetardingPotentialAnalyzer(RPA)forionbeamenergy
Ionsource
SynthesisA
+
acceleratedto~8km/s
Electronsource Filamentheatedatthermoionictemperatures
Table14.Testconditions

LP
R
RPA
C
h
a
m
b
e
r m
a
in
a
x
is
P
l a
s
m
a
S
o
u
r
c
e
P
la
s
m
a
flo
w
2
5
c
m
17 cm
1
5
c
m
2
2
5
c
m
G
U
A
R
D

S
A
M
P
L
E

G
U
A
R
D
Z
Y
X
1
0

c
m



1
0
c
m



1
0

c
m
Figure25.Experimentalsetupofplasmatests
Figure26.IVcharacteristicsatB=0(left)andB=0.310
4
T(right)
AnalysisofTetherApplications 83
Figure27.IVcharacteristicsatvariousDCtethercurrents.
Thegeomagneticfieldisfoundtonotperturbsignificantlythecurrentcollectionfromthe
plasma, which is plausible when considering that the electron gyroradius at LEO
environmental conditions (about 5cm) is appreciably larger than the crosssectional
dimensions of the tethers under test [Sanmartin1999]. For large tapes (centimeter scale)
additionaltestsarerequired,butintheSIM.PL.EX.facilitysuchalargesamplewouldlead
todrainingoftheelectronsource.
Asfarastheselfinducedfieldisconcerned,theeffectofselfinducingDCcurrenthasbeen
testedinthe2mmcylindersample.AreductionproportionaltotheDCcurrentisfoundof
about10%atitsmaximum level (10A) correspondingtothemaximumpotential(190V).
Such a reduction is in line with expectations: the current produces a crossed system of
magneticandelectricfields,causinganE B electrondriftalongthetetherthattendsto
reduce the collected current. For likely mission currents of 1or2A this effect can be
considerednegligible.
3.2.2 Tethereddeboostanddynamicinstability
Occurrence of long term instability of electrodynamic tethers has been evidenced in
numericalsimulations[Estes2000.IV],connectedwiththeProSEDSmission.Itisfounddue
tothelongitudinalcomponentofthemagneticfieldandincreaseswithinclination.Several
investigations[e.g.Levin1987,Pelaez2000.I,II,Dobrowolny2002.I,II,Levin2007]havebeen
undertaken with the aim of clarifying the various underlying instability mechanisms for
electrodynamictethers.Energyiscontinuallypumpedintothesystem,whichcauseslateral
oscillations and eventually tether slackness or uncontrolled motion. The long term
instabilityseverelylimitsmasscriticalelectrodynamictetherapplications.Forthesecasesit
must be characterized and appropriately tackled, either by system design or by active
controlmethods.
Dobrowolny developed a linearized analytical model, simplifying the environmental
conditionsanddecouplingtransversemodesfromendmasslibrations[Dobrowolny2002.I].
The modeled system is operating at maximum obtainable current level following OML
theory. Aninstability is observed,as anexponentialgrowthintransversemodes. Outof
planeendmasslibrations,coupledtoinplanelibrations,showawavepacketbehavior.The
resultindicatethatthereisamaximumcurrentlevelforstability.
84 Chapter3
Forcomparison,asimulationofthesamesystemwasperformedbyETBSim,whichisbased
on a more general, nonlinear model (Section2.3.2). The environment was initially set to
match the Dobrowolny simulations, featuring a simplified dipole magnetic field and
sinusoidal plasma density. As in Dobrowolnys findings, ETBsim produces inplane and
outof plane endmass librations [Kruijff2001.I]. General behaviour is similar, e.g. wave
packetmodulationisrecognizedandthelibrationseemsstable,althoughtheamplitudeand
modulation period differ. These differences are thought to originate in several
simplificationsintheappliedlineartheorywithrespecttothenumericalsimulation,suchas
seriestruncation.Inaddition,crosscouplingbetweenlibrationandtransversemodeswas
foundtobesignificant(e.g.Figure29).Attheintegrationtimestepsused,itwasfoundthat
thesystembecomesinstablebeyondnumericalaccuracywithinabout2weeks,althoughthe
librationmodeisasyethardlyexcited.
Fluctuationsofelectrondensityandmagneticfieldstrengthastheyoccurinorbitaround
Earthfurtherworsenthesituation.Foratypicalcase(7km,1mmbaretether,h=1000km,
i=50. 700kg and 15kg endmasses) including also the ionospheric irregularities (IRI95
model)andtheEarths436kmmagneticdipoleoffset,ETBSimshowsthatwithinabouta
daystime,transverse wavesseverelyaffecttethertension, whichdoes notoccur without
theseeffects.
Theseresultstriggerthequestionwhethersystemdesignchoicesorothersolutionscanbe
identifiedthatcontributetostabilityforthefulldurationofatypicalelectrodynamictether
application.Simulationresultsaddressingavarietyofdesignoptionsareheredescribed.
As a case study, a relatively simple deboost application has been selected, intended for
satellitesthathavefailedorcompletedtheirnominalmission(defunct,Section2.2.2).Itis
initiallyassumedthatthetetherendmassisdeployeddownward.Theendmasscontainsnot
only acathode but allactive systems includingthetether deployeritself.In thiswaythe
interface to the defunct satellite is minimized. The tether is assumed bare. Based on test
simulationsthefollowingreferencetetherisdefined(usedforallsimulationsinthissection
unlessspecifiedotherwise):
6kmfailsafemechanicalpart,1.2kg.
6km failsafe conductive part, built out of two strands bare aluminum (each
0.32mmdiameter,treatedforo=c=0.3),twomechanicalstrands,total5.3kg.
Stability was investigated for tethered deboost of a defunct satellite of 700kg at 700km
initial altitude and 11.5 degree inclination. A lightweight endmass of 15kg has been
assumed initially. As a practical, objective measure for instability, the (simulated)
occurrenceoftetherslacknessisproposed(i.e.zerotension),whichisassumedtocoincide
withlossofcontrol(Figure32).Thisoccurrencecanbeexpressedinmissiontime,however
themorepragmaticmeasurementusedhere,referringtothemissionobjective,isthedropin
altitudeachieved.
Forthefullrangeofparametersettingsreportedhere,evenatcurrentslimitedtoaslittleas
0.2A,thesimulationsshowedaprocessofexcitationofskiprope(combinationof first in
AnalysisofTetherApplications 85
planeandoutofplanetransversemodes).Thetethereventuallystartstoresembleawhip
withthelightendmassonitstip,cyclicallyinducingtensionshocksandfurthertransverse
waves, that finally cause the tether to become slack. Such behavior has also been noted
during the simulations carried out for ProSEDS
3
. Consequently, all simulations show a
nearlyidenticaltensiondevelopment,whereonlytheonsetoftheinstabilitydiffersintime
fromonesimulationtoanother.
A typical example for the deorbit behavior is shown in Figure 28, which highlights the
impactofinclination.Therunsarestoppedatoccurrenceoftetherslackness.Shownisthe
inplane transverse mode. It is measured in degrees as the angle from the line between
endmasses to the line between defunct satellite and middle of the tether. At larger
inclinationtheonsetofinstabilityisdelayedduetothelowerelectrodynamicforceresulting
fromalowerperpendicularmagneticcomponent.Descentrateisalsoreducedforthesame
reason. Despite the fact that outofplane dynamics are more pronounced at higher
inclination,thetetherinsuchahighlyinclinedorbitachievesasomewhatgreateraltitude
dropbeforeinstabilityoccurs.
Figure28.Effectofinclinationonstability(1
st
transversemodeandachievedSMAdrop)
Simple control laws do not reduce the onset of instability, due to the coupling between
librationsandtransversemodes,asillustratedinFigure29.Acurrentcontrolisappliedto
dampen the inplane librations. The control is an antiphased current modulation
superimposed on a constant current (0.3A), assuming perfect knowledge of the inplane
and outofplane angles (e.g. through GPS or phase reconstruction from tension
measurements).Althoughthecontrolis,briefly,effectiveindampingtheinplanelibration,
thefirsttransversemodeisexcitedandeventuallycrossexcitestheinplanelibrationmode
beyondcontrolaswell.Similarlywhenacurrentcontrolisappliedthatdampensbothin
plane libration and first transverse mode, the second transverse mode is excited, with
similardisturbingresultsonthelowermodes.
NotethatinrecentyearsLevinhasdevelopedamethodbasedontethermodesandphase
estimation that, although not able to fully subdue the instability appears successful at
postponingitsignificantly[Levin2007].
3


Enicro Lorenzini, Private communications, February 2001
86 Chapter3
Libration
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Time [s]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
e
g
]
libration damping control
no control
First lateral mode
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Time [s]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
e
g
]
libration damping control
no control
Figure29.Dampingofinplanelibration(left)excitesfirsttransversemode(right).
Insupportofsuchactivecurrentcontrolfurtherdesignoptionswereconsidered.Mostof
thesystemadaptationsthattendtoimprovetimetoinstabilityincreasetheratiooftension
(Eq.2.16)versusLorentzforce(Eq.2.28),althoughnotalwaystheachievedaltitudelossis
improvedaswell.
CurrentlimitationforexamplereducesthecyclicvariationoftheLorentzforceandofits
distributionoverthelengthofthetether.Thisisparticulartrueifatalevelsustainableby
the lowest plasma density within one orbit. Most simulated cases ran at such a level, of
0.2A.Thecurrentlevelcanbeincreasedastheorbitgetslowerduetoincreasingplasma
density,suchthatthedeorbitrateimproves.Inthesimulations,tethercurrentisassumed
limited by ohmic dissipation through a variable resistor near the cathodic end. Such a
systemhastheadvantagethat,duetotheohmicvoltagedropthetetherwillbenegatively
biased over a large part of its length (Figure 30). In the negatively biased section no
electronsarecollected,thusresultinginanearlyconstantcurrentovermuchofthetether
length. Undersuchcurrentlimitation,additionalbaretetherlengthleadstosimultaneous
increase of both gravity gradient and Lorentz force. The fraction of tether that features
constantcurrentisalsoincreasedandsimulationsfindstabilityimproved.

B
0V
m1
I
m2
FL
L v
I
0A
e

Vemf VR
Imax
VR
Figure30.CurrentlimitationduepotentialdropV
R
by
resistoratcathodicend
AnalysisofTetherApplications 87
Increaseofcathodeendmassisacostlysolutionbutcontributestostabilityimprovement.If
endmassandcurrentarebothincreasedbythesameamount,asexpectedthesystemwill
still drop faster in altitude, but will also outlast the lighter, lowcurrent reference system
beforeinstabilityoccurs.
Amechanicaltethersegmenthasbeenincludedinadditiontotheconductivesegmentinthe
reference design. This has been done for two reasons. On one hand, it ensures a low
deploymentfrictionduringtheinitialpartofthedeployment.Secondly,althoughinclusion
of a mechanical tether segment represents some extra system mass, for the simulated
applicationitincreasesthetensionandsystemspassivelongtermstabilitymoreeffectively
thananincreaseofendmassbythesameamountwoulddo.
Anevenmoreeffectiveuseofextramassisachievedwhenthetetherisdeployedupward,
with a dummy endmass the extra mass required for this concept, whereas the cathode,
deployer and electronics remain at the defunct satellite, now the lower end of the tether
system. Insuchacase,forabaretetherormechanical/baretethercombination,thetorque
armaroundthecenterofmass(nearthedefunctsatellite),availabletotheresultingLorentz
force,isreduced.ThecasepresentedinFigure31isbasedonthereference12kmtetherwith
a15kgendmasslimitedat0.2A.Thisadaptedsystemiseventuallydestabilizedwhenthe
second transversemodeoverexcites.Notethatitwasfoundthattheelectrodynamictether
needsnottobedeployedaccuratelytoavertical.Anonzeroinplaneanglebeforecathode
activationhasnonegativeimpactonstability.
Finally,asanalternativeway tomaintain stability, aprograderotating tethersystemhas
been proposed (see also Section3.2.4). To achieve the desired system spin, the 15kg
endmassneedstobeprovidedwithaninitial Vof about30m/sagainstthedirectionof
orbital velocity. The spininduced centrifugal force will increase with time as the spin
accelerates due to the Lorentz torque and this increase helps to maintain stability. The
spinning tether solution will operate on the average at a 30% of the Lorentz force of a
verticaltether,duetotheunfavorableangleofthetetherwithrespecttothemagneticfield
lines during much of the spin. If a second cathode is added on the opposite side of the
tether,thisfractionisincreasedtoabout60%.TheadditionalcomplexityandlossinLorentz
forcemaybecompensatedforsincecurrentlimitationisnolongerrequired.
Apart from these measures that directly affect the balance of Lorentz force and tension,
moresubtledesigntradeoffs,suchasfortethermaterialproperties,canhaveasignificant
effectaswell.Alowstiffness/viscosityratiohasbeenfoundtobespecificallypowerfulfor
postponinginstability, Figure32.Notethat asignificanteffectoftetherinternal(Coulomb)
dampingasevidencedbyTiPS[Barnds1998]willlikelyhaveabeneficialeffectonstability
alsoifthereisnospringmassoscillation,butisnotrepresentedbyETBSim.
Somenontrivialeffectsarereportedin[Kruijff2001.I].Itisforexamplefoundthattether
coolingthatoccursduringtheeclipseperiodofanorbithasafavorableeffectonstability.A
decrease in ohmic resistance duetotethercooling balancesthe negative effecton current
collectionasaresultofthedecreasedplasmadensityontheeclipsesideoftheEarth.The
equilibriumtemperatureofthetetherdependsontheratioofopticalpropertiesand(Eq.
88 Chapter3
4.30).A ratioof /closeto1withlowvaluesbothfor and,forgradualtemperature
change,willfurtherincreasethesystemspassivelongtermstability.
Figure31Cathodelocationimpactonstability(inplanelibration),Referencehasthecathodeonthe
endmass,deployeddownward
Figure32.Effect16folddecreasestiffness/viscosityratioontransversemodeandinstability(gray).
With the toolbox of possible measures described here tether oscillatory behavior can be
constrainedduringthedurationofthedeboost. Table15 providesanoverview.Themost
effective system design tools are system spinup, upward deployment direction of the
endmass,increaseofendmassandmechanicaltetherlength,selectionofapropercurrent
levelthatcanbemaintainedovertetherlengthandtime,highviscosityandlowstiffness.
Note that when the high plasmadensity ranges of the ionosphere are reached, below
600km,itisnolongerrecommendedtouseatetherfordeorbit,ratherdisconnectthetether
altogether(Section3.2.3).Adeboostwithlimitedcurrenttakesuptoamonth,duringwhich
active collision avoidance may be required, e.g. by ground control of descent rate. The
benefitofareleaseatthisaltitudeisnotonlythattotalcollisionriskisreducedbutalsothe
requirement for maintaining stability. This less ambitious approach in fact makes the
tethereddeboostapplicationbothmoresafeandmorepractical.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 89
Parameter Finding
Systemspin(centrifugalforce) Requiresspinupofendmass.Effectivenessdecreasesby70%(singlecathode)or
40%(withsecondcathode)butnocurrentlimitationrequired(Section3.2.4).
Tetherrelease Reducesstabilitydurationrequirement.
Tetherviscosity/stiffnessratio Dampensmodes.
Currentcontrol Stateestimationmethod[Levin2007].Hasnotbeenverifiedinthiswork.
Defunct satellite and endmass
location
Torquesarelowerwhenendmassisup,tetherishigherinorbit.
Additionalmechanicaltether Increasesgravitygradientforceatlowmasscost.
Currentlimitation Limitbelowlevelofminimumwithinorbittoreducefluctuations.Further
reductionincreasestimetoinstability,butreducestheattainedaltitudedrop.
Tetherlength IncreasesgravitygradientforceandLorentzforce.
Opticalproperties Reducesdiurnalcycleeffect.
Endmass Increasesgravitygradientforcebutincreasessystemmass.
Table15. Recommendationsformaintainingstabilityforbaretetherdeboostapplicationwithlight
weightnonfunctionalendmass
3.2.3 Tethereddeboostandcollisionrisk
Tethers can contribute to the debris mitigation effort. In Section 3.1.2, a niche has been
identifiedformechanicaltethers,particularlyforacombinationoflaunchassistandspent
stage deorbit. Electrodynamic tethers however can be employed for active and
propellantless reduction of many types of space debris, including for example defunct
constellationsatellites[Forward1998].Anelectrodynamictethersystemrequiresnodeorbit
burnpropellant,and,especiallyifpassive,cankeepthedeorbitmodulesimple.
However,alsotheriskthatsuchtethersthemselvesposetoothersatellitesinorbitmustbe
recognized.Theextendedcollisionareaofatethersweepsthroughasignificantvolumeof
the orbital environment even for fairly brief operations, such as for example a twoweek
deorbitofadefunctsatellite.Considerationoftethercollisionriskhasalreadyledtoseveral
cancellationsofmissionsandexperimentsoverthepastdecade(Section1.3).
The question rises how benefits and risks compare to each other for the case of debris
mitigationbyelectrodynamictether. Inthissectionelectrodynamictetherapplicationsfor
deorbit are considered while taking into account the added risks caused by the tethers
themselves.First,theconventionalalternative,deboostbyretrorocket,isbrieflyconsidered.
Then,moreextensively,thetethereddeboostnetriskiscomparedtothatoftheBusiness
AsUsual(BAU),whichisacompletelypassiveapproach.
90 Chapter3
The conventional retrorocket deboost system, with little doubt, is superior over
electrodynamictethersintermsofcollisionriskmitigation.Inaworstcase,thesystemwill
malfunctionandthedefunctsatelliteendsupinaBAUsituation,justasthetethersystem
could if deployment fails to initiate. A preference for an electrodynamic tether system, if
found comparably reliable, will thus primarily depend on system mass and cost. Tether
deorbitsystemsofverylowcomplexityhavebeenproduced,albeitnotdemonstratedyet
[Hoyt2000].Alsofromaperspectiveofsystemmassanelectrodynamictethersystemcould
beofinterest.
AsystemmasscomparisonisprovidedbyHeide&Kruijff[Heide2001.I]basedonestimates
for the tether system mass from Forward & Hoyt [Forward1998] versus a rocket mass
basedonSchonenborg

regarding anautonomoussystemfortypicalconstellationsatellites
[Schonenborg2000]. It is concluded that electrodynamic tethers offer considerable mass
advantagefordeorbitofheavyobjects,byuptoanorderofmagnitudeformultitonobjects
such as spent stages, and even for small satellites of only hundreds of kilograms if the
orbitalaltitudeissufficient,largerthan400600km.
Giventhechoiceforatetheredsystemoverretrorocketdeorbit,theelectrodynamictether
system performance shall be compared to Business as Usual. Heide & Kruijff propose a
simplifiedmethodologyforsuchacomparisoninwhichthreemajorparametersneedtobe
evaluated[Heide2001.I]:
1.Probabilityofbreakupcollisionwithdebrisandnonguidedoperationalsatellites
A collision with debris that would lead to cutting of the tether, no matter what the
secondaryconsequencesmaybe,isassumedtobecatastrophicbyitself.Suchastrict
assumption is likely to be imposed for tether operations [APEX1997]
4
. Tether
robustness against impacts is to be achieved by failsafe design (multistrand tethers
suchastheCarrollCaduceus

[Kruijff1998] orHoytether

[Forward1995])orasafelife
design(tapes,Section4.3.1).Amultistrandtetherwithawidthof10cmisassumed.
Catastrophic is considered impact with any debris of diameter >10cm or any non
guidedoperationalsatellite.
For comparison to the BAU case, a collision with the defunct satellite is considered
catastrophiciftheimpactingparticleislargeenoughtoleadtobreakupofthesatellite.
Criticalimpactenergyoftheparticleisassumedtobe40kJ/kg,foratypicalcasethisis
aparticleofabout10cm[Anselmo1999].Nofurtherriskassessmentisperformedon
thepartsafterbreakup.
2.Activeavoidancerequirement
Ifitisoperationallyviableandthetethersystemdeorbitrateiscontrollable(e.g.bya
variableohmicresistance,Section3.2.2),activeavoidancecanbeconsidered.Notethat
4
Thisisperhapsaconservativeapproach.Itcanbereasonedthatatethercutdoesnotleadtoasignificantlyworse
situation than BAU. The impacting debris may only be superficially damaged due to the tethers low ballistic
coefficient.Ifitisalsoassumedthattheremainsofthetethercanbedisconnectedfromtheendmasseswhenthetether
iscut,thefreefloatingpartswilldeorbitquicklyandriskisthuscontained[Heide2001.II].
AnalysisofTetherApplications 91
all objects larger than 10cm are being tracked from the ground. If the number of
actionstoavoidtheseobjectsislimited,itmayprovefeasibletoreducetethersystem
collision probability to (near)zero. For active avoidance, a safety box around
operational satellites or debris shall be considered. The expected number of tether
maneuversistobedeterminedrequiredtoavoidpassingthroughthesesafetyboxes.
Whenconsideringactiveavoidancebytethers,theprobabilityoflossofcontrol,ora
transition from the controlled case to the uncontrolled case, should be taken into
account,e.g.incaseofanunplannedendmassrelease.If,foraparticulartethersystem,
probability of such failures is found significant, the active avoidance should not be
solelyrelieduponandtheothertwoparameterspresentedhereshouldbeconsidered
withmorerelativeimportance.
3.Burdenonoperationalsatellites
Theexpectednumberofavoidancemaneuversrequiredbyoperationalsatellitesisto
bedetermined. Ifthetethersystemdescentrateisuncontrolledandmanyoperational
satellites need to avoid the tether system it would be at the least a burden to be
considered in the tradeoff, and perhaps a cost driver. Also the BAU for defunct
satellites will accumulate dangerous approaches. A sensible comparison can thus be
made.
Intheevaluationoftheseparameters,tethertethercollisionswillnotbeconsidered.Itseems
unlikelythattethersbecomesoabundantthattethertethercollisionswillbeanissue.Even
ifmultipleconstellationswouldbeelectrodynamicallydeorbitedinoverlappingperiodsof
5years, 40deorbits per year could be a reasonable maximum occurrence, equivalent to
about4tethersinspaceatanytime.Itshouldbepossibletocoordinatethedeorbitsofthese
toavoidintertethercollisions.
Failuresofthetethersystemareinprinciplealsonottakenintoaccount.Afailurebefore
deployment does not affect the comparison between the several scenarios. An alternate
scenariowithsomelikelihoodisanintentionaltetherreleasefromtheremainingsystemin
case of contingencies such as inadvertent deployment, partial deployment, erroneous
upward deployment, excitation of large oscillations or last minute collision avoidance. In
suchacasethedebriswouldfallbackintotheBAUsituation,whereasthelifetimeofthe
tether,dependingonwhetherthecathodeisstillattachedandoperational,iseitherreduced
orincreasedbynomorethanasingleorderofmagnitude(Heide2001.I).Sincethatwould
be a second order failure with limited probability the resulting risk will not affect the
comparison.
Usefulestimatescanbemostconvenientlyproducedwiththehelpofascaledsweepingarea
A
sweep
(rather than the tethers orbital lifetime or arealifetime product)

[NASA1995]. The
sweep area is the averaged projected area around the debris (plus tether) under
investigation,throughwhichoperationalsatellitesorotherdebrisshouldnotpass.Thisarea
moves at orbital velocity v
orbit
assumed constant during the degradation time t
degrade
. The
productoftheaveragedvaluesisthesweepingvolumeV
sweep
,fromwhichthecollisionor
92 Chapter3
avoidanceprobabilitypcanbeestimatedtakingintoaccountdebrisorsatellitedensityp
objects
fortheappropriateobjectsizerange:
p=fp
objects
V
sweep
=fp
objects
A
sweep
v
orbit
t
degrade
(3.4)
AlthoughEq.3.4 wouldbeaccurateonlyunderthehypotheticalassumptionofauniform
and constant spreading of objects and thus represents no more than a rough first order
estimatefortheactualvalueof p,itisconsideredsufficientforaquantitativecomparison
betweenthetetherandBAUoperationalapproaches.Thefactorf isusedtotakeintoboth
theeffectofaveragedrelativevelocitybetweenobjectanddebrisaswellastheprojected
futureincreaseofthedebrisenvironment.
Since the latter effect is assumed of predominant influence on the relative results for the
alternatives, f isdubbedtheFuture Factor, andfV
sweep
thescaled sweepvolume.Thefuture
development of the space environment is relevant in particular for evaluation of the
BusinessAsUsualcase,wheresatellitesarelefttobedeorbitedmainlybyatmosphericdrag.
BAUdeorbittimescanspanasmuchascenturies. Futureuseofspaceispredictedasan
almostlinearincreaseinnumberofoperationalsatelliteswithaboutafactor3uncertainty
[Anselmo1999, ESA1999]. Considering the future number of spent stages and debris, a
more moderate increase can be considered than the worst case (exponential) scenario. A
runawayeffectofdebrisdebriscollisionsisnotforeseen.Inlinewithcurrenttrends,future
usersareexpectedtotakeincreasingresponsibilitytocarrydeorbitsystemsorlaunchstages
into reducedlifetime orbits. For this comparison a linear increase of both debris and
operationalsatelliteswithafactor3in100yearsisassumed.
Finally,a subjectiveassumptionofcriticalimpactisincludednamelythat propagation of
risksoverdegradationtimeislimitedtoa150yearshorizoninviewofhugeunknownsin
developmentsofaccesstospaceandalternativedebrisremovaltechniques.Thechoiceof
150years is rather arbitrary and this should be considered when evaluating the results,
howeveritservestocreateawarenessofthelackofmeaningofindefiniteriskpropagation.
Aschematicalrepresentationofthemethodologycanbefoundin[Heide2001.I].
Asanexamplethemethodhasbeenappliedtoarangeoftethereddeorbits,foratypical
700kg constellation satellite [Forward1998, Schonenborg2000]. For estimations of orbit
degradation, ETBSim has been used as well as rough lifetime evaluations based on
Vannaronie.a.

[Vannaroni1999].Thetetherissupposedtobebareforefficiency,whileits
endmass librations are assumed to be maintained within 30degrees. For typical tether
lengthsof510kmandeffectivediameterof0.8mmtheLorentzforceissomedecinewton
at maximum plasma density altitude (300km) to millinewton level at high altitudes
(1500km).Thisforcewillreducethesemimajoraxis(andhencethemeanaltitude)ofthe
tetheredsystemorbitatratesfrom2to50km/day,decreasingwithincreasingdebrismass,
inclination or altitude. The tether is assumed to have a linear mass density of 2kg/km.
Stabilityisguaranteedbyaviscoustetherdesignandcurrentlimitation(Section3.2.2).The
tetherisequippedwithanadditional3kmmechanicaltether(1kg)toassistdeployment.
The atmospheric density profile is characterized by an average exospheric temperature
AnalysisofTetherApplications 93
T
exo
=1050K.Theeffectofdecouplingoftetherandcathodefromthedebrisisevaluatedas
well.Thedecouplingissimulatedbyintroductionofamomentumtransferdecreasingthe
tether semimajor axis 5L, while satellite semimajor axis is increased by 0.3L. After
decoupling, the thrust of the tether is conservatively reduced to 20% of maximum
obtainablethrusttoaccountforinstabilityeffects.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
Altitude [km]
D
e
s
c
e
n
t

r
a
t
e

[
k
m
/
d
a
y
]
7.5 km elec tether
12.5 km elec tether
Figure33.Descentrateof700kgsatellite
For the resulting system and two electrodynamic tether lengths, Figure 33 presents the
descentrateofthedefunctsatelliteasafunctionofaltitude,foranequatorialorbit.
Uncontrolleddeorbit
ThesimplertetheredalternativetoBAUistohaveanuncontrolleddeorbit.Forsuchatether
solution to be of interest, the total number of avoidance or alert situations for guided
operationalspacecraftshouldbeofequalorlesserorderofmagnitudethanintheBAUcase.
Also, collision probabilities shall be compared. This can be done directly through sweep
volumesinthiscase.A>10cmdebrisobjectispresumedcatastrophicforadefunctsatellite
[ESA1999]aswellasfora10cmwidemultistrandtether.Identicaldebrisoroperational
spacecraftdensitieswouldhavetobemultipliedwiththesweepvolumetocometoarisk
estimate.
ForthetethercaselifetimeismuchshorterthanforBAUandtheFutureFactorf=1,butthe
sweepareaA
sweep
islarger.ThesweepareaforBAUistakenasthedefunctsatelliteorspent
stages typical dimension squared (2.57m for a satellite, 3.1m for a spent stage
[Anselmo1999]),whereasforthetetheritisapproximatedastheproductoftetherlength
andaverageobjectdiameter.FromdatapresentedinWertz&Larsontheaveragediameter
ofobjects>10cmwasdeterminedtobeabout1.7m[Wertz1993].
InFigure34andFigure35thescaledsweepvolumeisplottedversustheinitialaltitudefor
deboostsystemswithanelectrodynamictetherlengthofrespectively7.5and12.5km.Inthe
figures is indicated the sweep volume for the electrodynamic tether deorbit system
includingthedefunctsatelliteaswellasforthedecoupledsystem,i.e.thesumofindividual
94 Chapter3
sweepvolumeofthedefunctsatelliteandofthetetherplusendmassafterdecouplingatthe
indicatedaltitude.Forcomparison,thecontributiontothelattersweepvolumeofjustthe
defunct satellite, after decoupling of the system and without the tether, is included. This
contributionisapproximatelyequalto theBAU case andisused hereforbothpurposes.
Finallythetargetsweepvolumeisshown,namelyforasatellitewithareducedlifetimeof
25years[ESA1999],includingadjustmentforFutureFactor.
Bothgraphsshowthatitwouldbeadvantageoustodecouplethetetheranddebrisoncea
certain altitude has been reached. The figures show that a tethered system, if it remains
attachedtothedefunctsatellitetillreentry,willatnoaltitudebeabletoachievethedesired
sweepvolumeofapieceofdebriswith25yearslifetime.Asexpected,thelongertetherhas
thebetterperformance(seealsoEqs.2.32&2.35).Yetforbothtethersthecriticallengthfor
decoupling isaround700km altitude.Unfortunately,the decoupledsatelliteat700kmis
stillabovethesuggestedreducedlifetimeorbitof25years.Releasingthedebrisonly100km
later,at600km,decreasestheremainingsweepvolumebyafactorof2.5.Thisseemstobe
thebettersolutionforanuncontrolledtethereddebrismitigationsystem.
It is also suggested that maybe unnecessary risk would be taken for use of tethers at
altitudesabove1100km(fora7.5kmtether)to1400km(fora12.5kmtether).Ifatetheris
used at such altitudes a larger length is recommended. This conclusion depends on the
imposedmaximumoforbitallifetimeof150yearsthatisrecognizedfromthesharpbendin
the curves that include a decoupled satellite. Without the assumption of a maximum
temporalhorizonthetetheredsystemwouldbefavorableevenathighaltitudes.
Depending on initial altitude and mass of the debris, a maximum inclination will exists
wherethecollisionriskwillstillbeacceptable.Thedeorbitbehavioroftheabovecases,as
quantified in Figure 33, refers to an equatorial orbit the most favorable inclination.
Maximum obtainable descent rates scale roughly with the angle between the systems
velocity and the (corotating) magnetic field. Time needed to deorbit satellites or spent
stagesincreasessignificantlywithinclination,and,withit,thesweepvolumeandcollision
risk. An increase in inclination from equatorial to 45 decreases the recommended
maximumaltitudefora12.5kmtetherdeorbitfrom1400to1100km.
The comparison of tether vs. BAU presented here depends on a number of strong
assumptions. In case future space will be more populated, the Future Factor should be
raised,theBAUscaledsweepvolume(approximatedherebythedecoupleddebris)would
besignificantlyhigherandtheeffectiverangeincreases.Thesamewouldbetrueifparticles
smallerthan10cmwouldbeconsideredtoleadtobreakupofthedebrisbutnottobreak
upofthetether.
The actual risk of a catastrophic event for a tethered deorbit is dominated by the risk of
unexpected cut of the tether. There are many more pieces of large debris than there are
operationalsatellites.Withabout15000debrisobjectsinLEO,oradensityofapproximately
p
objects
=1.510
8
km
3
fromFigure34andEq.3.4itcanbefoundthatabout0.013impactcanbe
expectedduringthetethereddeorbitfrom1500km.Sothereisabout1%chanceofmission
failure.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 95
For an uncontrolled descent, probability of impact on an operational satellite assuming
about500activesatellitesinLEOisabout0.04%.Itishereassumedthatthosesatellitesare
distributedequallyovertheLEOvolume,i.e.adensityofapproximately5x10
10
km
3
.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Altitude [km]
V
o
l
u
m
e

[
1
E
5

k
m
^
3
]
Elec tether deorbit system
Decoupled, sum tether and sat
Reduced lifetime of 25 years
Decoupled, sat only
Figure34.Sweepvolumevs.initialaltitudefor0.8mm7.5kmelectrodynamictether(+3km
mechanical)withoutavoidance(deorbittimefrom1500kmisabout70days)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Altitude [km]
V
o
l
u
m
e

[
1
E
5

k
m
^
3
]
Elec tether deorbit system
Reduced lifetime of 25 years
Decoupled, sum tether and sat
Decoupled, sat only
Figure35.Sweepvolumefor0.8mm12.5kmelectrodynamictether(+3kmmechanical)without
avoidance(deorbittime1500km~30days)
Controlleddeorbit
Onecouldtrytoavoidthedebrisobjectsactivelythroughcurrentcontrolbytelecommand,
butthisseemsanimpracticalapproach.Duetothelimitedknowledgeofthetetherposition
because of librations the sweep width is then to be increased from 1.7meters to about
5000m, leading to 5000/1.7x0.013 or about 40evasive maneuvers during the descent of
approximately70days.Consideringthedescentrateofabout20km/dayandatotaltether
lengthof10.5km,thisisbarelypossible.Someextratimeshouldbetakenintoaccountsince
theavoidanceofonepieceofdebrisshouldnotleadtogettingtooclosetoanother.The1%
96 Chapter3
riskoftethercutshouldthusbeaccepted.Ifthebrokentetherpiecesaredisconnectedfrom
theirendmasses,consequencesofsuchacutshouldbeminimal.
If it would however be possible for the tether system operators to at least actively avoid
operationalsatellites,thetetheroptionrelativetoBAUriskcouldbemaderatherattractive.
In order to determine the feasibility of such a scheme, the number of avoidances is
determined.Thesafetyenvelopearoundanoperationalsatellitenowbecomestherelevant
sizingparameterforthesweepvolume.Astheexactpositionofthefulltethercannotbe
predicted, an avoidance maneuver has to be initiated if the tether is expected to sweep
anywherethroughthesafetyenvelope.Duetoorbitalelementsestimationlimitations,such
envelopesaretypicallyseveraltimeslonger(relatedtotrueanomalyestimation)thanwide
(inclination), and range from hundreds of meters to several kilometers. In the future the
safetyenvelopescanbeexpectedtogodown,becauseoftechnicaladvances,butalsohigher
risksmaybeacceptedtoreduceoperationalcost.AnaveragewidthS
W
of100misassumed.
TheenvelopeisassumedtobeaboxwithdimensionsS
W
=S
H
=0.4S
L
[Heide2001.I].Theheight
ofthesweep area isthendeterminedbythesum of tetherlengthL and height S
H
ofthe
safety envelop. The width of the sweep area is determined by the sum of the tethers
oscillation amplitudes (half the tether length for a 15degree libration) and the aspect
average of width S
W
and length S
L
of the safety envelope, or approximately 2/t (S
W
+S
L
)
(compareEq.2.36). Approaches of active satellitesareassumedtooccurin thehorizontal
plane,butfromarandomdirection.Wethusfindthefollowingapproximatemeasure:
A
sweep
(L+S
W
)(0.5L+2S
W
) (3.5)
The maximum acceptable rate of evasive maneuvers may first be estimated. Evasive
maneuvers in the most extreme form can be performed by electrically disconnecting the
cathodethusstallingthetetherdescent.Thetotalamountofmaneuversshouldnotexceed
that which is physically possible: one at a time. Nor should it significantly decrease the
descentperformance.Anevasivemaneuverfora10kmtethermighttakeseveraldaysat
800km,andaboutadayat400km. Theacceptablenumberofevasivemaneuversisthus
likelytobeonceevery310days,dependingontheaccepteddelayindescenttime.
Infact,fortheenvironmentandsystemdescribedhere,onlyaboutoneavoidancecanbe
expectedperdeorbit,whichseemsentirelyfeasiblefromanoperationalpointofview.Heide
&Kruijfffindin[Heide2001.I]thatthisresultdoesnotdependstronglyontetherlength.
Again a decoupling of the tether from the debris at 600km would reduce the need for
avoidance maneuvers. Even if the tether descent is controlled, it may be more attractive
from an operational point of view to release the tether from the defunct satellite at this
point.
From a point of view of debris mitigation and compared to BAU, controlled tethered
descentthusseemsanattractiveoption.Itshouldbetakenintoaccountthatthenumberof
avoidance maneuvers per descent will increase in the future, especially when more
constellationswillbebroughtinplace.Around1000kmthereisapeakinsatellitedensity,
anditisnotunlikelythatseveralevasivemaneuverswillbepackedinasmalltimeframe.
Thispossiblecomplicationremainstobeassessed.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 97
Conclusionfordedicateddeorbitsystems
Uncontrolleddeorbitbyelectrodynamictetherislesseffectivefordebrismitigationthanthe
retrorocketandmomentumtransfer(limitedtoupperstages)alternatives,becauseofthe
electrodynamic tethers much larger orbital exposure. With respect to Business As Usual
collision probabilities and avoidance needs are within the same order of magnitude, and
suitablenichesexist,depending onaltitude andinclination. Aroughapplicationrangeis
foundfortheinvestigatedexamplecaseof7001500kmand065inclination.Inthisaltitude
rangethereisalsoasignificantmassadvantagewithrespecttorocketeddeboost.Longer
tethers could be used to extend the application range to higher altitudes and inclination.
OutsideLEO(>2000km)theplasmadensityandmagneticfieldstrengthshouldhoweverbe
considered insufficient for electrodynamic tethers. Note that also applications for upper
stagedeorbitfromGTO[e.g.Yamagiwa1999]arenotrecommended, sinceperformanceof
electrodynamic tethers relative to BAU will be reduced by a further order of magnitude
[Heide2001.I]. In all cases it is recommended that the tether is disconnected at around
600km altitude. Such a release would also ease design measures to prevent dynamic
instability.
Descentratecontrolcanmakethetethersolutionmoreattractive.Ifdescentratecontrolis
applied for avoidance of operational satellites, only about one avoidance maneuver per
descentneedstobemade.Atthecostofseveralweeksofadditionaloperationsthiscould
tipthescaleandmakethetethersystemcomparableinsafetytoretrorocketsystems.The
controlofavoidingcatalogueddebris(>10cm)isnotfeasibleandhereacertainriskmay
havetobeaccepted.Asafetydisconnectsystemshouldbeimplementedontheendmasses
forthecaseoftetherfailure,inordertoreducetheremainingcollisionprobabilitytoone
closetothatoftheBAUcase.
Travellingdebrisremovalsystems
Apart from dedicated deorbit systems mounted on single satellites, a powerful and
essentiallypropellantlesspossibilityforremovalofexistingdebriscouldbeprovidedbya
hybrid form of the travelling tether systems of Section3.1.2, which would combine
electrodynamic propulsion and momentum transfer. This system would travel through
space toward a selected piece of debris and use electrodynamic drag to move towards a
sufficientlyloworbit.Itwouldthenreleasethedebrisintotheatmosphere(orintoashort
livedorbit)usingmomentumtransfer.Thesystemsorbititselfwouldberaised,andwith
thehelpofelectrodynamicpropulsionitwouldmaneuveritselfclosetothenextpieceof
debris.Itisnotamajorproblemifsuchasystemisveryheavy,becauseofreusability.A
long and wide tape tether would then be required to limit deorbit times with the larger
systemmass(Section2.2.2).Stabilityissues(Section3.2.2)wouldneedtobesolved,potential
reeling(toreducethesweepvolumebetweendeorbitactivities)andtherendezvousand
dockingwithdebriswouldbemajorchallenges.
IntheTERESAconcept[Bade1993]itisclaimedthatabout100objectscouldberemovedin
atimespanof7yearsusinga93kmtether.Sodeorbittimespersatellitearecomparableto
thatofthededicateddeorbitsystemdescribedinthissection,butthetetherisabout10times
98 Chapter3
longer.Ifthetetherwouldbecontinuouslyexposedduringthisperiod,thesweepvolume
wouldbe10timesaslargeandpossiblynotcompetitivewithBAU.Itshouldthereforebe
attempted to significantly limit the tether exposure between debris dockings, leaving a
majorchallengetoquicklyadjustorbit.
Carrollnotesthatabout1500objectsinLEOaccountforover98%ofthe1900tonofdebrisin
orbit [Carroll2002]. A very significant fraction of debris mass in LEO is represented by
mostlyCosmosupperstagesina8385inclinationatabout1000kmaltitude.InhisDebris
Shepherd concept Carroll proposes an interesting possibility that deals with some of the
TERESA problems, namely to use the tether system to collect these masses rather than
deorbit them. This would create a single very large mass that could be very useful for
advancedtetherapplications(Section1.2).
NewinsightshavebeenobtainedintheEDDEstudy[Pearson2010].Themaininnovation
hereisthatthetetherisspinning.Thespingreatlyimprovesdynamicstability,allowingfor
greater currents to flow, and, with proper selection of the spin plane, unimpeded
performance athigh inclinationcan be achieved. A controlhasbeendeveloped by Levin
[Levin2007]thatallowsforhighlyefficientchangeoforbit.ItisclaimedEDDEcanclimb
about200km/dayandchangeinclinationby1.5/day.Adozen100kgEDDEvehiclescould
removeabout99%ofLEOorbitaldebriswithin7years.Thesystemcontainsmultiplesolar
panelsdistributedoverthelengthofthe10kmtetherinordertocollecttherequired7kWof
electricalpower.Theoverallsystemisclaimedtobeonlyafewhundredkilograms.Rendez
vousanddockingalsoforthissystemisstillessentiallyunresolved,althoughsomeconcepts
havebeenproposed.
3.2.4 ArotatingtetheraroundJupiter
Tethers around Jupiter have been proposed for thrust and power generation purposes
[Gallagher1998, Castronuovo2002, Sanmartin2003,2005,2008]. Jupiter is an interesting
case to explore the potential of tether applications. Section2.2.2 describes how the
effectiveness of an electrodynamic tether depends on the magnetic field strength of the
centralbody,theorbitalvelocityandtheplasmadensity.Aplanetwheretheseparameters
areparticularlypronounced,isJupiter.Atthesametime,thestronggravityfielddemands
significant AVfororbitchange. It may notbeeasy to obtainthe energyrequiredforthis
fromsolarpowersincethesolarradiationintensityis25timesloweratJupiterthanatEarth.
Furthermore,gravitygradientforcesarelowattypicaldistancesfromJupiterwhereasthe
predictedelectrodynamicforcesandcurrentlevelsaresohighthatstabilityissuesandheat
dissipationwillbecomedominant. Highlevelsofradiationmay prohibitcomplexcontrol
electronics.
Itisinvestigatedinthissectionifusingarotatingtether,asimple,mostlypassive,system
operatingaroundJupitercouldbeapossibility,thatmaybelaunchedaspiggybackona
largerhostmissiontothelargemoonsoftheplanet.
TheproposedmissionofthesystemistoprovideinsitudataoftheJovianplasmasphere
anda(multi)probereleaseintotheJovianatmosphereatrelativelylowentryvelocitywith
AnalysisofTetherApplications 99
littleimpactonthehostorbiter.Theconceptisbasedonabarealuminiumtether,without
insulation,anddoesnotrequireanactiveplasmacontactorsuchasahollowcathode.The
Lorentzdragforceonthesystemistobeusedtolowertheorbitfrominitialhighlyelliptical
tonearcircularatmosphericentry.ItisproposedthatstabilityisguaranteedbytheLorentz
torque,whichisfoundtoactsuchthatifthesystemisgivenamodestinitialrotation,this
rotation will selfaccelerate, keeping the tether taut through centrifugal force and stable
throughthegyroscopiceffect.TherotationwillalsoprovideanaccumulatedAVcapability
attimeofproberelease.Theassumptionisintroducedofastraighttether,spinningwithin
theorbitalplane.
Inordertoobtainaquantitativeexpressionforthetargetedperformance,anequatorialorbit
isassumed.Jupiterisassumedtohaveanoninclineddipolemagneticaxis.Theorbitisthus
notnecessarilycircular,yetperpendiculartothelocalmagneticfielddirection,seeFigure36.
The Jovian plasmasphere and magnetic field characteristics are modeled according to
[Divine1983,Gallagher1998].
Figure36.TetherinsimplifiedorbitalconfigurationaroundJupiter
In the absence of a cathode, the circuit is closed through ion collection (Figure 37). Ion
collectionismuchlessefficientthanelectroncollection,duetothemassratioofelectrons
andions,whichiswhye.g.inFigure30itisnotconsidered.Astablecurrentwillflowwhen
space charging effects create an equilibrium balance between regions of electron and ion
collection
5
.
ToestimateioncollectionaccordingtotheOMLmodel,inEq.2.30,theelectronmassm
e
can
besubstitutedbyanequivalentionmass m
i
,
eq
. If severalspeciesofionsareavailable, the
totalcollectionisassumedtobethesumofindividualcontributions,sothattheequivalent
ionmasscanbederivedtobe
2
3
_
,

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i
m
i val
n
i
f
eq
i
m , (3.6)
5
Note, around Jupiter this proposed approach is in fact a conservative oversimplification. It is assumed here that there is no
secondary emission of electrons due to impact of ions on the tether. Such an emission would increase current and Lorentz force
and should not be ignored for a tether bias above 1 kV [San Martin 1993], such as is the case for a 10 km tether around Jupiter. For
further evaluation, it is recommended that this effect is experimentally quantified.
100 Chapter3
withf
i
thefractionofiondensity(0..1)forcomponenti, n
val_i
theionvalenceandm
i
theion
massinatomicmassunits(numberofprotonsandneutrons).

B
0V
m1
I
m2
FL
L
v
I
0A
e

V
Imax
A
+
Figure37.Bareconductivetetherelectron(e

)andion(A
+
)collectionwithoutactivecathode
Figure 38. Resulting Lorentz force distribution on bare tether, prograde circular orbits around
Jupiter.Theforceactsasdragbelow2.24R
j
andaspropulsionbeyond2.24R
j
. Averagingtheforce
overonerevolutionleadstoanetforceinthedirectionoppositetotherelativevelocityv
rel
.The v
rel
equalsthedifferencebetweentheorbitalvelocityandthatofthecorotatingplasmav
rel
=v
orb
v
pl
.
Arelationshipbetweenthepartofthetetherthatiscollectingions(l
i
)andthepartcollecting
electrons(l
e
)canbefoundfromthecurrentbalanceinthepointofthetetherthathasreached
zeropotentialwithrespecttotheplasma(Figure37,Section2.2.2,basedonEq.2.31),
AnalysisofTetherApplications 101
3
,eq i
e
i
e
m
m
l
l
=
(3.7)
Figure 38 shows a schematic of the current collection for the bare tether in a circular
prograde orbit around Jupiter. Note that for r>2.24Rj Jupiters corotating plasma moves
fasterthanthelocalcircularvelocity.Furthermore,thedirectionoftheJovianmagneticfield
is opposite to that of the Earth magnetic field. As a result, for circular prograde orbits
aroundJupiter,theLorentzforceactsasadragforceinside2.24Rj andaspropulsiveforce
outsideof2.24Rj.Forretrogradeorbits,theforcewillalwaysactasadragforce[Dijk2003.I].
Anoverallquantificationof resulting currentsand forcescan be deduced for thesystem.
The prevailing ions for the Jovian inner plasmasphere (r<3.8R
j
) are S
+
(f=0.7) and O
+
(f=0.2).Theresultingequivalentionmassm
i,eq
of26.5uinthisregionleadstoaratiol
e
/l
i
of
approximately 0.01. This fraction could increase to a maximum of ~0.1at large distances
fromJupiter,wherecoldprotonsbecomethedominantions.
Figure39 showsthemaximumachievablebaretethercurrentforacircularprogradeorbit
around Jupiter. The tether mass is 100kg. The dip in both collected current and Lorentz
forcearoundr=2.24Rjoccurswherethevelocityofthecorotatingplasmaequalstheorbital
velocity for a prograde circular orbit, beyond which the Lorentz force changes direction.
Apartfromthedip,asteadyrisecanbeobservedaswegetclosertoJupiter,tomilliamps
and more. The magnitude of the Lorentz force itself rises from micronewtons by several
ordersofmagnitude.Thedependencyonlengthisalsoplotted,forafixedtethermass.A
longernarrowertetherismoreeffectiveatthesamemassthanashorterwiderone.
1.E-06
1.E-05
1.E-04
1.E-03
1.E-02
1.E-01
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Radius [Rj]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

m
a
x

[
A
5 km
10 km
20 km
1.E-07
1.E-06
1.E-05
1.E-04
1.E-03
1.E-02
1.E-01
1.E+00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Radius [Rj]
F
L

m
a
x

[
N
]
L = 5 km
L = 10 km
L = 20 km
Figure39.Maximumachievablecurrent(topgraph),magnitudeofLorentzforce(lowergraph).Bare
100kgaluminiumtetherinprogradecircularJovianorbit,widthinverselyproportionaltolength.
In the case under study, the tether will rotate so the plasma potential along the tether,
inducedbytheelectricmotiveforce,becomesafunctionoftherotationanglem. Boththe
orientationandthemagnitudeoftheLorentzforceischangingduringarevolutionofthe
rotating tether system, with the maximum Lorentz force (in equivalence with Eq.2.32)
acting on the tether when oriented perpendicular tov
rel
, i.e. =0. The component of the
Lorentzforceperpendiculartov
rel
becomeszerowhenintegratedoveranentirerevolution,
leavingonlyanetforceinthedirectionofF
Lmax
(i.e.oppositetov
rel
),
102 Chapter3
max max
2
2
max
6 . 0
3
2 4
cos cos 2
2
1
L L L L
F F d F F ~ = =

t
m m m
t
t
t
(3.8)
Figure40. DefinitionoftherotationalarmforthecalculationoftheLorentzforceinducedmoment
onthebaretether.
ConsidernowFigure40.Thecoordinatesy
r
y
f
aremeasuredalwaysfromthelowerendof
thetether,y
r
referstothecenterofrotationandy
f
referstotheworkpointofthetotalforce.
Independentoftheangle,theworkpointoftheresultingLorentzforceforeachofthe
tethersectionscollectingelectronsresp.ionscanbedeterminedtobeat5/14thofthelength
ofthesesections[Dijk2003.I].IfweneglecttheLorentzforcecontributionofthecollected
electronsF
Li
<<

F
Li
,wecanequalthetorquetotheproductoftheLorentzforceF
Li
andthe
momentarmbeingeithery
r
y
f
(in[..])or(Ly
r
)y
f
(in[..1]).Aschanges
iny
f
(duetodifferentcompositionoftheionpopulationinanellipticorbit,Eq.3.6)arevery
small(<3%)y
f
canbeassumedconstant.Fortheincreaseoftheenergyofthetetheredsystem
perrotationE
rot
wecannowwrite,
L F y L l
m
eE
en Bd E
i
L f i
eq i
m
t rot
~ = + = A

max ,
2
2
5
7
4
2
0 0 ,
5
3
d cos ) 2 ( 2
9
8
d
t
m m m
t
(3.9)
ItfollowsthattheincreaseinrotationalenergyperrotationisproportionaltotheLorentz
forceanddoesnotdependonthelocationofthecenterofrotationy
r
.Thiscanbeexplained
becauseoftheantisymmetryoftheresultingtorquesinthetwohalvesofthetetherrotation
with respect to the center of rotation. The resulting moment on the tether always acts
counterclockwise (as seen from the ecliptic north pole). The rotation of the system will
thereforecontinuouslyaccelerateonceaninitialrotationisprovidedinthisdirection. An
averaged torque + acting over a full rotation 2t adds a m t t

= + = A J E
rot
2 2 , withJ the
moment of inertia of the tethered system and m

the average angular acceleration, an
expressionforthetrendofincreaseinangularrateisfound:
J
L F
J
E
L rot ,max
7
2
2 t t
m ~

A
=

(3.10)
Thisincreaseinangularratewithtimeisthuspersistentandproportionaltothemaximum
Lorentz force. Through Eq.3.10, an intermittent angular rate measurement through e.g.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 103
Dopplershift of a simple onboard carrier signal or even a radar reflection can provide
informationonthelocalplasmaconditions.
One example is worked out with the use of the tether simulator ETBsim. The different
parametersforthisexamplearedescribedinTable16.The200kgsystemisinalowcircular
orbit. A significantangular acceleration canbenoticedwhichis virtuallyconstant onthe
timescale of a single day (Figure 41). The descent rate (500km/day and increasing) is
significantasitwillleadtoatmosphericentryofthesystemwithinweeks.
Orbit CircularprogradeJovianorbitat10.000km
altitude(1.14R
j
)
Tetherdimensions 10kmx100mmx0.038mm0.065meffective
diameter
Systemmass 200kg(100kgtether,2x50kgendmass)
Initialrotationalvelocityattip 0.17/s,i.e.30m/srelativetipvelocity
Table16.SimulatorvaluesforJupitertetherexamplecase
Figure41.IncreaseinangularrateovertimeforarotatingbaretetherinJovianorbit
The angular acceleration can be used to prevent instability of the tether dynamics
(Section3.2.2). To maintain stability, the ratio between lateral force (Lorentz force) and
centrifugalforce(CF)isthedecisiveparameter.ForthesimulatedconfigurationVanDijk,
Kruijff&VanderHeidefindempiricallythatstabilityismaintainedinacircularorbitas
long as (approximately) F
L
<F
CF
[Dijk2003.II]. With rotational energy E
rot
proportional to
LF
CF
via
CF
F L L L J
2 2
m m

andAE
rot
proportionaltoLF
L
accordingtoEq.3.9,auseful
measureforstabilityisAE
rot
/E
rot
,whichmustbekeptsmalltoremainstable.Soaslongasthe
increaseinLorentzforcesisgradual(lessthanadoubling)overthetimescaleofarotation,
and given a stable initial rotation (E
rot,0
>>AE
rot,0
), stability of the system is inherently
guaranteedinanyorbit.Thetetherbreakstrengththusbecomesthephysicallimitationfor
thesystem.EvenifthetetherisreinforcedwithmodernmaterialssuchasDyneema,ina
low circular orbit, the tether would break under the steadily increasing centrifugal force
withinweeks.
104 Chapter3
Asimulationofthesystemat1.14x10R
j
providessomeinsightintothedynamicsofthe
system in a more realistic initial elliptic orbit (Figure 42). The steep tension increase in
perigeeisobvious,thetensionproblemwillquicklybecomeseriousalsointhisorbit.
An alternative concept is worked out [Dijk2003.I] in which deorbit from an 1.14x50R
j
is
performed in a timescale of months, using a gasrelease system as passive cathode for
improveddeorbitperformance[Gilchrist1998].Thecomplexityofthesystemisincreased,
but the concept could allow for a basic control limiting the angular velocity. Van Dijk,
Kruijff&VanderHeideprovidedetailedmodelsandderivations,aswellasconsideration
offurthersystemandmissionaspectsin[Dijk2003.II].
Figure42.TensionandLorentzforceforarotatingtethersystemin1.14x10R
j
ellipticinitialorbit.
TheconceptinvestigatedhereismeaningfulinLowEarthOrbit.Abarealuminiumtether
experiencesaLorentzdragandabrokenpieceoftetherwillthereforehavethetendencyto
removeitselffromorbit.Thispropertyprovidesalevelofinherentsafetytotheuseofbare
tether that is not shared by insulated tethers. The selfaccelerating effect guarantees long
termstabilityforatetherifbroughtintosufficientinitialspin.Theangularaccelerationitself
providesinformationontheplasmaandtetherinteraction.
3.3 Responsibleorbitalnichesforuseoftethers
Various tether applications have been discussed that are technically feasible today. Such
applications, especially in LEO, will however only be considered if safety can be
demonstratedincaseofcontingency(Section1.3).Ifforsomereasonthetetherdeployment
orcontrolsystemmalfunctions,andthetetherwouldbecomeahazard,orasalastresortto
avoidacollision,itshouldbepossibletodisconnectthetethercompletelyoneithersideby
anautonomoussystemortelecommand.Thiswilldecreasethetethersballisticcoefficient
oralternatively,theratioofmasstodragarea.Thedecoupledtetherremaininginorbitis
eventuallyreenteredprimarilyduetothecombinedmechanismofatmosphericdrag,solar
pressure(seealsoSection6.4.1)andion/electroncurrents(Section2.2.2).
AnalysisofTetherApplications 105
For these orbitdegradation mechanisms to be sufficiently helpful in risk mitigation
approximatelimitstoorbitofchoicehavebeendetermined,usingETBSim(Table17).Itis
assumed here, based on discussion with the debris community in the context of the YES
experiment [APEX1997], that catastrophic mission failure is equivalent to tether system
failurefollowedfirstbytetherreleaseandthenbyacollisionofthefreefloatingtetherwith
anoperationalsatellite.Theacceptableprobabilityofthischainofeventsisassumedtobe
0.0001,equivalenttoaprobabilityofcollisionof0.0010.01incaseofaseeminglyreasonable
tethersystemreliabilityofresp.9099%.
Because of the low ballistic coefficient for the mechanical tethers described here (about
0.11kg/m
2
)atmosphericdragissufficienttogetafreetetheroutoflowerLEO(<500km)
in a matter of days [Warnock1993]. Electrodynamic tethers are more dense, but the tape
conceptsoffersinamassefficientmannernotonlyalargecollectionbutalsoadragarea
(0.21kg/m
2
).Notethatthesolarcyclecanaffecttheatmosphericdensitybyafactorof10at
350kmtoeven30around700kmaltitude,equivalenttoanaltituderangeforsimilardrag
conditionsof50kmat350kmto200kmat700km.
Lunarsolar perturbations are independent of tether drag area and are relatively small
disturbancesfortethers.Theyareperiodicandnondissipativeandtheirmaineffectison
theperigeealtitudeofGTOorbitswithtensofkilometers,dependingontheconstellationof
Sun and Moon

[Cook1962]. The density increase from a perigee reduction can however

have a significant effect on orbital lifetime (factor two for a 510% reduction in altitude)
[Bergamaschi1987].
Asatmosphericdensitydecreasesexponentiallywithaltitude,inhighorbits(aboveabout
600km)dragsolarpressureisthedominateforceaffectingtheperigeeandapogeealtitudes.
HerethemomentumexchangebetweentheSunsradiation(1370W/m
2
)andthespacecraft
canbecomedominant.Itisessentiallyindependentofheight.Theinducedaccelerationa
SP
canbeapproximatedusingthefollowingrelationship[Wertz1993]:
a
SP
4.57E6(1+f
r
)A/m, (3.11)
withA/mtheareatomassratio,andf
r
(0..1)dependingonthetypeofreflection.
For(near)circularorbits,solarpressureisessentiallynondissipativewhenaveragedover
oneorbit:overthecourseofoneorbit,thesolaraspectanglewiththevelocityvectorrotates
onceaswell.Itcanhoweverstillcauselifetimereduction.Solarpressurewillthentendto
affect eccentricity through equal and opposite effects on perigee and apogee. If the solar
aspect angle with respect to the line of apsides remains consistent, a perigee point will
become more pronounced and as it is lowered, atmospheric drag will increases
exponentially.ThesolaraspectangledependsontherotationoftheEartharoundtheSun,
nodal and apsidal precession. For median inclinations, around 4515, this consistency is
maintainedlongenoughtocreatea beneficial effect. Fortethers withballisticcoefficients
typicalofmechanicaltethers,MTBSimsimulationsindicatethatthesafeapplicationaltitude
canbeextendedfromabout550kmto800km[Heide2001.I].
106 Chapter3
The effect of solar pressure in GTO was extensively studied for the YES satellite, with
multiplesolarpressuremodelsandorbitpropagators.YEScarrieda35kmlongDyneema
tetheronboard(22.3m
2
,5kg,seeSection6.4.1).InGTO,iftheSunisproperlypositioned
with respecttothelineof apsides, solarpressurecan be veryeffectiveinbringingdown
perigee, because of the large fraction of the orbital period spent in apogee. The GTO of
Ariane5,thelauncherusedforYES,hasaperigeeof600km,andisinprincipleunsafefor
tethersasitistoofaroutforarapid,draginducedreentry.Thesolarpressurewashowever
foundtoworkfavorablyforarangeofRAAN(RightAscensionoftheAscendingNode)of
about150equivalenttoadailylaunchwindowof10hourduration.Thefreeflyingtether
lifetimecouldforthesecasesbereducedfromdecadestoonly13months.
Forthecaseofbareelectrodynamictethers,thereisanothermechanismthathelpsreduce
lifetime in LEO (Section3.2.4). A free flying tether with its (lightweight) cathode still
operational will reenter quickly due to the high Lorentz drag combined with the
significantly reduced ballistic coefficient resulting from decoupling of its major endmass.
The tether is likely to start spinning or tether dynamics may become instable. Resulting
performance losses can be compensated to some extent as current limitation will not be
required. For a typical mission below 1200km, most proposed bare tethers will deorbit
within10days[Heide2001.I].
If for some reason the tether is not or no longer connected to a cathode, even without a
devicetoemitelectrons,asmallcurrentwillstillflowduetoioncollection(Section3.2.4).In
LEO the ion environment is dominated by atomic oxygen. In a conservative case,
disregarding electron emission, l
e
/l
i
=(m
e
/m
i
)
1/3
=0.0324. Integrating the current, and
calculatingthe(maximum)Lorentzdragforce(equivalenttoEq.2.32)thetotalmaximum
dragforthefreetetherbecomes,ascomparedtothecathodiccasewithelectronemission:
200
cathode
free
F
F ~
, (3.12)
typicallyintherangeofmillinewtons.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthelifetimeofafreetether
willbe200timesworsethanthatofthenominalmission.TheLorentzdragissignificantly
smaller than gravity gradient tension for an aluminium tether of several kilograms and
severalkilometerslength(Eq.2.14).Thetetherwillthustendtotendtostretchatleastthe
centerpartofthetethervertically.Inherentsafetyisprovidedbecauseofthefactthatthe
iondrivencurrentwillflow,nomatterwhichsideofthetetherhappenstobeatthetopend
oratthebottom.Duetothelossofbothendmassestheballisticcoefficientwillbeimproved
byatleastanorderofmagnitude.Fora1200kmmission,atypicaldeorbittimeofseveral
monthscanthusbeexpected,whichmaybeacceptableforacontingencycase.
Table 17 summarizes the results in the form of a recommended window for safe use of
tether systems, under the assumption that those systems have similar design parameters
andsafetyfeaturesasdescribed.ItisnotedthattheInternationalSpaceStationrepresentsa
particularcaseofconcern.ToavoidapproachtotheInternationalSpaceStationincaseof
failure,forexperimentaltethermissionsalowerinclination(under51.6)oraltitudebelow
300kmisrecommended.
AnalysisofTetherApplications 107
Atmospheric
dragonly
Solarpressure Ion/electron
current
Lunarsolar Combined
Mechanicaltether LEO:<550km
GTOperigee:
<400km
LEO,i45:
<800km
GTOperigee:
<800km
GTOperigee:
<500km
LEO:<550km
LEO,i45:
<800km
GTOperigee:
<800km
Bareconductive
tether
LEO:<500km
GTOperigee:
<400km
LEO,i45:
<700km
GTOperigee:
<700km
LEO,i<65:
<1500km(*)
LEO,i<75:
<700km
GTO:perigee
<600km
GTOperigee:
<500km
LEO,i<65:
<1500km(*)
LEO,i<75:
<700km
GTO:perigee
<700km
Freetether
acceleration[m/s
2
]
0.5[150km]
10
5
[700200km]
10
5
10
4
[400km]
10
5
[1500km]
10
6

Note Depending
stronglyonsolar
activity
GTO:60%
reducedlaunch
window
(*)Upperrange
for>15kmtethers
only
Dependingon
SunMoon
orientation

Table17.Freetetherdeorbitmechanisms,indicativealtitudelimitsforsafeuse(seetext),excluding
spinningelectrodynamictethers.
ThesewindowsallowformostoftheapplicationsdiscussedinthisChapter.Tethersystems
that aim to counteract atmospheric drag, operate in the upper atmosphere, or deliver
capsuledeorbitserviceswouldtypicallyfocusona2001200kmaltituderegime.
Momentum transfer could be considered for deorbit of a good fraction of upper stages,
including future small launchers and, more questionably, since depending on a suitable
RAAN, Ariane5inGTO. Since below500kmlifetime of spent stages isnotconsidered a
debris issue under current guidelines, and above 800km mechanical tethers are not safe,
tethersystemswouldbeonlyofrealinterestforspentstagedeorbitinanarrowregionof
perigeealtitude,or,alternativelyifalsoasignificantserviceforthepayloadcanbeobtained
(Section3.1.2).
Whereas mechanical tethers have perhaps been sufficiently demonstrated to justify an
application, even for the simpler electrodynamic applications there are important open
development areas such as stability control, manufacturability, deployability and inorbit
testingoffailsafemultistrandortapetethers.Baretethersareassumedtobeusedsince
they require no dedicated electron collector, are simpler in design and provide inherent
safety. The recent successful passive deployment of the TRex bare aluminium tether
[Fujii2009]stemshopeful, althoughthis 3cmwidetapetether wasonly300minlength.
Longertethersmayberequiredfordebrismitigationpurposesthanproposedinthepast,
oftenbasedonidealizedperformance[e.g.Hoyt1999.I].Somemeasurestoobtaindynamic
stabilityhavebeenproposed,ofwhichspinningisaparticularlypotentoption.Therisksof
tetherdeployment,complexitiesoftheoperationandlikelyorbitalexposureshouldbewell
weighedagainstthepotentialbenefitsfordebrismitigation.
108 Chapter3
Electrodynamicdeorbitoffersacleaningservicenotonlytospentstagesbutalsotosatellites
aftertheirusefullifeiscompleted.ItdeliversaveryquickdeorbitwithrespecttoBAU,but
very slow compared to momentum transfer or retrorocket deorbit. Typically
electrodynamic tethers provide however a significant mass advantage. From a risk
mitigationpointofview,asystemwithdescentratecontrolseemsparticularlyattractive.
Forasimpler,uncontrolledsystemtheresultingcollisionriskseemsperhapstoofferonly
marginalimprovementwithrespecttotheBAUapproach,butitshouldbeconsideredthat
removingsatellitesdirectlyafteruseisnotonlygoodcustom,butalsoanimportantwayto
make the risk of debris manageable and independent of future trends. An uncontrolled
electrodynamic deorbit system should only be considered between about 700 and
approximately1500kmaltitude(dependingonthesystemdesignandinclination).Forrisk
minimization,atanaltitudeof600kmthetethershouldbedisconnectedfromthepayload.
A failsafe or safelife tether is recommended, the possibility of intentional or accidental
tethercutistobetakenintoaccount.Tethercutisnotlikelytosignificantlycontributetothe
debrisenvironmentifattachedheavyendmass(es)arereleasedinresponse.
Varioussimplifyingandgeneralizingassumptionshavebeenmadeintheanalysis,usually
conservative,thatshouldbereviewedonacasebycasebasis,includingtheFutureFactor,
solar activity, a maximum temporal horizon, the definition of catastrophic events and
currentlimitationrelatedtodynamicstability.

PartIIDevelopmentofaSpaceMailsystem

Thegeniusofaconstructionliesinitssimplicity.Everybodycanbuildcomplicatedthings.
(SergeiPavlovichKorolev)
PartIIofthisthesisdescribesthedesignofasafetetherandthedevelopmentandtestingofatether
deployersystem,includingspool,brakesystemandcontroller.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 111
4 DesignAspectsofaSafeTether
MynameisRiesselmann,andIdontliketethers.
Werner Riesselmann, one of the people that helped forward the YES2 project
withinESA,asheintroducedhimselftotheYES2teamin2001
ThedevelopmentoftheSpaceMailsystem,subjectofPartIIofthisthesis,requiresdesignof
boththetetheritselfanditsdeploymentsystem.ThisChapterwillfocusonthetether.The
prime material of choice, Dyneema, is described and the Dyneema tether braid is
characterized. The tether material properties and dimensions affect the risk factors
introduced by the tether deployment, such as recoil and meteoroid risk. An appropriate
mitigationstrategyisdeveloped.
4.1 Characterizingthetetherproperties
DyneemaSK65 is selected as material of choice for most of the tether length and the
material and tether properties are discussed or determined in this section. Ultra high
molecularweightpolyethylene,likeDyneema, isknowntodisplaycomplexmechanical
properties, that are also temperature dependent (generally decreasing with temperature)
[Kromm2003]. For the SpaceMail flight, room temperature tests are therefore considered
worstcase.
4.1.1 Materialselection
Variousrequirementsarerelevantfortheselectionofatethermaterial.Thematerialshallbe
suitable for winding and deployment. It is advantageous if a tether can be wound and
unwound without significant bending and torsional stiffness or shape memory. That
enhancesdeploymentperformanceandpredictabilityoftheendmassdynamics.Materials
that can be produced as thin uninterrupted fibers can be loosely braided to improve
integrity and combine the individual fibers break strength while retaining sufficient
flexibility.Also,braidsmaintainbetterintegrityundertorsionthantwistedwires.Another
criticalparameteristhatthetether materialshould interact gentlywith guidesand other
structuralpartsormechanismsasitrubsalongthemathighvelocityduringdeployment.
Thematerialshouldideallydisplaylowfrictionlevelsandlittleabrasion.Polymersaregood
candidatestodisplaysuchproperties.
Totalsystemmassisaprimedriverbehindmaterialselectionforspacesystems.Lowtether
mass can be achieved for mechanical tether applications if the tether material has a high
specific strength
br
/
V
or, alternatively, breaking length
br
/g
V
and characteristic velocity
(
br
/
V
),i.e.bebothstrongandlighttoprovidehighAVwithoutsuccumbingunderitsown
112 Chapter4
weight (Section2.2.1). For more modest applications such as SpaceMail (AV120m/s) a
decisiveparametercan bethe maximumpayload sizethatcanbedeorbitedforthe same
tethermass, andalso thisparameterimprovesif thetether ismadefromahighspecific
strengthmaterial.
A low material density can provide benefits as well as disadvantages. A lowdensity
material can well have high specific strength but requires a relatively large volume for
storage.Fortunately,duetoitscubicdependencyondimension,massbenefitswillgenerally
outweightheadditionalcostofvolume,suchasincreasedencasingstructure.Thismaynot
holdyetforthesmallsystemsofearlyapplications.However,forthintetherswithmodest
strength requirements, the dominant design driver will often be survival probability, i.e.
resistancetometeoroidsanddebrisparticles.Thisprobabilityisgovernedprimarilybythe
averageprojectedwidthofthetether(Section4.3.1).Alowdensitywillthusinmostcasesbe
afavorableproperty.
Otherpropertiescouldberelevantdependingontheexactapplicationandpositionwithin
thetether.Thismayleadtoahybridtetherdesign.Foracertainsingleapplicationdifferent
materials can be utilized at different places within the tether. A materials melting point,
heatcapacityandgeneralthermaldependencyarerelevantpropertiesparticularlyonthose
sectionsofthetetherthatareincontactwithhotparts(suchasbarealuminiumstructuresin
sunlight)orwherelargebrakingforcesareappliedbyfriction.Therethesepropertiescan
dominate selection of material or tether diameter (Section4.3.3). High optical reflectivity
makesitpossibletoobservetethersopticallyfromtheground.Lowabsorptioncoefficient
andhighemissivityhelpkeepatethercooloncedeployed.Forlongdurationmissionswith
high strength requirements, environmental resistance to Ultra Violet radiation (UV) or
atomicoxygencouldplayarole.Stiffnessanddampingaffecttetherdynamics.Astifftether
canbewellcontrolledaslongasitisundertensionbutitismorepronetoslacknessand
resonances. Viscosity is a beneficial property to dampen longitudinal oscillations and
increasedynamicstability(Sections3.2.2, 4.1.5, 8.4.3).Thesepropertiesdependalsoonthe
manufacturing procedure. Nonlinear behaviors such as creep and hysteresis will limit
predictabilityofthebehaviorandarethereforeundesirable.
Table 18 provides some tether material properties. Some other materials are added for
comparison.Newerandstrongervariantsofthesematerialsarecontinuouslyappearingon
themarket,thereforethisdataisonlyindicative.
Polyaramid (marketed as Kevlar and Twaron), is a classic candidate for space tether
materials,knownfrombulletproofvests.Itishighstrengthandheatresistantupto500C.
TherearesomedisadvantagestotheuseofKevlarfortetherdeployment[McKenna2004].It
hasaroughsurfaceandhighyarntoyarnfrictioncoefficientof0.15. Ittendstocrackand
flakewhenbentrepeatedlyaroundasmallradius(<10tetherradii).Underrepetitivewet
yarnonyarn abrasion or buckling abrasion Kevlar has a limited lifetime. For example,
detectablestrengthlossoccursafter1000bucklings,severestrengthlossafter20,000.
More recent superfiber developments such as the experimental polyketon Carilon (not in
production,Section4.4)andtheheatresistantZylonhavebeenfoundsensitivetomaterial
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 113
degradationunderultraviolet.VectranisinmanywayssimilartoKevlar,itisroughand
sensitivetorepeatedbuckling.M5strengthpropertiesarepromising,butithas notbeen
availableforthisproject.
Dyneemaisaultrahighdensitypolyethylenewithacrystallinityof97%orhigher.Agel
spinningprocessproducesahighmolecularalignmentresponsibleforthematerialshigh
tensile strength. Its volumetric density is less than water. Very smooth to the touch and
flexible,ithasayarntoyarnfrictioncoefficientofonly0.06.Thisisoneofthereasonsitisa
popularmaterialforkiting.Thematerialhasafatigueresistanceabout10timesbetterthan
Kevlar and hardly gets damaged under repetitive bending and rubbing [McKenna2004].
Tethers from the same material, though branded in the US as Spectra, have been used
successfullyintheSEDSandTiPSmissions.Duetoahighreflectivitythesepolyethylene
tetherscouldbeobservedopticallyfromtheground[Carroll1995.I].Theirhighemissivity
0.8, and low absorption coefficient 0.2 guarantee a low temperature in a space
environment, at which its mechanical properties further improve (Section4.3.3). The
materialbecomesbrittleonlybelow150C.
On the other hand, degradation of strength and other properties starts at 70C and its
meltingpointisonly150C.Themechanicalpropertieshavebeenfoundrelativelysensitive
toUVradiation,althoughthisdoesnotnecessarilyprecludesafeuse(Section4.4).Thefibers
arecoatedwithanantistaticfilmofabout1%massfractionforsmoothbehavioronguides
duringthevariouswindingandunwindingprocesses.
DyneemaSK65byDSMHighPerformanceFibersintheNetherlandshasbeenselectedas
primary material of choice. Despite recent availability of higher grades such as SK75, for
consistencytheSK65gradehasbeenusedexclusivelythroughoutthisproject.
Material Tensilestrength
[GPa]
Density
[g/cm
3
]
Characteristic
velocity[km/s]
Modulusof
elasticity
[GPa]
Meltingpoint
[Heat
resistance][C]
Polyethylene(DyneemaSK65) 2.8 0.97 1.70 77 150[70]
Polyethylene(DyneemaSK75) 3.6 0.97 1.93 116 150[70]
Polypropylene 0.6 0.91 0.81 2 160
PPTAramid(Kevlar,Twaron) 2.8 1.44 1.39 109 [560]
PBO(Zylon) 5.8 1.56 1.93 270 [650]
PIPD(M5) >5.8 1.7 1.85 350 [530]
Aromaticpolyester(Vectran) 3.2 1.4 1.51 75 330[220]
Aluminium 0.6 2.7 0.47 70 660
Steel 2.8 7.8 0.60 200 1500
Carbonnanotubes(experimental) 3.6to150 1.4 1.60to10.35 800 >1000
Table18.Fiberandwirematerialproperties.Valuesareindicativeonly.
114 Chapter4
4.1.2 Braidingofthetethers
DyneemaSK65tethershavebeenspecificallyproducedfortheproject.Atetheristypically
braidedfromfiberbundles.Throughthebraidingprocessthestrengthofthethinfiberscan
be combined while a highly flexible cable is obtained with good integrity and resilience
againsttorsion[McKenna2004].
Abraidwillnotreflectoneononethefibersproperties.Thebraid,dependingonbraiding
angle,theleveloftensionandcompression,willhaveabout1020%lowerdensitythanthe
pure polyethylene density of 970kg/m
3
. The linear density on the other hand may be
increasedby310%comparedtoaequallengthbundleofstraightfibers,duetotheangleof
thebraid.Duetointernalrubbing,alsoviscosityofabraidisincreased.Elasticbehaviorofa
braidorropeisnonlinear,specificallylowwhentensionlevelsarelow,whereasinaddition
recoverable and nonrecoverable elongation is observed under consistent loading. The
strength of the braided tether is reduced with respect to the sum of fiber strengths
(Section4.1.3). Loads are notdistributedperfectly symmetrically overallfibers, thefibers
arenecessarilyunderananglewiththetetherdirectionandtheyreceiveadditionalbending
andstressesfromthepressureofadjacentfiberbundles.AstheselectedDyneemamaterial
is very smooth and already has an antistatic coating on the fibers as delivered, no oily
substances or further additives are required in the braiding process. The main effects of
braiding to take into account as compared to the fiber properties are reduction in break
strengthandreducedstiffnessatlowtension.
Commercial Dyneema braids undergo a thermal prestretch of about 20% at 140C to
remove the play due to braiding, stiffen and stabilize the behavior for high tension
applications.Theprestretchedtetherwilldisplaystrongershapememorywhenwoundonto
aspoolcreatingacoilshapeinalowtensionunwinding,withitsownspringbehaviorthat
displaysverylowstiffness(Section4.1.4).Loadingorheatingcanleadtosomerelaxationto
theprevious,unstretchedstate.
Figure43.Dyneema(R)8x200braids,3mm,
vs.7.5mmstroke,20.1g/100mvs.18.5g/100m
Forthisprojectsomeparticulartreatmentshavebeenimplemented.Inadditiontothermal
prestretch,acold prestretch of about 30N is considered. Duringthe initial inertiadriven
partofdeployment,theperformanceatverylowtensions(<0.1N)iscritical.Behaviorofa
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 115
stiff thermally prestretched tether would then be governed by the shape memory effects.
Theselectedplaitedlengthorstrokeofthebraid(duetobraidingangle)impactstightness
andsuitabilityforsplicing,bendingstiffness,lineardensity,shapememoryandgeneralfeel.
For this project mostly a tubular braid of 8bundles of 200denier linear mass density
(8x200) has been selected with a large stroke of ~7.5mm, for maximum handling,
flexibilityandeasysplicing(Figure43).Tospeedupthemanufacturingprocess,thetetheris
sometimes produced in a number of equal pieces that are manually spliced together,
typicallywithoutlossofstrength.
4.1.3 Breakstrength
BreakstrengthofDyneematethersampleshasbeendeterminedbypulltestinthecontext
oftheTSE,YESandYES2projects,forvariousbraidsandtreatments.
Tensile strength of the sample braid is hard to reproduce reliably and can deviate
significantly from the manufacturers value of 2.8GPa for fibers. It is recommended to
expressthestrengthofatetherintermsofactualload,ratherthanastensilestrengtho
br.
Thisisbecausethecrosssectionalareaofatetherisambiguous.Thefibersarenotaligned
withthetether,thecrosssectionisnotcircularanditispartiallyvoidoffibermaterial.The
fibercrosssectionalareaA
fiber
shouldideallybeused,whichissimplycomputedasratioof
linearandvolumetricdensity:
A
fiber
=/
V
. (4.1)
However, as it is common practise to use a circular crosssectional area A based on the
unstretched diameter of the tether, a tensile strength is calculated here based on this
definition.
Tensile test results are presented in Table 20. For DyneemaSK65 braids, the resulting
tensilestrengthsrangefrom4473%ofthefiberstrength,withanaverageof56%.Thermally
prestretched tethers should show a somewhat higher strength, but the improvement was
found to be not significant. When dealing with braids rather than fibers, a significant
correctionfactormustbethustakenintoaccount.Aproperfixtureinvolveswrappingofthe
ends of the tether sample various times around a shaft of ten to twenty times the tether
diameter. Clamping by squeezing of the fibers or through a knot results in stress
concentrationandfiberdamage,significantlyreducingtheperformancefurther,aboutbya
factor2,asevidencedinTable19.
Project Tetherbraid Fixture Testlocation #
Break
Force[N]
StDev
[N]
diameter
[mm]
Break
strength
[MPa]
YES2 8x400SK65 knotmid ReggioEmilia 5 256 20 0.7 665
YES2 8x400SK65 knotedge ReggioEmilia 5 284 20 0.7 737
YES2 8x400SK65 clamped ReggioEmilia 5 210 20 0.7 546
Table19.PulltestresultsforYES2projects(weakenedtether)
116 Chapter4
Project Tetherbraid Fixture Testlocation #
Break
Force[N]
StDev
[N]
Diameter
[mm]
Tensile
strength
[MPa]
YES
7x100Dyneema
SK66 woundonrod TetherApplications 3 165 0.3 2334
YES 11x215Spectra woundonrod TetherApplications 3 800 0.6 2829
TSE 8x400SK65
woundon
25mmrod EuroCord 1 692 0.7 1799
TSE
10%thermal
prestretch
woundon
25mmrod EuroCord 1 782 0.7 2031
TSE
21%thermal
prestretch
woundon
25mmrod EuroCord 1 708 0.7 1838
YES2 8x400SK65
woundon
8mmrod ReggioEmilia 5 567 20 0.7 1474
YES2 8x200SK65 woundonrod Krefeld 2 300 0.5 1528
YES2
8x200SK654%
prestretch woundonrod Krefeld 2 240 0.5 1222
YES2
8x200SK656%
prestretch woundonrod Krefeld 3 337 0.5 1715
Table20.PulltestresultsfortheYES,TSEandYES2projects
4.1.4 Stiffnessandviscoelasticeffects
Stiffness EA, with E the Youngs modulus of elasticity, has been measured for various
tetherswithdifferentprestretchandloadhistories,inthreeways.
Thefirstmethod(A)isusingapullbenchonasampleofapproximately20cmtomeasure
thestrainversusthetension,untilbreaking.Breakstrainisfoundtobeabout3.5%offull
length for a nonprestretched tether, and reduces for freshly prestretched tethers yet
increases again if such tethers have become flexible following one or more winding and
unwindingcycles.Adisadvantageofthisratherstandardtestisthatitprovidesinformation
on stiffness especially for tension levels close to the break strength, but not for the low
tensionlevelsthataretypicalduringdeployment(210gformostofthedeployment,100
500gforfinalbraking),seeFigure44.
The second method (B) involves a hanging tether of about 3m. A suspended mass is
changed in steps, and the length change is monitored each step. Detailed effects at low
tension can now be studied. The suspended mass is first increased then decreased.
Stabilizationeffectsduetotheloadhistoryareapparent.Evenalimiteddynamicpreloading
(winding at 1N, Figure 45) plus static preloading at 5N is found to have a significant
impactonlowtensionstiffness.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 117

0
100
200
300
400
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain [%]
L
o
a
d

[
N
]
0% Pre-stretch, 0 Cycles
4% Pre-stretch, 1 Cycle
6% Pre-stretch, 1 Cycle
6% Pre-stretch, 2 Cycles
Figure44.StraintestperformedonDyneema
SK658x200tetherswithvariousthermalprestretchandloading
history(10Nwinding/0Nunwindingcycles).
0.992
0.994
0.996
0.998
1.000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Load [g]
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

l
e
n
g
t
h

a
t

5
0
0

g

l
o
a
d

[
-
]
0% As delivered
0% Prewound at 1 N
21% As delivered
21% Prewound at 1 N
Figure45.Coilandstraineffectsforprestretchedtethers
Thethirdmethod(C)isacombinationofAandB,inwhichapulltestsetupisusedatlow
tension levels. Repetitive testing can be performed on the same sample. This testing has
beenperformedontheYES2tetherbyUniversityofModenaandReggioEmilia.Theloadis
selectedtoapproximatelymatchthatofafinalshockattheendofdeploymentandhasbeen
applied20times.Betweenloading10andloading11,theloadiscompletelyremovedanda
newdatasamplingisstarted.Acomplexbehaviorisobserved(Figure46),thatistypicalfor
ropes[McKenna2004].Multipleloadingsstiffenthetetherbyremovingflexibilityduetothe
braiding. Atthesame time acreeplikebehaviorisvisibleasthe braid iscompactedand
118 Chapter4
(bundlesof)fibersand possiblymoleculesarebeingmorealigned, increasing thesample
length.Fullreleaseofthetensionletsshapememorydominateandthetetherreturnsmuch
toitsinitialstate.TheresultingstiffnessstartsatEA=10002000Nfortheveryfirstloading
(theawakeningofthebraid)butreachesalreadyanearstablevalueduringthesecond
loading, EA=40005000N. As the flight tether is wound under 10N pretension, the
awakeningcanprobablybeassumedtohavealreadyoccurredbythetimeofdeployment.
Astretchandrelaxationtestwasalsoperformed(Figure47).Atvariouspointsduringthe
stretchingprocess,thetethersampleisallowedtorelaxatconstantlength.Thefractional
relaxationappearsratherconstant.Uponcontinuationofthepulling the originalcurveis
quicklyfollowedagain.Ahypothesisforthisbehavioristhatthefibersormoleculesinside
thefibersgetslowlyalignedwhenunderstatictension,causingthemtolengthenabit,and
straintodrop,yetstiffnesstoincrease,untilstrainisincreasedagaintoahigherlevelthen
before,whereanewreservoiroffibersormoleculesisunfoldedandstretched.Thefibers
lengthenabitthiswaybutfromcycletocycletherelaxationreducesbecausethepercentage
ofunstretchedmoleculesdecreases.
Notethatitalsohasbeenconsistentlyobservedthat,aftertensionisfullyremoved,atether
shrinks even below its original length. This is probably an additional effect related to
memoryfrombeforebraidingor30Ncoldprestretchingduringthebraidingprocess.
Figure46.Cyclicloaddisplacementdiagram
100mmand150mmDyneematether
0
5
10
15
20
0 1 2 3 4
Length increase [mm]
L
o
a
d

[
N
]
300 mm
100 mm
Figure47.Relaxationtest100mmand300mm
Dyneematether

Table 21 summarizes the results. The case B data represented here focuses on the
wound/preloaded case for low tension which is considered most relevant for flight. Data
pointsareplottedinFigure48,assumingabreakstrengthof300Nfor8x200and700Nfor
8x400braids.Thegeneraltrendofincreasingstiffnessordecreasingbraidcontributionfor
increasedloadsisclearandcanbeestimatedwithinabout30%accuracy.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 119
It can be seen how for thermally prestretched tethers at very low tension the coil shape
memorysuperimposesonthebraidandfiberstiffnessesandthetetherbehavesasavery
weakspringintheregimeofdeploymenttensions.Therigidityoftheprestretchedtethers
mayalsoleadtoirregularbehavioronthebrakesystematlowtension(Section5.4.4).For
these reasons, for flight a tether is selected with only cold prestretch, with an assumed
EA5000Nintherangeofdeploymenttensions.
Project Tetherbraid Testlocation Method Load[N] n EA[N] d[mm] E[GPa]
YES2 8x200SK65 Krefeld A 300 2 8570 0.5 43.6
YES2 4%thermalprestretch Krefeld A 240 2 12000 0.5 61.1
YES2 6%thermalprestretch Krefeld A 337 3 14670 0.5 74.7
TSE(*) 8x400SK65 DeltaUtec B 0.1 1 616 0.7 1.60
TSE 8x400SK65 DeltaUtec B 5 1 4109 0.7 10.7
TSE 10%thermalprestretch DeltaUtec B 0.1 1 62 0.7 0.16
TSE 10%thermalprestretch DeltaUtec B 5 1 6214 0.7 16.1
TSE 21%thermalprestretch DeltaUtec B 0.1 1 174 0.7 0.45
TSE 21%thermalprestretch DeltaUtec B 5 1 6216 0.7 16.2
YES2 8x200SK65 DeltaUtec B 1.2 1 4000 0.5 20.4
YES2 8x200SK65 DeltaUtec B 17 1 6200 0.5 31.6
YES2 8x200SK65 ReggioEmilia C 20 2 4700 0.5 23.9
(*)TSEtestswithmethodBwereperformedon1Nwound,5Npreloadedtether
Table21.StiffnesstestsonDyneematether
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Load as fraction of break strength [-]
M
o
d
u
l
u
s

o
f

e
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

E

[
G
P
a
]
Figure48.Modulusofelasticityvs.load(Dyneematether)
120 Chapter4
4.1.5 Damping
The amount of energy dissipation that occurs due to friction between fibers and bundles
withinthebraidduringstretchingandrelaxingofthetether(andtoalesserextentbetween
molecules within the fiber) can be expressed using the damping ratio . It has been
estimated by a drop test, involving a variety of tethered masses (40g to 1.7kg) dropped
fromarangeofheights(2.5to8m).
For an underdamped system (<1, leading to oscillatory response) two successive
amplitudesx
1
andx
2
willhavearatioof
d n
d n
n
e
Ce
Ce
x
x
t
t
t .e
t .e
.e

= =
) (
2
1
1
1
, (4.2)
with
d
d
e
t
t
2
=
and
2
1 . e e =
n d
(Figure49).Thelogarithmicdecrementisdefinedfor
afulloscillatoryperiodas
2
1
2
2
2
1
ln
.
t.
e
e
t. t .e o

= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
n
d n
x
x
, (4.3)
fromwhich:

( )
2 2
2 o t
o
.
+
=
. (4.4)
Figure49.Underdampedoscillation
Figure50.Droptestdampingdynamics(h&xat
differentscales).
Inadropandbouncethetetherwillbetensionedonlythrough(approximately)halfofan
oscillatoryperiod(Figure50).Nodampingwilloccurduringtheballisticdropfromknown
initialheight h
1
andduringthebounceuptomaximumaltitudeh
2
.Consequentlythefull
periodlogarithmicdecrementforwhichEq.4.3 isdefinedwillbetwicethatas wouldbe
indicated by the deepest points of successive bouncings x
1
and x
2
. Furthermore, in the
ballistic phase, the potential energy mgh takes the role of the spring energy kx
2
/2. The
logarithmicdecrementmaythusalso,andmoreconveniently,beestimatedfromtheratioof
heights:
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 121
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
ln 2

ln 2

ln
h
h
x
x
x
x
o
. (4.5)
Notethatinreality,duetotheeffectofgravity,thereissomeadditionaldampingasthe
tetherlosesstretchandtensionbetweentheequilibriumpointtotheactualslackpoint.So
theeffectivedampingperiodissomewhatlargerthanhalfaharmonicperiod.Theimpact
will, however, be small if the ratio between equilibrium extension x
0
and maximum
extensionx
1

duetothebounceissmall:
x
g
x
x

= =
1
0

n
, (4.6)
since
mg kx =
0 and
x m mg x x k

+ = + ) (
0 1
, and, from the (damping free) energy balance,
x
1
\ (2mgh/k),

\(mg/2kh)<<1forthetestedcases.Alternatively,Eq.4.5 canbesaidto
hold if the peak tension is much larger than the weight of the test mass (or equilibrium
tension).
Allexperimentsarefilmedbycamcorderandresultshavebeendeducedfromanalysisof
the footage. Generally, the first bounce of the endmass is very clean and straight as the
center of mass of the endmass is then still aligned with the tether direction. At the
maximum amplitude, velocity is zero, so a clear image of the maximum amplitude can
easilybefoundwithinthefootage.Theresultssuggestadampingcoefficient =0.060.09
(Table22).Avalue=0.08isassumed.Nosignificantdependencieshavebeenfoundwithin
theinvestigatedrangeofdropheight,maximumacceleration,peaktensionortetherlength
[Ishkov2006].
h
1
[m] m[kg] l[m] # Approx.maxtension
[N]
[%]
0.13 1.72 2.5 4 95 8.9
0.15 0.12 2.5 4 27 6.7
0.20 0.12 7.8 3 18 7.4
0.27 0.12 7.8 7 21 6.3
0.36 0.06 7.8 4 17 7.8
0.34 0.02 7.8 1 9 7.5
0.48 0.02 7.8 1 11 8.4
Table22.Dampingcoefficientdroptests
4.1.6 Outgassingandextraction
Outgassing of Dyneema SK65samples has been performed for YES2 by ESTECs TEC
QMClaboratory(MaterialsPhysicsandChemistrySection)accordingtotheECSSQ7002a
standard (Materials Report Number: 4604). Measurements of 3samples are averaged at
125C,afteroutgassingofeachsampleat125Cfor24hoursatapressurebelow10
5
mbar.
122 Chapter4
Thematerialiscompliantwiththelimitsdefinedbythestandard.Totalmasslossaverages
0.34%(including),0.03%iscollectedascondensablevolatileona25Cplate.Therecovered
mass lossof0.29% providestheestimateof thefractionof outgassedmaterialotherthan
water,forwhichESAsupperlimitisdefinedas1%.
An extraction in chloroform has also been performed, removing any soluble substances,
including esters and carbohydrates to about 1.9% by mass. A significant amount of the
extracted matter is thought to originate from antistatic coating that is applied on the
Dyneemaduringthefibermanufacturingprocess.
4.1.7 Frictionbehavior
Tetherfrictionhasbeendeterminedincombinationwiththeplannedcontactmaterial.An
aluminium pole of 1324mm diameter is used as main contact surface for the SpaceMail
tetherdeploymentsystem(Section5.4).Theexactvalueofthecoefficientdependsforalarge
parton thesurfacecoatingandroughnessofthepole.The rationale andinfluenceofthe
barberpole design and surface treatment is discussed in detail in Section5.4. Friction is
estimated from fitting of tension measurements of a deploying tether against a brake
performancemodelforvariousbrakesettings.Other,simpler, methodshavebeencrudely
exploredforteststhataimtoidentifyaprioriwhetherfrictionmaybemajorlydependenton
tetherthermalprestretchoratmosphericdensity.
Todeterminetheeffectoftetherheattreatmentsonfriction,thedroptimeforasmallsliding
tethered mass has been used. A drop test is performed on the tethers over a drop of
3.08meters.Amassm
1
of32gattachedtoonesidewithacountermassm
2
of10gcausesthe
tethertoslideover2horizontalaluminum12.7mmdiameterbarsat9cmdistance(Figure
51).Themassesaresmall,representingdeploymenttensionlevels.Theradiusofthebarsis
selectedtorepresenttheforeseenpole,whereastheirseparationisnecessarytopreventthe
linesoneithersidefrominterfering.Twentyhandclockedmeasurementshavebeenmade
for each tether (Figure 52). Such crude measurement method of about 0.1s accuracy is
judgedsufficientconsideringthequalitativetestobjectivesaswellastheactualspreadin
droptimes.
The friction coefficient f is estimated using the following simple model that assumes
exponentialfrictionincreasewiththebendangle(Section5.4.1):
u
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
ln
gt
h
gt
h
m
m
f
(4.7)
withu the totaldeflectionangleinradians, inthis case. Inthismodel thetethermass,
about0.5g,isneglected.
Theestimatedfrictioncoefficientsturnsouttobe0.280.015 fortheuntreatedtether,3.2%
higher for the 10% prestretched tether and 6.5% higher for the 21% prestretched tether.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 123
Possibly the observed effect of prestretch is not so much related to different surface
interactions but more to increased dissipation as the more stiffened fibers are being bent
aroundthepole.Thisdissipationisnotrepresentedasaseparateparameterinthissimple
frictionmodel.
Figure51.Frictiondroptestsetup
Figure52.Droptesthistogramforvarioustethertypestoestimatefriction
Toassesswhethervacuumconditionssignificantlyaffect(static)friction,adropmasssetup
including a barberpole engineering model has been built in a vacuum chamber (Samara
StateAerospaceUniversity,Samara,Russia,Figure53).Thetetherisdrapedoversuspended
metalrodstoobtainasafedistancetothepolebox,andtoallowforsmoothsliding,thus
obtainingthepossibilitytotestthebarberpoleinhorizontalconfigurationasdisplayed.A
knownmassisattachedtoeachside,2and20grams,thelargerontheoutgoingside.The
tether is wrapped a number of times around the barberpole, keeping the masses from
dropping. The pole can be driven (turned) by a controller setup outside the vacuum
H = 3.08 m
M2 = 32 g
M1 = 10 g
0.09 m
R=12.7 mm
1
3
5
7
9
11
0%
21%
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Number of
measurements
Time intervals: #1 = [1.95, 2.00) s
Tether prestretch level
Droptest measurement distribution
0%
10%
21%
124 Chapter4
chamber.Ifthenumberofwrapsisreduced,atacertainpoint,themasseswillstarttodrop
andthiscriticalpositioncanbeconvertedtoafrictionestimate(Section5.4.1).Vacuumlevel
achievedisabout5.10
2
mmHg.Thereisanobservationwindowoneitherside.
Thetestisperformed6timesinambientatmosphere,and4timesinvacuumaccordingto
theprocedureinTable23.Eachtestinvacuum,withonlyminimalequipmentandaccess
requirements, can establish one measurement for friction coefficient. The results show
virtuallythesamefrictioncoefficientinbothcases,0.2620%ambientvs.0.2433%vacuum.
Either of the extremes of measured friction coefficients can be recovered by a controller
correctionofonly0.2wraps(ambient)or0.4wraps(vacuum).
Figure53.Setupinvacuumchambertest.Incomingsideonleft,outgoingonright.Massesare
suspendedfromthetetheroneitherside(notvisible).Thetetherpathishighlightedforclarity.
1 Thepoleisturnedto3turnsinitially
2 Thesetupisputinidenticalandstableconfiguration.Bymanuallypullingtheheavymassdownsome10cm,
thetetherispulledthroughthebarberpoleandreachesaconsistentequilibriumhelicalshapearoundthepole
3 Establishvacuum
4 Turnthepolebackinsmallstepsfromthreeturnsuntiltheheavymassslidesdown,butthelightmassdoesnot
slideup.Thisindicatesthattheslackcreatedbyturningofthewheelontheincomingsideistakenbytheheavy
massontheoutcomingsign,sothefrictioninthesystemhasloweredclosetotheweightoftheheavymass.
Beforethatlevelthelightmassmaymovedownbuttheheavymassremainsinposition.
5 Turninsmallstepsbackuntilnotonlytheheavymassdropsbutthesmallmassstartsrising.Thefrictionlevel
nowequals502=48grams.Thedownwardmotionwillyetbeirregular.Notethevalueofturns.Thisisthe
mainmeasurement.
6 Turnthepoleback0.5turnsatonce.Themasswillstartdroppingmoresmoothly.Thedroptimeandbehavior
(smoothorinterruptedstickslip)isnotedandprovidesthesecond,qualitativemeasurement,whichisalsoused
toverifythatindeedthepolewasinacriticalpositionearlier.
Table23.Frictioninvacuumtestprocedure
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 125
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Test number
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
Figure54.Frictioncoefficientambientvs.vacuum.The
blacklinesindicateaveragevalue
4.1.8 Twistandinternalbraidingtorque
Atethercanexertatorqueasaresultoftwistingofthetetherasawholeorduetobuildup
of twist in the fiber bundles during the processes surrounding the braiding. This torque
affectsthetetherslidingbehaviorwhenitpassesthebrakesystem(Section5.4.1),andmay
in extreme cases also impact the tether shape and end mass motion after deployment in
weightlessness.Preliminarytestsindicateatorquelevelintheorderofabout1e8Nmm/
forasinglemeter0.5mmdiametertetheratdeploymentleveltensions[Kruijff1999.I].
Alogoftethertwistandatwistcontrolstrategyisthereforeintroduced.Axialdeployment
fromaspoolleadstointroductionofonefulltwistperdeployedloop(Figure55).Clockwise
unwindingisdefinedtointroducenegativetwistinatether.Asthelooplengthisdependent
on the spool diameter, the amount of introduced twist per meter varies over the full
unwinding. As the tether is captured on another spool for a subsequent unwinding, a
further varying twist, or one in opposite direction could be superimposed. A simple
effectivemethodtomanagethispotentiallycomplexmatteristowindthetetherfromareel
(perpendicular from its shaft) onto a spool core installed with alternating orientation for
eachwindingcycle(Section5.2.1).Inthismanner,notwistisintroducedduringwinding,
andeachunwindingtheoppositetwistisintroducedcomparedtotheprevious,keepingthe
totalamountoftwistincheck.
Atetherbraidingtorquesometimesbecomesapparentwhenthetetherisbentortensioned.
Untwistedtethersregularlyhaveanaturaltendencytocurlupwhencompressed,butnot
always.Manualtwistinggenerallyleads,asexpected,toacurlingtendency,whichcanbe
superimposed on the natural tendency, and can also be used to cancel out a natural
tendency.Thedirectionoftheinternaltorquecanbedeterminedfromthecurlingtendency
(Figure 56): if two ends are brought together, the tether assumes a shape of minimum
energy.Thebraidingtorquewithinthetethercanbequantifiedbytwistingthetetherinthe
properdirectionuntilthecurlingtendencyhasdisappeared.Therelevanceofthiseffortis
thatthe(negated)numberoftwistsappliedpermetercanhelptopredictthetetherdynamic
behaviorwhenincontactwithapolefrictionsurface(seeSection5.4.1).
126 Chapter4
Figure55.Tethertwistingduringunwindinganddefinitionofsign
Figure56.Curlingtendencyontethercompressionindicatespositive(left),zero(mid)
ornegativeinternaltorque(right)
Tether torque results from a twisted tether through the combination of two effects: fiber
torsion and torque from tether tension components around the tether core. Let be the
numberoftethertwistspermeter.Beamtheorypredictstorque
D
forabeamofdiameter
Dpurelyduetoshearforces,
4
2
16
2 GD GI
p D
t
t
tt = = + , (4.8)
with I
p
the polar moment of inertia and G0.177GPA, the modulus of rigidity of
polyethylene.
A circular bundle with diameter D of fibers of diameter d=D/n will contain, taking into
accountthefillingdegreeoftightlypackedcylinders,about
2
/83n
2
fibers.Eachfiberinthe
bundlewillbetorquedbythesameamount,.Iftherewouldbenotransferofshearforces
betweenthefibers,theshearforcesinducedcomponentofthethetotaltorque
d,sh
forthe
bundlewouldthenbe,
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
,
3 8 3 8 3 8
2
3 8
n
n
D
G n GI n
D
p sh d
t
t
t t
tt
t +
=
|
.
|

\
|
= = +
. (4.9)
For =100/m, D=0.75mmandn=50,theresultingtorquewouldonlybeabout6e7Nm.
Measurementsoftorqueundera10gloadhavebeenperformedandsuggestasignificantly
strongertorquefortheseconditionsofabout5e4Nm[Kruijff1999.I],closetothevaluethat
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 127
wouldbeexpectedforauniformthread.Thisindicatesthatasaresultofafinitebending
stiffness contact pressure transfers the shear stress between adjacent fibers and lets the
bundleactmuchasasinglewire,n1.5.
Figure57.Simplemodeloftorquedtetherasbundleoftwistedfibers
Thetensioninthetetherwillalsocontributeandthiscontributionwilldependontension.
Assumeforsimplicitythatallfibersinthetetherareparallel(Figure57).Ifsuchatetheris
twisted,thecentralfiberwillstayinplaceandonlyexperiencetorsion.Fibersontheouter
rimofthetetheratradiusrdescribeahelicalshapewithangleforwhichwillhold:
t t
u
r 2
1
tan =
. (4.10)
Inrealitythefibersarebundledandbraided,sotheychangepositionwithinthetether.The
simplifiedassumptionofparallelfiberscanbeseenasanaverage.Ifthetetheriscarryinga
loadTinaxialdirection,oneshouldhowevertakeaccountofthebraid,andonecanassume
the axial load is distributed uniformly over the fibers spread uniformly over the (total)
crosssectionalareaA.Notethatincontrast,inatwistedtetherofparallelfibers,thehighest
strainwouldoccurintheouterfibers,whichhavethemostincreasedpathlengthcompared
to the original length due to the helix shape (an analogous situation is presented in
Section5.4.1).Inoursimplifiedmode,afiberatradiusrwillcarryaloaddTunderangle,
withacomponentintangentialdirectiondT
t

A
A
T
r T
t
d 2 d t t =
. (4.11)
Thestressrelatedtorquecannowbecalculatedasfollows.
t t
t
t t t t T
D
r r
D
T
r r A
A
T
r r T r
D
t st d st d
2 2
0
2
, ,
4
d 2
4
2 d 2 d d = = = = + = +
(4.12)
Thissimpleresultshowsstrainbasedtorqueislinearintensionanddependsonlyonthe
twistandradiusofthetether.Forourexampleatorqueofonly6.3e8Nmwouldresult.At
lowtensionlevelsthisisarathernegligiblecontribution.Thetotaltorsionforthetwisted
tetherthusbecomes:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + + + = +
4 3 128
2
2
4 4
, ,
T D G
n
D
st d sh d d
t
t
, (4.13)
asmentionedwithn1.5fromexperiment[Kruijff1999.I].
128 Chapter4
4.1.9 Tetherlengtheffects:shapememory,viscoelasticrecoveryandcreep
InaDyneemabraid,shapememorytypebehavioroccursatthreelevels.First,thebraid
canassumeacoilshapeafterawindingprocess,especiallythermallyprestretchedbraids
(Section4.1.2).Second,fiberbundlesthatmakeupthebraidcanbealignedandtightenedor
angledandloosenedup,asthebraidedtetherisstretched,relaxedorcompressed,affecting
thebraiddensityanddiameter.Thirdly,thehighlystretchedandalignedlongmoleculesof
polyethylene may have a memory of a more natural, coiled configuration, that is for
example triggered under untensioned heating. This multilevel behavior provides for
complex creep and shrinkage characteristics. An attempt has been made to quantify the
behaviorunderrelevantconditionsforspacetetherdeployment.
Subjecting the tether to a number of 10N load cycles can lead to a shortening of the
Dyneematetherwithrespecttoinitiallength(Figure58).Thisseemstobemoretrueifthe
tetherissqueezed(betweenrollersorplates)toobtainthetensionloadthanifitissubjectto
a suspended load. The friction and possibly heating and deformation trigger a shape
memory effect. The effect is stronger for thermally prestretched tethers, particularly if a
temperatureclosetomeltingpointhasbeenappliedwithoutsufficienttensiontostretchthe
moleculeswithinthefiberssignificantly(ashasbeenobservedforYES2stetherErik).Ata
temperatureof140Caprestretchofatleast20%isrecommended.Shrinkageisimmediate
butcontinuesaftertheloadingeventfor30minutesorso.Thefirstloadingcausesgenerally
amoresignificantshrinkagethanthesubsequentones.
Incontrast,after20secondsofloadingofthetetherby14Nsuspensiononly,noshrinkage
ismeasured. Thereforeit isdeemedwise to control tensionduringwinding withfriction
applied to the reel shaft rather than by squeezing roller guides in the winding machine
(Section5.2.1).
During continuous loading (such as in storage conditions) there is a creep effect and
viscoelasticbehaviorcanbeobserved. A3mlong 8x200tetherhasbeenkeptunder15N
tension,andisobservedtostretchabout0.5%intensionedlengthintwohours,thenremain
virtually constant. After one day of relaxation, most of this creep has receded (or
viscoelasticallyrecovered)byarelativelyslowshrinkageprocess.Afurtheronedayloading
recreatessimilarcreepintensionedlength.Atremovaloftheload,thereissomeimmediate
shorteningofabout0.3%(consistentwithelasticbehavior),followedbyfurtherviscoelastic
recovery over the coarse of a day. This time a more permanent length increase effect of
about0.5%isobservedalsointheuntensionedlength,apparentlycausedbycreep.
Thevariouseffectsoperateandinteractinacomplexmanner.Forthetypicalparametersof
theSpaceMailmissioneachoftheseeffectshasalengthimpactof0.10.5%.
Tomaketheeffectssmallerandmorepredictableanumberofmeasureshasbeentaken.Itis
decidedthatthetargetedflighttetheronlyreceivesacoldprestretchof30Nbeforewinding
(to remain well over the maximum tension expected in flight). The length measurement
methodhasalsobeenfurtherscrutinized.Oneinterestingfindingisthatthemeasurement
wheelsdiameter,aroundwhichthetetherbends,isincreasedby68%ofthetetherdiameter,
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 129
ratherthantheexpected50%.Theeffectofsliponthemeasurementwheelhasbeenshown
tobelessthan0.1%,andtheeffectoftwistevenless.Eventually,aprocedureisestablished
inwhichcalibrationsegmentsofthetetheraremarkedandmeasuredbothduringwinding
and after unwinding to establish several correction factors taking into account the
accumulated effects of elastic stretch on the measurement wheel, creep, viscoelastic and
shapememory,aswellasconsistentcontributionstolengthmeasurement errorssuchas
slip.
Figure58.Shrinkage(memory)duetoloadcycles.Triangle:Kevlar.Square:
TetherDavid(0%prestretch).Diamond:TetherErik(4%prestretch).
4.2 Protectingthehostplatform
Anearlydeploymentstopmaycauseathreattothedeploymentplatformastheendmass
may endup lingering in its neighborhood and quickly or eventually collide. It is here
assumedthattheinitialseparationanddeploymentvelocityisobtainedbyaspringsystem
ratherthanbyanextensibleboomorcoldgasthrusters. Mitigationapproacheshavebeen
implemented. These include selection of sufficient initial velocity, addition of a shock
dampingsystemanddesignofthetetheranditsfixturetobreakorreleaseincaseofsevere
jerks.
4.2.1 Securingseparationfromthedeploymentplatform
ThequestionriseswhatshouldbetheinitialejectionenergyE
eject
,endmassm andejection
velocityV.AsdiscussedinSection2.1.4,theinitialdeploymentisgovernedbyinertiaand
hastoovercomefrictioninthesystemuntilthebuiltupgravitygradienteffectoutweighs
thefrictionlevel.Aminimalejectionenergyisthereforerequired.Therearealsoarguments
130 Chapter4
tolimitejectionenergy,namelytolimitsystemmassandimprovesafetyduringintegration
and,inflight,preventhighpitchoffratesthatcanresultintensionoscillations,slacknessor
endmass rotation. Conditions are derived for minimum ejection energy and endmass to
guaranteedeployment.
First of all, the kinetic energy of ejection determines the minimum length that the tether
deploymentcanachieveatminimaldeploymentfriction(T
0
),duringtheinertiallygoverned
part of deployment. Kinetic energy should exceed energy dissipated by friction:
E
eject
=E
kin
=mV
2
>T
0
l.Sufficientlengthshouldbeachievedforgravitygradient(Eq.2.7)to
takeoverthedeployment,3mlO
2
>T
0
,

fromwhichaconditionforminimalejectionenergy
(Eq.4.17) can be derived. From this perspective, for a given ejection system with known
energy,alargerpayloadmass,atlowerejectionvelocity,ismorerobust.
AspecialconsiderationcouldbetodealwithunforeseenspoolfrictionpeaksTactingovera
shorttimeintervalAt.TheycaninprinciplebeconsideredtoacttoincreasetheeffectiveT
0
(Section8.5.1),butdointroduceanadditionalrisk.EjectionmomentummV determinesthe
amount of dissipative friction shocks and jerks that that can be accepted during early
deployment: mV>>E(TAt)
shock
. The impact of this contingency on the ejection energy
requirementcanthusbewrittenasEq.4.18.Theissueisthatsuchbriefpeakscanleadto
nearinstantaneousdeceleration.Ifdeploymentiscontrolledbyabarberpolebrakeaimingat
aparticulardeceleration(Section5.4),thespoolpeaklevelTwillbeamplifiedbythebrake
proportionallytotheendmassm.Beforethebrakecontrollercanrespondandturndownthe
brakelevel,thedeploymentmaybestopped.Forthiscase,oppositetotheearlierconclusion
(Eq.4.17), for a given ejection energy, robustness of deployment will decrease with
increasedmass.
Secondly,thetether(nottheendmass)deployingatlowvelocitymayoftenget,verybriefly,
stuckduetointernalstaticfrictionpeaksT
stuck
.Thisbehaviordependsonuniformityofthe
spoolunwindingandhastobeexperimentallydetermined.Infact,anyfrictioncontrolled
deployment with somewhat irregular tension can be seen as a continuous tugofwar
betweentensionpeaksandendmassinertia.Inajam,thekineticenergyE
kin
istransferredto
strainenergyE
strain
andastraintensionT
max
arisesthatmayovercomejamtensionT
stuck
:
2
max
2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
T
EA
l
l
l
EA
E l m E
strain kin
= A = = =

, (4.14)
l
EA
m l T

=
max
. (4.15)
Africtionpeakhastheabilitytostopthetether,withmassl(briefly),ifitislargerthanthe
jamtensionTduetoinertiaofthetethermass:
EA l T p

= . (4.16)
Ifthetethergetsstuck,oncetheshockreachesthemovingpayload,thetetherwillstartto
stretchfurther,duetoinertiaofthestillmovingpayload,andtensionwillrisetowardsT
max
.
If T
stuck
<

T
max
or T
stuck
dropsintime,thendeploymentwillcontinue.Usuallythemarginsin
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 131
thisprocessarelargeenoughthatthetetherneveractuallycomestoastandstill,butitcan
alsoundergoastickslipprocessasdescribed,especiallyduringlowvelocitydeployment.
ThereforeinitiallyaconditionmustholdasexpressedinEq.4.19intermsofE
kin
.Attheend
ofnominaldeployment,atlargetetherlengths(EA/lislow)andatlowdeploymentvelocity
this mechanism can well be the prelude to deployment stop accompanied by a lightly
bouncingendmass.Forthepurposeofinitialdeploymentsafety,astifftetherwillhelp,and
sodoesthefactthatthetetherisstillshort.Foragivenejectionsystem,thisrequirementfor
ejectionenergyisindependentofpayloadmass.Itremainshoweverimportanttodesignthe
spoolproperlyandavoidhighlevelsofT
stuck
.
Eq. Threattocontinueddeployment Condition
4.17 Earlydeploymentfriction Eeject>T0
2
/(3mO
2
)
4.18 Cumulativeeffectoffrictionpeaks Eeject>>(E(TAt)shock)
2
/m
4.19 Instantaneousjerk Eeject>>Tstuck
2
l/EA
Table24.Causesofearlydeploymentstop
4.2.2 Understandingrecoil
Themainconcernfortheoperatorofaplatformfromwhichatetheristobedeployedisan
unexpectedsuddenjaminearlydeployment.Itmayleadtoreboundoftheendmassand
collision,orawrappingofthetetheraroundtheplatformand,again,eventualcollisionof
theendmasswiththeplatform.Itmustbesaidthat,consideringthefaultlessflightrecord
fromadeploymentperspective(SEDS1,SEDS2,TiPS,Table1)and650kmofdeployment
testsperformedinthecontextofYES,TSEandYES2projects(Table39),theprobabilityofa
jamforaspooldeploymentcanbeconsideredverylow(thesituationisdifferentforreel
deployments). Nevertheless due to a controller problem, spool integrity issue or faulty
structural design a tether jam remains conceivable and must be addressed. An effort is
undertakentoidentifyzonesofdeploymentbasedonjamresponse,assumingatetherasyet
without any mitigation means included. Next, for each zone an adequate mitigation
approach is sought. In the context of the YES2 project, tether simulator tools have been
developedforthispurposebySergeiNaumov(SSAU)andDr.ChrisBlanksby(RMIT).
TheNaumovtoolisabasic2DOFtethersimulatorwithstraighttetherassumption,ableto
integrate the relevant tether and gravity forces (Section2.1) during a typical early
deployment[Ishkov2007].Atagiventimeajamcanbeintroduced.Thedynamicsofthe
jamarecalculatedusingtherelevantdifferentialequations.Thejameffectivelyreversesthe
velocity vector at the moment of a jam and provides a tension peak following closely
Eq.4.15,yetincludingtheeffectofdamping.Asaresultofthevelocityinversion,thetether
becomesslackandtheendmassundergoesunconstrainedmotionuntildistancebetweenthe
132 Chapter4
hostplatformandendmassbecomesequaltothejammedtetherlength,atwhichtimea
secondimpulseisapplied.Andsoon.
Simulationsareperformedfora12kgendmassejectedat2.4m/switha0.5mmDyneema
tetherwithpropertiesasinSection4.1.1.Theresultssuggesttodividethedeploymentin
threezones(Table25).Atveryshortlengths,theremaybeadirectimpactofthehost.The
critical phase extends to a few hundred meters, within which the tethered endmass will
erraticallyorbitthehost.Adampingfactorof0.075(equivalenttoanapproximatereduction
invelocityofaround30%perbounce)leadstoalimitingdeployedlengthforthisphaseof
350m.Withoutdampingthisphasecouldextendtoasmuchas800m. Forjamslaterinto
thedeploymentthereisnorisktothehost.
Zone Length Description Note Countermeasure
1 010to
100m
Collisionon
rebound
Theendmasscontactsthehostdirectlyuponrebound.
Theexactlimitdependsonthehostshapeandsize.
ForlargerlengthstheCorioliseffectcausesadriftthat
leadstheendmasspastthehostuponfirstpassage.
Dissipatejamenergy(Sec
tion4.2.3),passivetetherre
lease(Section4.2.5)orcut
(active)
2 10100
to
350m
Orbitingof
host
Theendmassorbitsthehosterratically,thetetheris
likelytoattachtothehostatsomepoint,shortenthe
freetetherlengthandalterthetrajectoryuntil
eventuallyimpactisimminent.Impactenergygets
lostwithincreasedinitiallengthandincreasing
numberofsnagsbeforeimpact.
Activetethercut
3 >350m Safebounce Thegravitygradientislargeenoughtorecoverthe
bouncebeforetheendmassreachesthehost,oreven
topreventsignificantslacknessaltogether.
Nomeasurerequired
Table25.Safetydomainsincaseoftetherjam
-100
-50
0
50
100
-100 -50 0 50 100
Local Horizontal [m]
L
o
c
a
l

V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

[
m
]
-400
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Local Horizontal [m]
L
o
c
a
l

V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

[
m
]
Figure59.Jamsimulationusingsimplevelocityreversal,length=110,360m
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 133
A qualitative assessment of the wrapping event has been made for YES2 by Dr. Chris
Blanksby (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology). His flexible tether model uses a
lumpedmassrepresentationofthetether,includesfulltetherflexibilityand3dimensional
motion,similartoMTBSim(Section2.3.1).Themodelisalsocapableofsimulatingtether
structure contact, including identification of contact events and postcontact dynamics.
Multiplecontactscanbestudiedwithinagivensimulation.Animportantlimitationisthat
the model contains no damping. In Blanksbys simulation the tether passes the platform
twicewithoutcontact.Afterthethirdbounce,askipropemotioncausesthetethertoslide
alongtheplatformbodyandatsomepointitgetscaught.Thiseventeffectivelyshortensthe
length of the free tether, further exciting the skiprope mode and thus the number of
subsequentcontactsquicklyincreases.
Figure60.3DContactmodelingof600mjammednonviscoustetheronFotonvehicle
4.2.3 Ripstitching
Damping decreases the critical deployment zone in which an anomalous jam leads to
wrapping of the endmass around the host platform. Inclusion within the tether an
additionalpassivedampingsystem thattriggersincaseofanomalousshocks canfurther
decreasethiszone.Atthesametimetheapproachvelocityoftheendmasstowardsthehost
platformisreduced,buyingtimeforasoftwarecontrolled autonomoustether cut,before
thetethercanwraparoundthehost.Alsothelikelihoodofadirectimpactcanbedecreased.
The concept of the ripstitch damper system is sketched inFigure 61, showing a single
rip, or tether section folded in Sshape and stitched together with a thin cotton thread
withaslittleas1Nbreakstrength.Multipleripscanbesewninsidethetetheradjacently.If
ashockleadstosignificantlyincreasedtensionanumberofripsareexpectedtobreakand
thefreedtethercanstretch,pullingthecottonthreadsthroughthetetherbraid,dissipating
energyintheprocess.Inthedesignoftheripstitchitisassumedthatadiscretenumberof
ripswillbreakatanygivenevent.
134 Chapter4

Figure61.Diagramofripstitchprinciple(threetetherlayersjoinedwiththread)
Thetriggertensionshouldbelowerthanthepeaktensionthatcanbeexpectedforajamat
the critical length of deployment. Minimum jam tension is to be expected at maximum
length, Eq.4.15. For the YES2 case critical length is 350m and jam tension is 7N
(Section4.2.2), Figure 62. Trigger tension should however be higher than the maximum
tension that is expected in a nominal deployment, to avoid inadvertent triggering. This
valueisforYES2isabout3N.Theselectedtargettriggerlevelisthereforesettoabout6N.
ThroughEq.4.15,thetriggertensionalsodeterminesthevelocityatwhichnofurtherrips
willbreak,whichinturndeterminestherecoilvelocity.Forexample,incaseof10Ntrigger
tension,12kgendmassandatetherstiffnessEA=5200Nthevelocityatwhichthelastrip
willbreakisapproximatelyv=0.04m

/s\L.Atacriticallengthof400mthismeansthat
velocitycanbereducedto0.8m/suntiltheripstitchingstops.Oftheremainingenergy,40%
willbedampenedinthebounceduetothedamping(assumed=0.08),soa0.6m/sinitial
recoilvelocitycanbeexpected.Ontheapproachtothehost,gravitygradientacceleration
willfurtherreducetherelativevelocity.Inthismanner,thetimetoreachthehostplatform
isstretchedandthemaximumvelocitynearitcanbecalculated,withandwithoutripstitch.
Fortheabovecase,velocitynearthehostplatformcanbereduced,bytheripstitch,tovery
low values(order of maximum0.15m/s,Section7.4.1). The approachtimeis increasedto
minimally several minutes, providing ample time for onboard software to reliably
recognize the anomalous event and cut the tether autonomously. The endmass will then
pass ahead of the host mass due to Coriolis effects. Wrapping and collision are both
avoided.Notethatforajamveryclosetothehostplatformacollisioncannotbeavoided.A
passivereleasesystemisnecessaryforthiscase,subjecttothenextsection.
Theenergydissipationperunitlengthdeterminesthetotallengthoftheripstitchingsection,
whichshouldbeasshortaspossibleforpracticalreasonsandtoreducedeploymentenergy
lossesduetofrictionpeaks(seeSections4.2.1&8.3.3).Increasingthenumberofstitchesper
rip increases energy density, but unfortunately, also the trigger tension (Figure 63). The
numberofstitchesperripisthusempiricallyfixedtonine.
Twoimportantdesignparametersarethusthetriggertensionandtheenergydissipation
potential.Aripof1cmwith9stitchesisusedasdesignreference.Ithastobeestablished
whetherthetriggertensionandenergydissipationareconsistentlyreproducible.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 135
Figure62.Ripstitchapplicablerangeindeployment
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
4 4.5 5
Stitches per thread direction
R
i
p

t
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
Figure63.Ripstitchbreaktensionvs.numberofstitches
Thespreadintriggertensionisdeterminedbymeansofaseriesofconsecutivepulltestson
thesamesamplewithgraduallyincreasingtension.Resultsonasampleof1meter(86rips
stitched)areprovidedinFigure64.Ninesuccessivetestscoverallrips. Theresultsshow
consistentbreaktensionofabout45N.Mostoftheripsarebrokeninthefirstseventests.
Only the last two rips show increased break tension of 6N and 6.5N. A second 50cm
samplehasbeenpreparedwith36ripsforwhichthenumberofstitchesperripisincreased
to12.Thelengthoftheripisincreasedto12mm.Sixtestsbreakallrips.Figure65showthe
satisfactorytestresultswithaconsistenttriggerlevelbetween5.5and7.2N.
To determine the energy dissipation per rip, drop tests are performed both in a gravity
environmentandinzerog.Thelimitationofagravityenvironmentisthatachaineffectcan
takeplacethatisindicativebutnotfullyrepresentativeoftheorbitalcondition.Whenarip
breaks,thetetherisseveralcentimeterslonger,suchthatthemasswilldropfurther,causing
anewjerkandnewripstobreak.
136 Chapter4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 2 4 6 8 10
Successive rip breaking [-]
T
r
i
g
g
e
r

t
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
Figure64.Ripstitchbreaktension
(successivetests)9stitchesper10mmrip
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 2 4 6 8 10
Successive rip breaking [-]
T
r
i
g
g
e
r

t
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
Figure65.Ripstitchbreaktension(successive
tests)12stitchesper12mmrip
Figure66.Ripstitchdroptestdimensions
A drop test is performed with a sample with N=28rips, a length L=87cm and mass
m=118gattached. Figure66 sketchesthedrop fromheight h abovethepositionofwhat
would be the endpoint of the unripped sample as suspended from the attachment point
(initial length). Ripping stops and velocity is dissipated at a distance of s below that
position.DuetotheunfoldingoftheSshapedrips,s=2N
broken
l
rip
.Itisassumedallpotential
energyEbecomeskineticandisthen(largely)dissipated,so,
E=mg(h+2N
broken
l
rip
)AEN
broken
=mg(h+s)AE/l
rip

s/2=0. (4.20)
Withhtherequireddrop height, AEthe estimateddissipated energy perrip, mthe drop
mass,g=9.8kgm/s
2
, l
rip
=11mmthelengthofasinglerip.Therequireddropheighthcan
beselectedtobreakasignificantamount,butnotalloftherips,usingtheaboveequation
rewrittenas:
h=[E/(mg)2l
rip
]N
broken
. (4.21)
Assuminganexpected6J/mdissipationcapacityandatargetofbreakingof11ripsofthe
28,adropheightof 0.4misselected.Itcanbeverifiedwhetherindeedtheselectedmass
will cause the rips to break, based on an estimated tether stiffness of EA=5000N.
EquivalenttoEq.4.15,fromconversionofpotentialtospringenergythemaximumforcecan
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 137
be estimated that will occur when the original tether of 0.87m is stretched due to the
droppingmass:
mgh
L
EA
F 2
max
= . (4.22)
Itis73N,morethansufficienttobreakthefirstrip.Theactualdropresultsin10brokenrips
and s=22cm. The ripstitch energy dissipation is then characterized from 4.20:
AE=0.072J/ripor0.065J/cm.
Thebreakingofripsstopswhenthevelocityoftheendmasshasreducedsuchthattheshock
tensiondropsbelowthetriggerlevel F
rip
=6N.Atthefinallengthof109cmtoreachthis
tensionamaximumof4mJresidualenergymaybepresent,assolvedfromEq.4.15.Itis
lessthantheenergypotentialofonerip(AE=0.072J),sothemaximumamountofenergy
couldbedissipatedbythissystem.Thisisgenerallytrueif
E
L
EA
F
rip
A < 2 . (4.23)
Inordertoevaluatewhethertheperformancewillbemaintainedwithoutthethestaggered
typeofrippinginagravityenvironment,fivetestsareperformedinazerogenvironment
using the ESTEC droptower facility. Two of these tests concern reference tethers (no
ripstitch)threetestsareperformedonthelighterripstitchversion(9stitchesperrip).For
comparison, threemoreground testsareperformedusingthesame methodasdescribed
above.
The ESTEC drop tower setup provides about 1.5s zerog environment inside a small
capsuleequippedwithvideocamera.Thetestsareperformedatflightrepresentativepeak
tensions.Insidethedropcapsule,oneendofa~36cmtetherwithripstitchingisfixedtothe
capsules bottom plate, whereas the other end is attached to an endmass (122g). The
endmassisconnectedbyarubberbandtothetopofthecapsule(Figure67,Left).

Figure67.Droptowersetupforripstitchtest
Beforethedropthemassissuspendedfromtherubberbandwithspringcoefficientk,such
thatmg=kh,withtheinitialstrainh.Thetetherisslack.Duringthedrop,inweightlessness,
therubberbandcontracts,initiallyacceleratingthemasswithexactly1g,untiltherubber
bandinturnbecomesslack.Theendmassmotionwillcontinue(Figure67,Middle)infree
flightforabout3cmwithkineticenergyequaltoinitialspringenergykh
2
/2=mgh/2.When
thedistancebetweenweightandbottomofthecapsulereachesthatofthesamplelength,
138 Chapter4
theweightisstoppedabruptly,causingatensionshock,causinginturntheripstitchingto
takeplace(Figure67,Right).Themassshouldthenlosemostofitsenergy.Thesestepstake
placewithin0.5s.Theremaining~1.2suntilimpactofthecapsulecanbeusedtoquantify
theremainingenergyinthesystem.Thecapsuleboxis50cminheight,therubberbandis
about13cm,stretchedunder122gtoabout44cm.Thestitchedtetheris36cm.Notethat
withthissetuptoachievethecorrectenergylevelitisnotrequiredtoknowtheproperties
of the rubber band, as long as the initial stretchh can be tuned properly. The energy at
moment of jamequals mgh/2=0.19J. The peak tensionduetothe jamisevaluated to be
75N,sosufficientforripstitching.Sixstitchesof67mmareincludedinthetether,soabout
3willbreak,andafterthetestthetetherwillbe~44cm.
By video inspection (Figure 68) the kinetic energy after jam, in the form of rotation and
velocity,isdetermined,astoestimatethedissipatedfractionaswellasthetensiontowhich
thelastbrokenstitchhasbeensubjected.
Figure68.Afterripstitchesbreak,themassfloatsratherthanjumpingback
Figure69.ESTECdroptowerripstitchtestresults
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 139
Test Rip
stitch
Energy
[J]
Length
tether
[cm]
Free
flight
[cm]
Broken
rips[]
Broken
rips
[mm]
Jam
tension
[N]
Energy
remaining
[%]
Fraction
rotation
[%]
Energy
perstitch
[J/m]
1 Y 0.19 35.70 2.50 4.00 27.00 6.4 0.5 5 7.0
1+ N 0.19 43.70 10.50 0.00 0.00 32.8 18.3 5
2 Y 0.19 34.80 1.60 5.00 33.00 6.3 0.5 3 5.7
3 Y 0.19 35.60 2.40 4.50 30.00 13.7 2.9 14 6.1
3+ N 0.19 43.80 10.6 0.00 0.00 44.0 33.6 12
Table26.ESTECdroptowerripstitchtestresults
Ripstitch Zero Gee and Flight-EM1 (Campaign 5 & 6)
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Drop test number [-]
D
a
m
p
i
n
g

e
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
m
]













Zero Gee Final design EM1
Figure70.Comparisonofzerogeeripstitchtestresultsvs.groundtests
Results of the five drop tests are presented in Figure 69 and Table 26. They show that
considerabledampingistakingplace,alsointhereferencetestwithoutripstitching.Possibly
thedampingcoefficientexceedsthevalue=0.08determinedearlier.Theenergyremaining
afterripstitchisconsistentwithexpectations,16mJ.Theeffectivenessoftheconceptcould
be confirmed and the energy dissipation per unit length is found to be sufficiently
reproducible at about 7J/m leading to about 6m ripstitch section for a 40J ejection. The
resultsareinlinewiththreefurthergroundtests(Figure70).
Somefurthercheckshavebeenperformed.Twosamplesareexposedtovacuumforhalfa
day, no impact on performance was noticed. A ripstitch section is also deployed several
timesat2.5m/sthroughtheforeseendeploymentsystemwithoutnoticeableissues.
4.2.4 Dissipativeclamping
As an alternative to ripstitching, a section of pullthrough tether can also be pulled
throughatighthole, thediametertuned suchthatonlyashocktensionof6Norhigher
wouldpulltetherthroughthebottleneck,andindoingso,dissipateenergythroughhigh
friction.Thereareseveraladvantagestothisapproachovertheripstitching.Itistobedone
140 Chapter4
ontheendofthe tetheron theendmasssideand canthusalsoperform thefunctionsof
pretensionerandtetherfixture.Noripstitchsectionhastobeledthroughthedeployment
system.Thesystemissimpletomanufactureandeasytotune.Anissueisthatthesystem
will not work if the endmass is entangled in the end of the tether. An additional small
storagedevicewillbenecessarytocontainthenecessaryamountofpullthroughtether.
In an exploratory test, an 80g mass attached to an 8strand 0.6x1.1mm Kevlar tether,
threadedthroughanarrowgaptunedfor6.7Npullthroughtension,isdroppedfrom2m
height. Inthreetestsperformed,themasscametorestratherconsistentlyat240,237and
243cm. Therefore the total potential energy dissipated is 1.9J per drop, over 40cm, or
0.048J/cm,roughlythesameasfortheripstitch.Amargintethersectionof8.5mlengthis
thus necessaryforatotaldampingof40J ejectionenergy. This canbestoredwithabout
90wrapsinsidea3cmcylindertobeplacedoutsidethebottleneck.
A fundamental reason why this system has not been further developed is that it is not
compatiblewiththetiedownconcept(Section5.3.4).Thesetiedownsarecottonknotsthat
hold the tether in place during launch. They need to be broken with 40N 20ms jerks
followingtheejectionimpulse.Suchjerksactdirectlyalsoontheendmassandwillactivate
a damping system connected there. The ripstitch, in contrast, can be located within the
tethersafelybehindthetiedownregion.
4.2.5 Passivetetherreleasesolution
Incaseofasuddenjamintheveryfirstmetersofthedeployment,evenbeforeorduringthe
deploymentoftheripstitchsection,jamtensionwillbetenstohundredsofNewton,asthe
ripstitchcannotoronlypartiallybeactivated. Astrongrecoiloftheendmasstothehost
platformistobeexpectedleadingtonearcertainimpact.Inthiscaseitisbestifthetetheris
designedtoreleasecompletelysomehow.Itshouldeitherbreakundertheestimatedpeak
tension, or, if this is not possible, a passive system is to be implemented that leads to
immediatereleaseofthetether.
Itisfoundthatthedissipativeclampingconceptisinfactsuitablehere.Abottleneckatthe
endmass,forthetethertobethreadedthrough,canbeimplemented.Theendofthetetheris
not fixed to the endmass in any way. It can slip through the bottleneck, albeit only at
relativelyhightensionlevels.
Thisbottleneck/tetherfixtureshallfulfillsomerequirements.Itshallprovideasaferelease
oftheendmassincaseofajam,duringtheearliestsectionofthetetherdeploymentbefore
theripstitchisfullydeployed.Thedesignpointshallbethepointofthissectionwherethe
hypotheticaljamshockloadwouldbelowestandistheleastlikelytoreleasethetetherfrom
thebottleneck,i.e.atthemaximumtetherlengthinthezoneofinterest.Forourexample
case,witha6mripstitchsectionandabout7moftetherincludedtoabsorbthetiedown
shock (Section5.3.4) plus 2m margin, about 15m is chosen as a reasonable worst case
length. Thetethershallhowevernotreleaseincaseofanominaldeployment. Asthetie
downsarebrokenduringejection,withabout40Npeaks,thesystemshallnotyetbeactiv
ated.Thebottleneckmustthusbetightenoughtogenerateaslipfrictionsignificantlylarger
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 141
than40N.Thetethermustalsobestiffenoughorejectionenergyhighenough.Incaseofa
jamatthedesignpointof15m,apeakshocktensionsignificantlylargerthantheslipten
sionshalloccur(i.e.anotherinstanceofconditionEq.4.19).Thepullthroughsegmentof
tethertobestoredoutsidethebottleneckshallbesufficientlylongtoavoidinadvertentre
lease e.g. due to brief anomalous shocks during the deployment (as discussed in Section
4.2.1),butshortenoughtoguaranteethatanactualjamwillactuallypullitthroughthebot
tleneckinitsentirety.

Pullthrough
tetherending
Endmass
Prusikknot
Jammed
tether
Figure71.Prusikknotfixture(conceptandYES2implementation)
0
50
100
150
200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Amount of tether slipped through knot [m]
S
h
o
c
k

F
o
r
c
e

[
N
]






Shock force after jam at 15m
Shock force required to slide through Prusik knot
Figure72.Determinationofoptimalpullthroughlength,EA=6700N
TheselectedbottleneckdesignisbasedonaPrusikknot(Figure71),whichhasthepractical
advantagethatthetethercanslipthroughconvenientlyinonedirection,duringinstallation
andpretensioning,butwillresistslipwhenthetetherispulledinoppositedirectionduring
ajamtypeevent.Alargenumberofpulltestsisperformedtobuildupstatisticsfordiffer
entconfigurationsofPrusikknots.Itisfoundthata4wrapknothasabout23timeshigher
slipfrictionlevelthana3wrapknot.Standarddeviationofthemeasurementsisfoundtobe
20%ofthesliptensionvalue.A3wrapknotwith55Nsliptensionisselected,providing
reasonableprobabilitythatthetiedownswillnotinitiatetheslipping.
ThelengthofthepullthroughtethersegmenthasbeenselectedaccordingtoFigure72.As
thetetherissqueezedthroughthebottleneck,itwilldissipateenergyandtheendmassvelo
citywillconsequentlybereduced.Asmoretetherslipsthroughthebottleneck,theremain
142 Chapter4
inginertiaoftheendmasscangeneratelessjamtension.Atthelengthoftetherwherethis
reducingjamtensionleveldropsbelowthebottlenecksslipfriction,theslippingwillstop
andtheendmasswillrecoil.Thisassessmentprovidesthemaximumlengthofthefreeteth
erend.ForYES2,itisselectedtobe14cm.
4.3 Avoidingthreatstotetherintegrity
A tethers diameter can usually not be simply determined from the nominal, operational
tension level and the manufacturers fiber strength data. The tether may need to resist
tension jerks during anomalous deployment. The space environment threatens a tethers
integrity during its useful lifetime through meteoroids, debris, UV radiation and atomic
oxygen. Ifthetetherisdecelerated byfriction, thethermalloading shouldbetakeninto
account,inparticularforDyneema,whichmeltsalreadyat150C.Inthissectionanumber
ofconsiderationstobetakenintoaccountishighlighted.
4.3.1 Debrisandmeteoroidrisk
Singlelinetethersarepronetodebrisandmeteoroidimpact.Tethersurvivabilitydepends
onabundanceandimpactenergyofthedebrisandthe(moreenergetic)meteoroidparticles
[Klinkrad2006],aswellasontetherdesign.
AlthoughthedistributionofbothdebrisandmeteoroidsinLowEarthorbitiscomplex,the
combined flux can be considered exponential within the range of applicability and is
suitableforrelativelysimplesurvivalprobabilitymodels[Klinkrad2006]. Figure73,taken
from[Penson2003]showsthepredictedcumulativefluxat1000kmaltitude,computedwith
ORDEM2000,asemiempiricalengineeringmodeldevelopedbytheNASAJohnsonSpace
Center that includes short term predictions for LEO, based upon remote and insitu
observations.Accordingtothismodel,at300km,a30kmlong0.5mmdiametertethercan
expectanimpactofapproximately0.001particleofitsowndiameterinsidethedurationof
oneorbit(90minutes).
Avarietyofresultsisavailablefromgroundtestingfromwhichacriticalimpactordiameter
canbeestimated.ExtrapolationsbySabathfrommeasurementsupto15km/sindicatethata
meteoroidof53%

ofthetetherdiametercansufficetoseveranuntensionedorlightlyloaded
tether(5%oftensilestrength)[Sabath1996.I,II].Sabathestimated,incontrast,thatadebris
particle needs to be on the average 81% of the tether diameter to be >90% destructive.
Penson & Burchell have found that a glass ball with 254um diameter and a velocity of
5km/siscapableofseveringasampleofthe0.5mmDyneemaYES2tether[Penson2003].
Calculation of tether survivability from this type of experimental data is not a trivial
exercise.Theimpactriskistobeintegratedovertherangeofaspectangles.Foreachangle,
fromanorbitalenvironmentperspective,adifferentfluxandenergydistributionofdebris
andmeteoroidsmayoccur.Foreachimpactoratagivenaspectangle,theeffectiveimpact
surface also differs. Grazing impacts will generally only do partial damage. The radial
distancetothetetherscentralline,withinwhichanimpactingparticlecancutthetether,
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 143
dependsnotonlyontheaspectangleandtetherprojectedwidth,butalsoontheimpactor
diameterandenergy.Theeffectivewidthforcriticalimpactisthusnottriviallydefined.It
ranges from zero (for a particle of critical diameter and energy that requires central and
perpendicularimpact)to,possibly,thesumofradiioftetherandparticle(foralargehighly
energetic particle that cuts the tether even when barely grazing the tether). The total
probability of tether severing is calculated by integration of the impact and severing
probability of all particles larger than the critical diameter [McBride1997, Anz
Meador2001].
In an approximating approach, an effective critical impactor diameter can be defined that
yieldsthesameprobability,whenrelatedsolelytothecoincidingimpactorfluxestimate(as
inFigure73),themissiondurationandthetotalexposedtethersurfacearea,asprojected
perpendiculartoitscenterline.Typicalestimatesofaneffectivecriticalimpactordiameter
rangefrom0.20.5d,withdthetetherdiameter[Hoyt1995,Cosmo1997].
Figure73.Cumulativeparticlefluxat1000km,computedbyORDEM,from[Penson2003]
Forboththecomprehensiveandsimplifiedapproachesitremainschallengingtocombine
flux estimates and impact data to generate reliable models for meteoroid and debris
survivability(seeTable27),partlyduetothelimitedflightdata(Section1.3).TheSEDS2
tetherbrokeafter4days,theremaining7kmsectionremainedintactforafurther54days
untilreentry.TheTiPStetherwasnotcutuntilafter10years.Bothtetherswereunderlow
strain.
Hoyt & Forward [Forward1995] suggest the following model for the Mean Time Before
Failuret
MBF
:
46 . 2
] [
05 . 1
1
[km]
1
[mm] [mm] [years] d d t
km L
f
L MBF
= =

to
(4.24)
where o =9.5810
9
craters/sm
2,
basedon LDEFmeasurements[NASA1991]andf=3.46is
anempiricalparameter.Notetheirregularunits.Asimplealternateformula,adjustedbased
onSEDS2,isthatofCarroll[Carroll1995.I]:
3
[km]
) 3 . 0 [mm] ( [years] + = d t
L
f
MBF
(4.25)
144 Chapter4
Carrollsetsf=1. Forward
6
suggests f=2.85 inordertotakeintoaccountflightdatauntil
1997.
Survivalprobabilitycanthenbecalculatedfromt
MBF
andmissiondurationt
mission
through:
MBF
mission
t
t
e p

=
(4.26)
McBridescomprehensivemodelyieldsaratherconservativeestimateofthesurvivability,
consistentwithSEDS2,butnotwithTiPS.Penson,usingalsosamplesoftheselectedYES2
tether, concludes even more conservatively. According to Sabath, Carroll and
Hoyt/Forward, the cut of the SEDS2 tether should be regarded as an anomalous cut,
probablyduetodebrisoriginatingfromthelaunchoftheexperiment.
SEDS2
(20km,0.75mm)
TiPS(4km,
2mm)
Model Reference
Sabath 486 ~8600
(extrapolated)
Debris&meteoroidsLEO,untensionedtether,
cutwhen90%damaged,basedonimpacttests
Sabath1996
McBride/Taylor 11(8,+16) 295
(230,+440)
Debris&meteoroids,comprehensivemodel
incl.velocitydistributionandpenetration.
McBride1997
Penson 0.6 23 Debris&meteoroidsLEO,ORDEMflux.
Assumingcutwhenhitbyparticlewith
0.25d
tether
from5km/simpacttestsonDyneema.
Penson2003
Carroll,f=1 21 1110 Debris&meteoroidsLEO,empiricalfit. Carroll1995.I
Carroll,f=2.85 60 3166 Debris&meteoroidsLEO,empiricalfit. Seetext
Hoyt/Forward 10 520 Debris&meteoroidsLEOsimplifiedmodel. Eq.4.24
Flight 4 3700 Actualenvironment.
Table27:Tethermeanlifetimemodelestimates(days)versusactualexperiments
TheCarrollmodelwithf=2.85isusedfordebrisimpactestimatesfortheprojectsinthis
thesisasthemostrepresentative,providingthebestmatchtoflightdata.Theriskoftether
cutduringthe30km0.5mmYES2deployment(1kmdayofexposure, Section7.3)isthen
estimated at 0.2%. The particle flux at 300km that provides this same value of impact
probability, as predicted by ORDEM2000, is equivalent to an effective critical impactor
diameterof0.6d.
Longtermtetherbreakup
Afloatingtetherinalonglivedorbit,duetosubsequentrandomimpactswilleventually
breakupinsmallerpiecesthatneedeachtobeindividuallytracked.Figure74demonstrates
this process, as produced by the CutSim simulator (see also Section4.4.2). Since larger
fragments have a greater chance of being cut, the number of large fragments decreases
rapidly.Withinlittleover2yearsa50km0.7mmtetherisbeseveredintofragmentsunder
2kmlength.
6
Privatecommunications1997
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 145
1
11
21
31
41
51
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Number of
fragments
Time [Fortnights]
Length Intervals [FRTL: 0-2-4..38-40 km]
Figure74.CutSimsimulationofa50km,0.7mmtetherbreakupduetometeoroidsanddebrisin
LEO(scalecutoffat11fragmentsperlengthinterval.FRTL=FromRightToLeft).
Flatandmultistrandtethers
Proper tether design can increase tether lifetime and delay tether breakup into smaller,
hardtotrackpieces.
Aflatbraidedtetherforexamplehasalongerlifetimethanatubular(round)braid.Thisis
becauseoftheintegrationofseveraleffects.Larger(thusrarer)particlesarenecessarytocut
thetetherimpactingonthefrontside.Atthesametime,smallparticlesimpactingontheflat
sidehavetoimpactatverylowincidence,sotheviewfactorofthevulnerabletetherpartto
the random small particle background is small. However there are relatively more small
particles.Integrationofthecombinedeffectaroundthetethercrosssectioncanbedone,e.g.
usingEq.4.25.Anadditionalpositiveeffectisgainedfromthefactthatthesmallparticlesin
ordertocutthroughthetetherhavetopassthroughthewholewidthofthetether,whereas
tests have shown that small particles often get stopped within the tether itself
[Sabath1996.I].Tethertapesmanufacturedfromfilmmaterialcanbemuchthinnerstill,and
thushavebetterlifetimeperformancefromaperspectiveofparticlesurvivability.
Multistrand tethers provide further improved performance. The simplest type is the
doublestrandtetherorCarrollCaduceus,whichhashoweverthesplicelocationasasingle
pointfailure.Onestepmorecomplexisthetriplestrandtether, Figure75.Thestrandsare
connectedtooneanotherinmultipleplaces(nodalpoints),hundredsofmetersapart.When
oneofthelinesiscut,anothertakesover.Theprobabilityofalllinesbeingcutbetweentwo
nodal points is very slim. More elaborate netlike structures such as the Hoytether have
146 Chapter4
been proposed and prototyped by Forward & Hoyt and have the potential of increasing
lifetimebymanyordersofmagnitude[Forward1995].
Multistrandtetherscomewithsomechallenges.Itisnotyetclearwhetherthemultiplelines
canbekeptaparteffectivelyinspace.Buildupofstaticchargeincaseofmechanicaltethers
will provide for a separating force, however, a twist in the tether may make the tether
locally vulnerable. In case of conducting tethers, there will be an attraction force in two
current carrying strands. Active separators may be required. Construction, winding and
deploymentisnottrivialandrathercostlybuthasbeensuccessfullydemonstratedfore.g.
YES(Section5.3.7).

Figure75:Principleoftriplestrandtether.Itisshowntosurvivethreecuts.
Survivalprobabilityofmultistrandtethersisapproximated.ConsideratotaltetherlengthL,
withnnodes,eachnodeprovidingalengthofsofineffectivelyseparatedtether.Underthe
conservative assumption that, at s, an impact that cuts a single tether line also cuts the
combined bundle, Eq.4.27 is derived to estimate survival probability for the double and
triplestrandtetherdesign[DeltaUtec2001]:
( ) s s l p s l l p n p
l p s p n p
s
n
L
l
e p
nd triplestra
dualstrand
t L
t
MBF
mission
) 2 ( ) 2 ( 1
) ( 1
1

2
2
3

+ + + ~
+ ~
=
=

(4.27)
As anexample, for a 6000mtetherinorbitfor1month, thesurvival probability for four
differentdesignswithidenticalmassiscomparedinTable28:
1. singleroundtetherd=0.43and0.8mm,
2. flattether(tape)axb=0.05x0.75and0.1x1.4mm,
3. CarrollCaduceusdoublestrand,d=0.3and0.56mm,n=50,s=2m,
4. triplestrandtether,d=0.245and0.46mm,n=120,s=2m.
Table 28 also indicates the average projected width that affects atmospheric drag (and
lifetime),thermalbalanceandsolarpressureeffectsonthetether.Thedoubleroundtether
performsanorderofmagnitudebetterthanasinglestrand,whereasthetripletetherhas
alreadyveryminorcutrisk.Asinglestrandtetherprovidessufficientsurvivabilityforshort
missionsandallowsforanextensivetestcampaign.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 147
Equalmasstethertypes Dimension Riskofcutestimate(%over1month)
Averageprojected
width[%]
0.83kg(6km) 2.9kg(6km)
Singleround 100 38 13
Tape 227 17 4.7
Doubleround <141 3.7 1.2
Tripleround <173 0.11 0.012
Table28.Tetherdesigncomparison(cutrisk)
4.3.2 Otherdegradationmechanisms
Inthe1990s,anESAAlertwasreleasedrelatedtostrengthlossesreportedduetolongtermUV
exposureinaspacerepresentativeenvironment[Matcham1998].Indeedalossofstrengthof
43% in 83equivalent solar days was reported, accompanied by a reduction of the materials
breakstrain.Forveryshortmissionsormissionsdrivenbymeteoroid/debrissurvivabilitythis
decreaseinperformancemaynotberelevant.
UV/VUVtestingperformedinthecontextofthisthesisconfirmsdegradationchemistrythrough
significantcoloration(yellowing)but,duetocrosslinking,littlemasslossoccurssuchthatlow
tensionintegrityseemssecured(Section4.4).
TheeffectoftheLEOspaceenvironmentandparticularatomicoxygendegradationonpolymers
was studied on the LDEF platform. This unmanned free flying spacecraft on which several
polymersweremounted,wasexposedfor69monthstoaLEOspaceenvironmentandfound
similar degradation results for the various relevant polymers. A material of 1mm thickness
would erode in about 3years at 333km (LDEF End of Life) vs. 30years at 467km (LDEF
BeginningofLife)[NASA1991].
4.3.3 Thermalloadingduringfrictionbraking
Another possible threat to tether deployment is overheating of the tether. If a tether
deploymentiscontrolledbyfriction,thismeanskineticenergyofthedeployedequipmentis
being dissipated and will be converted into heat Q, concentrated at the friction surface
betweenbrakeandtether.Assuminginitiallyequaltemperaturesforbrakeandtether,asthe
brake heats up, and fresh tether keeps being fed over the friction surface, a fraction
1 5 . 0 < <n
of this heat will flow into the tether, as was indeed observed in vacuum tests
[Carroll1995.I]. Athighdeploymentvelocities, canbeexpectedtoapproach0.5(equal
distribution of heat at contact surface). The rise in temperature AT for a tether with heat
capacityc
p
canthenbeestimatedasfollows:
148 Chapter4
p
p
c
F
T
L m
L F Q
c m
Q
T

= A
A =
A = A

A
= A
p
n
p
n
(4.28)
Assuming the tether cross section A is designed to deal with the maximum tension
occurringduringthedeploymentbyaFactorofSafetyF
S
withrespecttothematerialbreak
strength,andamaterialvolumetricdensityofp
V ,
thisriseintemperaturecanbeexpressed
intermsofmaterialproperties,independentofthetethercrosssection,deploymentprofileor
endmass:
p V
br
S
V
br
c F
T
A
A
FS
F

= A
=
=
p
o n
p p
o
(4.29)
ThismeansthatforexampleforDyneema(Table18, c
p
=1850J/kgK),andaF
S
=10,the
tethertemperaturecanbeexpectedtorisebetween75and150degreesduetodeployment
friction,whichcanbeanissueconsideringthemeltingpointof150C.
Inreality,theheatwillnotdistributethroughoutthetetherequallyintheshorttimeofbrake
passage,andlocallyitwillgetevenmorehot,especiallyathighdeploymentvelocities.For
Dyneema,axialthermalconductivityexceedstransverseconductivitybyafactor100.At
standstillthetetherwilllocallyapproachthebrakesurfacetemperature,soitisimportantto
keepthebrakecool.Tetherdesignsafetyfactorsmayhavetobeadjustedtodealwiththe
frictionheating.Alternatively,thesectionoftetherthatissubjecttotheheaviestbrakingcan
be manufactured from Kevlar or Zylon. Note that deployment from a reel avoids these
thermalissuesforthetetheraltogether,astheheatdissipationtakesplacewithinthereeling
mechanism.
Note also that after deployment, the tether generally cools down quickly due to thermal
radiationintoopenspace.Acylindricaltetherirradiatedononeside(projectedareaA
proj
)
maximallybytheSunwithQ
Sun
,andfacedtoopenspaceontheoppositeside,willfinditself
underthefollowingheatbalance:
4
4
B
Sun
Sun proj B
Q
T
Q A T A
o t c
o
o co

=
=
(4.30)
WiththeBoltzmanconstanto
B
=5.6710
8
Wm
2
K
4
andaQ
Sun
=1400Wandtetherproperties
asinSection4.1.1,aDyneematethersequilibriumtemperatureis208Kor55C.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 149
4.3.4 Designsafetyfactors
There is no simple generally valid safety factor for selection of tether diameter
[Lansdorp2006].Ithasbeenshownthatitisnotsufficienttotakethefiberstrengthwitha
common engineering safety factor based on tension due to nominal deployment and
centrifugalforces.Stressconcentrationsfrombraidingandclampinghavesignificantimpact
on the strength. Friction braking exerts local heat loads (Section4.3.3). A sudden stop of
deploymentleadstoatension peak (Eq.4.15), which will be high atshorttetherlengths.
Tetherfailuremayneedtobeacceptedandcanevenbebeneficialinsuchacase.Forlong
durationmissions,materialdegradationmayhavetobetakenintoaccount.Insomecases,
thediameterhastobedesignedbasedonimpactsurvivability.Strengthofmultiplestrands
in combined tethers cannot just be added, as they will not be equally loaded. Table 29
providesanoverviewoftheconsiderations.
Factor Impactonsafetyfactor Applicability Reference
Temperature Eq.4.29 Sectionoftethersubjectedtohigh
frictionbrakeload.
Section4.3.3
Survivability MinimaldiameterfromEq.4.25. Thintethers/longdurationmissions. Carroll1995.I
Braid/Effectivetether
diameter
Factor1.42.3 Allbraids.
Splicesshouldbetested.
Section4.1.3
Clamping/knots/small
bendingradius
Factor2 Avoidifpossible. Section4.1.3
AtomicOxygen 0.33mmperyearofmission
durationat333km.
Multiyearduration,lowaltitude
(<500km),thintethermission
(particularlymultistrand).
NASA1991
Ultravioletdegradation Factor1.4for1month,factor
2forlongdurationmission.
Thintethers. Matcham
1998
Shockduetodeployment
snag
Eq.4.15,margindependson
knowledgeoftetherproperties.
Partofdeploymentwheretether
integritymustbemaintained.
Section4.2.2
Deploymentcontrol
overshoot,irregularities
infriction/deployment
mechanism
Suggestedengineeringdesign
factor1.251.5onmaximum
deploymenttensiondepending
ontestsandsimulations.
Ifdeploymenttensionisdrivingfactor.
Table29.Summaryoftetherdesignfactors
4.4 Reducing collision risk by environmental
disintegration
An important limitation to tether mission design remains that a safe altitude must be
selected and that, in case of some failure, the tether should be cut loose from both
endmasses to reduce lifetime and collision risk with operational satellites (Section3.3).
150 Chapter4
Tether missions have indeed been cancelled because of perceived or calculated risk to in
particulartheInternationalSpaceStation(Section1.3).
Atethermaterialthatfullydegradesafteritsusefullifetimewouldrendervoidsuchrisks
and would open the way for inherently safe and much less limited use of tethered
momentum transfer. SpaceMail could be performed from higher altitudes within LEO.
Applicationsinhighlyellipticalorbits[e.g.Ockels1996]wouldbecomefeasible,aswellas
demonstration missions for more ambitious applications (Section1.2). In this section, the
searcheffortforsuchamaterialisreported.
Aselectionofcandidatetethermaterialsampleshasbeentestedinvacuumchambersunder
UV and VUV exposure. The samples have been chemically characterized to describe the
processes that have occurred and the mass loss has been quantified. Based on the result,
adjustmentstothematerialshavebeenmadeandnew,conclusivetestsareperformed.
4.4.1 Requirements
Thematerialwouldhavetobeafiberorthinlinematerial, practicalforhandlingduring
productionandtesting,light,stiffandstrongduringthehourstodaysofoperation,yetit
wouldfullyevaporateinapredictablewaywhenexposedtothespaceenvironmentfora
significantly extended time. Three possible degradation mechanisms for a tether come to
mind.
Firstly,thetethercouldbedesignedtobreakintolargeloosepieces,hundredsofmetersin
length,thateachhaveafavorableareaovermassratio.Acommontethermaterialcouldbe
interspersed with small parts of degradable material. The strength and stiffness
requirementsforthatmaterialcanberelativelylowinthisconcept.Itishoweverprobably
preferabletoonlyreleasetheendmassesfromthetether.Trackingoftherogueobjectwill
thus be simpler and the tether end will dip deeper towards the atmosphere by gravity
gradient,acceleratingdeorbit.
Analternativeapproachwouldusecommonmaterialfibersboundbyabinderthatwould
evaporateordegrade,leavingbehindacloudofrelativelyharmlessmicrofilaments.Small
dustparticleshowevercanstillimpartsignificantdamagetosatellites.Discussionswiththe
space debris committee indicate that nevertheless this degradation mechanism could be
acceptable
7
.
Thefinalandmostdefinitesolutionwouldbeafullbreakdownofthetetherintomolecules.
Thismethodrequiresaflexible,degradablematerialandshouldlikelybebasedonexisting
fiber materials. Based on promising indications from existing degradable materials and
considering the added potential of an aggressive space environment, this first search has
limiteditselftosuchacompletedegradationmechanism.
Thedegradationtimeforthesearchedmaterialmustbeshortenoughtosufficientlylimit
thecollisionriskwithothersatellites(Section3.2.3),andlongerthanthemissionduration
consideringasuitablesafetyfactor(Section4.3.4).A6monthdegradationperiodistargeted
7
Private communications W. Flury (ESOC) 1999
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 151
asanacceptablemaximum,equivalenttoO(10
2
)collisionriskfollowinganalreadyunlikely
eventofmissioncontingency.
DegradationprocessescurrentlyinuseonEarth,i.e.photooxidationandbiodegradation,
arenotdirectlyapplicableinabsenceofoxygenandbioactivity,butitisinitiallyassumed
thattheaggressivespaceenvironmentcanprovideanalternativemechanism.Asindicated
in Section4.3, erosion by atomic oxygen and degradation by both Ultra Violet (UV) and
VacuumUV(VUV)arethedestructiveprocessesthataremosteffectiveinspace.Uptonow,
mostspaceapplicationresearchhasfocusedontheeffectsofandprotectionagainstatomic
oxygen.HoweverforthematerialtobeeffectiveoutsidethelowerregionsofLEO,itmust
be degradable by UV & VUV only. Ideally the reactions should take place at passive
equilibriumtemperaturesofthetether,whichcanbecontrolledbysomeextentbyaddition
ofIRabsorberstothematerial.
4.4.2 Mechanicsofdegradation
Inadvanceoftestplanning,itisconsideredusefultogainsomeinsightintothemechanics
ofdegradationforlongmoleculesduetorandomscissions,andinparticularthepresenceof
incubation before the onset of evaporation. Based on discussions with Gijsman
[Kruijff1999.II]asimplemodelisdeveloped,CutSim,toperformscissionsimulationsfora
qualitativeunderstanding.Moleculepartsthathavebecomeshorterthanagivenfractionof
themoleculelengthareassumedtoevaporate.CutSimassumesthemoleculestobeneatly
alignedandshieldingtheonesbehindfromincomingphotons(Figure76),i.e.apenetration
depthofasinglemolecule.Themodelisoptimisticinthesensethatcrosslinkingbetween
affectedmoleculesdoesnotoccur.Crosslinking(orgelforming)createsintricate,weblike
molecular structures that affect the materials mechanical properties and counteract the
scission effect. It makes evaporation highly unlikely. Based on typical values for the
considered polymers, evaporation is assumed to occur at 1/3000th of molecule length.
Figure77andFigure78displaythetypicalmassdegradationfunctionforasinglemolecule.
Figure76.Scissionschematicofperformed
simulations. Molecule 1, receiving yet
anotherscission,isnowcutupinto4pieces
ofwhichonehasevaporated.
Figure77.Exampleofdistributionofparticle
sizeforamoleculeinalayerunderUVradiation,
asafunctionoftime.
152 Chapter4
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of cuts [x 100]
M
a
s
s

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

l
e
f
t

[
%
]
Figure78.Masslossvs.timeofasinglelong
moleculebeingcutatrandombyUV
(qualitativeshapeonly)
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0 10 20
Number of random scissions (x1000)
M
a
s
s

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
e
d

[
%
]


Figure79.Masslossvs.timeofalayerof
10000longmoleculesunderUV
Foramultilayeredflatsurface(here10,000moleculesthick),thegeneraltrendisthatapart
from a very brief incubation time relative to the time required for total mass loss, as
expected,massdegradationwillbevirtuallylinearwithtime, Figure78.Suchatrendwas
for example found by Brinza [Brinza1991], who recorded an onset for Teflon linear
degradationunderVUV(accelerationfactor4)after60days.Notethatforamorerealistic,
larger penetration depth the incubation time will be significantly longer, whereas total
degradationtimewillbehardlyaffected.Foramaterialtodegradefullywithinmonthsitis
thereforelikelyto,forallpurposes,remainintactduringthetethermissiontimeoforder
days.
4.4.3 Degradationchemistry
IntheEarthenvironmentallpolymersshowUVdegradationduetothecombinedeffectsof
photolysisandoxidativereactions,thelattergenerallybeingthedominantprocess.Photo
oxidativedegradationisduetoaradicalbasedautooxidativeprocess[Kruijff1999.II]. The
lifetimeofpolymerscanbecontrolledbyadditivesorchangingthemolecularstructureofthe
polymer.Inmostcasesanenlargementofthelifetimeisrequired,whichisachievedbyadding
stabilisers.However,additivescanalsobeusedtodecreasethepolymerlifetime,mostlybased
onenhancingtheoxidativereactions.
Besidesphotooxidationdirectphotolysiscanleadto(accelerate)thedegradationofpolymers.
Socalled chromophores within the polymer materials absorb wavelengths of the sunlight
spectrum, of which only wavelengths above 290nm have sufficient energy to cause a
dissociative(cleavage)processresultingindegradation.Chromophorescantakeamultitudeof
forms.Theycanbeinternalinchainimpuritiessuchashydroperoxidesorcarbonylsformed
during storage, processing or weathering or external impurities as polymerisation catalyst
residues,additives(e.g.pigments,dyesorantioxidants),pollutantsfromtheatmosphereormetal
tracesfromprocessingequipment.Theycanalsobepresentaspartsofthemolecularstructureof
thepolymeroraschargetransfercomplexesbetweenoxygenandthepolymerchain.
In space different conditions apply from those in an ambient atmosphere that affect
degradationprocesses.Becauseoftheverylowconcentrationofmolecularoxygenthephoto
oxidativedegradationwillhardlytakeplace.Furthermore,highvacuumcausesoutgassingof
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 153
anygaseousadditivestothetethermaterial.Ontheotherhand,highlyenergeticwavelengths
below290nm,untilabout200nm,arepresentinsunlightinspaceastheyarenotabsorbed
bytheozonelayer.Photolysiscanonlyoccurwhenlightisabsorbedandtheenergyofthe
absorbedwavelengthishigherthanthebonddissociationenergy.Themajorityofpolymers
show only limited absorption above 290nm, but it is increasing for shorter wavelengths.
Theenergyofthesewavelengthsisingeneralhigherthanalotofbonddissociationenergies
suchasthoseofCCandCH.Evenshorterwavelengthsaround160nmcontainsufficient
energyto breakC=Cand C=Obonds[Kruijff1999.II].Thus in space photolysiswill beof
muchgreaterimportancethanonEarth.
Hydrocarbonslikepolyethylene(PE)andpolypropylene(PP)onlyshowUVabsorptionbelow
250nm,radiationwhichisabsorbedbyEarthsatmosphere.Thusthesematerialswillnotshow
photolysisinanEarthenvironment,butcanundergophotolysisinspace.Thisphotolysisisa
processthatincludesvariousscission,transferandcrosslinkingmechanisms(Figure80).
Figure80.Photolysismechanismsforpolyethylene.
Forketones,estersandamidesthemostimportantphotolysisreactionsaretheNorrishIandII
reactions [Kruijff1999.II]. The NorrishI reaction lead to chain cleavage and radicals. In the
presenceofoxygentheseradicalswillstarttheoxidationandcanthusacceleratedegradation
significantly.However,crosslinkingisoftenverylikely.TheNorrishIIreactionleadtochain
cleavageandanunsaturationinthechainwithouttheformationofradicals.Inanoxygenpoor
environment,NorrishIIwillbethedominantcleavagereaction.
Notethattheenergytoactivatephotochemicalreactionscomesfromtheabsorbedlight,which
meansthattherateofphotolyticreactionsshouldnotdependontemperature.Howeverforthe
NorrishIandIIreactioninpolymersitisfoundthattheirratedependsontemperate,whichis
explainedbytheinfluenceoftemperatureonthemobilityofchainsinthepolymer.Theinfluence
oftemperatureonthequantumyield(amountofreactions/absorbedphotons)oftheNorrishII
reaction is especially noticeable at low temperatures. For example the quantum yield for a
H
H
Chain scission
Hydogen transfer
Cross-linking
Chain scission
154 Chapter4
polyethylene CO copolymer containing 1% of CO decreases from its high temperature
value above 25C to zero at 150C [Hartley1968]. Temperatures in this range could be
expectedinspaceforuntaintedpolymers(Section4.3.3).
4.4.4 Polymerdegradationresearch
OnlylimitedtestshavesofarbeenperformedinspaceorongroundonisolatedUV/VUV
effectsonpolymers.
Inspace,mostmaterialdegradationinformationisbasedontheLongDurationExposure
Facility[NASA1991].OnthetrailingsideofLDEFthatwasshieldedfromAO,andexposed
toUVforaboutayear,sampleswerepresentofPE,Hostaphan&Mylarpolyester,PET&
PA6/6. Unfortunately no mass loss results have been published and the samples are no
longeravailable.
OneofthemorerelevantLDEFexperiments,S1006,waslocatedonthesidereceiving6500
EquivalentSunHours(ESH),withatemperaturebetween21and+51C.Onthesidesit
receivedabout1/200thoftheramAOflux,foundinsignificant.Thisexperimentcontained
samplesoffilmsofpolyethylene,polyester,nylonaswellasKevlarfibers.Branchingand
crosslinkingwasfoundforpolyethylenewhilecrystallinitydecreasedby40%65%.Thermal
cycling and UV heat dissipation caused microgravity surface melt showing up as
microscopicspheres[Letton1991].
TheexperimentFRECOPAwasontheLDEFtrailingedge,andthusshieldedfromAO,soit
is possible to see the influences of UV alone. No erosions were reported (or measured),
although materialsamplesofKapton,FEP,FEP/AgandPSBwereexposedfor11110ESH
[Durin1991].
TestshavealsobeenperformedatESA/ESTEConKevlarandDyneema

underUV,because
ofthedegradingeffectsonthestrengthofbothmaterials.Alsohere,nomassmeasurements
were made [Matcham1998]. Grossman performed a test of VUV (115300nm) and its
interaction with 50100eV AO, for 20Equivalent Sun Hours (ESH) [Grossman1997]. He
concluded that PE degrades little by VUV, but VUV causes crosslinking that negatively
affects the AOinduced mass loss. For FEP Teflon however, a degradation rate several
ordersofmagnitudehigherwasnoted,aswellasasynergisticdegradingeffectofVUVwith
AO.
Considerable information is available from ground tests for FEP Teflon [George1991,
Cross1994],amaterialknownasUVresistant.Masslossmeasurementhavebeendoneon
FEP Teflon [Brinza1991], a 0.1 gram film of 2 mil thickness exposed for 92 days at an
accelerationfactorof4.FEPismostsensitiveforthe121nmpeakinVUV(hydrogenLyman
alpha emission) of the Solar spectrum. In a similar process as produced inFigure 79 the
resultsshowa60dayinductionbeforealinearmassloss,ofupto5%.Scissionismostly
present in CC (chain scission) and CarbonFluorine bonds. Embrittlement of the surface
layersuggestahighcrosslinking.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 155
4.4.5 Materialselection
Aselectionofpolymersfortestingisthereforemadebasedonthecharacteristicsforboth
UVabsorptionandphotolysis,andlowexpectedlevelsofcrosslinking.Asdevelopmentof
newmaterialsliesoutsidethescopeoftheeffort,availabilityisanotherselectioncriterion.
Since FEP Teflon is considered a material resistant to the space environment, it has been
concludednoclearlysuitablematerialscanbeidentifiedfromliterature.
Forhydrocarbonphotolysis,theratiobetweenchainscissionandcrosslinkingwilldependon
theradicalformationrate,thehighertheconcentrationofradicals(indicatedasdotsinFigure80)
themoreprobablecrosslinkingbecomes.TertiaryradicalsaswillbeformedinPP(referringto
thetertiarycarbonatomintherepeatunit,outsidethemainchain)arelesslikelytocrosslink
thanmainchain(secondaryandprimary)radicals,whichareformedinPE[Kruijff1999.II].
Forthemorecomplexpolymers,theexpectedbehaviorregardingtheNorrishreactionshasbeen
considered.
Polyestersandpolyamides couldbepromising,astheyshowalargerUVabsorption
thanhydrocarbons,especiallythe(partly)aromaticpolymers.
For polybutylene terephthalate, Norrish II and I reactions lead to methyllactone
[Rivaton1993],whichmightevaporateandpreventcrosslinking.
E/CO (ethylenecarbonmonoxide), polyketone, is prone to photolysis at the the CO
group.TheethylenecarbonmonoxidepartcanhoweveronlyundergotheNorrishI
reaction.Becauseofthehighconcentrationofketonegroupscrosslinkingisverylikely.
Ifpropylenecarbonmonoxideisalsopresent,ase.g.inCarilon,thatwillundergoboth
NorrishIandIIreactions,soherelesscrosslinkingandmorescissionattheCOgroups
isexpected[Andreopoulos1994].E/COmaterialswithhigherpropylenefractionthan
Carilon(lessthan7%)areunfortunatelynotavailable.
Polyacrylatesarepolymersthatcontainheteroatoms(e.g.OorN)inthesidechain.
UnderUV,theestersgroupsundergomostlyNorrishIbutalsoNorrishIIreactions
followedbydifferentconsecutivereactions.Thephotolysisofpolyacrylatesleadsto
crosslinkingtoalargeextent,howeverthephotolysisofpolymetacrylatesmainlyleads
tochainscission,whichisalsotruefore.g.polybutylmetacrylates,PBMA.
Duetolackofavailability,limitedsuitabilityformanufacturingoftethersortoxicity,some
promisingmaterialswerenotconsideredastethermaterialoption.
PBMA, polybutyl methacrylate, has been used for deploying spherical netlike
antennastructuresinthe1960s[Stimler1968],butnofiberscanbemadeformthis
cellophanelikematerial.Ithasbeentheonlymaterialthatwasfoundduringthe
literature search of which large scale and rapid degradation can be confirmed,
about1mminamonthat138C. Perhapsafurtherdevelopmentofthismaterial
withdifferentgroupsreplacingthebutylgroup,couldbepromising
8
.
8
JohnOldsonforNASA,privatecommunications2000
156 Chapter4
Polysilaneshavevery high quantumdegradationyieldsandcan bemadeinto a
fiber.However, theUVabsorptionofthispolymerislowsoadditiveswouldbe
required.Thematerialisveryhardtoproduceandconsequentlyhighpriced.
FormulaC(Polyisopropene)isanESAsponsoreddevelopment(Ref.260,ESAT.E.S.T.
program),butistoorubberytomakefibersfrom.Ithasneverthelessbeenincludedin
thebelowreportedtests,yetonlysamplesexposedtoopenairconditionswerefound
todegrade.
Poly(pphenylene2,6benzobisoxazole) (PBO, Zylon) is a rigidrod isotropic crystal
polymer.AlsoM5isarigidrodpolymer(AKZONobel).Ithasnotbeenpossibleto
obtain samples. These materials look like polymeric UVstabilisers, although PBO
strengthisknowntodegradesignificantlywithUVexposureonEarth,possiblydueto
involvementofoxidativereactions.
From these considerations, a selection was made of materials suitable for fiber
manufacturing,aslistedinTable30.
Polymers UV
absorp.
Mechanism Exp.
rate
Crosslinking Description
PE Low Hydrocarbon Low Possible Polyethylene(e.g.Dyneema)
PP Low Hydrocarbon Low Notexpected Polypropylene
Aramide High Norrish1 ? Likely E.g.Kevlar,Twaron
PA6 Med Norrish1&2 Med <PE Polyamide(e.g.Nylon)
PET High Norrish1&2 High Probable Polyethyleneterephthalate.
PBT High Norrish1&2 High <PE,PA6,PET Polybutyleneterephthalate
PolyketonA Norrish1&2 Med Likely Carilon.Ethylene&7%polypropylene
alternatingwithCOin50%molfraction.Sample
containsUVstabilizers
PolyketonB Med Norrish1&2 Med Possible E/CO,polyethyleneinwhich~1%ofCOis
polymerised.
Table30.SelectedUVdegradabletetherpolymermaterials
4.4.6 Explorativetestingofselectedpurematerials
The selected pure materials have been subjected to a simulated space environment
[Kruijff1999.II],inathermalvacuumwithout(atomic)oxygenexposedtoUVlamplight.
VUVandUVtestshavebeenperformedinseparatechambersatESTECQMC.Masslossis
theprimarymeasurementbutalsohumidity,temperatureandvisualchangesarenotedat
every stage and chemical analysis is performed on the samples e.g. to understand the
amountofcrosslinking.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 157
For each of the two tests a batch of samples has been prepared. The samples consist of
mostlyfilms,butalsosomefibersandtethersforcomparison.Thicknessofthefilmsranges
from 30200um. They are sized about 40150mg at 515cm
3
(UV) and 1050mg at 3cm
2
(VUV).Foreverymaterialwithineachbatch,threesamplesareprepared:thefrontsample
(exposedtoUVorVUV);thebacksample(notexposedtolight,butinthermalvacuum);the
referencesample(keptinconditionedambientenvironmentwithoutlight).
The spectraofthe UVandVUVlamps are displayedinFigure81. Becausethe UVlamp
spectrum is quite wideband, acceleration factors have been determined based on
measurementsinfourbandsusingaMicroPulseIntelliradMP300(Table31).Thespectrum
ofthelampused shouldbecomparable to that of thesolar spectruminspace(including
VUV).
Because of the high lightintensity, in the UV test good thermal contact is necessary to
controltemperatureandavoidmelt.Thereforethesampleshavebeenmountedtoacurved
coppersampleholderusingpiecesof(acrylic)secondsurfacetape.Thetemperatureoftwo
Dyneema reference samples (front/back) and that of the sample holder are monitored
during the tests with a PT100 thermistor. The difference in temperature with the other
samplesisestimatedthroughathermalmodeltobetentotwentydegrees,mainlydueto
thedifferenceincontactpressure.IntheVUVchamber,hardlyanyheatisproduced,and
thesampleshavebeenclampedusingsmallaluminumbars.Temperatureismeasuredusing
a PT100 in a sample of Polyketon B. Temperatures are selected in somewhat above the
average of the expected tether application range (100C to +50C), as more chemistry is
expectedathighertemperatures.
TheUVonlytesthasbeenperformedinESTECsBakeoutfacilityatanaccelerationfactor
of 11.5, for a duration of 5days. The VUV testing is performed in the smaller SoRaSi
facility,withanaccelerationfactorof2030,foradurationof7days.
Wavelengthband[nm] Sun[W/m
2
] Acceler.factor
UVA 320390 40.7 0.66
UVB 270360 37.9 0.77
UVB1 260340 15.5 1.09
UVC 220290 2.6 1.62
Table31.CalculatedsolaraccelerationfactorUVtestsetup
Boththetotalandrecoveredmasslossaredetermined.Justafterthetestwhenthesamples
arestilldryfromthevacuum,theweightofboththefrontandbacksampleismeasuredand
comparedwiththeirweightsbeforetheexposure.Subtractionoftherelativeweightlossof
thebacksamplefromthatofthefrontsampleshouldmakeupfortheeffectsofhumidity
andoutgassing(assumedidenticalforbothsamples)andprovideameasurefordegradation
only.Afterseveraldaysinacontainedandcontrolledenvironment,thesampleswillhave
absorbedwaterandaweightmeasurementoftheexposedsamplescanbecomparedwith
158 Chapter4
theweightofthatsamplebeforetestinthesameenvironment,annullingthehumidityeffect
andprovidingatotalmeasureforoutgassingplusdegradation.Foreachmaterialthemass
dependencyonhumiditybetween54%and65%ischaracterizedandusedtocorrectforany
differenceinambienthumidityofthebeforeandaftermeasurements(rangingfrom54to
58%).
Figure81.Sunandmeasuredlampspectra
Todeterminethedegradationmechanismtwotypesofanalysishavebeenperformedonthe
UVtestsamplesatDSMResearch.FourierTransformInfrared(FTIR)andGelPermeation
Chromatography (GPC). The first one gives information about the photochemistry, the
secondoneabouttheconsequence(chainscissionorcrosslinking).TheGPCmeasurement
isdestructiveasthesampleneedstobedissolved.Itcanonlybeperformedforafewofthe
materials(PET,PBT & PA),as thepolyolefins requiredifferentequipment.TheECOand
Dyneemasamplescrosslinkduringthetest,thepartthatisnotsolubleshowsadecreasein
themolecularweight.PPdoesnotcrosslinkandshowsomechaincleavage.
TheresultsofthetestarereportedinTable32,Figure83andFigure84.
TheopticaleffectsoftheUVtestshownosurprises:PPisexpectedtochangecoloronlyif
stabilizers are present, which is probably not the case. The other colorings are due to
chemicalchangesinthematerialitself.ForVUVthewhitepowderishsubstanceonthePP
suggestsdegradation, atwhichparticlesarecreatedof asizeintherange ofvisible light
wavelength.ItisthereforequitepossiblethattheseparticlesaretransparenttoVUVandthe
underlyingmaterialwillcontinuetodegrade.
As to compare the different samples, the mass measurements have been translated into
degradationtimepermillimeterofmaterial.Itisseenthatdegradationisnotsufficientifthe
measurementsofthistestarerepresentativeforlongtermexposure.Atleast12ordersof
magnitudeimprovementisrequired.TheVUVdegradationratesareverylow,becauseof
thelowintensityoftheradiationintheSunsspectrum.UnderVUVPPdegradesthemost
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 159
of the samples studied. PE degrades very little under VUV (as was already noticed by
Grossman), but reasonably under UV. PBT shows hardly any degradation. As expected
PolyketonB(E/CO)degradesreasonablywellunderUV,butnotunderVUV. Itsquantum
yieldforscission,accordingtoTorontoUniversity,ishigherthanthatforcrosslinking,so
full degradation is eventually expected. Polyketon A, despite the still present stabilizers
showspromisingdegradation.
TheUVdegradationofthemajorityofthesampleshasnotledtonewIRbands.Onlyfor
Polyketon B new bands at 1641and 908cm
1
are found. These bands can be ascribed to
unsaturation,whichareformedaccordingtotheNorrishIIreaction(withoutcrosslinking).
Table 33 shows the GPC results for some nonpolyolefins. The molecules get smaller for
PET, but PA and PBT show no real improvement in molecule mass. This is also clearly
displayedbytheincreaseofinsolublematerial,suggesting(heavy)crosslinking.EvenPET
crosslinks considerably. Note that the corrected fractions of insoluble materials can be
compared,butithastobeconsideredthatPAisverytransparenttoUVandmuchofthe
radiationmusthavejustpassedthrough.PET,PAandPBTcanbeconsiderednotsuitableas
aDUtethermaterial.
Polymers DegradationrateUV
[years/mm]
Degradation
rateVUV
[years/mm]
FTIR GPC Optical(UV) Optical(VUV)
PE 40 78000 Veryslight
difference
Table33 Lightyellow Slightlycolored
PP 110 1200 Nodifference Table33 Unchanged Whitepowderish
substance
Aramide Nottested 1400 Nodifference Novisiblecoloring
Polyamide6 70 10000 Nodifference Figure84
Table33
Lightyellow Slightlycolored
PET 40 11000 Nodifference Figure84
Table33
Brown
yellow
Lightbrownyellow
PBT Degradesatrate
belowmeasurement
accuracy
7500 Nodifference Figure84
Table33
Yellow Slightlycolored
PolyketonA 19 1100 Yellow Yellow
PolyketonB 10 20000 Figure83 Table33 Slightly
yellow
Slightlycolored
Table32.DegradationtestresultsforpolymersunderUV/VUVexposure
160 Chapter4
Figure82.SampleholderinBakeOutfacility
Figure83.IRspectrumchangeforPolyketonB(ECO).
PET PA PBT Dyneema*** ECO*** PP
Mn
ref
[kg/mole] 32 19 21 660 26 135
Mn
sample
22 14 16 87 5.4 65
Mw
ref
[kg/mole] 54 43 34 22000 185 270
Mw
sample
36 81 46 205 26 185
Notdissolvedref[%weight] 0 0 0 0 0 0
Notdissolvedsample* 3 24 7 11 45 0
Notdissolvedsample**[%thick] 9 24 12 22 45*** 0
Mn:moleweightaveragedbynumber,Mw:moleweightaveragedbyweight,*Asmeasured,**Correctedforsample
thicknessesrelativetothatofPA
Table33.Molecularpropertiesforexposedpolymersstudied,fromGPCtest
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 161
Figure84.GelPermeationChromatographyresults(Frombottomtotop:PA6,PA6
ref
,PBT,
PET
ref
,PET,PBT
ref
).
The best candidates left overall are PP and the polyketones. Their behavior might be
improved by adding UV photoinitiators to PP, by increasing the propylene fraction of
PolyketoneAand,possibly,byincreasingtheCOfractioninPolyketoneB.Pretestsinan
ambient environment have also indicated that the Polyketone B degradation strongly
improves at higher temperatures (particularly above the glass temperature of 80C). IR
absorbersmaybeaddedtokeepthismaterialwarminspace.
AsmentionedinSection4.4.2,theremightbeanincubationeffectinthedegradationprocess
that lasts sufficiently long to affect the results in a negative way, i.e., a degradation is
measuredafteraweekofexposurethatislowerthantheactualfinalequilibriumrate.This
incubationeffectcanonlyberelevantfortheUVtestandnotfortheVUVtest,becausethe
VUV test has had an equivalent exposure equal to the total required degradation time.
Furthermore in VUV the penetration depth is very small, so the incubation time will be
smallaswell.
TheincubationtimeforVUVdegradationcanberoughlyestimatedfromtheCutSimresults
withacorrectionfortheUVpenetrationdepth.CutSimassumesapenetrationdepthofa
singlemolecule.Anestimatefortheincubationtimecanbededucedfromthevalueasgiven
by CutSim multiplied by the true and maximum number of molecules passed by during
penetrationofaUVphoton.Itwillalwaysbeanoverestimate,becausepenetrationwillnot
takeplaceatrandomthroughthepenetrationlayer,butwilldecrease(strongly)withdepth.
Therefore the upper part of the layer will receive most scissions and the material will
degradeassomethingbetweenamaterialwithasinglemoleculepenetrationlayer(short
incubation)andonewithrandomlydistributedimpactsthroughoutitsnonzeropenetration
layer(longincubation).
Assumingadensityof1e15moleculespermm
3
andapenetrationlayerof2030um(valid
for PET/PBT. PA, PP, PE will have a much higher penetration and therefore higher
0
1
2
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Log [M]
W
n

[
l
o
g

M
]
PET F PET R
PA6 F PA6 R
PBT F PBT R
162 Chapter4
incubation time), the onedimensional penetration layer is about 2000molecules deep
9
.
Assuminganevaporationatthescissionofa1/3000
th
oftheoriginalmolecule,theincubation
time will be~5000cuts,so anupperestimate oftheincubationtimemaybe 1e7scissions
duration. CutSim (Section4.4.2) predicts that 7000cuts are necessary per molecule when
evaporatinglinearly.Atatypicalmeasureddegradationrateof10100years/mmtherewill
be about 1e7scissions per year into the onedimensional layer. This means that the
incubationtimeupperestimatemaybeaslongas1year.
However,consistencybetweenthedataonwhichtheincubationtimeestimateisbasedand
the incubation time itself precludes such extreme values. It can be reasoned that the
incubation time is rather in the order of weeks, and the results obtained are likely an
underestimateofthetrue(linear)degradationthatwouldoccuroverhalfayearofexposure
[Kruijff1999.II].
4.4.7 UV/VUVexposuretestonenhancedselection
Basedontheresults,alongertesthasbeenperformedonthePolyketoneBandPP,thistime
inUVcombinedwithVUVtounderstandalsocrossinfluences.Consideringtheverymild
degradationratesachievedsofar,thefocusofthissecondtesthasbeenontryingtoobtaina
maximally degrading material to obtain sufficient basis to continue with an optimization
process. Unfortunately the more promising material, Polyketone A, has at this time been
withdrawnbythesupplier.
Variouschangeshavebeenintroducedtoincreasethechancesofsuccessalongtheselines
Table 34.It isdecided to testonlywithfilms, no longerwith tethersamples, astheyare
hardertoproduceandmoredifficulttocontrolthermally.PPisusedwithdifferenttypesof
photoinitiators,inordertomovethedegradationintothemoreabundantUVrange.TheCO
fraction of the other candidate, the Polyketon B (ECOLyte with molecular mass of about
20,000DaltonsbyUniversityofToronto),isincreasedfrom1%to9%.Thisincreaseleadsto
significantdegradationofthemechanicalproperties(thefilmsbreakeasilywhenhandled),
howeverasstatedbefore,theprimarygoalofthesecondcampaignistofindanextreme
datapoint. An additional material, 2% EthyleneMVK (methyl vinyl ketone) has been
provided by Prof. Guillet from the University of Toronto for the second campaign, a
material expected to break down faster than ECOLyte and thus considered a potential
candidateafterthesomewhatsoberingresultsofthefirsttestcampaign.
Astheoriginalsampleholderhasbeendesignedfortethersandlongthinfilms,itcannot
provide sufficient contact for the small thick samples used in the final test. A new all
aluminumsampleholderisthereforedesigned(Figure82).Theinitiatorsusedaregivenin
Table35.ThesamplesusedareshowninTable36.ThetotalUVexposureiscomparableto
thatofthetargetdurationof6monthsinspace.Since33%ofthesamplesisexposedandthe
samplethicknessisonly0.5mm,theexposedareaisintendedtofullyevaporateandideally
amasslossof33%shouldbeobtained.
9
Private communications P. Gijsman, 2000
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 163
The BakeOut Facility has been adapted by ESTEC/QMC to include both UV and VUV
lampsandachieveaconsiderablyhighermaximumUVaccelerationfactor~56(UVB1/C).
Only a single VUVlamp out of the two possible ones is used, such that the acceleration
factorapproximatelymatchesthatoftheUV(i.e.34).
Action Effect
WindowchangedfromSiO2toCaF2 TransparenttoUV,butnowalsotoVUV
Mirrors polished and aluminum tube inserted between lamp
andsamples,sampleholderpositionmovedawayfromlamps
withrespecttotrialruns
IncreaseofaccelerationfactorUVCfrom
11.5(test1)to34
Testdurationincreased 69weeks
*
Samplethicknessincreased 0.5mm
Sample holderredesigned,useofthermocouplesand PT100s,
i.s.o.onlyPT100s
Improvedthermalcontrol(sampletemperaturesin
frontandbackareequal)
Samplechemistry PPwithaddedphotoinitiators,PolyketonBwith
9%COi.s.o.1%
Samplesandplacement Frontandback(noreferencesamples),
9x9x0.5mm,6mmradiuscircularareaexposed.
Temperature 8C,after5weeksraisedto30C,duetofailure
after6weeksat140Cfor16hrs.
*After6weeks,afailureintheLN2supplycauseda16hourriseintemperature,invalidatingtheresultsforsome
samples.**Correctedfraction:(%F%B)*Totalarea/areaexposed
Table34.Testsetupadaptations
Initiator Meltingpoint(C) Vaporpressure
athighT
g/mole Class UVAbsorptionpeaks(nm)
allabsorbVUV(below200)
Irgacure184 4449 High 204 Hydroxyketone,
monomers
240250&320335
Irgacure369 110114 Low 367 Aminoketone 325335
Irgacure500 liquid@room
temperature
High 193 Hydroxyketone,
mixture
240260&375390
Irgacure819 131135 Low 418 BAPO,phosphor
based
360365&405
EsacureKip150 110(flashpoint) Low 205 Polymerichydroxy
ketone,oligomer
208212&240250
Benzophenon Low(boiling
pointat1mHg=
108C)
high low Benzophenon,
monomers
230260&330360
Table35:PhotoinitiatorsusedwithPPduringfinalUVdegradationtesting
164 Chapter4
Material Chemistry %masslossfront %masslossback %(frontback)
PP184.01 V 0.34 0.27 0.07
PP184.1 V 0.34 0.38 0.04
PP1841 V 0.63 0.8 0.18
PP1845 V 2.32 3.2 0.88
PPBEN.01 V 0.29 0.31 0.03
PPBEN.1 V 0.32 0.27 0.05
PPBEN1 V 0.42 0.64 0.23
PPBEN5 V 1.57 2.79 1.22
PPESA.01 C 0.32 0.26 0.06
PPESA.1 C 0.33 0.35 0.02
PPESA1 C 0.54 0.73 0.19
PPESA5 C 1.51 1.57 0.06
PP369.01 C 0.3 0.2 0.09
PP369.1 C 0.36 0.38 0.02
PP3691 C 0.65 0.77 0.12
PP3695 CC 2.85 3.17 0.33
PP819.01 CC 0.28 0.22 0.06
PP819.1 C 0.8 0.77 0.03
PP500.01 V 0.34 0.31 0.03
PP5001 V 0.56 0.82 0.26
MVK 0.33 0.13 0.21
ECO9% 0.53 0.07 0.61
Table 36. Results test second phase (MVK & ECO molten after 66% of exposure time), the
ESA=Esacure,BEN=benzophenon,other=Irgacure.Thefractions(.01,.1,1,5)areinweight%.
Masslossisindicatedaspositive.Thesamplemassisapprox.40mg,theUVexposedfractionis
about33%.V=highvaporpressureinitiator,C=frontcolorization,CC=colorizationbothfrontand
back.
As can be seen from the results in Table 36, despite the measures taken to enhance
degradation,theobservedmasslossispoor,muchlowerthanthe33%target,andfollowsa
distinctpattern.Itmustbetakenintoaccountthatthebrieftemperaturecontrolfailureafter
6weekshasinsomecasesledtoevaporationofthephotoinitiatoradditives(seebelow).The
generaldifferencewiththeearlierresultsmaybeexplainedbythelowertemperature(8C)
andlowerintensityofVUV.ForPPwithoutinitiators,VUVistheonlyeffectivelightsource.
Note also that a smaller surface is exposed for evaporation compared to thickness and
surface of the sample. Because of the clamping of the samples, evaporation is diffusion
limited.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 165
At very low initiator fraction, there is a small relative mass loss of Front samples with
respecttoBack.However,thebacksamples,notexposedtoUV,havelostsignificantlymore
massthancanbeexplainedbythefractionofphotoinitiatoritself.Thismasslossofabout
0.25%canbeseenasanoffsetmasslossduetooutgassingofunknownnature.
Caseswithrelativelyhighmassloss,showalossintheorderof,yetlessthan,thefractionof
photoinitiatoradditive,soevaporationmaybeinvolved.ParticularlyontheBacksamples
thelossesareapproachingthetotalinitiatorcontent.ThenonUVexposedsamplesonthe
back, in most cases, have lost even more mass than the equivalents on the front. This
discrepancybecomeslargerforsampleswithhigherfractionsofphotoinitiatoraswellasfor
samples with initiators that have been identified as evaporationsensitive (i.e. high vapor
pressureinitiatorsIrgacure184,Irgacure500andBenzophenon).
A hypothesis related to the sensitivity of the reaction to light intensity can explain
degradation on the back samples occurring and sometimes even greater than that on the
front.ThelightintensityoraccelerationfactormayhavebeensupraoptimalfortheFront
samples,causingthemtocrosslinkratherthandegrade,whereastheBacksamplesdegrade
becauseofthelowintensityofscatteredlight.Otherthaninearlierteststheholderhasbeen
placedquitebackwardinthechamber,allowingamuchlargerfractionofstraylighttopass
beyond the sample holder. This hypothesis leaves room for optimism to find a UV
degradablematerial.
Inordertoexplaintheparadoxicalresults,arepresentativeselectionoftheexposedsamples
hasbeenfurtheranalyzedbyGijsman (frontandbacksamplesofIrgacure184,0.01%and
5%). The investigations show that at least some light has reached the Back samples and
causedchemistry.TheBacksamplesseemtoshowatleastsomelightrelateddegradation,
since some of them show circular (light) colorizations, other than the expected thermal
colorizationthatwouldcoverthefullsquareofthesample.Spectralmeasurementindicates
absorption of UV in the Front samples after test, providing evidence that some level of
initiatorisstillpresent.GPCtestsshow27%ofcrosslinkingfortheexposedpartofthe5%
Irgacure184Frontsample,compared12%for0.01%Irgacure184.Theinitiatorhastherefore
contributedtoincreasedchemistry,andsignificantcrosslinking,whichmayhaveimpaired
masslossonthefront.
The hypothesis however does not explain how the mass losses on front and back of the
sampleholderformostsamplesareveryclosetoeachother.Italsodoesnotexplainbyitself
why the samples with lower initiator mole mass (high vapor pressure) show the largest
differencebetweenFrontandBacksamples.
Theobservationsinfactsuggestthatevaporationoftheinitiatorandthepolymermaterial
has dominated the measurements. This explains why the mass loss on the Back samples
seemssoclosetotheconcentrationofphotoinitiators,asidefromthe0.25%offset.TheFront
samplesmayhavebecomepluggedbyUVreactionproducts,blockingfurtherevaporation
ofinitiator.
166 Chapter4
To verify this hypothesis, three different outgassing reference tests have been devised,
withoutexposuretoUV.TheyareperformedbyESTEC/QMC[Guyt2001].
Firstly, a continuous massloss measurement in vacuum is performed of unexposed, 5%,
Irgacure369(lowvaporpressure) andBenzophenon (high vaporpressure)fora seriesof
temperatures:10,9,30,125C(each24hrsat10
6
mbar).Thepurposeistofindoutwhether
and at which point during the earlier tests evaporation of initiator has taken place. The
results indicated that outgassing only causes significant weight loss when sample
temperature is increased from 30 to 125C. As expected, the high vapor pressure
Benzophenon shows a little greater tendency to evaporate already at 30C. It can be
concluded thatthe initiators were stillfullypresentinthesamplesand activeduringthe
first6weeksoftheUV/VUVtest.
Secondly, a bakeout of unexposed 0.01%samples is performed (Irgacure369 and
Benzophenon)inordertounderstandtheconsistentobservedoffsetweightlossof0.25%.
All4nonUVexposedsamplesshowaninitialweightlossof0.2540.339%.Notethatthe
contributionofhumidityhasbeenmeasuredaswellandisaboutoneorderofmagnitude
smaller.Thisamountisindeedcompatiblewiththeconsistentweightlossobservedforthe
0.01% samples. It can thus be suggested that this is an offset weight loss caused by the
transitiontovacuumconditionsratherthanbyUVexposureanditisnotcausedspecifically
by high temperature. Subsequent spectral measurements of the condensate suggest that
whatevaporatesisactuallyPPmaterial.InordertoobtaintheUVeffect,atleastthis0.25
0.3%offsetshouldbesubtractedfromthetotalmeasuredweightlossofalltestedsamples.
As a consequence we may conclude that the 0.01% samples have been shown to have
(relatively)poorUVdegradationperformance.
Finallyafullbakeoutofthealreadyexposed5%samplesisperformed,forbothFront&
Back,at125Cfor24hrs(Irgacure369andBenzophenon),Table37.Condensatespectraare
thenalsotaken.Nowthatthesamplesarenotclampedintightlyfor66%oftheirsurface,
the (remaining) photoinitiator is free to evaporate without much need for diffusion. The
objectiveistounderstandhowmuchinitiatorwasstillpresentinthesamplesattheendof
theUVexposuretest,howmuchhadevaporated,andhowitislinkedtotheinitiatorvapor
pressureandUVexposure.Theresultsareclarifying.
Apparently,Benzophenon,asexampleofahighvaporpressureinitiator,alreadylostallits
evaporableinitiatorduringtheUV/VUVtest,whenstillclampedintightly.Benzophenonis
notonlyeagertoevaporate,butthePP/Benzophenoncombinationalsohasgooddiffusion
properties.Thesmallweightlossmeasured(0.08/0.02%),ifjudgedfromthespectralteston
thecondensate,isduetoPPevaporation.Itislikelythat~2%alreadyevaporatedduringthe
productionbakingofthesampleandtherestevaporated(withgooddiffusion)duringthe
UV/VUV test, leaving virtually nothing to evaporate during the extra bakeout test. For
Irgacure369,thesignificantlossinbothFrontandBackcasesduringthisextrabakeoutisin
fact due to evaporating initiator, as clearly shown from the condensate spectra. In both
cases, the total mass loss for the Back sample (in UV/VUV test and bakeout combined)
approachescloselythemasslossmeasuredduringtheunexposedsamplesoutgassingtest.
DesignAspectsofaSafeTether 167
Inotherwords,afterthecombinedexposures,allinitiatorwasabletocomeoutfromthe
Backsamples.
TheresultsalsosuggestthattheevaporationofinitiatorfromtheFrontsampleshasbeen
limited by chemistry initiated by the UV exposure. The Front samples do not release as
muchinitiatormass.Assaid,theUVabsorptionanalysisshowsthatthesefrontsamplesstill
containedinitiatoraftertheexposureevenforthecaseofthehighvaporpressureinitiators.
The UV radiation during the first 6weeks of exposure have somehow encapsulated the
initiators,probablybycrosslinkingandgelforming,keepingthemfromevaporatingeven
athightemperatures.Apparentlythisencapsulationeffect hasbeenstronger for thehigh
vaporpressureinitiators.
In conclusion, weight loss measured in the second test campaign is partly due to initial
evaporationofPPduetovacuumconditionsonlyandpartlyduetoinitiatorlossasaresult
ofahightemperaturephaseneartheendofthetest.Significantchemistryhasnevertheless
occurredin theUV exposedareas, i.e.discoloring, crosslinkingand encapsulationof the
initiators, none leadingtosignificantPPmassreduction. The9%CO ECOLyteand MVK
materialsdonotsignificantlydegradeinmass.
Sample WeightLoss*[%]
UV/VUV
Test
Extra
Bakeout
Total UnexposedRef
Benzophenon5%F 1.57 0.08 1.65
Benzophenon5%B 2.79 0.02 2.81
2.89
Irgacure3695%F 2.85 0.44 3.29
Irgacure3695%B 3.17 0.82 3.99
4.35
*Contributions:initialvacuumloss~0.3%,initiatorevaporation,degradation.
Table37.Masslossresultssampleswithphotoinitiators
Figure85.SamplesafterUVandVUVexposure,frontandback
168 Chapter4
4.4.8 Conclusionsandoutlook
Theconceptofatethermaterialdegradinginthespaceenvironmentallowsforextended
tetherapplications.UV/VUVexposurehasbeenidentifiedtobetheprinciplemechanismfor
suchamaterialandadegradationtimeof~6months/mmhasbeensetasatarget.Basedon
the expected chemistry, possible tether materials have been selected. Testing of these
materialsforaweekinbothUVandVUVhasledtoexclusionofmostofthemduetocross
linking,butalsototheidentificationofafewmaterialsofinterest,inparticularpolyketones
(showingfavorablereactions)andPP(forwhichtheabsorptionfrequencyhastobeshifted).
Possibilities have been identified for improvement of the performance by chemical
additives.IthasbeenattemptedtomovethesensitivityofthenoncrosslinkingPPtowards
theUVrangeusingvariouskindsofphotoinitiators.
Unfortunately,nosignificantdegradationisobserved,alsonotinmaterialsforwhichsuch
behavior has been claimed or suggested by external parties (Formulation C, ECOLyte,
MVK).ThemostpromisingcandidatePolyketonA,analternatingcopolymerofpol(alpha
olefin)katalystsandthereactivecarbonmonoxide,showssignificantdegradationdespite
the presence of (for this application unwanted) UV stabilizers, but the material has been
withdrawnbythemanufacturer.Otherpromisingmaterials,suchasPBMA(notsuitablefor
tetherbraiding)andpolysilanescouldnotbeobtainedfortests.Formostofthematerials
studied theabsence of oxygenand/or thepresenceofcrosslinkingisthe most important
inhibitortofastmassloss.
It remains a possibility that the setup and photoinitiator selection have had a negative
impactontheresults.Thehighaccelerationfactormayhavecausedthecrosslinkinginthe
PPsample.Althoughmostphotoinitiatorsclasseshavebeenincluded,theBenzildimetyl
ketal and Metallocene (esp. Zirconium based) classes and the monomer IPPBP have not
beeninvestigated.Stabilizersmaybenecessaryadditivesaswell.Increased(ineffective)UV
absorptionmayhavetakenplacebyinitialdegradationorcolorizationofthesamples.Free
radicalgeneratorssuchasthecommerciallyavailableMichlersketoneaswellasoxidizers
(e.g.thepoisonousperoxideorsodiumnitrate)couldbeincludedwithinthetethermaterial
toenhancedegradationprocessesandmakethemmoresimilartoprocessesonEarth.The
temperatureofthetethermayhavetoberaisedthroughcolorants.Toavoidevaporationof
theadditives,thephotoinitiatorsshouldbelockedinsidethechain.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 169
5 DeployerSystemDevelopment
Rightonyourtie!
ErikJanvanderHeideproclaimssuccessofthefirstclosedlooptetherdeploymenttest,
Summer2000.
5.1 Introduction
The concept worked out for flight demonstration in this work is based primarily on the
SmallExpendableDeployerSystem(SEDS),foritssimplicityandflightrecord.Itisbasedon
deployment from the outside of a fixed spool rather than from a rotating drum or reel.
Deployment velocity of such a system can be measured with optical detectors and is
controlledbytension.Ofthevariousmeansavailabletocontrolthetension,SEDSconceptor
barberpolebrakehasbeenrevisitedandworkedoutintoabreadboardandflightmodel.
Thebrakesperformancehasbeenanalyzedindetail.ThisChapterconsidersthefulltether
deployerdevelopmentbasedonspoolandbarberpolebrake,includingthecontrolsystem
andthetetherdeploymentteststhathavebeenperformedtovalidateandcharacterizeit.
5.1.1 Technologyheritage
The SEDS missions in 1993 and 1994 demonstrated respectively a mostly passive
uncontrolledsinglestagedeploymenttoalargeangle,andacontrolleddeploymenttothe
vertical(Table74).Bothmissionssuccessfullydeployeda0.78mmSpectratetherof20km
length shortly after launch from a DeltaII spent stage [Carroll1995.I]. Both missions
deployed thetetherfrom apassive,fixedspoolandinvolvedfrictionbrakingusingaso
calledbarberpolebrake.Thebarberpoleconceptistakenfromtextileindustryandallowsto
applytensionoveralargerange,byguidingthedeployingtetheranumberoftimesalonga
helicalpatharoundacylindricalpole.Whereasthisfrictionbrakewasusedinopenloopon
SEDS1,theSEDS2missionusedittoactivelycontrolthedeploymentinclosedloopbased
ondeployedlengthestimation.Inordertodeterminethetetherlengthduringdeployment,
twodiodetransistorpairswereplacedacrossthegapbetweenspoolcoreandcanisterwall
(OpticalLoopDetectors).Inthisdesign,eachloopdeployingfromthespoolsubsequently
passesbetween eachofthe pairs andinterrupts beamsofinfrared light transmitted from
diodetotransistor.Theinterruptionsarecountedandthenumberofloopsdeployedcanbe
determined.
The SEDS system concept has already been considered for a SpaceMail demonstration,
[Carroll1995.II].Unfortunately,theSEDSSpaceMaildemonstrationmissionneverflew.
In Europe, the first tether activities were initially more inspired by the reelbased TSS
missions[Dobrowolny1994].First,reelandreelspoolhybridsystemswerebreadboarded
170 Chapter5
andan openloopdeployment testrigwasdeveloped in theFIESTA
10
andTATS projects
[Alenia1995],seealsoSection3.1.1.Areelcandirectlycontrolunwindingspeed,although
thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheendmasstrajectoryiscontrolledaswell.Slacknessof
the tether may be an issue if the unwinding rate of the tether is too high (Section2.1.4).
Compared to passive spools, reel systems are characterized by more complex and more
bulky hardware, that have a poor flight record (Section1.3). In practice, they so far have
mostlyledtofailure (withtheexceptionofTSS1R). Incontrast,spoolbased deployments
havesofarallbeensuccessful(Table1).
AttentioninEuropenextshiftedtothespoolconcept,withasprimaryperceivedchallenge
to overcome the lack of direct control of deployment velocity. Early spool deployer
developmentinEuropefocusedthereforeonprecisecontrolofdeploymenttension.Inthe
RAPUNZELdeployerconcept[Sabath1997],tensioninthetetheriscontrolledthroughan
electromagnetic hysteresis brake. As the tether exits the spool it is guided around a co
rotatingpulleythatcanbeconstrainedbyelectromagnetictorqueandthusappliesatension.
The tether next is guided through a swivel. The tether tension affects that swivels
amplitude.Theamplitudeisusedasfeedbackmechanismtohelpapplythetensionmore
preciselyaccordingtoatargetprofile.
In a cooperation with TU Munich and the Munichbased company KayserThrede, a
deployer breadboard has been tested successfully in zerog up to a tension of about 2N
(Figure86).Inthistestitisdemonstratedthattensioncontrolofdeploymentisfeasible.In
addition,theunwindingdynamicsofthetetherfromaspoolinlowgravityenvironmentis
recorded and it is shown that the tether can be guided successfully through the system
withoutgettingstuck[Sabath1997].
Figure86.TheauthoroperatingRAPUNZELcanisterandbrakesysteminparabolicflight
10
A 1994 study by a DASA/RST-led consortium for DARA
DeployerSystemDevelopment 171
WhencomparingtheRAPUNZELdeployerwiththeSEDSsystem,theRAPUNZELisable
toestablishtensionlevelsmoreaccuratelybutisrathermorecomplex.Itsattainabletension
range with the asbuilt system is a limiting factor. The SEDS systems flight record, its
relativelysmallnumberofcomponentsandguides,itsscalabilityandlargetensionrange
areallfactorsthatmaketheSEDSbarberpoleconceptsuitableforalowcostdemonstration
development.
WithparticularfocusontheSEDSsystem,Ockels,Heide&Kruijffhavedevelopednoise
models and a simple deployment controller. Their twostage deployment approach
[Ockels1995] satisfies the SpaceMail requirements of accuracy and robustness
(Section3.1.1).
5.1.2 SpaceMailsystemconceptformomentumtransfer
The SEDS hardware concept is selected also as a starting point for the remainder of this
work.Thischapterfocusesmainlyonthedeploymentsystem,orrather,thetetherrelated
hardware:tetherspool,thecanisterprotectingit,theopticalloopdetectionsystem(OLD),
control software and the barberpole friction brake with stepper motor. The SpaceMail
systemormomentumtransfersystemincludesinadditiontheejectionsystem,theonboard
computer,thestepperdriver,thetethercutterassemblywithrelaysbox,thereentrycapsule
andtheactivationsystemforcapsulerelease.
Figure 87 sketches, for simplicity, only the key components of the suggested tether
momentum transfer system. Before flight, the tether has been wound onto a spool and
characterized under controlled conditions. An ejection system initiates the separation
between platform and endmass. The tether is then deployed from the spool that is fixed
insideacanistermountedtotheplatform.Theendmassincludethereentrycapsule.Sucha
configurationwiththetetherontheplatformallowstheendmasstobeverylightweightand
guaranteesalsoproperorientationofthetetherexitpoint.Thetetherisunwoundasitis
pulled over the head of the spool towards a central, small exit guide and, for each loop,
crossessequentiallyeachoftheOpticalLoopDetection(OLD)infraredbeams.Thisallows
theOLDelectronicstoregisterthepassageandforwardsignalsfromeachoftheencoder
channels to the control system. The control system processes the signals to generate the
length and velocity of deployment. The results are compared to a reference deployment
table stored onboard (length and velocity versus time). Using predetermined feedback
gainsandamathematicalmodelofthespoolandbrakesystem,therequiredsettingofthe
barberpole brake is computed. This setting is then commanded to the barberpole brake
mechanism in order to control the deployment by friction. At every control interval of
several seconds the number of wraps of tether around the pole is adjusted. Even if the
tensionissignificantlydifferentfromnominal,onlysmallpositionadjustmentsarerequired.
172 Chapter5
Figure87.Simplifiedoverviewoftheproposedtethermomentumtransfersystem.
5.1.3 Overviewofdevelopmentandchallenges
Experience with the SEDSderived deployment system towards the eventual SpaceMail
systemdevelopmenthasbeenachievedoverthecourseofvariousprojects,asreportedin
theremainderofthis thesis. In 1997,theYESsatellite design includestheSEDSdeployer
hardwareitself.YESalsocarriesaninnovativefailsafedoublestrandtether(Sections4.3.1
&6.3.1).AdeploymenttestusingSEDShardwareandadoublestrandtether,similartothat
usedinYESisperformed.Around2000followthedevelopmentofaEuropeandeployerand
the first closedloop deployment tests in support of the TSE project (Tether System
Experiment). TSE is a feasibility study with breadboard development. As YES2 starts in
2001,SEDShardwareisnolongeravailableduetoInternationalTradeinArmsRegulations
(ITAR).Anewflightsystemisthereforeindependentlydevelopedandqualified.
Thephysicalsimplicityofthishardwarecomesatthepriceofbehavioralcomplexity.The
workreportedhereintendstoimprovetheunderstandingofthedeployerbehavior.Friction
isfundamentaltotetherdynamics andthecontroloftheendmasstrajectory. Thefriction
behavior of tether, spool and brake are therefore described through a
mathematical/empirical model and its parameters. The model is used as a guide to
dimensionthehardware.Itisalsoincludedaspartofthecontrollersoftware.Thehardware
and controller performance is determined through simulation and test, as well as the
acceptablerangeofthemodelparameters.Thesuitabilityofthedeployerforitsintended
purposeaccuratemomentumtransfercaneventuallybeassessedbyquantifyingthemodel
parameters as they materialize during inorbit demonstration, and by comparison to this
allowablerange.
However,firstasignificantinvestmentisdoneinthedevelopmentofproperfacilities,to
maketetherwindingsandtotesttetherdeploymentasrealisticallyaspossible.
Canister
Control
system
Platform
Control
D
a
t
a
Capsule
Endmassinterface
T
e
t
h
e
r
OLDlength
sensor
Bpole
brake
Tether
Spool
DeployerSystemDevelopment 173
5.2 Supportfacilitiesfordevelopmentandtest
5.2.1 Windingmachine
To produce spools from the tether for both testing and flight, a high precision winding
machinehasbeendeveloped,mainlyforthinlinemechanicaltethers(Figure88).Themain
challenge for the device is to make stable, reproducible windings. The machine makes a
recordoftetherlengthversusnumberofwoundloops,suchthatlaterthedeployedlength
can be determined using a unwound loop counter system. Winding tension and the gap
widthbetweenadjacenttetherloopsisalsorecordedfortraceabilitypurposes.Througha
sequentialpretensioningsystem,themotionoftheunwindingreelisstabilizedandwinding
tensioniscontrolledfromabout10Ndownto8Nneartheendofthetether.Althoughthe
systemisdesignedforlowsliponthemeasurementwheels,acalibrationisnecessary,to
correct for winding strain and for the effective diameter of the tether itself when bent
aroundthemeasurementwheel.
stabilizing
friction
unwindingreel
pretensioningdevices
lengthsensor
diametersensor
tensionsensor
switch
armlowers
whenswitch
pressed
byspool...
windingfeedmovesleftandright...
...incoordination
withthespoolrotation
distancereducestorquevariationsonfeed
Figure88.Schematicrepresentationofwinding
machineandactualdevice
Asthetetherisbeingwounditistakenfromareelatseveralmetersfromthewindinghead,
minimizingbendinganglesatthewindingfeed,keepingtensionconstantandtorqueson
thewindingfeedlowandminimizevariations.Thewindingfeedmovesbackandforthover
arailalongtheaxisoftherotatingspool,controlledbysoftwareandactuatedbyastepper
motor for high precision and compact winding. The spool itself is driven by a more
powerfulDCmotorwithencoder.Inordertohelpkeepthetwomotionssynchronized,a
174 Chapter5
calibrationisperformedwiththehelpofanopticalsensoreverytimethefeedpassesthe
middleoftherail.Geometryofthemachineisdesignedsuchthatthetetherhasaconstant
andlowbendinganglefromwindingheadontothespool,reducingtorqueeffectswhilestill
allowingforafeedoftetherclosetothewinding(Figure89).
Arm lowering
Spool increasing
X and Y can be derived from
requirement for constant tangential
X


Y

Figure89.Geometryofspoolarmlocationforconstant,slightlyinclinedtangentialatwindinghead
consideringincreasingspooldiameterduringwinding
5.2.2 Unwindingmachine
The performance of a tether system in space depends not only on the wellpredictable
gravitygradientforce,butalsoforalargepartonparticularandvariablehardwarefactors,
that may cause irregularities in applied friction levels and deployment rate and may
adversely affect controllability. In order to characterize such effects as well as to study
controllerrobustnessinareallifeandrealtimedeploymentsituation,twogenerationsof
tetherunwindingmachineshavebeendeveloped.Afirstconceptisimplementedaspartof
theEuropeanSpaceAgencysprojectTetherSystemExperiment[Gavira2000],basedonthe
preexisting TATS facility. The second generation is developed completely anew for the
YES2project,takingintoaccountthelessonslearnedfromtheTSEstudy.Apartfrombeing
a research tool, the facility is indispensable as it provides a possibility for a full ground
validationofflighthardware.
Firstgeneration(TSEtestrig)
TheTMM&M(TetherMechanismsMaterialsandManufacture)openloopdeploymenttest
stand[AleniaSpazio1994]hasbeenupgradedbytheTSEteamtoaccommodatearealtime
tether dynamics simulator and the possibility for testing closedloop deployment control
[Kruijff2001.II].
Thetestrig(Figure90)containsanelementconsistingofthespaceexperimentshardware
andsoftware(SatellitePart),aswellasanelementsimulatingthespaceorbitalenvironment
(Space Part). The tether, through its tension and deployment velocity, provides the only
connectionbetweenthetwoelements.
The basic element of the Space Part is a realtime tether simulator that commands the
deploymentvelocitybasedontethertensionasdeterminedfrommeasurementsbyaweigh
beam sensor (0to3N, 1mN resolution). This tether tension results from the hardware
performanceofthesatellitepart.Itiscombinedwithsimulatedgravity,aerodynamicand
otherforcesintherealtimetethersimulatorandtheresultingeffectondeploymentvelocity
DeployerSystemDevelopment 175
isappliedbypullingthetetherthroughamotorcontrolledrollersystem.Theinstantaneous
characterofthestartofdeployment,i.e.anendmassejectionbysprings,canberealistically
simulatedastherollersysteminrestcanbecoupledtoarotatingflywheelthroughaclutch
andbroughtuptoinitialspeedinafractionofasecond.Becausetheapplieddeployment
velocity, due to inevitable system imperfections, will be slightly off from the simulators
predictedvelocity,therollersarePIcontrolled,securingthatalsothetotaldeployedlength
isclosetothesimulatedlength.Withthemachine,adeploymentvelocityofatleast14m/s
canbeobtained.Therollersexpelthetetherintoacollectionbinanditcannotbereused.
TheSatellitePartcontainsthetetherdeployersystemanditsdeploymentcontrolsoftware.
The Satellite attempts to control the deployment according to its onboard algorithms by
controlofthetethertension. Foraneffectivecontrol,somemeasurementofthedeployed
lengthordeploymentvelocityisnecessary.Thesensorsystemavailabletothedeployment
controller is the Satellites own system, as the one that would be available in space. The
controllerreceivesnootherinformationonthedeploymentfromtheSpacePart.Thissetup
allowsforatestingoftheautonomouscontrolofthedeploymentbytheSatellite,andanoff
line comparison between the Satellites measurements and the Space Parts imposed
deployment.

Figure90:SimplifiedSchematicofTSETestSetUp
For the purpose of deployer hardware characterization, the facility can run in a simpler,
openloop mode, in which the deployment velocity is simply commanded and tether
tensionisrecorded.Thespoolfrictioncanbedeterminedoverarangeofvelocitiesandasa
function of length, and the Satellites tension control system can be set into different
positionsastocalibrateitsperformancebeforeflight.
Thefacilityhasbeensuccessfullyusedinopenlooptostudytheeffectofdifferentbraidsof
tether,andtocharacterizethespoolitselfaswellasatortuouspath(barberpole)friction
176 Chapter5
brake.Performanceathighvelocityandtensionhasbeenseparatelydemonstrated.Inthe
lower velocity range, closedloop deployments have been successfully performed
[Kruijff2001.II], Section5.6.1. A problem that is here observed, however, is a resonance
betweenthetethercontrolandthedynamicsofthemotordrivethatislimitedbytheinertia
of the flywheel. For this reason, and in order to implement a number of other
improvements,asecond,fullynewfacilityisdeveloped.
Figure91.TSEunwindingtestrigatRSTRostockandpartofthecrew
Secondgeneration(YES2testrig)
InthecontextoftheYES2projectasecondtestrighasbeendevelopedaccordingtothesame
conceptastheTSEfacilitybutwithimplementationofanumberoflessonslearnedusing
technologyfromtextileindustry(Table38).Itisacompact,modularandmobiletestfacility
that has featured in various conferences and universities, and flew twice on parabolic
flights,Figure93[Heide2003.II,Hyslop2005].Therigisimprovedinthefollowingaspects:
recoveryandreuseofthetether,
improvedperformanceintermsofprecision,
higherattainabledeploymentvelocity,
avoidanceofresonanceissues,
compactandmobiledesign,
highlyautomatedtestsetupanddatalogging.
Therollersystemwithflywheelisabandonedinfavorofagodet,oneofthespininsfrom
textile industry. Thegodet is averysmooth steelcylinder of 10cm diameter, thatcan be
rotatedbyaDCmotor,aroundwhichtheunwindingtetheriswrappedanumberoftimes
beforeitcomesoffagain.Aslongasthetetherleavingthegodetiskeptunderanonzero
leveloftension(e.g.appliedbyaflowofair)thewrapsguaranteevirtuallyzeroslipandthe
smooth cylinder causes virtually no damage or deformation of the tether. Godets are
DeployerSystemDevelopment 177
generallyusedintextileindustryintheproductionlineoffibers.Hot,relativelyweakfibers
areextrudedandneedtobemovedawaywithaprecisevelocityfromtheextruderwithout
slip,underlowtension,andwithinaspecifiedtemperaturerange.
Withthegodetinthetethertestrig,adeployedlengthprecisionandaccuracyof0.1%canbe
obtained with Dyneema, compared to a precision of about 0.5% and accuracy of about
2.5%thathasbeenobtainedwiththeTSEfacility.Hightetherforcescanbeapplied(>25N)
andveryhighdeploymentvelocitiescanbeobtained(>25m/s).Thesystemhaslowinertia,
sonoresonanceissues,andcansimulateejectionwithoutneedforaflywheel.
Thefacilityusescompacthighrangeandlowrangetensiometersthatmeasuretensionby
compensatingthetetherpressurethroughanelectromagneticforce.
Toallowformoreextensivetestingandtobeabletocharacterizeevenaflighttetheritself
(beforeflight),athirdparthasbeenadded,theRecoveryPart.TheRecoveryPartcontainsa
heavydutyhighspeedreeltocollecttheunwindingtether,theBackUpWinder.Thisreel
mustideallybecommandedtowindatexactlythedeploymentvelocity,soupto25m/s.
SincetherelationbetweenangularrateoftheBackUpWinderandgodetspeedvariesas
theBackUpWindersspooldiameterincreases,andbecausetherecoveredspoolbuildsup
a considerable inertia, it is not possible to match the reeling speed to the deployment
velocitypreciselyatanytime.Todealwiththemismatch,abufferisplacedbetweengodet
andBackUpWinderthatcanholdtensofmetersoftether.
AstandardtextileindustryfournisseurfromIROGmbHisequippedwithadaptedcontrol
electronicsinordertoperformthisfunction.Thefournisseurstethercollectionmechanism
hasaverylowinertiaand,withthepropersensors,canbeaccuratelycontrolledtomatch
exactly the godet speed. Fournisseurs are typically used in the weaving and knitting
industry.Fortheweavingprocesstheyarnsinfillandwarpdirectionareacceleratedfrom
zerotohighspeedateverystroke,whichcouldbeajerkyprocess.Inordertohavelowand
constantincomingyarnfortheweavingprocess,theyarnsaredeliveredfromaspoolbyan
airjet,withconstantspeedtothefournisseur,whichactivelyplacestheloopsnicelyontoa
buffer(Figure92).Thebuffercannowmeetthepulsewisedemandoftheweavingshipand
willreleasetheyarnsunderlowconstanttension,buthighaccelerationasrequired.
Forthetethertestfacility,theincomingspeed(godetspeed)isnotconstant,butdetermined
byspacetetherdynamics.Forthisreason,ahighlyaccuratesensorisplaced betweenthe
godet and fournisseur to determine the differential speed for both devices the Vacuum
Buffer.ThisVacuumBufferalsosecuresthenonzerotensionlevelrequiredbythegodet.
Simplyput,theVacuumBufferisa20cmtube,attachedtoasourceofunderpressure,that
sucksinaloopof thedeployingtether betweengodetand fournisseur.Thedepthofthe
loop is measured at high frequency (1kHz) by a large number of optical sensors placed
alongthetube.Asadifferenceinspeedbetweenthegodetandfournisseurbuildsup,the
lengthoftheloopchanges,andacontrolleractstocorrectthefournisseurspeed.
178 Chapter5
Figure92.Fournisseurwithyarn.Tetherentersonleft.
Figure93:SchematicsofRigv2:SpacePart(yellow),SatellitepartandRecoverypart;actualsetup.
Parameter Unwindingrigv1 Unwindingrigv2
Projectcontext TSE YES2
Realtimetethersimulator BeadSim RTBSim
Loggingofsettingsforeachtest Manual Semiautomated
Drivesystem Squeezerollers,clutchandflywheel Godet(lowinertia)
Maximumunwindingvelocity[m/s] 14 25
Maximumtension >40N >25N
Tetherrecovery No Yes
Optiontocontrolambient
temperatureandatmosphericdensity
No Yes
Testrigmobility Notsuitablefortransport Desktopsystem,modular&easily
transported
Table38.Specsandevolutionoftheunwindingrig
On the software side, test initiation software has been developed in Delphi Pascal that
securescontrolandproperinitializationandtraceabilityofallvariables.Partiallyautomated
RecoveryPart SpacePart SatellitePart
Tether
OBC
Length
sensor
Tension
control
Tensiometers
VacuumBuffer
Fournisseur
RealTime
Simulator
L
T
target
T e
G
Recovery
ControlLoop1
Recovery
ControlLoop2
d e
F x
BackupWinder
e
BW
d
x
Godet
DeployerSystemDevelopment 179
test procedures avoid unnecessary anomalies during testing. Data storage and filing is
automated. A 3D visualization of thetetherdeployment inspacehelpscreate asense of
dimensionsandtimescaleandmentallyprepareforaspaceexperiment.
MostofthetestrigcontrolisdevelopedinMatlabSimulink/RealTimeWorkshopandruns
asembeddedsystemonthesocalledTargetPC,whereastherealtimetethersimulatorisan
executable based on MTBSim (Section2.3), communicating through serial port. For
modularity and risk reduction, the 3D visualization is a separate program receiving only
inputsfromthesimulatorviatheWindowsclipboardfunction.
Testriglimitations
Anumberofminorlimitationsoftheunwindingrig(v2)havebeenidentifiedthatmaybe
consideredduringtests,aswellasforthedevelopmentofupgrades.Theyaremostlyrelated
tolimitationsinherenttotherealtimetethersimulator,highfrequencyandtetherflexibility
effects,andarecurrentlynotconsideredcritical:
Afreelydeployingtetherinspacehasavariablebendingaroundthedeployersexit
guide. The tether deployment angle in combination with the attitude of the
deployment platform, as well as possible transverse waves determine the outgoing
tetherangle.Ithasanimpacton(generallyslow)frictionvariationofabout1020%.It
canbeimplementedthrougha(manuallyorautomatically)rotatingguide.Thisadded
complexityforthetestrigisconsiderednotcriticalandhasnotbeenimplemented.
Neither simulator nor test rig currently takes into account the limited propagation
speed of tension within the tether (Section2.3.2). Indeed, the period required for
tensiondistributionissignificantlyshorterthanthatforothertypicalcyclicmotions,
suchase.g.thespringmassmotion.ForaDyneematethertheassumptionofinfinite
speedofsoundisalsounlikelytointerferewiththecontroldelay.Forashorttether
soundwavestraversethetethermuchfasterthanthecontroldelay,foralongertether
a sound wave dampens out over a few periods (Section8.4.3) and significant
additionaldampingisexpectedtooccurifthetensionwaveenergyisreflectedatthe
variouswrapsofthetetheraroundthebarberpole.
An undesired control resonance can however occur during the final deceleration. A
steepchangeinthebarberpolebrakemaythenhasanimmediateanddisproportionate
impactonthetetherdeploymentratebutnot,asdirectly,ontheendmassmotion(see
alsoSection8.4.3).Thepolecontrolcouldthenoverreactduringthesubsequentcontrol
cycles,which,incombinationwiththeeffectofthearrivalofthefirstreflectionofthe
transmittedwave,couldleadtorepetitivetriggeringofnewandincreasinglystronger
waves. This as yet unconfirmed possibility may require a relatively slow final
deceleration and temporarily a slower, less aggressive feedback as to average out
velocitymeasurementsoverseveralwaveperiods.
Thereisasubtlelimitationofthetestrigrelatedtotherepresentationoftetherstrain.
Inthecurrentsetup,thecommandedvelocityforthetestrigisafilteredversionofthe
simulated deploymentvelocity, i.e. the speedatwhich thetether ispulledfrom the
180 Chapter5
spool.Anothercomponenttothetotalrateoftetherlengthincreaseisthestrainrate
duetochangingtensioninthetether.Deploymentvelocityandstrainrateredistribute
almostinstantaneouslyorwithinsecondsinresponsetochangingfriction,whereasthe
endmassvelocity(orbetter,thetotallengthrate)changesonlyslowlyduetoendmass
inertia.
Thedifferenceinresponseofadeploymentinthetestrigvs.adeploymentinspaceis
as follows. For both environments it is true that any increase in friction inside the
deployerleadstoanincreasedstretchingofthetether,beitduetoendmassinertia(in
space) or the continued torque of the unwinder (in the test rig). The relationship
betweenthefrictionandthetetherstraindependsontetherstiffness.
Thestiffnessofthetetherinthetestrigisveryhighcomparedtothatinspace.Ina
space deployment, the tether stiffness decreases with deployed length, according to
k=EA/l.Thisdecreaseissignificantasthelengthpassesthroughordersofmagnitude
fromitsinitialvalueofabout50cmtoafinallengthoftensofthousandsofmeters.In
contrast,thestiffnessofthedeployingtethersegmentinthetestrigcanbeconsidered
constantandveryhigh,asthedistancebetweendeployerandtheunwindingdeviceis
constantandshort(aboutonemeter).Asaresult,inthetestrig,tetherstretchingdue
toincreaseinfrictionoccursalmostinstantaneously.
The godetimposed velocity should thus be considered to be identical to the tether
velocityinside thedeployer, and thisishowit is treated. Determining theresulting
strainandimpactbackonthedeploymentisexclusivelythedomainofthesimulator.
Strainrateeffectsduetocyclesmuchslowerthanthesimulatorscontrolcycleof1s
duration, such as those introduced by barberpole brake action, are well represented
throughthissolution.
Inthetestrig,incaseofafastpeakoftensionwithinthedeployer,thedeployment,as
driven by the godet, does not respond to this peak directly. It will at first continue
undisturbed,nomattertheamplitudeofthepeak,andthepeakwillpassquickly.Only
theaveragetensionoverthecurrentcontrolcycleiscommunicatedtothesimulator,
smoothing the effect of the tension peak. The simulator responds only in retrospect
andwillthuscommandonlyasomewhatdecreaseddeploymentvelocityforthenext
controlcycle.
Inanactualdeploymentinspaceitmay,insomecases,takeseveralsecondsbeforethe
strain tension overcomes the increased friction, and a stickslip process could result
(Section4.2.1).Ifthephysicalresponsetosuchfasttensionchangesistobereproduced
morereliably,thecontrolfrequencyofthetestrighastobespedup.Astensionpeaks
atconstantdeploymentvelocitytakegenerallyintheorderof10mstooccur,afast
controlsimulation cycle at about 1kHz is necessary to correctly represent this
behavior,comparedtothe1scurrentlyinuse.Itisnotobviouswhetherthegodetcan
respondatsuchfrequencies.Theresponserequirementmaybedelayed,atsomeloss
ofrepresentativeness,byincludingavariableslackbetweendeployerandgodet,e.g.a
movableguideattachedtoaspringdampersystem.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 181
Oscillations of the tether attachment point on the endmass may have an impact on
early deployment through a backcoupling with the deployment strain and tension
(Section8.3.3).Thisfeatureisplanned,butnotyetincludedintothesimulatorandmay
thuseventuallyalsoberepresentedbythetestrig.
Otherlimitationstobetakenintoaccountarethegravityeffectonbothverticalspools
(resulting in a difference between loops unwinding upward vs. downward) and
horizontal spools (where the bottom half of each loop deploys more easily than the
top)withrespecttothezerogenvironment.Theunwindingrigv2iscompacthowever
and has been taken into a zerog plane for dedicated testing. The thermal vacuum
environmentofspaceisalsonotpresent.Atmosphericdragcanhaveaneffectathigh
deploymentvelocities.Toaccountforthelatter,theunwindingrigv2isequippedwith
acontainerforthefulldeployerwithinwhichtemperatureandatmosphericdensity
canbecontrolled(e.g.byhelium).
5.2.3 Hardwareemulator
A much simpler system has been built as a development support tool, the hardware
emulator, allowing to test control algorithms and software in realtime using the flight
softwareandflightOnBoardComputer,orengineeringmodel(Figure94),withoutactual
tether deployment. In this tool, the space part is a separate PC with a realtime tether
dynamicssimulator,whichagainprovidestheinitialconditionsofdeployment.Ithowever
alsocontainsmodelsofsomeoftheSatelliteParthardware(tetherspoolandbrakesystem).
Throughthesemodels,ittranslatesthedeploymentvelocitydirectlyintoOLDpulses,such
thatnoactualtetherunwindingisnecessaryforthesetests.Initialparametersandhardware
modelparameterscaneasilybe,andusuallyare,disturbedtotestforrobustness.
TheOnBoardComputerreceivesthosepulsesasitwouldreceivetrueOLDsignals,and
filters them to determine length and velocity as well as the required control activity. Its
electricaloutputintendedforthestepperdriverelectronicsofthebarberpolebrakesystemis
interceptedbythespacepartPCandconvertedtotension,usingthebrakehardwaremodel.
The realtime simulator uses the calculated tension level to simulate the deployment and
predictOLDpulsesoverthenexttimestep.
SpacePart SatellitePart
Flight OBC
(orEM)
SimpleRealTimeSimulator
hardwaremodel
initialconditionsandmass
dynamicsmodel
OLD1pulses
Commanded n
OLD3pulses
OLD2pulses
Figure94:Deploymentemulationconcept.nisthedesiredbrakeposition.
182 Chapter5
5.2.4 Deployersystemtestingoverview
Intotalover650kmoftetherhavebeendeployedinthecourseofthiswork,ofwhichfor
over500kmdetailedtestdatahasbeencollected.Table39providesahighleveloverviewof
all deployer system characterization and verification tests. Apart from their usage for
closedloopdeploymenttests,theunwindingrigshavealsobeenusedinopenloopmode,
inordertocharacterizehardwareperformanceundervariousenvironmentalconditions.In
somecase,onlypartsofthetestrigsareactivatedorthirdpartyfacilitieshavebeenused.
Thehardwarecharacterizationandenvironmentaleffectstests13and57arediscussedin
Sections5.3.65.3.8, 5.4.4&5.4.5.Theclosedloopdeployment tests4,8and9aredescribed
inSections5.6.1&5.6.2.ForcompletenessthetableincludesalsotheYES2missionitselfand
anumberofpreflightverificationandpostflightinvestigativetests.Thesemissionrelated
tests1020,aredescribedinChapter8.
5.3 Spooldevelopment
Thedesignofthespool,madeupofacorewiththetetherwoundarounditandincluding
theOLDlengthdetectionsystem,isdescribedinthissection.
5.3.1 Coreandcanister
The spool is a tether wound onto the outside of a metal core. This core is designed to
supportandenhancemechanicalstabilityofthewoundspool,andcontributetoarelatively
smoothanduniformdeploymenttension.Itsdesignshouldnotincreasetheriskoftether
jam unlikely. The core is conical narrowing towards the top in the tether deployment
direction to ease the tether coming off the spool and to reduce cyclic effects on tension
(Section5.3.6).Thebottomofthespoolisfixedlightlysankintotoaclosedplate,reducing
anyexposededgesthatcouldinterferewiththedeployingtether.
Althoughmostofthetetherwillbewoundincrisscrossmanner,themostcentralpartof
the winding will be parallel wound. Parallel winding ideally reduces unwinding tension
andsomewhatcounteractsthesteepincreaseindeploymenttensionthatisfoundcloseto
the metal core surface, although it is sensitive to cyclic patterns in unwinding tension
(Section5.3.6). For volumetric and mass efficiency and in order to reduce the amount of
tetherforwhichdeploymenttensionisveryhigh(closetothecore),thediameterofthecore
is rather narrow. The narrow section of wound tether requires support from flanges for
stability under the launch environment. Inside the flanges, only a parallel winding is
possible.Outsidetheflanges,aparallelwindingisunstable,sothemorestablecrisscross
windingpatternisused.Itprovidesinitselfsufficientstabilityforthelaunchenvironment.
Thebottomsideofthecorehasasteepflangeforimprovedwindingquality,whereasthe
top flange is tapered and rounded to help smoothen unwinding and reduce stick/slip
behavior(Figure95).
DeployerSystemDevelopment 183
# Purpose Deployer
system
OBC ControlSW OLD Deployment
1 1995Zerogdeployment,
RAPUNZELverification
RAPUNZEL
Breadboard
N/A N/A N/A Openloopusing
reelinzerog
2 Doublestrandtether,
atmosphericdragand
hardwarecharacterization
MiniSEDS N/A N/A MiniSEDS Openloopusing
SEDSrig
3 Multipletests:
hardwarecharacterization
TSE
Breadboard
N/A N/A Breadboard Openloop
TSErig(V1)
0.114m/s
4 Multipletests:Firststage
controllability
TSE
Breadboard
PC PC Breadboard Closedloop
TSErig(V1)
5 Multipletests:
hardwarecharacterization
andenvironmentaleffects
YES2
Breadboard
N/A N/A Breadboard Openloop
YES2rig(V2)
6 2003Zerogdeployment
andbrake
YES2
Breadboard
N/A N/A N/A OpenloopYES2
rig(V2,partial)
7 2006Zerogholdphase
controlinzerog
YES2
Breadboard
Breadboard Breadboard Breadboard OpenloopYES2
rig(V2,partial)
8 Multipletests:firststage
controllability
YES2
Breadboard
Breadboard Breadboard Breadboard Closedloop
YES2rig(V2)
9 Multipletests:secondstage
controllability
YES2
Breadboard
Breadboard Breadboard Breadboard Closedloop
YES2rig(V2)
10 S/Wverification,signal
robustness
None EM(full) EM None Simulated
11 OLDsystemqualification&
deployercharacterization
FM None None FM Openloopfull
deployment,full
velocityrange
12 Systemtest FM FM EM FM Openloop<4m/s
13 Flighttetherandfriction
characterization
EM EM(partial) NearFM Fullopenloop
deployment,full
velocityrange
14 Closedloopdeploymenttest EM EM(partial) NearFM EM Fullclosedloop
15 Criticalfunctionality,
contingencies,interfaces
FM+Foton FM FM FM None
16 FMS/Wperformance Emulated(PC) EM(partial) FM Emulated(PC) Fullclosedloop
17 MISSION FM FM FM FM Fullclosedloop
18 Softwaretesting EM EM(full) FM EM Highspeed
19 Softwaretesting Emulated(PC) EM(full) FM Emulated(PC) Highspeed
20 OLDfailuretest EM+DC/DC
converter
EM(full) FM EM Highspeed
deployment
Table39.Overviewofdeployersystemtestingperformed
184 Chapter5
For protection and to avoid tether jam, the tether spool is contained within a canister.
During testing, the canister shape was found to have a rather minor influence on tether
tension[Hyslop2005],seealsoSection5.3.7.Somesortofcontainerisnecessarythoughto
helpcontainthetetherthatisthrownoutwardbythecentrifugalforceduringhighspeed
unwinding. Althoughthewallfrictionincreasesthetensionintheunwindingtether,the
containmentoftheoutwardflyingtetheralsoactstostabilizeitspathsuchthatonlyasmall
partofthetetherisincontactwiththewalls.Itisdesignedtominimizestraylightintothe
tethercanister.Thetetherpassesthroughthecenterofthecanistertopintothebaseofthe
barberpolebrakebox.
5.3.2 Thelengthdetectionsystem
Asthetetherunwindsfromthespoolandexitsthroughthecenterofthetopofthecanister,
it passes sequentially and cyclically through the infrared beams between the OLD
transmittersandreceivers(Figure96).TheOLDreceiversinthetopofthecoresensethose
passages,andtheOLDsignalconditioningelectronicsprovidecleaninterruptstotheOn
Board Computer (OBC), where they are further processed to yield a deployed length
estimate. The most recent core design is hollow to include most of the system for length
detectionbasedoninfraredtransmitterreceiverpairstheOpticalLoopDetectionsystem
(OLD)inparticulartheinfraredreceiversandtheassociatedelectronicsbox.Bycombining
theseelementswithinthecoreitselfthepathsofthesensitivereceiversignalstothesignal
conditioningunitareshortandElectromagneticInterference(EMI)issuesaremitigated.The
receiversareburiedinthetopofthecore,effectivelyshieldedfromstraylight.TheOLD
infraredtransmittercounterpartsareplacedinthetopofthecanister,aroundthecanisters
tetherexit.
Based on performance and voltage response tests, the distance between transmitter and
receiver has been optimized as to guarantee a strong signal and passage of the tether
throughthemostsensitivesectionofthebeam,about25cmfromtheemitter,forvarietyof
Figure95.Tethercoreinwindingmachine.Topisleft.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 185
tether velocities and therefore ball angles (Section5.3.6). The emitters are angled with
respecttothecore,astoincreasethedistancefromthecanisterexitandthusreducethetime
ofpassageofthetetherthroughthebeam.Afasterpassageincreasesthesignalgradients
andhelpstorecognizealsoaveryslowlydeployingtether.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 4 8 12 16 20
Time intervals [100 ms]
O
c
c
u
r
e
n
c
e
s
2 -> 2
2 -> 1
1 -> 2
1 -> 1
Figure97.OLDtransitiontimehistogram
Figure98.OLDlengthestimationerrorduring
aTSEdeployment
TheperformanceoftheOLDsiscriticaltothedeploymentcontrol.AfailingOLDpairor
missed passage has to be identified and corrected for and distinguished from jitter or a
vibratingtether.Nominally,thevariouschannelswouldbetriggeredcyclically,forexample
121212. During deployment tests it is not always immediately clear if a measured
sequenceiscomplete,hasajitterorifpartofacycleor(morethan)afulloneismissing.
Various methods are available to analyze the data. Figure 97 Is a representation of TSE
deploymentdataforacanisterinwhichtwoOLDpairsareplacedat90fromeachother.A
passagefromchannel1tochannel2thereforetakesonlyaquarterofthetimeasthepassage
fromchannel2tochannel1.Foraconstantdeploymentvelocitytest,thehistogramoftime
delays between channel transitions distinguishes clearly between the nominal transitions,
jitterandmissedsignals. Figure98 showsthedevelopmentofthedifferencebetweenthe
Figure96.TopofspoolshowinginfraredOLDbeams
186 Chapter5
unwindingrigsmeasuredlengthandthelengthestimationbasedondeployedloops.The
error follows closely a quadratic curve, as the dependency of length on turns is itself
quadratic(Section5.3.3).Despitesomemajorstepsinthedevelopmentofthedifference,the
curvescontinuityindicatesthattherearenoerrors.Anotherusefultooltoinvestigatethe
source of observed irregularities is to compare the number of observed transitions to the
resultsexpectedforrandomornominalsequences(Section8.3.2).
5.3.3 Tetherwinding
As described above, the inner, approximately 4km length of the winding are wound in
parallelstyle.Theremainderiswoundatasignificantangle,orinotherwords,incrisscross
manner, for increased stability. This means that the tether is wound under an angle ,
chosentoresultinanintegernumberofspoolturnsperwindingfeedcycle,suchthatanew
cycleisplacedtightlyagainstthepreviouscycleandacompactspoolisobtained,Figure99
[Rothwell2001]. A larger angle (less turns per cycle) would provide more stability, but
decreasesqualityduetotethertorqueeffectsatthewindingheadandspooledges.Anangle
ofabout710isthereforeselectedascompromise.
Ithasbeenfoundthatcontrolofthewindingprocess,toobtainareproduciblespool,isoften
acombinationofproperconsiderationofgeometricalissuesandanempiricalapproach.The
windingmachinedesign,e.g.toreduceundesiredtorquesduringtheprocess,iskeytothe
qualityobtained(Section5.2.1).Atrueoptimizationishardduetothenonlinearbehavior
ofthetether,butalargenumberofincrementalimprovementshasbeenmade.
Forexample,duetotheincreaseindiameterasthewindingprogresses,thewindingangle
of the tether on the spool decreases, reducing stability of the spool. Therefore, at certain
intervals,thenumberofturnspercycleneedstobedecreased(Figure100).Thetransition
points arechosen suchthat asmuchas possible,a gentle smooth decrease is established,
which is acceptable as the outside of the spool will experience less launch loads. The
selection of proper transition points requires an accurate a priori, and regularly updated
estimationofthe geometryofthe spool, i.e., diameter andwidthof thespoolvs.wound
length.
Asuddenincreaseinwindinganglewillleadtoareductionofthespoolwidth(~250mm)
by as much as 5mm, dependent on the distance d of the tether feed, and this has to be
correctedfor.Ifdisfiniteandthefeedmovesatconstantspeed,theeffectivespooldiameter
isdecreasedwithrespecttotherangeofthefeedalongthewindingby2,wheredtan
(seeFigure101).Ifthiseffectisnottakenintoaccount,anew,lesswidelayercannotreach
theedgeofthepreviouslayerandbesecuredagainstit,soitwillcollapseevenfurther.To
avoid this sudden step in the spool shape, the range of the tether feed motion along the
width of the spool should be increased by typically several millimeters at the time of
transitioninturnspercycle.
AnotherissueillustratedinFigure101isthetendencyofthespooltobuildupitsedges,due
to theconcentrationoftetheroverlapresultingfrom thechangein feeddirection. Overa
range s2d considerable overlap can occur, which can cause a buildup of tether on the
DeployerSystemDevelopment 187
edgesandsignificantdecreaseinspoolquality.Inanidealcase(d=0,andaflexibletether),
thereisnoadditionaloverlapattheedgeofthespoolwhenthetetherfeedchangesdirection
(leftintheFigure).Anedgebuildup(flanging)forcesalargerdistanceofthefeedfromthe
bulkofthespool,andasteepersurfaceforthetethertofollowthefeedschangeindirection.
Both these issues contribute to lesser winding precision and more overlap, hence a run
away effect is imminent when edge buildup occurs. By selecting a minimal exit hole
diameterforthewindingfeedandbykeepingitclosetothesurfaceofthespool(smallvalue
ofd)overlapattheedgeswillbeminimizedandingeneralpositioningofthetetherismore
precise. In this way the winding can stay sufficiently flat without further manipulations
suchasactivecompressionoftheedges.
The spool geometry itself is a dynamic one. As the layers accumulate, pressure in the
internalofthespoolbuildsup,theinnertetheriscompressed,loses(someof)itstensionand
ispushedoutward.Thisisoneofthereasonsthattheimposedtensionisreducedtoward
theendofthewinding.Thespoolistapered(ithasarampededge)amongstotherstoavoid
excessivecompressionoftheinnerparts,tosmoothenoutedgebuildupandtoprovidea
clearpathforthetetherduringunwinding.Toomuchtaperingwouldleadtoalowwinding
angle,andreducedstabilityoftheouterlayers,soalsohereacompromiseissought.
Asthespoolgrowsindiameterandclosertothefeed,aswitchonthebottomofthefeedis
pressedandthespoolscoreisautomaticallyloweredtokeepthewindingfeedatconstant
distance(about12mm)fromthespool,Figure89.
The winding can be performed largely autonomously in about 24hours (32 km). If
necessary,itcanbestoppedandrestartedorevenreversed.Whenthewindingisstopped
forsomereason,geometricmeasurementsaremadeofthespooldimensionstoverifyand
updatethegeometrymodeloflengthvs.radiusandwindingangleandrecordthelocation
ofanyvisibleanomalyorirregularity.Afterwinding,thespoolisremoved,installedinthe
deployer hardware and placed in the unwinding machine (Section5.2.2). Certainly a test
tether,butevenatetherintendedforflightwillgenerallybeunwoundandrewoundmore
thanonce.
Variousparametersareundercontrolorbeingobservedovertheserepeatedwindingsand
unwindings, such as tether shrinkage, tether twist, tether friction behavior and spool
unwinding tension (e.g. Section8.1.1). The record of winding angle, but in principle also
other critical parameters such as winding tension or speed, can be used to segment the
windinganddeterminealinearfitoflooplengthvs.numberofwoundloops(Figure102)
or,inotherwords,aquadraticfitoflengthvs.numberofwoundloops(Figure103).The
errorofsuchafitisgenerallybelow0.1%(Figure104),althougheffectssuchascreepand
shrinkagewillhavetobetakenintoaccountseparately(Section5.3.5).
188 Chapter5
Figure99.Definitionofwindingangle(4TPCspool).
Figure100.Exampleofdevelopmentofcrisscrosswindingangleovertetherlengthandselection
ofTurnsPerCycle(TPC).

s
d
o
o

Figure101.Overlapattheedgesduetodistancedoftetherfeedfromwinding(highlysimplified).
DeployerSystemDevelopment 189

Figure102.Windinglooplengthvs.numberofloops
Figure103.Lengthvs.Loops(example) Figure104.Typicalmodelvs.measuredlengtherror
5.3.4 Tiedowns
Thetiedownsarelittleknotsofcottonappliedtothetetherontheouterlayersaftereach
winding, used to keep the tether in place and maintain the applied pretension, thus
providing an exceptionally simple but effective means to keep the spool stable during
launchvibrations.Theyarecarefullythreadedwithaneedleatthesiteofalayercrossingor
toporbottomofthespoolthroughtheouterpieceoftetherandatleastonepieceoftether,a
layerbelowandstillrestrictedtomovefreely.Threestrategicallyplacedknotsaresufficient
tomaintainstabilityduringlaunchvibrations.Evenifonlyabitofpretensioniskeptbythe
knot, within a few loops of tether around the spool tension will rise exponentially until
pretension is restored (an analogous mechanism is explained in Section5.4.1). The
subsequentknotshelptokeepthelowtensionpartoftheoutertetherinplace.
The breaking of the knots at deployment will cause a tension pulse and remove some
significant amount of energy from the system. It is therefore characterized (Figure 105).
Dependingonthespoolgeometry,breakingofatiedownat2.5m/screatesaspikeofabout
2040Ninthetetherforsome1030ms,andproducesanenergydissipationof~1.0J(0.55J
at1o).Thecottonbreakstrengthitselfisabout1015N.Notethatthemaximumloadonthe
alreadydeployedtetheratbreakingoftheknotsmaybehigher,asitwillbeamplifiedon
thebendinganglearoundguidesfollowingtheexitfromthecanister.
190 Chapter5
Figure105.Typicaltensionpeakmeasuredduringbreakingoftiedown
Intheflightwinding,thelocationofthetiedownsiscarefullyselected.Uponejection,the
tiedowns must be placed before the ripstitch section deploys, as otherwise the ripstitch
would break and deployment would halt (Section4.2.3). The peaks also have a positive
contribution to the ejection dynamics. Any springbased ejection, due to asymmetry and
misalignmentwithinthesystemwillleadtosomepitchoffrateoftheendmass,typically
severaldegreespersecond.Thetetherattachmentpointontheendmasswillthusturnaway
fromthelineofmotionbetweenendmasscenterofmassandthedeployerstetherexitpoint.
The tiedown tension peak in the tether will apply a restoring torque that dissipates a
significantfractionofthisunwantedrotationenergy.Conveniently,thecorrectivetorqueis
proportional to the amplitude of the undesired pitchoff rate. After several seconds, the
largerthepitchoffrate,thelargerthearmoftorqueofanypeakintethertensionwillbe
andthemoreenergywillbedissipatedfromtheunwantedrotarymotion.
5.3.5 Flightspoolcharacterizationprocedure
The completed tether spool will be unwound and rewound at least once before flight,
mainlyforcharacterizationpurpose.Testtetherscanbewoundandunwoundmorethan
10times before the tether is optically and mechanically degraded. Additional benefits of
unwinding and rewinding are a further mechanical settling of the tether and in case of
thermalprestretch,reductionofthebendingstiffness(Section4.1).Finally,theunwinding
twistinthetethercanbereducedthroughasingleunwinding.Tothesepurposes,aftereach
winding,thespoolisremovedandinstalledwithinthecanisterplacedinsidethespecially
developedunwindingmachine(Section5.2.2).
Afterafirstfullwindingafullunwindingisdone.Thefirstmetersoftheunwindingareto
further improve the tether length estimate: the unwound pieces of tether will have
somewhat shortened due to shrinkage (Section4.1.9). The measurements made of true
unwoundlengthofseveral~3mcalibrationsectionsarecomparedtotherecordedwinding
lengths for these sections. A predictive correction factor is introduced. In this manner a
lengthpredictionaccuracyforthewholetetherisobtainedofaround0.3%.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 191
NextT
in
isdetermined,thefunctionofspoolfrictionthatwillfeedintothebarberpoletobe
furtheramplified(Eq.5.1).Modelingofsuchafunctionwillbenecessaryinordertocontrol
thedeploymentmoreeffectively.
) , (
0
l l f T T
in

+ = (5.1)
ItcontainstheminimaldeploymenttensionT
0
andavelocitydependentcomponent.T
0
isthe
forcerequiredtopullthetetherfrombetweenlowerlayersoffthespool.Itisdominantat
low velocities (<1m/s), generally about 1cN (equivalent to about 1gram force). T
0
is of
critical importance in the early deployment when both gravity gradient and velocity are
small(Section2.1.4),butbecomeslessrelevantwhenvelocityincreases. T
0
isafunctionof
the winding and environmental conditions. For the crisscross winding at the start of
deployment,itoscillateswitheachloopdeployed.Itcanbemeasuredinadedicatedtestset
up (Section8.5.1). In the parallel winding, there are various cyclic dependencies
(Section5.3.6).Formostpurposesitcanbeconsideredaconstant.Becauseitisimportantto
understanditsvalueinthecontextofthefulldynamicbehavioritisalsoderivedindirectly
fromtestsperformedwiththebarberpolebrake(seeSection5.4.3)afterthesecondwinding.
Thespoolfrictiondependency ) , ( l l f

isseparatelycharacterized.ExperiencefromtheSEDS
projectssuggeststhefollowingmodel[Bortolami1993]:
2
2
2 2
2
1
1
) , (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
spool
core
spool
core spool
sol
E
tot
sol
d
d
d
d d
A
l
l
A
l
I l l f
t
t t
p

, (5.2)
withIadimensionlessinertiamultiplier,A
sol
theannulussoliditydependingondiametersd
ofspoolandcore,andEadimensionlessareaexponent.Notethatisagainthelineartether
densityexpressedinkg/m.
As can be seen in Eq.5.2 the deployment tension is rather strongly dependent on
deployment velocity. It is roughly proportional to the kinetic energy instantaneously
conferredtothetetherasitcomesoffthespool(Section2.1.5),amplifiedbyanycontactwith
guides, the canister wall (high speed) or spool core (low speed). At higher speeds with
increasedcentrifugalforce(typically>3m/s)thetetherleavesthespoolatsteeperanglesand
hitsthecanisterwall,wherefrictionpresumablycausesamultiplicationoftheinertialterm.
ThevalueofIcanbedetermined,inconjunctionagainwithT
0
forconfirmation,byrunninga
variablespeedunwindingtest,uptohighvelocities(1025m/s),atthebeginningofaspool.
The remainder of the test is particularly telling for the parameter I. A trend fit gives the
requiredparameters.TheassumptionofaconstantvalueofT
0
ischeckedbyreturningthe
rigtolowspeedattheendofthetest,tomakeacomparativemeasurement.
Eq.5.2 also indicates that tension increases with length during the last few kilometers
(Figure123),dependentontheareaexponentE.E actsonameasureofthecrosssectional
192 Chapter5
areaasisenclosedbythelastdeployedtetherloop.Theeffectcouldberelatedtothesmall
radius,increasedbendingandincreasedamountofloopstobeunwoundpersecond.From
tests,itappearshowevertobeoriginatingmoreconsistentlyfromthefactthat,unlikethe
tether, the core is not compressible [Hyslop2005]. There is an effect of depth within the
spool, where embedding of the tether takes place within layers deeper inside the spool,
underpressureofthepretensionedouterlayersofthespool(Section5.3.6),anddepending
onthe(lackof)compressibilityoftheenclosedcoreanddeepertetherlayers.Othercyclic
fluctuations, particularly for the case of parallel winding at low velocities, are amplified
with the average tension level (Section5.3.6). Fortunately, this increase in average and
fluctuation of tension as described by the area exponent is confined to the last few
kilometersofthespool.Typicallydeploymentvelocitywillbehighhereandcycliceffects
arereduced.Furthermore,thefinalpartofthetethercanbeusedasmarginwithaninherent
tendency to slow down any excess deployment. E can be found by running a variable
velocitytestatlaterstagesinthespool.
Figure106.Spoolparametercalibration,hereT
0
=0.01N,
I=3.1,E=1.4
Secondwindingandpartialunwinding
Asthetetherisunwoundaxially,duringitsfirstunwinding,atwistwillbeintroducedin
thetether(Section4.1.8).Suchtwistcanleadtotethercoilingandlowtensionspringeffects
duringthemission,aswellasirregularbehavioronthebrakesystem(Section5.4.1)butcan
quiteeasilybecanceledout(attimeofthenextunwinding)ifaninvertedorientationofthe
coreisusedduringthesecondwinding,i.e.swappingcoretopandbottom(Figure95).
For a flight tether, in the second winding, at the point where the flight target length is
reached,thetetherislockedtothespoolwiththreetemporarycottonknots,whilestillon
the winding machine and under winding tension. An additional 1.5km margin is then
woundontopoftheflightspool.Thismargincontainsseveralmoremarkedpiecesofwhich
thewoundlengthisregisteredprecisely.Asthemarginisunwound,theunwoundlengthof
themarkedpiecesismeasuredtoquantifythetethershrinkageonelasttime(Section4.1.9).
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 5 10 15 20
Speed [m/s]
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
Trend fit
Actual measured data
Final rig speed measurement
DeployerSystemDevelopment 193
Mostofthemarginishoweverusedtoperformacharacterizationofminimaldeployment
tensionT
0
andthebarberpolebrakefriction(Section5.4.3).
The tether is then cut at the tiedowns, the additional pieces (ripstitch and Kevlar, see
Section7.4.1)aresplicedandputinplace,flighttiedownsaretied(Section5.3.4)andthe
temporaryonesremoved(Figure107).Thetetherisnowreadyfortransportandflight.
Figure107.Crisscross5kmtestspoolrightafterwinding
5.3.6 Driversofpatternsinunwindingtension
TheuseofT
0
asaconstantsuggestsasmoothlydevelopingtension,andthismodelisquite
acceptable on the time scales of deployment dynamics, typically nominal deployment
velocityortensionvariesoveraperiodofminutes.Howeveritisusefultounderstandwhat
kindofpatternscanberecognizedinunwindingtensionatshortertimescales,namelythe
deployment of a single loop (2075cm), a crisscross cycle (47loops) or a layer of tether
(100400m).
Generally,itmatterswhetheradeploymentoccursatlowvelocity,inwhichcasethetether
rubsoverallthedownstreampartofthecore,orthecentrifugalforceisstrongenoughwith
respecttoT
0
toreleasethetetherfromthecore(balleffect).Anotherimportantparameter
is whether the winding is parallel or crisscross. Parallel windings show generally low
deploymentfriction,butlonglayerrelatedcycles,strongdirectionaldependency,andthe
possibility of strong flangerelated amplification at low velocity. Crisscross windings
insteadhaveacycleattheloopunwindingfrequency.
Tensioncycleforasingledeployedcrisscrossloop
Zoominginonthelowvelocitydeploymenttensionvariationsforasinglecrisscrosscycle,
depending on the winding and environmental conditions we may encounter a fairly
uniformtensionlevel,oronemuchmorepronounced.Thepronouncedpatterncontainsa
dependencyoncurrentunwindingdirection,theregularcrossingofotherlayers,andthe
nearlyunrestrainedreleaseoftetherneartopandbottomofthespool.Componentstothe
patternarediscussedinSection8.5.1.
194 Chapter5
Balleffect
Athighvelocity(>1m/s)thetether(bothfromparallelandcrisscrossspools)unwindsina
ballshape,suchthattheoutgoingtethernevertouchesthespoolorcoreflange.Generally
smallertensionamplificationsandcycliceffectsarecreated.However,theballshapewill
varywiththedistancebetweentheoutgoingloopandthecanisterexit.Atlargedistances
theballisshallow,andhencetheanglebetweenthespoolandtheoutgoingtetherissmall
(hightension).Atsmalldistancestheballhasamuchsharpercurveandtheangleofthe
outgoingtetherislarge(lowtension).Theamplitudeoftheeffectisabout10%(Figure108).
Nodependencyoncoreslopehasbeenidentified.Asitisalayereffect,theeffecthasalow
frequency. For the parallel winding each layer contains 100200m of tether, for the criss
crosswindingatlargerradiusthisisabout150400m.
Figure108.BallEffect(n=1);visualtimetaggingoflayerchanges
showscorrelationwithtensiontroughsandpeaks
Coreshape
When a parallelwound tether unwinds from a cylindrical core, it cycles through
respectively hard and easy layers. As the tether unwinds from the end closest to the
canisterexit(top)towardtheendfarthestfromtheexit(bottom),thetetherjustslidesright
off. As the tether unwinds in the opposite direction, the tether has to scale first its
neighboring loop: a hooking effect that increases the tension (Figure 109). A conical core
makesiteasiertoovercomethisproblemandreducestheeffect.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 195
Figure109.Cylindricalvs.conicalcorewithparallelwindingatlow
deploymentvelocity;hardlayer/easylayerconcept.
Coreflange
At low velocity (<1m/s), when T
0
dominates the tension, the tether takes practically the
shortest path towards the canister exit. In the parallel section this means that the tether
bendsandrubsovertheflangeedge.Similarlytotheballeffect,theanglebetweenthespool
andtheoutgoingtetherchangeswithaperiodoftwolayersandwillthusshowasimilarly
shaped zigzag profile (Figure 110). This issue is relatively insignificant for the SpaceMail
mission asitonlyhasrelevanceinthevery last metersofdeployment, when therapidly
deployingtetherisbeingbroughttoastandstill.
Figure110.Flangeeffectontethertension
(parallelwinding)
The effects have been observed to combine to complex, but often recognizable shapes
(Figure111).Anoverviewoftherelevanceofthevariouseffectswithinthedifferentphases
ofdeploymentisprovidedinTable40.
196 Chapter5
Lowvelocity
Hardlayer/easylayer Parallelwinding,
affectedbylayercompressionandcoreslope.

T
t
Flangeeffect Parallelwinding,angleoftethercomingfromspool,
affectedbylayercompression.

T
t
Compressibilityof
innerlayers
Closetocore.

T
t
Total Bysuperposition.

T
t
Highvelocity
Balleffect+
compressibilityeffect
Angleoftethercomingfromspool.

T
t
Figure111.Spoolunwindingtensionpatterns.
Locationinspool Highvelocity Lowvelocity
Nearcore(parallel) AreaExponenttensionrise AreaExponenttensionrise
Parallel Ball(smalleffect) Flange(largeeffect)
Hardlayer/Easylayer
Crisscross Generallysmooth Loopcycles,windingcycles
Table40:Summaryofspoolunwindingtensionpatterns
5.3.7 Othersystemdesignimpactsonunwindingtension
In the early days of the winding development a number of qualitative tests has been
performedtounderstandwhetherdesignparameterssuchastetherbraiding,crosssection
shapeorwindinganglehavesomesignificantinfluenceontheunwindingtension.
Variousfacilitieshavebeenused.Onetestisperformedwithafailsafedoublestrandtether
atTetherApplicationsopenlooptetherunwindingfacility,aspartofthe1997YESproject.
Thistestincludedalsoaheliumfilledcanistertostudytheimpactofatmosphericdragon
theunwindingofthetetherbyvaryingtheairdensity.Theothersareperformedonthetwo
inhouse developed rigs (Section5.2). In particular those tests performed with the
DeployerSystemDevelopment 197
UnwindingRigv1hasallowedonlytomakeroughqualitativeconclusions,asthewinding
qualityandreproducibility,developingovertheyears,isnotyetachieved.Alsointhisrig
therathercostlytethercannotbereused,whichseverelylimitsthetotalnumberofteststhat
canbeperformed.SometestsarethereforerepeatedontheUnwindingRigv2.
Parameter Value Testsetup Result
Doublestrandtether 34.6Kmdoublestrandof2x
130Spectra.
UnwindingRig(atTether
Applications,SanDiego)
T0=0.0085,I=3.8,E=0.8
Comparabletosinglestrand
spools.
Tetherprestretch Thermalprestretch8x400vs.
untreated.
UnwindingRig(v1) Effectsmallerthanspool
differences.
Tetherflatness Mechanicallyflattened
8x200vs.round.
UnwindingRig(v1) Effectsmallerthanspool
differences.
Tetherbraiding 8x200vs.4x400 UnwindingRig(v1) Notanalyzed(expectedtobenot
noticeablecomparedtospool
differences).
Tetherdiameter/
lineardensity
8x400vs.8x200 UnwindingRig(v1) Lowerandsmoothertensionfor
thinnertether(Figure113).
Spoolwindingangle 015 UnwindingRig(v1) Effectsmallerthanspool
differences.
idem UnwindingRig(v2)&
Flight
Impactonfrequencyis
noticeable(Section8.3.2).
Spoolquality,
density/compactness
Gapsbetweenadjacentloops
fromnegative(overlap)up
to90%oftetherdiameter.
UnwindingRig(v2) Loopoverlapscauselasting
tensiondisturbance(Figure122).
Windingpretension 57N UnwindingRig(v1) Effectsmallerthanspool
differences.
2.511N UnwindingRig(v2) Atlowtension,patternsare
morepronounced(Figure120).
Canistershape(e.g.
effectofopencanister
duringtest)
Variouscardboardcanister
shapes.
UnwindingRig(v2) Effectsmallerthanspool
differences(Figure118).
Coreshapeand
dimension
Variouscoreconeangle,
diameterandflangesize.
UnwindingRig(v2) Significanteffects(Figure115
Figure117).
Table41.Unwindingtests:overviewofsystemdesignimpactontension.
Impactoftetherdesign
InthecontextoftheEuropeanSpaceAgencysYESproject(1997,Chapter6),over31kmofa
Carroll Caduceus doublestrand tether has been unwound from a miniSEDS canister, a
smallversionoftheSEDSdeployer,byTetherApplicationsinSanDiego.Thetetherismade
of2x130twistedbraid(0.32mmperstrand)Spectra(similartoDyneema)withalineardensity
ofonly4.8e5kg/m.Thetwostrandsaresplicedtogetherevery~500m.Thetetherhasbeenstored
198 Chapter5
on a spool for about 1year. The spool parameters T
0
, I and E are determined and found to
provideagoodfitofthemodeltothemeasuredtension(Figure112).Despitethesignificantly
differenttetherdesign,thespoolparametersarestillfoundtobewithintherangeofvaluesgiven
bythespoolsofthesinglestrand,0.8mmSEDStether[Bortolami1993]andthespoolsdeveloped
forthiswork.ThemodelofEqs.5.1&5.2canthereforebeconsideredratherwidelyapplicable.
Themodel of Eqs.5.1 &5.2 predicts at higher velocities analmost linear scaling with tethers
lineardensity,whichisputtothetestwithinasinglespoolontheUnwindingRigv1withthe
helpofasplicefroman8x400toan8x200tetherwithhalfthelineardensity.Theresultsshow
thatnotonlytheabsolutevalueofthetension,butalsothespreaddecreasedatthemomentof
transition(Figure113).
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity [m/s]
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
L
e
n
g
t
h

[
k
m
]
Tension (Air)
Model (Helium)
Tension (Helium)
Length (Helium)
Figure112.Effectofatmosphericdensityon
deploymenttensionvs.velocity(doublestrandtether)
Figure113.Tetherlineardensityeffectontension
(TSEtest)
Coreandinitialspooldiameters
Apartfromcoreflangeandconeanglethatleadtocycliceffects,thediameterofthecore
may also impact the final tension and possibly also the initial amount of tether on the
winding. Both these parameters impact the annulus solidity, and physically, the
compressionleveloftheinnerwindingsofthespool.AlthoughthemodelofEqs.5.1&5.2
hasprovenitsusefulnesstoprovideafitfortensiondataforagivenspool,itisofinterestto
DeployerSystemDevelopment 199
understand if the model also is able to predict effects based on winding and design
differences,ascanbeexpressedthroughtheannulussolidity.
ConsiderthefourspoolsA,B,C&DindicatedinFigure114.ThetetheronallthreespoolsA,
B&Chavebeendeployeduntilthesamediameterd
1
(indicatedbyafatcircle).Thetether
ontheBandCspoolhoweverhas(nearly)fullydeployeduntilthecore,whereasthespool
A still has a significant amount of tether remaining: the core diameter is smaller for the
spool A (shaded area). The difference between the spools B and C is that the original
diameterbeforeunwindingissmallerforthespoolontheright(dottedline).SpoolCandD
havedeployedthesameamountoftether(L
2
),butthecoreofspoolDissmaller.Allother
parametersremainingequalanddeploymentvelocitybeingequalandnonzero,themodel
wouldpredictthatthecurrentdeploymenttensionT
A
=T
B
,T
B
>T
C
andT
D
>T
C
.
Testdataindicateshoweverthatrealityismorecomplex.T
B
T
C
andevenT
B
<T
C
ifd
1
>d
core
as
in A, see Figure 115, Figure 116. Indeed T
D
>T
C
(Figure 117), but the effect is more
pronouncedthanthemodelwouldpredict.Notethatmosttestsareperformedatratherlow
velocity (1m/s) and a tension amplification of about a factor 3 [Hyslop2005], still the
observedtensionlevelsarehighenoughtoassumedynamiceffectsareplayingasignificant
role(i.e.muchlargerthanafewcentinewton).Manyofthetensionprofilesshowthetypical
zigzagbehaviorofflangeorballeffect(e.g.inFigure111).
Anexceptionholdsforthedeploymentoftheinnerlayersofa4kmtether,directlyfromthe
corewheretheyexperiencedmorecompressionthanthe450mequivalent(Figure115)and
forwhichtensionisfullydominatedbytheeasylayerhardlayereffect.Thisisnolonger
obviousifthesetestsarerepeatedontopofa2kmtetherlayer(Figure116). Atthenow
increasedradius,tensionlevelsforthefinalmetersaredecreasedforboththe4kmandthe
450mtether,butindifferentways,andtheeffectsaremorestrongonthetetherthathas
beenprecompressed.
Asmallerradiusthusamplifiestensiononitsownaccount.Itisalsosuggestedthatalarger
predeploymentcompression(L
1
largerincaseA,i.e.deploymentatthesameradius,ofan
initially larger spool) yields a stronger dependence on remaining distance to the
incompressiblecore.
Inshort,thereseemtobethreebehavioralregions.Theuncompressedoutsideofthespool,
the compressible inside of the spool and the zone near the uncompressible core. The
boundaries depend on the initial spool and core dimensions. In the tests performed, the
insideregionhastypicallybeenmuchlesspresentedthanisthecaseforflightspoolsand
thereforefurtherconclusionsarehardtodraw.
An explanation for the suggested zonal behaviors can be hypothesized based on
observations made during the winding process. Spool dimensional measurements and
observations,madeduringwinding,showthatasmorepretensionedtetheriswoundabout
aspool,theinnerlayersarebeingprogressivelypushedoutward.Whereastheouterlayers
arestillundertensionfromthewindingprocess,itissuggestedthattheinnerlayershave
losttensionduetocompression,whichreducesthecircumferenceofeachloopthere.Asthe
200 Chapter5
slackenedinnerlayersarepushed outward, theycreatemorespaceand allowfordeeper
embeddingofthetether,betweenlowerlayersorwithrespecttotheadjacentlooporlayer
crossings.
Thiswouldbelesssoneartheincompressiblecore,wherethetetherkeepsitstensionand
compactness, although any gaps from winding imperfections will still be exploited for
embedding,supportedbytheincreasedpressure.Asthetetherunwinds,the compressed
layersaregraduallyallowedtobouncebackintotheiroriginalshape.Thisprocesscanin
fact be observed, as during unwinding the width of the spool decreases by several
millimeters. The expansion increases again the pretension on the loops, however, the
embeddingcannotbereversedandcycliceffectsmaybeamplified.Withintheparallelpart
ofthewinding,theflangesreducetosomeextenttheoutwardpush.Compactnessofthe
spool, so close placement of adjacent loops, therefore is important here to reduce the
embeddingandmaketheunwindingtensionmoresmooth.
Theseresultsindicatethatrealityistoocomplextoseparateeffectsbysingleparametersand
manymorewellcontrolledtestswouldbenecessarytodoso.Althoughithasbeenshown
thatthemodelofEqs.5.1&5.2canbeusedtoobtainagoodtensionpredictionforagiven
spool design (e.g. Figure 106, Figure 112), it holds for now no predictive value for other
spooldesigns:theparametersIandEareanasyetunknownfunctionoftheinitialannulus
solidity.Spoolswithdifferentcorediameterordifferentinitialdiameters,andprobablyalso
thosewithdifferenttetherlength,requireaseparatecharacterizationofparametersIandE.
Figure115.Unwindingtensionclosetocore
vs.initialspooldimensions,asSpoolB
(L
1
=4km),SpoolC(L
2
=450m).

Figure116.Unwindingtensioninsidespool
vs.initialspooldimension,asspoolA,
L
1
=450morL
1
=4km.
Figure114.Fourspools,initialsizeindicatedbydottedline,deployeduntil
thethickblackline,d1>d2,L1>L2.Thecoreisindicatedingray.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 201
Figure117.Unwindingtensionvs.core
dimensions,asspoolCandD(L
2
=450m)

Figure118.Tensioncomparisonofflatpanel
andcurvedpanelcanisterbreadboardsduring
8m/sdeployment
Canistershape
Experiments have been performed on a variety of spool shapes. The SEDS canister is a
seamlesscylinderwithconicaltop.Itisoptimizedforlowmassandlowfriction.TheTSE
canister is similar, but has a seam at the interface between cylinder and cone. It can be
considered a non massoptimized breadboard version of the SEDS canister. The
RAPUNZEL canister is a simple cylinder with a flat top (Figure 86). Finally, the YES2
canisterisahexagonshapewithflattop,withroundedinternaledges,massoptimizedand
designedforsimplicityandmoreparticularly,structuralstrength.TheYES2canistercarries
the ejection system and thus fulfills an important structural function within the YES2
system. It has been checked if a panel structure would have a detrimental effect to the
deploymentduetosomepossiblewhippingeffect.Aworstcasesituation,representedbya
deploymentfromasquareboxmockupcanister,iscomparedtoonefromtheTSEcanister,
thecylinderpluscone.1000Hzmeasurementsareperformedforhighvelocitydeployment
at 8m/s, sufficient to resolve the ~100Hz whipping that would be expected within the
squarebox.
Figure118showsthatthetensionprofilesarequalitativelycomparable.Closeinspectionof
thetensiondatarevealsnopeaksthatcouldbecorrelatedwithcyclicwallcontact.Notethat
theraisedtensionlevelwiththesquarecanisterismostlikelyduetothetestsoccurringat
slightly different locations within the spools. The hexagonal canister has therefore been
approvedfortheYES2design.
It is advantageous to place the canister exit at a distance from the top of the core. For
example, it reduces cyclic ball effects. The conical top of the SEDS and TSE deployers
provide a mass optimized manner to achieve this result. At extremely high velocity and
centrifugalforcesitmayalsohelptoreducetheamountofbendingofthetetheraroundthe
canister exit guide, as compared to a flat lid at the same distance from the core. Such a
situationhasnotbeenobservedintheYES2testshowever.Aflattopplateforthecanisteris
thusalsoapproved.
202 Chapter5
Windingparameters
Pretensionandwindinganglearesomeoftheprimarycontrolsduringthewindingprocess.
AnunwindingtestperformedontheUnwindingRigv1inordertoobtainafirstimpression
ontheeffectofchangesinwindingangle(5,6,7turnspercycle)andwindingtension(47N)
revealed no clear influence [Kruijff2001.III]. Further tests covering ranges of 6.5N9N
windingtensionlevelshaveledtothesameconclusion,Figure119.Thesignificantlylower
tensionforthefirstcrisscrosspatternlayerisduetotheouterzoneeffect.Ontheotherside
ofthecurvesnearthecore,theclearriseintensionistheonedescribedbyareaexponentE.
Although at pretensions above ~5N little effect is seen, below a certain threshold, the E
effectbecomessuddenlymuchstronger.Itishypothesizedthatifaspooliswoundbelow
this threshold tension, the lower layers may get slack or otherwise more likely to be
compressed. As explained earlier some additional tension will then be required at
unwindingtopullthetetherloosefromitsdeeperlayers,andE willappearlarger(Figure
120).Thezigzagseeninthisfigureisduetotheflange,nottheballeffectasvelocityisrather
low.
Figure119.Impactofwindingpatternchange
ontension

Figure120.Comparingdifferentpretensions
for450mspoolsduring1m/sdeployment
Figure121.Repeatingspoolimprint,0.5m/s
deployment.Averagetensionlevelhasbeen
offsetforcomparison.
Figure122.Relationshipbetweenunwindingtension
andwindingmistakes(0.5m/s)
DeployerSystemDevelopment 203
Windingquality
Consistency in the unwinding tension profile requires a very smooth spool with few
mistakes. Winding errors (gaps, overlaps) made in one layer have a clear signature in
unwindingtension,andtheerrorspropagateintothenextlayer.Particularlyintheparallel
windingflawsinthespoolpropagateintothenextlayerthroughoutthespoolandusually
donotfullydisappear.Figure121showshowthetensionhistoryfromsubsequentlayersis
consistent.Figure122comparesaspoolwithseveralwindingerrorstoaflawlessspoolthat
hasacleargradualtensionincrease.
5.3.8 Reproducibilityofunwindingtension
A number of unwindings have been repeated in different conditions to analyze at least
qualitativelytheinfluenceofimportantenvironmentalparameters.Theaimistoobtainan
understandingofthepredictivevalueofadeploymenttestinambientlaboratoryconditions
for flight situation. Table 42 summarizes these tests, which are detailed mostly in
[Hyslop2005].Someofthepreparedtestshavenotbeenperformedortheresultshavebeen
ignored.Someofthedeliveredtethers(namelyErikand Ferdi)havebeenpreheatedattoo
hightemperatureandshowevidenceofmelt,exposedfiberendsandgenerallypresentaT
0
abouttentimeshigherthannominal.Anumberofthesetestshaveinsteadbeenperformed
inasimplifiedtestsetup(forT
0
measurementonly,seeSection8.5.1).

Figure123.Tensioneffectsofdifferentspooltreatments(0.5m/s)
Spooltreatments
Aspoolhasbeenputthroughdifferenttreatmentsthenrewoundinanidenticalfashionfor
comparison.Onetreatmentisasimplestorageatroomtemperaturefor1month.Another
treatmentinvolvesplacingthespoolina50Cthermalchamberfor6cyclesof8hourseach.
Thestorageappearstohavenoeffectbutthethermalcyclesmayhaveincreasedthetension
nearthecore(Figure123).Whereasthesetestsfocusonthedynamicanddiametereffects,
variousenvironmentaleffectstestsperformedatalaterstagearetargetedatinvestigationof
T
0
. From these tests it is concluded that thermal cycling can significantly increase the
averagedvalueT
0
,particularlyduetoincreasedsettlingofthespool.Storageseemstohave
aneffectoftensionreductionontheouterlayer,thermalvacuumexposureseemstohave
204 Chapter5
ledtosomereductionofT
0
intheouter15m,whereasnoimpactofhumidityortemperature
assuchcouldbeidentified(Section8.5.1).
Parameter Value Testsetup Result
Temperature Elevatedtemperature
duringunwinding(40C)
UnwindingRig(v2) Nosignificanteffect
Lowtemperatureduring
unwinding(0C)
T0measurement Section8.5.1
Thermalvacuumexposure Postthermalvacuum
exposure(20to50C,
1.210
3
Pa)
UnwindingRig(v2) Testnotrepresentativedueto
outofspectether(Ferdi)
Postthermalvacuum
exposure(16to40C,
210
4
Pa)
T
0
measurement Section8.5.1
Atmosphericdrag Heliumfilledcanister UnwindingRig(atTether
Applications,SanDiego)
Effectsmallerthan3%
Heliumenvironmentfor
canisterandbrake
UnwindingRig(v2) Testsetupbutnotperformed
duetotimeconstraints
Humidity 048% T0measurement Section8.5.1
Gravity Verticalvs.horizontal
positionofcanister
UnwindingRig(v2)
Rapunzel
[Sabath1997]
Unwindinginzerog,2
nd
ESAStudentParabolic
FlightCampaign
Rapunzel [Sabath1997]
Zerogvs.1and2g,5th
ESAStudentParabolic
FlightCampaign
UnwindingRig(v2) Impactontensionpattern,no
effectonaveragedistinguished
Exposuretolaunch
vibration
Random(1012grms,
x,y,z)andlowlevelsine
sweep
UnwindingRig(v2) Tetherintactbuttestnot
representativeduetooutof
spectether(Ferdi)
Storage 1month UnwindingRig(v2) Nosignificanteffect
3days T0measurement Section8.5.1
Rewinding 120times UnwindingRig(v2) Tetherdegradesandsoftens
withtime.Tensionpatterncan
bereproduced.
Table42.Overviewofteststostudyunwindingtension
Spaceenvironment
Tetherunwindinginspaceoccursinvacuumandatweightlessness.Nobudgethasbeen
available for a deployment test in vacuum. Vacuum can be thought to have an effect on
frictionandtheinertiamultiplier,throughaneffectonatmosphericdrag. Theproblemis
thereforesplitintwo.Atestofstaticfrictioninvacuumisperformedforthebarberpolein
DeployerSystemDevelopment 205
particular as primary friction element (Section4.1.7). To study the impact of atmospheric
drag,dataanalyzedofadynamicdeploymenttestthathasbeenperformedpartiallyina
heliumandpartiallyinanairenvironment.Heliumhasapproximatelyseventimeslower
density than air and thus only about 14% its drag. During the test, the canister is being
purged with helium, the actually achieved density is not measured. A dynamic test at
velocitiesfrom1to15m/shasbeenperformedunderbothconditionsandrevealsaminimal
effect,andnomorethan3%increaseintensionduetoatmosphericdrag(Figure112).
In order to verify correct deployment performance of the spool in weightlessness
(unwinding of tether, entry of barberpole), two parabolic flight experiments have been
performed.Athirdtestfocusesonbarberpolebehavior.InESAs2
nd
StudentParabolicFlight
Campaign several kilometer of tether has been deployed from the RAPUNZEL canister
[Sabath1997]. The deployment shows to be smoother than on ground, in particular as
compared to a horizontal canister configuration. ESAs 5
th
Student Parabolic Flight
Campaign features the Unwinding Rigv2 (without the tether recovery equipment). Two
series of about 30parabolic manoeuvres are performed, where each parabola is
characterized by three main phases. 20Seconds of 1.8g (Pull up) is followed by the
microgravityphase,alsoroughly20seconds,withanaccelerationof0.05gforthevertical
axis (zaxis) and 0.01g along the x and ydirections. After the microgravity phase, a
20secondverticalaccelerationisreachedoncemore,1.8g(Pulldown). Therigisrunat
1m/sforthedurationofeachparabola,asshowninFigure124.Thetransitionsfrom1.8tozerog
arenotdiscernible,neitherforcrisscrossnorforparallelwindings.Cyclictensionpatternsare
due to the flange effect, as seen on ground tests. It is concluded that gravity has no
detrimentaleffectondeploymenttension.
Figure124.Unwindingtensionatvariousg
levels

Figure125.Reproducibilityoftensionhistory
withthesametether,1m/s(n=1)deployment
Reproducibility
Reproducibilityofspooltensionbysubsequentwindingshasbeendemonstratedalreadyin
anearlystageofdevelopmentinavarietyoftests,suchasFigure123foralargespooland
Figure125 forthefinalphasenearthecore,wherevariationsaremaximal(spools#3,6,7).
Thetypicalvariationof15%seenhereatatimescaleoftensofsecondsrequiresonlyminor
adjustments of the barberpole (Section5.4). Note that spool quality and presumably
206 Chapter5
reproducibility has since increased with further development of the winding machine.
Overlapscausingparticularnoiselevels(Figure122)arevirtuallyabsentinthelatestspools,
compactnesshasincreased,layersandwindingangletransitionsareplannedandthespool
geometryismonitoredandcontrolled.Duetothewindingmachineevolution,edgebuild
upaprimarysourceofgapsandirregularities(Section5.3.8)ispracticallyabsentinthe
mostrecentspools(Figure96),#50andup.
5.3.9 Conclusionsandrecommendations
Trends, patterns and dependencies in the winding tension on environmental and design
parametershavebeenqualitativelyinvestigatedtoidentifymajorfactorsthataretobetaken
intoaccountfortetherspooldesignandmissionpreparation.Althoughonlyasubsetofthe
availabledatahasasyetbeenanalyzedandfurthertestingisrequiredifresultsaretobe
quantified,apreliminaryunderstandinghasbeenachieved.Anumberofconclusionsand
recommendationscanbemade.
Increasingtheunderstandingofthehypothesizedthreezonesofbehaviorwithinaspoolis
recommendedbyfurthertestsandfurtheranalysisoftestsalreadyperformed.Furthermore,
amodelingoftheevolutionofpressureandtensionwithinthespoolasaresultofwinding
pretensionisrecommended.
Particular detrimental to spool quality are overlaps, and improper combinations of spool
compressibilityandpretensiondevelopmentoverthespool. From manyperspectives, for
theparallelwindingitismorechallengingandmorecriticaltoobtainagoodqualityand
smoothtensionprofile.Particularlytheflangeandeasylayerhardlayereffectscanleadto
largevariations,butthisislimitedtothefinalhundredsofmetersonthespool,whichcan
generallybeheldinreserve.
In the more recent windings performed for this project, pretension is being slightly
decreasedwithincreasingspoolradiustoreducetheamountofcompressionandslackness
withinthespool.Thespoolwindingprocesshasalsobeengivenaconstanttaperingtothis
purpose, yielding (in combination with compression effects) a rounded spool geometry
(Figure96).Initerationwiththeinvestigation,improvementshavebeenintroducedintothe
winding machine, in particular aimed to reduce torques on the winding head, gaps and
overlaps(Section5.2.1).Aprocedureisimplementedtopreventtethertwistandtocorrect
lengthmeasurementsfortethershrinkageandothereffects.Compactanduniformspools
with few gaps and more controlled outer dimensions are created, therefore they are
expected to further increase predictability and reduce cyclic effects. A characterization
procedure has been defined, to determine the parameters for the SEDS model of spool
tension.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 207
5.4 Barberpoledevelopment
This section describes the modeling, development and testing of a tortuous path (or
barberpole) friction brake system for deploying tethers, based on the capstan principle
usedintextileindustry.
5.4.1 Performancemodeling
Consider a tether with diameter d without bending stiffness following an inclined path
aroundacylindricalpolewithradiusr (R=r+0.5d)andlengthl
pole
.Tetherentryandexit
pointarefixedandlocatedontheextremitiesofthepole,suchthatthetetherisindirect
contactwiththesurface.Thefrictioncoefficientbetweentetherandpoleisf.Letthetension
attheentryofthepolebeT
in
.
Capstanrelationship,effectoftethermassandpolegeometry
For a simplified case of a massless tether and l
pole
=0, the capstan relationship
[e.g.McKenna2004] providestherelationshipbetweenT
in
andthetensionattheexitfrom
thepole,T
out
.
fn
in out
e T T
t 2
=
, (5.3)
with n being the number of wraps of the tether around the pole and =2n. The
exponentialresponseallowsforalargerangeofcontrolwithminimalactuationeffort,i.e.,
changingthenumberofwrapsbyonlylittle.
Figure126.Coordinatesonacylinder

Figure127.Forcebalanceonatethersegment
aroundacylindricalsurface
Ifl
pole
>0thetethermaybeassumedtofollowtheshortestpatharoundthepole,anditwill
describeahelix,ascendingthepolewithconstantangle. Thelengthoftetherincontact
withthepolescannowbeexpressedas(Figure126):
nR
l
l
s
pole
pole
t
u
u
2
tan
sin
=
=
(5.4)
u
u+du
d o
ds
T+dT
T
|-dm a
z
|

= pv
2
cosu d u
Nds
uNds
|-dm a
R
|

= pv
2
cosu do
|-dm a o |

= p v
2
sin u d u

208 Chapter5
Nowconsideratetherwithlinearmassdensity(dm=ds),andnorestrictionontheangle
and the friction coefficient f. Incoming and outcoming angles of the pole are free to
develop.Frictioncoefficientfcanbefunctionoftensionorlocalcondition.Letthetetherbe
movingalongthepolesurfaceatconstantvelocityv=ds/dt. Supposethatthetetherpath
hasreachedasteadyshapeonthepole.
m u u
m
u
d tan d sin d
d
cos
d
= =
=
R s z
R
s
(5.5)
In cylindrical coordinates, the accelerations of the segment ds can be easily expressed as
(assumingacylindricalpole,dR/dt=d
2
R/dt
2
=0):
z a
R a
R a
z
R

=
=
=
m
m
m
2
(5.6)
Withtheassumptiondv/dt=0andv=ds/dt,thiscanberewrittenas:
u u p
u u p
m u p
m
d cos d
d sin d
d cos d
2
2
2
=
=
=
v a m
v a m
v a m
z
R
(5.7)
Theforcebalanceinrespectivelyradial,tangentialbalanceandpoleaxisdirectionbecomes
(Figure127):
u u m u
p
p
u u m u
p
p
m u p
tan / d d cos
) ( d
tan d d cos
) ( d
cos ) ( d
2
2
2
2
2
=

+ =

=
f
v T
v T
f
v T
v T
d v T s N
(5.8)
EquatingEqs.5.8b&cleadstothenecessityofaconstant,giventheforcefieldsketched:
0 d , 0 tan / d tan d = u u u u u u
(5.9)
Therefore, the simplified geometric relations apply (Eq.5.4a&b). The force balance in
tangential directioncanbe integratedtoyield anexpressionfortension. Thedeployment
velocity dl/dt can be introduced, being equal to v=ds/dt. The tension in the tether as it
leavesthebarberpoleisnearlyproportionaltoincomingtensionaccordingto:
( )
2
d cos
2
l e l T T
f
in out

p p
m u
+

=

(5.10)
Thisisaresultwithinterestingimplicationsforthesystemphysics.Noticethatthisformula
contains the term previously introduces as rocket term (Eq. 2.15). It predicts that the
rocket term passes the brake unamplified. For constant friction coefficient f, the formula
simplifiesandtensiondependsnearlyexponentiallyontheturnangle:
DeployerSystemDevelopment 209
( )
2 cos 2 2
l e l T T
fn
in out

p p
u t
+ = (5.11)
Or,expressedingeometricaldesignparameters:
( )
2
) 5 . 0 ( 2
1 2
2
5 . 0
2
l e l T T
t
pole
d r n
l
fn
in out

p p
t
t
+ =

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
(5.12)
In conclusion, the tether should assume the shape of a helix with angle which can be
calculated from the number of turns and geometry of the pole. Furthermore, a tether
deploying from a spool has a minimum tension of the rocket term
2
l

p . For such a T
in
Eq.5.11guaranteesthatthenormalforcewillremainpositiveandthuscontactwiththepole
isguaranteed.A nonstifftetherdeployedfromaspoolatconstantvelocitywillthusbein
contact with the barberpole brake regardless of density or deployment velocity. This
conclusiondoesnotnecessarilyholdforstifftethers(requiredbendingmomentswillseta
tougherconditiontomeet),norfordeceleratingdeployment(inertiaeffectsoftetheratlow
frictionend).Probablydecelerationwillnotgiveanyproblemsforthetethertopolecontact:
stronglydeceleratingdeploymentistypicallyinitiatedbythebarberpolefrictionitself.
Figure128plotsthepredictedperformanceforpoleswithvariousratiosR/l
pole
,

accordingto
Eq.5.11,relativetotheidealizedexponentialbarberpole(Eq.5.3).Plotsareprovidedfortwo
different friction coefficients: f=0.1and 0.3. On the vertical axis is plotted the relative
performance (1=idealized exponential), with steps of 5%. Horizontal (backtofront) is the
numberofbraketurnsfrom0to5,withstepsof0.25turn.Horizontal(lefttoright)isplotted
theratioR/l
pole
from0to0.25,withstepsof2.5%. Arelativelythickerpoleperformsbetter,
and so does a pole with a lower friction coefficient. A dip in performance is recognized
around1turn.Forhigherfrictioncoefficients,thislossismorepronounced.Forpoleswith
R>0.125l
pole
, performance is generally better than 80%, so a simple exponential fit will
suffice.Thinnerpoleshoweverhaveheavilydegradedperformance.
Figure128.Predictedperformancerelativetoidealizedexponentialbarberpolefortwofriction
coefficients
210 Chapter5
Entryguideeffect
Foranactualbarberpolesystem,theentryandexitguidesneedtohaveasmoothcurvature
r
g
to protect the tether integrity. Therefore a certain distance from the pole d
g
is to be
traversedbythetether(Figure129).Asthetethertravelsfromtheguidetothetangentialto
the pole, it does not contribute to the targeted increase the tension. Both the effective
numberofwrapsn
eff
andtheeffectiveheighth
eff
ofthepolewillthusbeaffected.Consider
thefollowingsimplifiedsymmetricconfiguration.
Figure129.Barberpolemodelgeometry
Iftheazimuthanglebetweentheguidesisdefinedas2n,thefollowingimplicitgeometric
relationshold,fromwhich,h
eff
andn
eff
canbederived.h
eff
canbeusedasl
pole
,andn
eff
asnin
e.g.Eq.5.12.
h h h
r d h
r d r n
r h
n n
r
r d
eff
g
g eff
eff
g g
A =
+ = A
+ +
+
=
=
+
=
2
) sin ( tan
sin 2 2 2
) cos 1 ( 2
tan
/
sin
tan
u u
u t
u
u
t
u

(5.13)
Thefrictionexperiencedontheinnersidesoftheguidesdependsalsoon.Thebarberpole
tensioncanberewrittenforarealisticconfigurationincludinginnersideguidefrictionf
g
as
follows:
( )
( )
2
2 cos 2
2
l e l T T
g eff
f n f
in out

p p
u t u t
+ =
+
(5.14)
Thefrictioneffectoftheoutersideoftheguidesdependsonthegeometryofcanisterexit
relative to the barberpole entrance, as well as on the tether exit angle, for example as it
leaves into space. This will provide additional but straightforward multiplication factors.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 211
The above approach can be adjusted rather easily to handle (numerically) more complex
configurations,andwillnotbefurtherdiscussedhere.
Observationsandstictionhypothesis
Preliminary tests have been performed with various pole materials (Vespel, steel,
aluminium)andgeometries,tethertypesandbraids.Itisobservedthatnotinallcasesthe
angleremainsconstantoverthepole,evenifstableintime,seeforexampleFigure131.
Rather,theanglecanincreaseordecreasewithdistancetravelledonthepole.Thebehavior
seemstodependonmanyfactorssuchastetherdesign,tethertwisthistory,poledesignand
wrapping direction of the tether around the pole. To understand the deviation from the
predictionandtoassesspossibleeffectsonpoleperformance,a preliminaryhypothesisfor
thisbehaviorhasbeendeveloped.
Inordertochangetheangle, aforcecomponentisrequiredthatisperpendiculartothe
tetherdirectionandtangentialtothepolesurface.Frictionseemstobetheonlymechanism
available to exert tangential force, even though friction, as commonly defined, acts
exclusivelyagainstthedirectionofmotion.Itisproposedthatthisunknownperpendicular
componentmaybeproportionaltonormalforcebyafactor,inequivalencetothefriction
coefficient, acting tangential to the pole surface yet perpendicular to the friction, in a
direction in whichthereisnoapparentmotionof thetether.Theparameter washence
tentativelydubbedstictioncoefficient.
NowletT*=Tv
2
andletusassume<<1.ThenEq.5.8canbeadaptedto:
m u u v u u
m u u v u u
u
d ) cos ( ) cos sin ( ) sin ( d
d ) cos ( ) sin cos ( ) cos ( d
cos
* *
* *
2
*
T f T
T f T
R
T
N
+ =
=
=
(5.15)
Eq.5.15b&ccanbecombined,withthehelpofEq.5.5aandEq.5.15toyield:
s
R
s
R
s
R
T
f T
v
u u
u
v u
u
+ =
=
=
0
2
2
*
*
tan tan
d
cos
d
d cos d
(5.16)
inwhichEq.5.16c, obtainedfromintegrationofd,providesthehelixshapeonthepole.
Foranys, isdetermined,whereasz and followfromEq.5.5.Theequationshowsthat
thetangentoftheangleisproportionaltothedistancetravelledonthepole.Eq.5.5acan
also be directly integrated using Eq.5.16c, yielding direct dependencies of andz on
(withsubstitutionofEq.5.16candEq.5.5b):
212 Chapter5
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
) sinh( tan
cos
1 ) cosh(
) cosh( tan
cos
) sinh(
arctan
1 ) cosh(
sin
) sinh(
cos
0
0
0
0
0
0
vm u
u
vm
v
vm u
u
vm
u
vm
vm
u
vm
vm
u
m
R
z
R
s
(5.17)
Eq.5.17showsnodependencyoftethershapeontheincomingtension.Therelationshipfor
showstobe independentfromthepoledimensionsexceptfortheremainingunknown,
theconstantoffset
0
.This
0
followsimplicitlyfromintroductionofaconstraint(obtained
from the appropriate geometrical consideration such as in Eq.5.13) from the pole
dimensionsintoEq.5.17c,
) ( )
2
(
exit
eff
eff
z
n
z h m
t
= . (5.18)
Figure130.Tensionlevelatturnsoutoftotalof5turns
ThetensioninthetetherisnowobtainedfromEq.5.16a&b:
v
u u
u
0
*
0
*

= e T T
, (5.19)
withfromEq.5.17btoprovidethedependencyon.
Figure 130 provides a comparison for three stiction coefficients =0, 0.019and0.06, for
frictioncoefficient f=0.2,where=0istheidealcase(Eq.5.19). T
0
*
istakenatthecontact
pointofthepoleandtheeffectivepolelengthis0.067minallcases. Whatisofinterestto
noteisthatduetothestictionanddeviationfromthehelix,theexponentialbehaviorflattens
out to linear behavior at large number of turns, as indeed seen in the TSE experiments
[Kruijff2001.III].Notethatforarealpoledesign, T
0
*
shouldtakeintoaccounttheentrance
guide bendinganglein aniterativemanner(analogoustoFigure129 andEq.5.13). Fora
largestictioncoefficient,thisbendislarge(Figure132),andthisprovidesamultiplierthat
helpstocompensatesomewhatforthelossintension.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 213
When compared to an experimental setup, the model based on the stiction hypothesis
appearstobeabletodescribeadequatelythegeometryofthetetherpathonapole(Figure
131) and indeed also allows for a solution with negative
0
that has been observed in
experiments (Figure 132). Such a negative solution or collection of loops on the brake
entranceisofconcern,asthetethercouldgetcaughtinthegapbetweentoothwheeland
pole. This gap should therefore be designed significantly more narrow than the tether
diameter.
Figure131.Measuredhelixdeviationvs.fitbystiction

Figure132.Highstiction(left)showsnegativeentryangle,asobservedforroughpole(right)
Possibleoriginsofstictionbehavior
Thephysicaloriginsofthestictioncoefficientareherewithhowevernotyetexplained.To
this extent, qualitative tests have been performed with various tethers with different
diametersandbraidings,aswellassometypesofchains.Testsareperformedonpolesof
differentdimensions,bothcylindricalandcurvedpolesforavarietyofmaterials,coatings
androughnesses.Manualtwist,wrappingdirectiononthepoleanddirectionofmotionare
systematicallyvaried,althoughsofaronlyqualitatively.
214 Chapter5
Analysisoftheresultspointsinthedirectionoftethertwist/torsionandtetherdiameteras
twomaindrivers.Inaqualitativemanner,thetendencyofloopstocollectattheentranceor
exitofthepole(positiveornegativestictioncoefficient)seemstobedescribedasfollows
(expressedasLT):
LT=(TW+MT)*WF+PT (5.20)
All factors in this model have direction and magnitude. In practise it is shown that each
effectisofthesameorderofmagnitudesoitispossibletocanceloutonewithanother.
LT,LoopTendency,expressesthetendencyofloopstocollectononesideofthe
poleortheother.Movementtotheincomingsideisdefinedpositive.
PT, Pole Tendency, expresses that the tether on the pole has a fixed additive
tendency to move the loops to one side or the other independent of the other
factors.
One contribution is an actual perpendicular friction component that is caused by the
introduction of twist into the tether as it travels around the pole and each crosssection
maintains its orientation with respect to the pole, causing a small perpendicular velocity
component on the contact area. This effect is therefore a result of the nonzero tether
diameterandwillbequantifiedbelow.
Arelatedcontributionisduetothetorsionwithinthetetherresultingfromthesametwist
andwrappingaroundthepole.Thetetherhasasmalltorsionalstiffness(Section4.1.8)and
willrespondtosomeextentasahelicalspringbeingstretched,whichtendstocontract,and
will succeed more where tension is low, or at the incoming side. The twist per meter of
tethercanbeestimatedfromspringtheory:
u
t m t
t tan
2
1
2
1
2
R d
dz
R
= =
(5.21)
Thelocaltwistcanbeconvertedtotorsion(Section4.1.8)andalltorsioneffectstogether,as
will be described below, can be translated into a contraction of the helix towards the
entrance(orviceversa).
NotethatthePTrelatedtwistlevelisonlypresentonthepoleitself.Imagineatetherthat
ispulledthroughablackboxbyanonspinningpullingdevice.Ifitisuntwistedasitenters
ablackboxitcanonlybeturnedbutnotobtaintwistasitleaves:thenumberoftwistsover
theentiretetherlengthcannotexceedtheamountofturnsappliedwithintheblackbox.
A cone angle (and possibly squashing of the tether at higher tension) or curved pole
(Section5.4.2) will lead to a negative Pole Tendency. Empirically it is determined that a
largerpoleroughnessdecreasesthetendencyofthetethertocollectneartheentrance.This
supposedrelationshipisnotyetunderstood.
TW, Twist Torque, is the effect because of torque resulting directly from pre
existing (generally uniform) tether twist. Twist can be identified visually as
DeployerSystemDevelopment 215
describedinSection4.1.8.Clockwise(positive)twistislinkedwithpositivetorque
(TW).Thetwistaddstothetotaltethertorque(Section4.1.8).
MT,ManufacturingTorque,isthetorqueinthetetherthatisnotrelatedtotwist
appliedduringwindingandunwinding.Itcanbequantifiedbymanuallytwisting
the tether in the proper direction until the curling tendency is negated
(Section4.1.8).Presumably,manufacturingtorquecanbeaddedtoatetherduring
thebraidingofthetetherfromvariousfiberbundles(Section4.1.2).Forexample,if
the unwinding of the different bundles for the braiding process occurs at
somewhatdifferenttension,theywillbebraidedatdifferentlengths,causingany
external load to concentrate in only one or a few of the bundles, leading to
asymmeticstressesandtorque.Itisalsopossiblethatthefiberbundlesarebeing
twistedinslightlydifferentamountsastheycomeaxiallyoffthespoolsprovided
by the material manufacturer, leaving a net torque as the bundles are braided
together.Possibly,nonuniformheattreatmentcouldalsochangethemechanical
properties of some of the bundles. Finally, a braid from an uneven number of
bundleswouldshowManufacturingTorque.Shapememoryandbendingstiffness
can lead to torques on the pole at the entrance. Most of the described possible
contribution would be tension dependent. Prestretch appears to reduce the
magnitudeofMT.
TheintensityofthecombinationTW+MT canbereadilyobservedbyverifyingthecurling
tendency.TheTW+MTtorqueswillcontributetothetethercoilsspringbehaviordescribed
above.Asaresult,positivetorsioninatetherwrappedinanticlockwise(positive)direction
around the pole will tend to exert a force on the pole surface that forces it towards the
entrance,collectingthere(positivelooptendency),andwillsucceedtodomoresoifthe
tension is low (close to the entrance), the twisting is strong or if the tether diameter or
torsionalstiffnessislarge.Theeffectisreversedforanopposite(clockwise)wrapping.
WF, Wrapping direction Factor, is either 1or 1. The direction that the tether is
wrappedaroundthepoledeterminesthedirectionoftheLoopTendencyeffectof
thetorquerelatedtothecombinationTW+MT. Clockwisewrappingcorresponds
withWF=1.AnticlockwisewrappinggivesWF=1.
Figure133 demonstratesclearlythatwrappingdirectionindeedhasasignificanteffect.A
Dyneema7x100tetherhasbeentwistedat50twists/meterandledthroughthebarberpole
system from right to left, wrapping 3times in clockwise direction, and in the opposite
direction.Theeffectisnotsymmetric,suggestingthatanadditiveeffectindependentofthe
torsionmustexist:thePoleTendency.ThePoleTendencyalsoappearsfora(supposedly)
torquefreestringofbeadswhichshowsindeednoimpactfromwrappingdirectionyetstill
anoticeablestictiontypeeffectisobservedonmanypoletypes.Thewrappingdirectionhas
beenfoundtobeanimportanttooltoadjustthetetherbehavioronthepoleandobtainthe
required performance, as exemplified inFigure 133: the positive wrapping case provides
goodperformance.
216 Chapter5

Figure133.Effectofpositive(left)vs.negativewrapping(right)onthehelixshape:Wrapping
Factor.Thetetherhaspositiveinternaltorsionandmovesfromrighttoleft.

Figure134.Onabeadedtetherwithouttorsion,wrappingdirectionhasnoeffect,yetstillthehelixis
disturbed:PoleTendency.Thetethermovesfromrighttoleft.
With the insights obtained, two tether characteristics have appeared that can explain the
introductionofforcesperpendiculartothetether.
1. Foratetherwithnonzerodiameter,thetorquingofthetetherthatisintroducedas
thecoiled tether isextendedalongthepolelength creates asmall perpendicular
velocity,andthusfrictionwillnotbeexactlyagainstthetetherdirection.
2. A tether with nonzero stiffness and torsional rigidity will tend to behave as a
coiledspring,especiallywheretensionislow.Afirststephasbeenmadetowork
outtheseeffects,astheycanservetoquantifythestictioncoefficientanddescribe
theactualtetherpath.However,noextensiveanalysishasyetbeendone.
Ad1.Tetherdiametereffectinabsenceoftorsionalstiffness
Thefactthatthetetherdiameterhasanonzerovaluemeansthatthetethercorefollowsa
differenttrajectorythanthepartofthecrosssectionthatisintouchwiththepole.Notethat
thetethercanbeobservednottotwistasitturnsoverthepole,thesamesideofthetether
DeployerSystemDevelopment 217
remainsincontactwiththepolealongthefulllengthofitshelicalpath,whereasapointon
thetetherontheoutsideofthehelixwillremainontheoutside.DanielPoelaert
11
describes
this observation: the tortuosity curvature of the irregular helix (by analogy with
BernouillisBeamTheory)iscompensatedbyatwistortorsioninthetether.Thistriggers
thequestionwhetheritispossiblethatthepointthattouchesthepolemayhaveavelocity
componentperpendiculartothatofthetethercore,andinthismannerafrictionforcecan
indeedoccurperpendiculartothetethermotion,givingtheappearanceofthehypothesized
stiction. A model has been made assuming a tether without torsional stiffness, as can be
imaginedtobeaseriesofbeadsorcoinsonathinline(Figure134).Poelaerthasprovided
the required mathematics. For completeness, a summary of his derivation is hereby
reproduced.Poelaertexpressesthevelocityofthecontactpointofthecrosssectioninhelical
frame. As compared to the velocity v of the crosssectional center point purely in tether
direction, he finds a somewhat smaller absolute velocity at the contact surface, however
withasmallperpendicularcomponent.

+ =
u
u u u e e v cos sin ) cos 1 (
2
R
r
R
r
v
t surface (5.22)
fromwhichthefrictionforce(perunitlength)follows(assumingr/R<<1):

+ =
u
u u e e F cos sin
R
r
fN fN
t f (5.23)
Fromthesecondcomponentonecanderivethefrictiontorqueonthetether:
u u cos sin
2
R
r
fN
f
= + (5.24)
Thissecondtermdefinesthefrictionrelatedpartofthestictioncoefficient
f
:
u u v cos sin
R
r
f
f
=
(5.25)
Therefore,thelargerthepoleroughness,thestrongerpositivewillbethelooptendencyLT.
Stillthisvalueof
f
isgenerallyverysmall(<0.02)butcanchangesignificantlyoverthepole.
Theequationsofmotionine
r
,e
t
,e

directionsnowbecomerespectively:
u u u
u
u
3
2
*
*
2
*
cos sin
d
d
cos
d
d
cos
R
r
f
s
R
R
T
f T
s
R
T
N
=
=
=
(5.26)
Thus, willhavethetendencytoaugmentwiths.Thederivativescanbeintegrated(with
substitutionofEq.5.5)toyieldanexpressionforthetetherpathandtheresultingtension:
11
Private communications Daniel Poelaert, 2001
218 Chapter5
0
tan
tan
ln
*
0
*
0
0
2 2
) 2 / tan(
) 2 / tan(
ln tan 1 tan 1
u
u
m
u
u
u u
r
R
e T T
R
r
f
=
= + + +
(5.27)
Ad2.Theeffectoftorsionalstiffness
In addition to the friction torque effect, for a tether with torsional rigidity, the various
componentsdescribedsofarthatcontributetotethertorque,createacoilwithaspringlike
behavior:thetwistingduetotetherwrapping,thepreexistingtwistandthemanufacturing
torque.Thetetherwillorientitselfsuchthatthespringforceatacrosssectionofthetetheris
balancedbythezcomponentintensionT
z
.Thetorqueinaspringrelatestothiscomponent
as:
u cos R T
z spring
= +
(5.28)
EquatingthistothetethertorquefromEq.4.13
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + = + T G d
R
d
T
fiber z d spring
2
4 2
3 32 cos
4 t
u
t
, (5.29)
withrepresentingthevariouscomponentsoftwistsuchasthepreexistingtwistandcoil
twistfromEq.5.21.ThisforceanditsincrementwithdTcanbeintroducedintothebalance
offorcesofFigure127,Eq.5.8c.SubstitutingalsoEq.5.8b,arelationshipbetweendandd
canbedetermined.Thehelixangle thusfollowsfromd asthetethergoesaroundthe
pole by d. Tension follows from Eq.5.8b and the zposition on the pole follows from
Eq.5.5b.
Discussion
Varioussimplifyingassumptionshavebeenmade.Mostofall,bendingstiffnessandshape
memoryhavebeenignored.Astiffviscoelastictethertraversingfromentryguidetopole
underlowtensionwillnotbestraight.Thecoileffectsdescribedabovewillbestrengthened.
Furthermore, the friction coefficient and velocity have been assumed as constant and the
helix shape as static. Finally, a nonstraight pole, as well as squashing of the tether at
increasingtensionwillleadtoanonzerovaluefordR/dt.Nocompletemodelhasyetbeen
producedorvalidated.
Nevertheless, the basic elements for a model for the path of a moving tether around the
barberpolehavebeenpresented.Theinsightsandtoolsobtainedareadequatetounderstand
basic barberpole functionality, monitor and take into account parameters of potential
importance, recognize aberrant behavior and if that may occur, suggest relevant
countermeasures.
The barberpole tension performance and its deviation from a pure exponential has been
made plausible. The impact of tether mass has been assessed and it is shown, under the
assumptionofaflexibletether,thatforaspooldeploymentcontactbetweentetherandpole
canbe guaranteed.Toolshave beenprovided to model the effectofentryand exit guide
DeployerSystemDevelopment 219
geometry.Thetetherpathshapeonthepoleandthetethertensionasitexitsthepolecanbe
estimated.
Thehypotheticalstictioncoefficienthasbeenproposedtoaccountforthedeviationfromthe
helix shape. A path description has been derived for constant stiction coefficient.
Experimentation and analysis reveals that the stiction coefficient has several components
thatacttogetherastodeterminethefinalpathshape. Thefinitetetherdiametercausesa
friction component perpendicular to the tether velocity. Another contribution originates
fromthewrappingandstretchingofatetherwithtorsionalrigidityaroundapole,andfrom
preexistingtwistandtorqueinthattether.
Theresultshaveleadtoaneffectiveredesignofthebarberpolegeometryaswellasofits
geartoavoidthetethergettingtanglednearthepoleentrance(Section5.4.2).Thetetheris
wound in such a way that unwinding leads to zero twist. Remaining twist found in the
tethercanusuallybeadequatelydealtwithbychoosingthewrappingdirectionofthetether
aroundthepole.
5.4.2 Development
Althoughtheconceptofacapstanisselectedforfrictioncontrol,withtheSEDSbarberpole
asasuccessfulexample,therearemultiplethinkableimplementationstointegratethepole
into a structure that controls the tethers tortuous path. Following some simple
breadboarding in the TSE project (Figure 131) a choice is made to go through a full
developmentfromscratch,ratherthanareverseengineeringoftheSEDSbrake,inorderto
increase understanding and optimization of the performance by modeling, design trade
offs,analysisandtests.
Requirementsforthebrakedesignarederivedstartingfromthetargetapplicationofasafe
andprecisecapsulereentryusinga0.5mmDyneematether,withthepossibilityinmind
toexpandfunctionalitytomoredemandingapplications.Alowcostsystemistargetedthat
shouldbecompact,lightweight,simpletomanufactureandreliable.Performanceshould
be sufficiently predictable such that feedback can compensate. A faster turning pole is
better,butmoredemandingforgearandstepperdriverselection.Basedonsimulationsa
maximumintervalof10sisdefinedforasinglewrap.Forreliabilityandsafetythesystem
shallhavelittlemovingpartsandfewtetherguides.Thedesignshouldeffectivelyconduct
heatawayfromthefrictionsurface(Section4.3.3).
The required tension range can be derived from the dynamics of the space mission. The
demonstrationmissionislikelytoendupwithaminimalpayloadsizetoreducecost,about
1015kg (see also Section4.2.1), requiring a tether tension to range from 10mN to 3N,
coveringalreadyafactor300.Somesortofexponentialperformanceisthereforepreferred.
Thecapstanconceptenablesthisrangewithonly5wrapsaroundthepole.Thedesigntakes
into account the need for significantly higher brake loads than required for the
demonstrationalone.Amaximumnumberof10turnsistakenasadesigntarget.
220 Chapter5
Several configurations have been considered in order to obtain a highperformance
barberpole[Menon2007].
Figure135showssomecompactearlyconfigurationswithminimalgear.
Figure135.Earlybarberpoleconfigurationswithoutgear
Intheconfigurationontheleftthemotorturnsthepolearounditsaxisandwindsthewire.
Oneproblemofthisconfigurationistoraisethenumberofturnsaboveacertainlevel,due
totheincreasingtorqueonthepoleshaft.Thedesignsfacesthecomplicationthatabearing
systemmust beemployedtoincreasethemechanismstiffness.Thedesignsisnotsuitable
forgoodthermalconduction,awayfromthepole.Thepossibilityofmeltingthetetherthus
exists.
Theconfigurationontherightisanexamplewithanonrotatingpole.Thetethertensionat
theentranceissmall,sotheentranceitselfcaneasilyberotated.Thepositionofthetether
entranceholeiscontrolledbyamotorthroughashaftinsidethepolesurface.Tokeepthe
shaftshort,thepolecanbewidenedfurther.Frictionheat canbeeasilydissipatedinthis
concept.Itisnotworkedoutfurtherbecauseofthepolediameterthatisrequiredtofitthe
motor,aswellasthenecessarilylargediameterofthepathofthetetherentrance.Itwould
require a larger distance between canister and pole to obtain the small bending angles
necessarytomaintainalowminimaldeploymenttension.
Afurtherdesign,usedasbreadboardmodel,isshowninFigure136.Thisdesignismost
similartotheSEDSbrakesystemandismadeupofapolefixedtoanexternalcasing,that
also acts as heat sink and benefits thermal dissipation. The entrance hole is located on a
toothwheel,whichiscontrolledbyamotorthroughashaftanda wormgear.Theworm
gear mechanism uses no lubrication and is low friction. The large gear ratio makes it
possibletousealowpowermotor. Asteppermotorischosenforitsdeterministicnature
whichenablesopenloopsoftwarecontrol.Thetoothwheeliskeptstillduringthelaunch
phasebytheirreversibletransmissionmatingmechanism.Nocurrentneedstobeprovided
tothemechanismduringthelaunch. Asecond,passivewormtosupportthetoothwheel
duringlaunchhasbeenconsidered,butrejectedasoverdesign.
ThereareanumberofobviousdifferenceswithrespecttotheSEDSsystem.Unfortunately,
the number of available European vacuum stepper motors is limited. These vacuum
DeployerSystemDevelopment 221
steppers are mostly precision devices, as is in fact not required for this application. The
PhytronZSS24.200.0.6,a bipolar motor, is selected forthe breadboard, despitethelarge
numberofstepsrequiredforasingleshaftrotation;itrequires200controlstepstomakeone
shaftrevolution, versusthe4stepsoftheSEDSmotor.Thegearratioisincreasedfromthe
SEDS 80:1to a120:1 ratio.Thisreducestherequiredmotortorqueandfurther improves
stability at launch. The toothed wheel has a rather large diameter, again to reduce the
requiredmotortorque,butalso,forresearchpurpose,tobeabletohouseentranceguidesat
variousradiifromthepolecenter.
Thepolesbasedesignisadjustedforincreasedthermalconductivityandheatcapacity.The
pole,groundplateandguideareasingleintegratedpiece.Vespel,alowfrictionpolyimide,
isusedfortheentranceguide.Theexitguideismilleddirectlyintothealuminiumframe,to
provideoptimalheattransferintheplacewheretensionishigh.Bronzeslidingbushesare
employedattherotatinginterfacesinordertoreducefriction.
ThepoleitselfislargerandfatterthantheSEDSpole.Thistradeoffisbasedonthemodel
results and test recommendations (Section5.4.1). It provides behavior closer to the
exponential(Eq.5.12,Figure128)andreducestheratiooftethertopolediameteronwhich
the Loop Tendency depends (e.g. Eq.5.25), while it provides a good separation between
tetherloopsalsoatalargenumberofwraps.Thelargerdimensionsalsoservestoreducethe
(notyetmodeled)impactoftetherbendingstiffness.
Thepolehasaslightcurvaturetoguideloopsawayfromtheentrance,whereotherwisethe
tether may collect (Section5.4.1). It has a 24.2mm diameter at the entrance hole and a
23mmdiameterneartheexithole.Thesectionofthepolefollowsanarcprofilewitha4m
radius as sketched in exaggerated form in Figure 137. The resulting semicone angle at
entranceis1.Thisangleisbasedonroughpreliminaryteststhatshowthattheaxialforce
componentinducedbythisangleissufficienttodrivetheloopstowardsthemorenarrow
endofapole.Theexitsideofthepoleiscylindrical(0degree)astoavoidcollectionofloops
onthisside.Inthisway,thePoleTendencyiswellestablished.Thewrappingdirectionof
thetetheraroundthepolecanbeusedasafinalmeanstoadapttothetetherunwinding
twisttoreduceanyremainingLoopTendency.
Abreadboardofthisdesignhasbeenbuiltforexperimentaltests.InFigure136,thetether
goesthroughtheentranceholeofthetoothwheel,turnssixtimesaroundthepoleandgoes
throughthetethercuttersubsystem.Thetethercanbeseentowindwitharegularhelical
patharoundthebarberpoleasintended.Thebreadboardsystemissubjectedtodeployment
tests for characterization and performance demonstration (Sections5.4.3, 5.6), as well as
thermalandthermalvacuumtests.
Therequireddynamictorquethatthesteppermotorshoulddelivertothegearisestimated
based on the friction level of 2Nmm measured on the breadboard mechanism at room
temperature.Apreliminarydesigntargetof10Nmmischosenfortheflightmodelbecause
thermal, misalignment and resonance issues can heavily increase friction. Reduction of
torqueperformanceduetomechanicalresonancehasbeenassessed.Itisfoundtobeworst
at low temperatures (40C). For reduced mechanical resonance, a halfstepping mode is
222 Chapter5
selected [Graczyk2008]. A high stepping frequency of 8kHz is then required in order to
reach a control speed of 6s/wrap. At such high frequencies motor torque decreases
significantlyduetoselfinductioneffects.
Figure136.Breadboardbarberpoleconfiguration
Figure137.Sketchofcurvedpole(exaggeratedcurvature)
Figure138.FinalconfigurationforYES2
barberpole
DeployerSystemDevelopment 223
Thefinalflightdesignisdevelopedbasedonthebreadboardmodeltestresults(Figure138).
Inthisdesign,thegapbetweenpoleandgearisminimizedbelow0.1mmtoavoid tether
catching. Worm shaft alignment issues and temperature dependencies that have led to
failureofthebreadboardatlowtemperatureshavebeenresolvedbyadditionofaflexible
couplingbetweenmotorandshaft.Furthermore,analysisofthewheelgearbehavior,based
onthermalcycleandthermalvacuumtesting,hasledtoaredesignandrobustconceptof
thecriticalgearshaftfixture(shoulderscrew).
Basedon thebarberpolemodeland breadboard testresults, the tetherexithole is placed
neartothepoleaxis,althoughatthesametimethebendingradiusofthisguideisincreased
to3mmtoreducewearonthetether.Withthisconfigurationofentranceandexitholesthe
polehasalossofeffectiveturnsofaboutnn
eff
=0.25(Section5.4.1).Aprocedurehasbeen
developed to apply hard anodization coating and to finetune the surface roughness to
achievethetargetfrictioncoefficientf=0.2.Surfaceroughnessisadjustedwithrespecttothe
breadboard, to about 1micron (Section5.4.4). Main driver here is to achieve extended
performancealsoatahighnumberofturns.
ThemotorisscaleduptoaPhytronVSS32.200.1.2,whichdeliverslargertorqueandcan
handle larger coil currents of up to 1.2A. The worm gear is equipped with a worm that
forwardsthewheelbytwoteetheachshaftrotation,suchthatarotationtimeof6s/wrap
canbeachievedat4kHzhalfsteppingfrequency.
Thetorqueandthermalcharacteristicsofthemotordependlargelyontheelectricaldriving
ofthemotorcoils.Theeffectivetorqueisproportionaltothetimeaveragedcoilcurrent.At
high step frequencies, selfinduction within the coils slows down the buildup of current
andreducestheresultingtorqueofthemotor.Ahighvoltageof24Visthereforeselectedto
speedupthecurrent buildup.Thecoilsarelowimpedance(~1Ohm)andcannotsustain
maximumaveragedcurrentslargerthan0.6Aduetovacuumderatingrequirements.
Inordertoavoidthatthecurrentthroughthecoilsexceedthatmaximum,achoppercircuit
isincluded,whichswitchesoffbrieflythesupplywhencurrentexceedsasetthreshold.As
soonasthesupplyisremoved,thecoilsrundryofcurrentatthesamespeedatwhichthey
werechargingbefore.Afastchoppingisthereforenecessarytomaintainapproximatelya
constantcurrent oscillating closelyaroundthe0.6Atarget. The chopper controlcircuit is
clockedat40kHz,ashigherlevelsarefoundtocauseinterferenceissues.
Anadditionalfeatureisincludedtoraisethetorquelevel.Inthehalfstepmode,thetwo
motorcoilsarepoweredinalternatingmanner.During25%oftheperiod,onlyasinglecoil
isactiveandtheothercoilrests.Whenonecoilrestsitispossibletoleada2highercurrent
through the other active coil without exceeding the allowable continuous (averaged) coil
loading.Thisadjustmentiscalledshapingandleadstoanestimated14%highertorque.
The torque level is determined by static and dynamic torque measurements in ambient
conditions.Foronestatictorquetestasetupisusedinwhichahorizontalarmismounted
tothesteppermotorshaft.Thetorqueisdeterminedbyslidingaweightalongthearm,until
itcannotbeheldinplaceanymore.Anothertestyieldingsimilarresults,setsinmotionthe
224 Chapter5
maximallyloadedarmatvariouslowinitialdrivefrequencies,truestaticbeingobviously
0Hz (Figure 139). The static torque can be converted to dynamic torque following the
steppermotorspecs:atthemaximumrecommendedhalfsteppingfrequencyof4kHz,about
40%ofthetorquelevelwillbelost.
DynamictorqueismeasuredbySpiliotopoulos method[Spiliotopoulos2008], Figure 140.
Themotorshafttwistsarubberbanduntilthemotorstopsduetotheincreasingcounter
torque.Ablockingmechanismthenkeepsthetwistinthestring.Themaximumdynamic
torquecannowbemeasuredwithaweightscale.Adynamictorqueof13Nmmisprovided
bythefinalsystem(averagecoilcurrentI=0.58A,4kHz),inlinewiththepredictionsmade
fromthestatictests.
Astepperdriversubsystemwithcontrolsoftwarehasbeendevelopedimplementingthese
specifications[Graczyk2008],(Section7.4.2).Totalpowersuppliedat24Visabout14W,of
whichmostisdissipatedintheswitchingelectronics.Onlyabout1Wisdissipatedinthe
motorscoils,andwillheatupthebarberpolehousing.
Figure139.Availabletorque(beforeslipping)atinitial
frequency at start of a ramp to operating frequency
(4kHz),upto1Aaveragecoilcurrent.
Figure140.Steppermotordynamictorque
measurement
A thermal analysis is performed [Menon2007]. Under conservative assumptions of
conduction,noheatsinkforthesubsystemanda50%heattransferintothepole,thepoleis
simulatedtoincreaseintemperaturebyabout50Kduringanextremefinalbrakingeventat
5Nfrom18m/s.Thisincreaseisacceptableandwillnotleadtotethermelt.Nevertheless,
thermalpasteisappliedtofurtherimprovethermalconductionawayfromthepole.
Thecompletebarberpolesystemhasnowbeenreadiedforverification.Theflightunithas
been subjected to wear tests, and mechanical performance is demonstrated in a thermal
subsystem test between 40and +80C. Finally, as part of the YES2 system it has been
subjectedtotetherdeployment,thermalvacuumandvibrationtests(Section5.2.4).
5.4.3 Spoolbarberpolecharacterizationprocedure
Withthedynamicdependencyknown(Eq. 5.2, Section5.3.5)thedeployerfrictionmodel
can be completed if T
0
and f are determined next (e.g. Eq.5.3). At low velocity tests, T
in
DeployerSystemDevelopment 225
approaches T
0
(Eq.5.2), so a fit of low velocity test data to Eq.5.3 (or one of the more
complex versions derived in Section5.4.1) is suitable to determine both T
0
and f. At a
constantdeploymentvelocityof0.5m/s,thebarberpoleisturnedupinstepsfromzeroto
the maximum and back, various times. Tension is measured and averaged out per
barberpoleposition.AnexponentialfitisaddedfromwhichT
0
andfarederived.
The traditional SEDS exponential model for the barberpole, Eq.5.30, is based on
combination of T
in
from Eqs. 5.1&5.2 with Eq.5.3, and taking into account the bending
around guides due to system design (
g
), deployer orientation with respect to the local
vertical(
ref
)andtetherinplaneangle.Ithasbeenevaluatedagainstthemorecomplex
model of Eq.5.12. The more simple model is found to give sufficient match to test data
(Figure141)thusEq.5.30hasbeenretainedforfurtheranalysis.
( )
ref g g
f n l f
E
tot
sol
e
l
l
A
l
I T T
u u u t p + +
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
) ( 2
2
0
1

(5.30)
Similarcharacterizationshavebeendoneforeachtetherpolecombination.FortheVespel
polewitha8x400tether(TSEproject),africtioncoefficient f=0.174is found(Figure142),
[Kruijff2001.II].Forallthetestsperformed,thestandarddeviationforthetensiondatais
about1530%ofthemeasuredaverageabove3turns,anduptotwicethisamountatzero
turns(Figure143,Kruijff2001.III).Theengineeringmodelpoleshowsadeviationfromthe
exponentialforalargenumberofturns(n>5),abovewhichtheperformancebecomesmore
linear (Figure 144). This behavior is reminiscent of the effect of high stiction coefficient
(Section5.4.1)althoughthishasnotyetbeenconfirmed.
Figure141.Barberpoleperformancevs.simpleand
extendedmodel
Figure142.Averagetensionvs.turnsfor
noncenteredpoleconfiguration
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Barberpole turns
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
Exponential fit
Actual measured data
Model trend fit
226 Chapter5
Figure143.SEDSbarberpoleperformancefordouble
strandtether(notethepronouncedanomalyatn=2)
Figure144.Breakdownofexponentialfitat
largenumberofturns
5.4.4 Effectofdesignparameters
Table43summarizestheteststhathavebeenperformedinordertounderstandthepossible
impactofanumberofdesignparametersonfrictionandbarberpoleperformance.
Ithasbeensuggestedtoalignthetethercanisterexitholewiththezeroturnpositionofthe
barberpoleentranceguide.Thisalignmentallowsforaverylowfrictionpassagewithout
anybendinginthezeroturnposition,andthereforeforaminimalfrictiondeployment.Ifa
nonzeronumberofwrapsisappliedhowever,thevariationinbendingangleofthetether
towards the entrance guide has a noticeable oscillatory impact on the tension with turns
(Figure145).Itisthereforerecommendedtocenterthepoleshaftovertheexitholeinstead.
Anumberoftestshasbeenperformedtoidentifyanyinteractionbetweentether,winding
andpole,anditsinfluenceonfrictioncoefficient.Thecrisscrosswindingangle(4vs.5tpc)
has no noticeable impact on tension (Figure 146). Also a flattened tether displays similar
frictionbehaviorasaroundtether(Figure147).Resultsdosuggestthatastiffer,thermally
prestretched tether leads to a steeper tension response with turns, so a higher friction
coefficient.
In order to better understand the winding dynamics of the tether around the pole, and
identify the best diameter or surface treatment to match the models, several poles with
differentshapesandroughnesshavebeenmanufacturedandtested.Thecharacteristicsof
thepolesaresummarizedinTable44.Onecurvedpoleisincludedinthetests,asdescribed
in Section5.4.1. A polished aluminium surface leads to a perceived toolow friction
coefficient, so the curved pole is tested with 2different surface treatments. Surface
roughnessforthepoleshasbeendeterminedbyESA/ESTECusingaMitutoyoSurftestSV
3000.Themeasuredpeaktovalleyheightisfoundtocorrelatetotheroughnessitselfand
rangesfrom520microncomparedtoaroughnessrangeof0.52.5micron,sooneorderof
magnitudelarger.Thesandblastedpolesweardownduringdeploymenttests,soahardor
anodizedcoatingisadvised.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 227
Design
Parameter
Value Testsetup Result
Entranceguide
centering
Entranceguidecentered
overcanisterexitvs.pole
shaft.
UnwindingRig(v1) Poleshaftcenteringrecommended.
Spoolwinding
angle
4tpcvs5tpc. UnwindingRig(v1) Effectsmallerthanspooldifferences.
Tetherprestretch Thermalprestretch
8x400vs.untreated.
UnwindingRig(v1) Polefrictionseemsincreased.
Tetherflatness Mechanicallyflattened
8x200vs.round.
UnwindingRig(v1) Effectsmallerthanspooldifferences.
Doublestrand
tether
34.6km2x130Spectra
twistedbraid,stored1year,
splicedevery~500m.
UnwindingRig(at
TetherApplications,
SanDiego)
f=0.146(similartosinglestrandtether),
Figure143.
Tethertwist Approx.20to20twists/m. UnwindingRig(v2) Stronginfluenceonhelixshapeand
stabilityonpole.
Inletposition 515mm UnwindingRig(v2) Improvedwhencloser.
Polecoating Hardcoated,anodized,
roughened,polished.
UnwindingRig(v2) Someimpactonstabilityofloops.
Poleroughness 0.53micron UnwindingRig(v2) Frictioncoefficientvs.roughness.
Polecurvature Cylindricalvs.curved. UnwindingRig(v2) Curvedpoleismorehelicalandshows
betterexponentialfitatlargeturns.
Polediameter 1324mm UnwindingRig(v2) Largerdiameterprovidessteepertension
increase.
Table43.Barberpoleparametertestsummary
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Turns
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
Inlet guidance centered
Pole centered
Figure145:Averagetensionvs.turnsfor
centeredandnoncenteredpoleconfiguration
Figure146.Effectofwindingangleonpole
performance
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Turns
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
spool 2, 4 tpc normal 8 x 400
spool 2, 5 tpc normal 8x400
228 Chapter5
Figure147.Tethercrosssectionimpacton
poleperformance
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Turns
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
spool 2 normal 8 x 400
spool 3 flat 8 x 400
spool 4 pre-stretched 8 x 400
Figure148.Tetherprestretchandpole
performance
Pole Friction Roughness
[m]
Diameter
[mm]
Coating
1 0.25 0.57 24 3
2 0.24 0.76 17 3
3 0.18 0.64 13 3
4 0.18 0.59 17 1
5 0.75 13 1
6 0.7 24 4
7 0.34 1.74 24 5
8 0.28 1.92 17 5
9 0.3 2.26 13 5
Curved1 0.21 24 2
Curved2 0.25 2.7 24 4
Table 44 Pole characteristics. Coating index: 1=polished aluminium, 2=hard anodized, 3=hard
coated,4=sandblastedhardanodisedpolished,5=sandblasted.
During tests, the poles of Table 44 are mounted, successively, in the engineering model
barberpolecasing.Foreachtest,thenumberoftetherwrapsaroundthepoleisincreasedin
stepwisemannerfrom0to3.5,with20sdurationstepsof0.25wrap,ataconstantvelocity
of1m/s.1kmtetherwoundona70mmdiameterspoolcoreisdeployed.Tethertension
dataisrecordedwithafrequencyof1kHz.Theonesigmanoisearoundthetensionateach
numberofturnsamountsto~3040%.AsexplainedinSection5.4.3,thefrictioncoefficientis
estimatedfromanexponentialfit.
Figure149 showstheresultsoftheaveragetensionofthetetherforthethreesandblasted
poles.Especiallyforthesandblastedpole(highfrictioncoefficient)thereseemstobeaclear
trendofincreasingfrictionperformancewithpolediameter.Accordingtothemathematical
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Turns
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

[
N
]
spool 3 flat 8 x 400
spool 2 normal 8 x 400
DeployerSystemDevelopment 229
model this would not so much be a true friction effect, rather it is improved tension
amplification(Figure128).Figure150showsexperimentalresultsconcerningthetwocoated
bigpoles,whichdiffermostlyinshape(cylindricalvscurved).Thecurvedpoleseemsto
maintainlongeritspurelyexponentialbehavior,whichisprobablyrelatedtothefactthat
thecylindricalpolehasanearlyonsetofinstabilityofthehelixpattern.Avibrationofcoils
isobservedforthispolefromabout2.5turns.Briefoverlapofloopsoradeviationfromthe
helix shape may lead to loss of friction. Figure 151 compares the exponential fits for
differentsurfacetreatments,fromwhichthesandblastedpoleclearlystandsout.Ingeneral,
the exponential shape is well followed until about n=3or 3.5. After that level, generally
somerelativelossesintensioncanbeobserved(exceptperhapsforthecurvedpole).
Figure149.Polediametervs.performance
Figure150.Averagetensionofthetetherforthe
coatedbigpoles(cylindricalvscurved)
Figure151.Surfacetreatmentvs.poleperformance
InFigure152,atrendbetweenroughnessandfrictioncoefficientcanbeobserved.Asthis
graphcombinesawidevarietyofpoles,thereisaconsiderablespread.Itispartlycausedby
the diameter and geometry effects described above, but for smooth poles, the cause of
variationislessunderstood.Itmayberelatedtothedifferenceinsurfacetreatment,which
havearatherdistinctlydifferentfeeltothehumanhand,despitenearlyequalroughness.
Figure153 providesanoverviewofthemeasurementdistributionwithrespecttosurface
treatment. The various tests indicate a predictability of friction coefficient from
measurementsofabout+/20%,whichistakenintoaccountinmissionsimulations.
230 Chapter5
Figure152.Surfaceroughnessvs.frictioncoefficient

Figure153.Frictioncoefficientvs.various
surfacetreatments.SeeTable44forsurface
treatmentindex
Visualobservations
Figure 154a and b. show respectively the path of the tether around the sandblasted and
smoothsurfacewidediameterpoles.Whereasina.thetetherwindsaroundthepolewitha
quasiperfect helix, in b. the tether is mainly gathered near the toothwheel. This is not
consistentwiththepredictionof,indicatingthatthecauseofthedeviationhereisnotthe
tetherdiameter(Eq.5.25),rathertothetetherstorsionalrigidityand/orthePoleTendency
(Section5.4.1).
Visual observations consistently indicate that the homogeneity and regularity of tether
winding around the pole can be maintained for very large numbers of turns (>>5) by
selecting theappropriatefrictioncoefficient(>0.25), and/or byapplyingamildcurvature.
Havingatoohighfrictioncoefficientortoohighcurvaturecanevenleadtocollectionof
loops on the exit side of the pole. With the present roughness the curved pole with the
entranceconeangleof1overcompensatestheLoopTendency(just)slightlytoomuch.Abit
lowerfrictioncoefficientisacceptable.
Itcanbeconcludedfromcomparisonofthevisualobservationsagainsttheexponentialfits
thattheLoopTendency,ordeviationfromthehelixshape,initselfdoesnot(yet)leadto
decreasedperformance, atleast for thelimitedamountofturnstestedhere. Ifthe helical
shape deviation gets extreme, tether loops can overlap. In that case friction output is
reduced significantly with respect to the exponential model. The situation will be much
worseifsomeentanglementwithtetherorgearwouldoccur.
A second issue that has shown up in the visual observations is instability of the loop
position.Insomecases,thewrapsareshiftingbackandforthoverthepole,evenattimes
overlapping.Onsetofinstabilityisfoundtobedirectlyassociatedwithlossofperformance.
Its causes are as yet unclear. Apart from a shared cause with the Loop Tendency, tether
irregularitiesfromshapememory,tetherstiffnessandtwist,noiseinincomingtensiondue
tolayercrossingsaresomedirectionsforfurtherstudy.Overlappingseemstooccurmostly
athighturns(>2.5),onnarrowpoleswithlowsurfaceroughness,atlowirregularincoming
DeployerSystemDevelopment 231
tensionandforthicktethers.Simpletestsindicatethatvelocityandtemperatureseemnot
involvedinthecauseofthisundesiredeffect.Thefluctuationisfarlesswhentheincoming
tetherisdeliveredconsistentlyslackintothebarberpole,orwhentheincomingtensionis
stableandhigh(~10cN).Anunexplainedtrendbreakeristhethinhardcoatedpole,which
seemstopostponetheonsetofinstability.
a. b.
Figure154.Pathoftetheraroundsandblasted(a)andsmoothsurface(b)widediameterpoles
Designrecommendations
It is concluded that a surface roughness of 12.5micron is required, because a polished
surfacehaslowfrictioncoefficient,associatedpoorhelixshapeandearlyonsetofinstability.
A coating, preferably hard anodization, is required to avoid wear of the surface. A large
polelengthrelativetotetherdiametercanbeexpectedtoreducetheriskoftetheroverlap.A
larger pole diameter both experimentally and mathematically predicts better tension
amplification performance. Thermally, a large pole heats up less. Some curvature can be
introduced to avoid collection of the tether on the incoming side (reducing also risk of
overlaps),delayingalsoabittheonsetofinstability.Toomuchcurvaturecausescollection
ontheexitsideaswellas,possibly,instability.Thebestperformanceisthusexpectedfrom
thecurved,hardanodized,largepole.
5.4.5 Reproducibility
The influence of some environmental parameters of primary importance is studied to
provide confidence in reproducibility of the findings (Table 45). Unfortunately, no
deployment could be performed in vacuum, so only a brief static test is performed
(Section4.1.7). Gravityseems to havenosignificanteffecton tensionbehavior. Duringa
parabolic flight experiment, gravity level has been varied from zero to 1.8g, for
approximately 20seconds each. Results are presented inFigure 155 for 0, 0.5and 1turn.
Apartfromthe(windingrelated)cyclicpeaksintension,thefigureshowsnostepchangein
tension at the glevel transition (t15s). Section5.6.2 reports on the results of another
critical zerog test, namely the turns reduction at zero velocity during the hold phase. A
cleardependencyoffrictioncoefficientonvelocityexists,particularlyinthelowervelocity
regime,andlevelingoutabove2m/s(seealsoSection8.1.1).
232 Chapter5
Environmental
parameters
Value Testsetup Result
Velocity 0.5vs.13m/s,upto4.5turns UnwindingRig(v1) 16%higherfrictionathighvelocity,
possiblyduetodifferencesinpole
temperatureortethertwist[Kruijff2001.III]
0.25to2m/s UnwindingRig(v2) 2530%increasefrom0.5to2m/s,
Temperature Elevatedtemperatureduring
unwinding(40C)
UnwindingRig(v2) Noeffectrecorded.
Vacuum Frictioninvacuum Static,Section4.1.7 Nosignificanteffect,datamorenoisyin
vacuum.
Gravity At00.51turn
Zerogvs.1and2g
5thESAStudentParabolic
FlightCampaign
UnwindingRig(v2) Nosignificanteffect.
010turns,zerovelocity,zerog
43
rd
ESAParabolicFlight
Campaign
UnwindingRig(v2) Startingdynamicsofsecondstage
confirmed.
Table45.Environmentalparametersinfluenceonbarberpoleperformance
Figure155.Effectivenessofbarberpoleinzerog(from
~1535s).Crisscrossspoolpattern(n=0isbottomcurve)
5.5 Controllerdevelopment
Inthissection,thedevelopmentofthereferencedeploymenttrajectoryandfeedbackcontrol
isreported.ThefeedbackcontrolsthebarberpoleandusesOLDbasedlengthandvelocity
estimation algorithms. The final control parameter is the selection of release time. The
attainable landing accuracy based on the control design is verified by the MTBSim
simulator.
The controller is implemented into the breadboard deployer system with a twosecond
controlintervalandbasedon(only)twoOLDs.Aflowdiagramofthisbreadboardcontrol
DeployerSystemDevelopment 233
softwareisprovidedinFigure166.Theimplementationintotheflightsystemisdiscussedin
Section7.4.3.Bothbreadboardandflightsystem (Engineering Model)havebeenused for
closedloopdeploymenttests(Sections5.2.4,5.6).
5.5.1 Deploymenttrajectory
Literature provides a wide range of schemes in order to develop deployment trajectories
andcontrol [Fujii1996,Sabath1996.I,Ohtsuka1997,Glaessel2004,Zimmermann2005]. As
the barberpole brake is not accurate enough for openloop control alone, yet allows for
significant corrections with only little control effort, a combined approach of a reference
deployment with feedback has been selected for the SpaceMail application. A pragmatic
approach for the SEDS2 mission has been followed in this direction by Bortolami e.a.
[Bortolami1993].Theydividethedeploymenttimeinanumberofintervals,withacertain
barberpolebrakesettingforeachinterval.Foreachcombinationofbrakesettingsovertime,
thedeploymenttrajectoryisintegratedusingatrajectorypropagator, assumingacircular
dragfreeorbitandamassless,straightandinelastictether.Thecostfunctionisdefinedby
thedeviationofthefinalstatefromastablepositionwithaconstantandcorrectlengthat
thevertical.Anoptimumisfoundbyiteration.
Realtetheranddeployereffectshavetobetakenintoaccountaswell(seeSection2.1.5).A
demonstrationflightatlowaltitudewillencountersignificantatmosphericdrag.Withalow
endmass, as is likely to be selected for launch cost reduction, the tether mass is not
negligible. At low tension levels and high deployment velocities, the tether can develop
significantbulging duetoCoriolisforceacting along itslength.Suchbulgingcan inturn
lead to transverse waves in the tether. Abrupt final braking can lead to longitudinal
oscillations and slackness, endmass rotation and wrapping of the tether around the
endmass.Thiscanendangerproperendmassrelease.Thedeployerhardwareasdeveloped
is limited in the minimum tension level it can apply (Eq.5.30). Furthermore, in order to
allowmarginforcontrolandimproverobustness,aminimumnumberofbraketurnsshall
beassumedforthenominaldeploymenttrajectory.
ItisstraightforwardtotakesuchcomplexitiesintoaccountiftheMTBSimsimulatorisused
as the vehicle for a multipleshooting type optimization of the trajectory (Section2.3). A
parametrizationofthedeploymenttrajectoryisthennecessary, aswell asa cost function
andanoptimizationmethod.Twodistinctmethodshavebeenimplementedforthefirstand
secondstageofdeployment.
Afirststagedeploymentreferencetrajectorycanbegeneratedbyapplying,inMTBSim,a
tensionlawdevisedforthispurpose,basedontheknowndeviationofthestatefromthe
final target. Various such simple feedback algorithms have been evaluated, but usually
involve tether retrieval, which is not feasible for the spool system [Heide1996.I]. A
particularly fast deploymentonly trajectory can however be achieved by the method
described by Levin in [Beletski1993] (reproduced in Eq.5.31), with the value of the
parameters determined as represented in Table 46. A fast deployment indicates a larger
averagevelocityandthereforeislikelytobemorerobust.Forasmallendmassarelatively
highejectionvelocityandlargefirststagelengthisrequired.Fora12kgendmass,valuesof
234 Chapter5
0
l

=2.4m/s at L
0
=3m, and a target length of L
1
=3400m is selected, providing sufficient
gravity gradient for a secure second stage start, yet enabling a sufficient swing angle for
efficientreentry(Section2.1.4,[Ockels1995]).Thetetherdensityequals=0.185kg/km.
The parameters are optimized by a genetic algorithm that is integrated within MTBSim
[Biesbroek1996]. Thecostfunctionincludesdeviationfromthe finallength, finalvelocity
andpendulumoscillationenergy(basedonEq.2.11),withadditivepenaltiesforbreaching
minimalvelocity,tensionlevelsandotherboundaryconstraints.
AtypicalresultingsetofparametersisprovidedinTable46 withadeploymenttrajectory
plottedinFigure156.Typicalforthistypeofdeploymentisaninertiadrivendeployment
withasteepdropininitialvelocity,towardsaminimum(pointA),wheregravitygradient
forces take over and accelerate deployment. Deployment is then decelerated smoothly in
suchawaythattheendmassmovesbacktotheverticalandnoresidualangularrateisleft
at the point that the vertical is reached and deployment has stopped (point B). Levins
methodischaracterizedbyaspecifictransitionintension(hereat t=2000s)thatinitiatesa
steeper acceleration at fractionf of the total tether length. This jump can be removed by
proper selection of parameters or by manual (local) smoothening of the tension profile,
generallywithoutlargepenaltytothefitnessandthefinalconditions.
lfL1 l>L0
tt1 t>t1
a a1 a1 a2
b b1 b1 b2
vr
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
1
1
2 cos 1
t
t
q q v t
v1 v2
a1 4.236
a2 5.770
b1 5.691
b2 4.718
f 0.515
t1 1166 s
v1 0.427 m/s
v2 0.077 m/s
q 0.0312
Table46.Levinfirststagedeploymentmethodparameters
( )
|
.
|

\
|

O
+ + O
+ +
+
= ) ( ) 3 (
5 . 0
1
2
r
t
t
v l
b
L a al
m m M
m m M
T

(5.31)
Given the simulated solution, it can next be treated as a reference trajectory, to which
feedbackcanbeappliedbasedonlengthandvelocityestimatesalone.
Thereferencetrajectoryforasecondstageofdeploymenttoalargeangleisrathersimpleto
obtain,evenbyhand.Asemimanualoptimizationtodetermineasecondstagetrajectory
hasbeenimplementedasafirstmethod.Itisessentiallycomposedofthreesections.Initially
the brake is turned down to a minimum value that leaves room for feedback, about
0.5turns.Thisallowsareasonableinplaneangletobeachieveddespitetherelativelylong
DeployerSystemDevelopment 235
firststagelength[Ockels1995].Thedeploymentvelocityincreasesessentiallyexponentially.
Thedeploymentcanendwithaslowsmoothbrakingorafastendbrakealgorithmaimedat
preventinglongitudinaloscillations,whichusesthecurrentlyachievedstateandtargetend
stateofzerodeploymentvelocityasparameters[Kruijff1996].Themidsectionissegmented
furtherdownintoaboutthreeintervals.Foreachintervalasuitableinitialbrakepositionis
determined iteratively, by hand, by interaction with the simulator output. The brake
position is interpolated between these points over the intervals. The objectives of this
iterationaretwofold.Firstofallthetensionlevelshouldbekepthighenoughtoavoidtether
bulge and transverse waves from building up. Secondly, if necessary, the deployment
velocity can be smoothened further, before the final braking, by limiting the maximum
deploymentvelocitybelowabout13m/s.AtypicalresultingtrajectoryisprovidedinFigure
157andFigure158.

Figure156.Firststagedeploymentprofiles
236 Chapter5
Figure157.FulldeploymentprofileusingLevinsfirststagemethodandmanuallyiteratedsecond
stagelengthandvelocity
Figure158.FulldeploymentusingLevinsfirststagemethodandmanuallyiteratedsecondstage
tensionandLHLVplot.
Becauseamanualoptimizationisnotfullyreproducibleandtoanextentsubjective,amore
formal method has been sought for deployment trajectory determination, taking into
accounttheflexibletetherboundaryconditions.PaulWilliamshasworkedoutasolutionin
threedevelopmentalstepsthataresummarizedhere[Williams2006,2007,2009].Inhisfirst
step, Williams considers a rigid massive tether in circular orbit. The problem definition
includesthebarberpoletensionperformancemodel.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 237
A number of boundary constraints are applied: a nominal ejection velocity
0
l

=2.2m/s; a
first stage length of 3400m and a second stage length of 30.0km; a minimum velocity
duringthecriticalpartofthefirststageof0.5m/s;amaximumdeploymentvelocityinthe
second stage of 1315m/s; yet obtain an effective swing angle of at least 30degrees. The
latter is a rather limiting requirement but necessary to provide the required AV to the
capsule.Thebarberpolebrakepositionshallhaveaminimumn>0.5.Finallythereshouldbe
agentlefinaldecelerationtoavoidspringmassoscillationoftheendmass.
Thereferencedeploymentisdeterminedbydefiningandsolvingthesinglephaseoptimal
control problem. Hence, as a cost function, minimum deployment acceleration and
minimumtensionratethroughoutthedeploymentareused.Thedeploymentisdiscretized
and optimized using direct transcription. Terminal swing angle of the second stage and
deploymenttimearechosenmanually.Thesevaluesaswellastheratiobetweentheterms
inthecostfunctionhavetobeiteratedtogenerateafeasiblesolution.Figure159showsthe
resultforthefirststage.Thedeploymentisinessencesimilartotheonedevelopedusing
geneticalgorithmoptimization(Figure157),althoughmoresmoothandsomewhatfaster.
Thefigurealsoshowstheresultofasuccessfulactualdeploymenttest(Section5.6.2)using
feedback(Section5.5.4).
Figure159.Deploymentvelocityinfirststage
simulatedcontrol
TheresultingprofileisthenruninalumpedmassmodelsimulatordevelopedbyWilliams
aswellasintheMTBSimsimulatorforverification.Thetethershallforexamplenotbend
beyond 12 due to Coriolis effects, as not to create a standing transverse wave after
deceleration.Theendmassshallnotbounceandcausetetherslackness.Itisalsoobserved
whetherthesimulatedbarberpolecontrollerisindeedabletofollowthereferencetrajectory.
Severalsuchiterationsaretypicallynecessarytoobtainasuitabletrajectory.
In a second developmental step, Williams has refined his model to include aerodynamic
drag, found of significant influence on optimal trajectory determination at low altitude
(below300km),particularlywithrespecttotheinplaneangleachieved.Foritsinfluenceon
238 Chapter5
aerodynamic drag changes over each orbit, orbit eccentricity is also taken into account.
Furthermore,becausehardwaretests haveindicatedthattetherpolefrictionsignificantly
reduces at very low velocities (Section5.4.5), this dependency is also taken into account.
Typical optimization results for various cost functions are shown in Figure 160a. The
deploymentangleandinfluenceofatmosphericdragisshowninFigure160b.Amaximum
velocityofabout12m/sisreached,whereasthemaximumdeploymentangleinthesecond
stagereaches40,withdeploymentcompletionat20 andaneffectivefinalswingangleof
30 (see Section 2.2.1). This is a significantly smaller swing angle than proposed in
[Ockels1995]. The difference is a combined result of the low endmass, large first stage
length, relatively short second stage length (30km) and the margins maintained on the
brakeandthedeploymentvelocity.Duetotheloworbitalaltitude,under300km,nolarger
angleisrequired.

Figure160.Secondstagedeploymentoptimization[Williams2007]
In a third developmental step, only briefly summarized here, Williams approaches the
optimization from a different angle. Taking the resulting profile of the second step as a
starting point, Williams assumes the worst case high friction level as nominal with the
intentiontoachieveamorerobustreferenceprofile.Thereasonisthatinthepresenceof
feedback (Section5.5.4) the sensitivity of a tether deployment to errors in the friction
estimate is asymmetrical. Lower friction can be easily controlled by adding barberpole
wraps. A significantly higher tension however cannot be controlled beyond the zero
barberpoleposition.Williamsemploysalumpedmassmodelofaflexibleinextensibletether
suchthattransverseoscillationscanbekeptminimalthroughinclusioninthecostfunction.
Thenumberofparameterscannowbekeptsmallifforoptimizationamultipleshooting
methodisused,withexplicitpropagationofthestatetrajectorybymeansofanintegrator.
Simulatedannealingischosenasoptimizationmethod.Theworkconcludesinasuccessful
definitionofreferencetrajectories[Williams2009].
DeployerSystemDevelopment 239
5.5.2 Releasetimecontrol
Afinalcontrolopportunityinthemomentumtransfermissionisrelatedtothereleaseofthe
endmass, which is critical for orbit insertion accuracy. Various release options can be
considered (Figure 162). Release of the endmass from the tether before tether disposal
provides optimal momentum transfer and accuracy (method A). Release of the endmass
onlyaftertetherreleasefromthehostplatformmaybepreferredbythehost,buttherecoil
ontheendmass leads to a largedispersionofits trajectory(methodB). Itwouldthen be
bettertokeepthetetherattachedtotheendmassintoreentryasadragtail,providingthe
simplesttechnicalsolution,aswellasameansofpassiveattitudecontrolfortheendmassat
timeofreentry(methodC).MethodCisillustratedassimulatedbyMTBSiminFigure163
[Kruijff2003.I,Stelzer2006].
Method A is recommended to avoid tether recoil towards the endmass for maximum
endmasstrajectoryprecisionandmaximummomentumtransferefficiency.Thetimingfor
suchareleaseshouldideallybedoneinrealtimebasedonastatepropagation,basedon
GNSS positioning on the endmass, such that maximal landing accuracy can be obtained
[Heide1996.I].Forsimplicityhowever, areleasesystem withaprefixedtimer startingat
ejectioncanbeputontheendmass.Landingpositioncanstillbeinfluencedbycontrolling
theexactmomentofthestartofthesecondstage.Alaterstartshortensthedurationuntil
releaseoftheswingtothevertical;releasewilltakeplaceatalargerinplaneangle.
Landingaccuracy alsodependsonswingphase atrelease(Figure161). Theendmasscan
bestbereleasedshortlybeforetheverticalintheswingisachieved.IntheStarTrackandTSE
studies, different optimal angles of release (510 before vertical) have been found,
dependingontheerrormodelsandsystemparametersused[Ockels1995,Heide1999].At
thistime,themomentumtransfereffectisincreasingwithtimeandnearingitsmaximum.
Anyerrorinreleasetimeislargelycompensatedbythechangeinthiseffect.Alaterrelease
willbecompensatedbythefasterswingmotionatthetimeofrelease,leadingtosteeperre
entry, as simulated by MTBSim [Ockels1995, Heide1999]. The impact is significant. An
errorof10sinswingphaseattimeofreleasethereforeleadsonlytoalandingpointshiftof
about10km.Thiscontrastsagainstashiftof80kmthatwould,forcomparison,resultfrom
aretrorocketfiringfordeorbitmistimedbythesame10s(at8km/sorbitalvelocity).
300
310
320
330
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Release time shift [s]
3

S
i
g
m
a

l
a
n
d
i
n
g

e
l
l
i
p
s
e

[
k
m
]
Figure161.Impactofcapsulereleasetimeonlandingerror
240 Chapter5
Figure162.Optionsfortetherand
capsulerelease

Figure163.Simulationoftethercapsuleatre
entry
5.5.3 Lengthandvelocitydetermination
Control of the deployment by feedback towards the reference profile is done based on
lengthand lengthratedataonly, inabsenceofareliablemethodtoobservetheinplane
deploymentangleorendmassposition.Tothispurpose,anumberofsimplealgorithmshas
beendeveloped.
The deployed tether length is the measure of choice for tether length, rather than the
stretchedlengthorthedistancebetweenendmassanddeployer.Thisdeployedtetherlength
is derived from the number of deployed loops, which in turn is based on the registered
orderandnumberofOLDpulses(Section5.3.2).Asthetetherisunwindingfromthespool,
thediameterofthespooldecreases.Foreachspoolpart,aquadraticfitisthereforeused,
expressing the unwound number of loops vs. the deployed tether length, with a typical
precisionbetterthan0.1%andaccuracybetterthan0.3%.Themostrecentdeploymenttests
haveachievedalsoanaccuracyof0.1%(Table39).
Theloopcountalgorithmitselfisbasedontransitionsratherthanpassagesalone. Inthis
wayitdealsinherentlywiththemostcommonnoisesource:vibrationsofthetetherinfront
ofasingleOLD.IfmorethantwoOLDchannelsareinuse,thisapproachalsoinherently
deals with the next common source of error without any loss of quality: a single OLD
malfunction.
WheneveranOLDsignalarrivesfromaparticularchannel,thetransitionalgorithmsimply
addsafractionalnumberofloopstothetotaldeployed,basedonthecurrentOLDchannel
numberandtheprevious.AssumeforexamplethatthreeOLDchannelsareinuse.Consider
Table48.Asthetetherunwindsaxiallyfromthespool,itpassesthethreeOLDchannels,
simplytagged1,2&3,necessarilysubsequentlyandrepetitivelyinafixedorder:12
31231...etc. (RowA). If an offnominal order of pulses occurs (e.g. 13123), the
algorithmassumesanintermediatepulsehasbeenmissed,inthiscaseChannel2(RowB),
DeployerSystemDevelopment 241
and the software fills in the gap by counting 2/3
rd
of a loop (Table 47). In case two
subsequentpulsesarrivefromthesamechannel(e.g.1123)testsshowthatitismostlikely
that the tether vibrates briefly in front of a single channel, RowC. The transition table
containsazeroandthenoiseisignored(Table47).
Asimplefiltercanbeimplemented,inaddition,todealwithadoubleOLDfailure.Suppose
that at one point in the deployment two OLD channels are failing, e.g. Channels 2and3
(RowD).IfthepulseintervalbetweenthesubsequentChannel1signalslastsmuchlonger
thanatethervibrationinfrontofasinglechannel(RowC),andapproximatelyaslongasan
integernumberoffullloopdeployments,thissituationmaybeidentifiedasadoubleOLD
failure.Adecisionmaybemadebythefiltertocountafullloop(italics inTable47).The
identification of a reliable and critical interval duration is of fundamental importance for
thisfilter.
This critical interval duration has been defined as a function of filtered velocity, and
includes a software programmable parameter. Ground tests have revealed a particular
weakness.SupposethereareindeedtwofailingchannelsandonlyoneOLDisoperating.If
a slow noise occurs now as well and the filter is falsely applied, as a result, the velocity
estimatewillincreaseabovetheactualvalue,whereasthecriticalintervaldurationwillbe
decreased. The brake may now be unnecessarily applied, leading to a deceleration of
deploymentandthusanincreaseoftheactualintervaldurationfortheonlyfunctionalOLD.
Asubsequentfalseidentificationthusbecomesevenmorelikely.Thiscanleadtoarunaway
effect. To prevent this (rather extreme) failure case, the ground tests have been used to
determineasafefilterparametervalue.Thefilterneverthelessstillcarriesacertainriskof
confusionwithaslowtethervibration,forexampleincasethedeploymentisofanirregular
nature.
Previouschannel
Currentchannel OLD1 OLD2 OLD3
OLD1 0(or1) 2/3 1/3
OLD2 1/3 0(or1) 2/3
OLD3 2/3 1/3 0(or1)
Table47.LogicforloopcountbasedonOLDtransitions
A Normal 1 2 3 1 2 3
B Onechannelfailure 1 3 1 3
C Isolatedtethervibration 11 2 3 1 2 3
D Doublechannelfailure 1 1
Table48.TypicalOLDchannelactivationsequences
242 Chapter5
Nowthatthetetherlengthisknown,thevelocitycanbecomputed.Thevelocityestimate
shall be both smooth to avoid overshoot, as well as responsive to sudden changes in
deployment,forincreasedaccuracy.Alowpassfilteringisappliedbyaveragingofthemost
recentratesoflengthincrease,wherethelatestmeasurementisgivenmoreweightthanthe
others.TherationalbehindthisfilterisillustratedbyTable49.Thelogicalstepspresentedin
this table are mathematically equivalent to a weighted average. The starting point is the
estimationofarawdeploymentvelocityfromtheratioofincreaseindeployedlengthand
time over the selected control interval of two seconds [Step 12in Table 49]. This raw
velocitytypicallyhasasignificantnoisewithrespecttothedeploymentvelocity,Figure164
(shownforfirststage).Toallowforasmootherfeedbackalgorithm,thisvelocityisfiltered
to obtain the estimated velocity. The filter shall be applied such that a length error is
accepted once built up, but the length error should not build up further [Steps 46].
Furthermore,largechangesinvelocityfromonetimesteptothenextaredampenedinthis
manner[Step7].
Figure164.Errorinrawvelocitycomparedto
filteredvelocity(TSE)
0 Duringaninitialphaserightafterejection,filteredvelocityVF=Vref(referencevelocity)
1 Ataconstantintervalof2s,thelengthestimateL[n]attimetandintervalnisupdated
2 Atthenthinterval,rawvelocityVraw[n]=(L/t)n
3 VF[n]=Average(Vraw[nN]..Vraw[n]),Nbeingthefiltersize
4 TestlengthL
test
=Sum(VF[1]..VF[n])*t
5 LengthinconsistencybecauseofcurrentVFisError[n]=L[n]Ltest
6 ImprovedestimateisVF[n]=VF[n]+0.25*(Error[n]Error[n1])/t
7 DampenlargechangesVF[n]=VF[n1]+0.25*(VF[n]VF[n1])
Table49.Rationaleofweighedaveragevelocityfilter
The weighedaverage filter is shown to be simple yet robust and smooth yet fast
responding, with a delay on steep velocity changes of about 810s. For comparison, the
SEDSmissionincludedalowpasfilterof0.02Hz[Lorenzini1996].Morecomplexfiltering
methodshavebeenexplored,basedon(dynamic)errormodelssuchastheGaussianshown
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
-100 -50 0 50 100
Relative error rate [%]
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
Gaussian Function
Error distribution
DeployerSystemDevelopment 243
inFigure164,buthavenotyieldedsignificantlybetterresults[Kruijff2003.IV].Simulated
performanceisfoundtoprovideagoodqualitativeindicationofactualtestperformance,
Figure165. Simulationshave thereforebeen usedtodeterminetheparametervaluesthat
bestfitatypicaldeploymentprofile.
Figure165.Velocityfilterperformance(TSEtest),simulatedleft,testright
5.5.4 Feedbackcontrolalgorithms
Ataregularintervalthemeasuredstateiscomparedtoareferencedeploymenttablestored
onboardcontaininglengthandvelocityversustime.Basedontheerrorandthenominal
control a new brake position is then determined. The nominal or reference control is
preferablyexpressedasreferencetensionT
ref
ratherthanasreferencenumberofturnsn
ref
,
becauseatensionprofilecanbeusedasreferenceforanysystemwithgivenmassproperties
independentoftheexactdeployerparameters.Thecorrectedbrakepositionntobeapplied
can then be expressed as a function of T
ref
. There can be various approaches towards
determining a correction for position n. Consider the following generic expression for a
correctiontobeapplied:

A + A + A =
I
t
l
l
ldt t k l t k l t k
0
) ( ) ( ) (

o
(5.32)
Considerforthesakeofdiscussionthesimplifiedrelationshipbetweentensionandturns:
in
n f
in
T
T
f
n
e T T
ln
2
1
2
t
t
=
=

(5.33)
Bortolamie.a.havestudiedanumberoffeedbackmethodsinthecontextofSEDS2,based
onthenumberofturns,withconstantgainsandk
I
=0.Theauthorsreportthatforconstantk,
itisrequiredtoapplythefeedbackwithrespecttothereferencebrakeprofileinorderto
takethenonlinearityofthesystemintoaccount[Bortolami1993].Therefore,acontrolofthe
formn= leadstopoornominalperformanceandnorobustness. Also apurely additive
approach with respect to the nominal brake profile still is found to show insufficient
robustness:
244 Chapter5
o
t
o + = + =
in
ref
ref
T
T
f
n n ln
2
1
(5.34)
Instead,theysuggestthefollowingapproach,whichhasbeenimplementedforSEDS2:
o
t t
o
o
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+
= + =
1
ln
2
1
ln
2
1
) 1 (
in
ref
in
ref
ref
T
T
f T
T
f
n n (5.35)
The same length and velocity error at a larger number of brake turns results in a larger
adjustment in turns, and, due to the exponential tension response, an even stronger
adjustmentoftension.Asmallerrorcouldthusleadtoalargetensionfluctuationduringthe
brakingphasewhichcouldinturntriggertetheroscillations.
Anapproachtoobtainamilder,perhapsmoreintuitivecontrolwouldbetodeterminethe
requiredchangeintensioninordertoreturntothereferenceprofile:
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
= A
in
T ref
T
T
T
f
n
T
o
t
o
ln
2
1 (5.36)
ThisresponseinprincipleisweakerthantheonegivenbyEq.5.34.Inordertodealwith
lack of robustness reported by Bortolami e.a., a nonlinear approach based on physical
considerations was proposed in [Ockels1995, Heide1996.I], the Energy Feedback. The
energyofthesystemiscalculatedusingastraightnonflexibletethermodelinfreeorbital
motion (Section2.1.2). The energy is determined for the reference case, as well as for the
measuredstate.Theexpressionforenergycontainsalsotheinplanedeploymentangle.In
absenceofangularpositioninformation,thereferenceangleisused.Basedonthedifference
insystemenergyandtheavailabletetherlength,therequiredfeedbackcanbedetermined.
l L
E E
k
end
ref
T

= o
(5.37)
L
end
beingthefinaldeploymentlengthofthestageincludingasuitablemargin, k suitably
chosen,anddifferentforfirstandsecondstage.Themethodhasbeenappliedsuccessfully
in e.g. [Kruijff2001.II], as well as in [Sabath1996], however, it leads to control overshoot
earlyinthefirststagedeployment(Section5.6.1).
Another approach has therefore been implemented, based on proportionality of the
correction(fromEq.5.32)withT
ref
,stillwithconstantgainsandk
I
=0.
( )
f T
T
f
n
T T
in
ref
ref
t
o
t
o
2
1 ln
ln
2
1 +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= A
(5.38)
DespitethesimilaritytoEq.5.34,goodresultsareobtained(Section5.6.2).
PaulWilliamshasproceededtodevelopthesimplefeedbackstructureofEq.5.34,dealing
with the nonlinearity, by assuming feedback gains variable with time, obtained through
DeployerSystemDevelopment 245
recedinghorizon optimization using a GaussLobatto Quadrature discretisation
[Williams2006,2007].LaterWilliame.a.employasimilarfeedback,thistimeincludingnon
zerok
I
,foradditionalrobustness[Williams2009].
Figure166.Flowdiagrambreadboardcontrolsoftware,TC=loopcount,IR=OLD
interruptrequest
5.5.5 Performanceandrobustnesstesting
The controller has been implemented into MTBSim for simulation of its behavior. The
trajectoryandfeedbackrobustnessistestedthroughMonteCarlosimulations.TheMTBSim
includes a sophisticated reentry simulator module and is suitable for an endtoend
analysisfromejectionuntilcapsulelanding,withwhichtheoptimalreleasetimecanalsobe
determined (Section3.1.1) [Ockels1995]. Based on the hardware characterization tests
(Sections5.3.5,5.4),andtheunknownsinbothlaunchparametersandatmosphericdensity,
errormodelshavebeendefined(Table50).
AnexampleofthespreadindeploymentsasaresultofaMonteCarlorunisprovidedin
Figure 167. A view of the deployment trajectory is shown here in local vertical/local
horizontalsystemwithrespecttothedeployerplatform.Flightdirectionistotheleft.The
endmasslocationisplottedasonedotat150s intervalforeachofover600MonteCarlo
runs.ThenominalVvectorofnorm113m/sisrepresentedinthebottomofthegraph.For
eachrun,thevectorialerrorsinVisalsoplottedtoscale,atthelocationofcapsulerelease.
246 Chapter5
A typical resulting landing area is also provided in Figure 167. This area is for a 12kg
endmass and a lightweight 40cm diameter, 5kg spherical reentry capsule (see also
Section7.4.5).Thelandingareaof384kmiscomparabletowhatcouldbeachievedusinga
retrorocketsystemforsuchacapsule[Schonenborg2000].Agoodpartofthisareaisthe
result of the ballistic, atmospheric entry phase, due to the low ballistic coefficient of the
capsule. Sensitivities of the landing error to various capsule designs, orbital parameters,
atmosphericmodelsandconditionsareprovidedbyCalzadain[Calzada2004].
Atmosphericentryangleisanimportantdesignparameterforthereentrycapsule. Figure
168providesaninsightintotherangeofentryanglesthatthecapsulemaybesubjectedtoas
aresultofseveraldesignparameters.Thetargetlocationwithinthelandingzoneisfixed
onlyafterlaunch,basedonthelaunchersachievedorbitalparameters.Thisselectionmay
have an impact on entry angle as indicated. The range in entry angle, for the nominal
mission design, that may be obtained as a result of the tether deployment errors is
determinedfromtheMonteCarlosimulation(indicatedasnominal).Thepotentialimpact
of a change in nominal mission design has also been computed: a target tether length
between 28and 32km and the possible range in release angle within the swing are the
parametersplottedinthefigure.
The influence of all these parameters is small compared to the acceptable range for the
capsuleandtrajectorydesign.Therefore,theparametersmentionedcanbefreelyselected,
withoutregardfortheimpactonentryangle.Thereisalsononeedforinclusionoftheerror
in entry angle in the cost function for optimization of release time. For this reason, only
landingaccuracyconsiderationshavebeenusedforreleasetimeselection.

Figure167.Overviewof603MonteCarlosimulationsbeforetests.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 247
Disturbance Sigma Magnitude(3.09o = 99.8%,1o = 68.3%)
Tensionmodeling(tetherdeployment)
T
0
3.09 60%
I 3.09 30%
fg/ f 3.09 30%
TetherProperties
EA 3.09 50%to+100%
p 3.09 5
Environmentaluncertainties
F10.7solarflux 3.09 24(absolutevalue)aroundsolarminimumof70
APgeomagneticindex 3.09 10(absolutevalue)aroundaverageof15
atmosphericmodel GOST4401(1981)
p
atmosphere
3.00 25%
wind=f(altitude)
zzonal
mmeridinal
1.00 >90kmz:22.7m/sm:20m/s
9060kmz:12.8m/sm:9.3m/s
600kmz+m:20m/s;angle15
EjectionMechanism
ejectionvelocity 3.09 10%to5%
IP/OPangleatejection 3.09 5
Measurementinaccuracies(measurement&filternoise)
barberpoleturnsn 3.09 0.1%
tetherlength/velocity 3.09 2%
S/W&H/Wlimitations
nodisturbance
Orbitalparameters(Fotonnominalorbitinsertionandmeasurementerrors)
perigee/apogeealtitude 3.09 500m
inclination 3.09 0.01(900m)
trueanomaly 3.09 0.18(15km)
Deployerplatformmass
m
Foton
3.09 50kg
Telecommandtimeinaccuracy
tejection 3.09 disturbedviatrueanomaly
t
2ndstage
3.09 1s
Reentrycapsuleproperties
dragcoefficient 1.00 0.05
liftoverdrag 1 0.01
Table50.DisturbancesappliedforMCsimulation
Figure168.RangesforreentryangleindegreesofFotinocapsule(byM.Stelzer)
248 Chapter5
5.6 Closedloopdeploymenttesting
Aseriesofflightrepresentativesystemvalidationtestshasbeenperformedonthevarious
iterationsofdeployerhardwaredesignandsoftware(Table39),usingthedeploymenttest
rigsdescribedinSection5.2.2. Thesevalidationshavethreedistinctobjectives.Firstlythe
systemfunctionalityistobedemonstratedthrougharepresentativerangeofdeployment
conditions,includingsensors,interfacesanddynamicinteractionsbetweenthesubsystems.
Secondly, the control performance and robustness, rather than being determined from
simulationonly,istobeverifiedinactualdeployment.Thirdly,anyunexpecteddifferences
betweendeploymenttestandsimulationwillhavetobestudiedtoeventuallymakebothas
realistictoflightconditionsaspossible.Abetterunderstandingoftherepresentativenessof
bothsimulationandtestrigshallallowtodefineamoreeffectivetestprogram,reducingthe
needforactualdeploymenttestingandrelyingonlesscostlysimulationsandemulatortests
wherepossible.
The second and third objectives in particular require a realtime test rig, with the
deploymentvelocityresponding(inclosedloop)tothefrictionasgeneratedbythedeployer
hardware,inamannersimilartothatinspace.Tothispurpose,thetestrigiscoupledtoa
realtimetethersimulator,seeSection5.2.2fordetails.Testsusingthisfacilityarereferredto
asclosedloopdeploymenttests.
Thefocusofmostofthetestsisonthefirststage,thelowtensionlowvelocitydeployment
tothevertical,sincethisisthepartmostsensitivetosystemfrictiondeviationsandtherefore
themostchallengingfromacontrolpointofview.Somesecondstagedeploymenttestshave
alsobeenperformed.Theyhavetheirownparticularchallenges,suchashighdeployment
velocity, higher brake pole temperatures due to higher friction levels, and, as a practical
consideration,theneedforanearfulllengthtether.
5.6.1 FirststagedeploymenttestsusingtheTSEunwindingrig
These early closedloop deployment tests have been performed on breadboard deployer
equipment in the context of ESAs Tether System Experiment project (TSE)
[Kruijff2001.II,Kruijff2001.III]. The TSE reference mission is based on a 45kg reentry
capsule that is ejected by springs in downwardbackward direction from a ProgressM
vehicle at about 1m/s. It is subsequently deployed from a 7kg, 35km long Dyneema
tether. The barberpole function is performed by a simple breadboard system, Figure 169.
Thecanisterinuseiscylindricalwithconicaltop,similarindimensionstotheSEDScanister
as featured also on the YES (Chapter6). The hardware has been placed into the TSE
unwinding rig (Section5.2.2). The twostage tether deployment is based on the StarTrack
approach[Ockels1995,Heide1996.I].ItincludesLevinsfirststage,setto3.3kmandwith
itsparametersoptimizedbygeneticalgorithms.Thefirststageisfollowedbya60degree
forwardsecondstagedeployment,smoothendbrakeandswingbacktothevertical,near
whichthetetherwouldthen(inanactualflight)becut.Theclosedloopcontrolisbasedon
the Energy Feedback (Section5.5.4). An intentional worstcase ejection velocity error is
DeployerSystemDevelopment 249
appliedof3%(0.97m/sinsteadof1m/s).Duringthefirsttensofseconds,asthevelocity
filteriscollectinginformation,nofeedbackisapplied.

Figure169.TSEbreadboardhardware
InFigure170Figure175 asetoffirststagetestresults(RTS)isplottedagainstthedata
from the reference file (Ref). InFigure 170 andFigure 172 the length and the inplane
anglearedepictedrespectively.Theinplaneangleistheresultoftherealtimenumerical
simulationofthetetherdeploymentbasedonthemeasuredtension.Bothgraphsindicatean
adequateperformanceofthedeploymentsystemandthecontroller,especiallytakinginto
accountthedatadisplayedinFigure174andFigure175.InFigure174thetensionisplotted
against the reference tension. The noise in the barberpoleinduced friction can be noted,
althoughtheaveragetracksthenominalprofile. Figure175 showstherequiredbarberpole
turncorrections,orthecommandednumberofturnsversusthereferenceprofile.Sincethe
reference length profile is generally followed rather nicely, Figure 175 provides a good
measure for the barberpole brake model errors as from 1500s. As the velocity starts to
decrease in the final 1000s of deployment, the barberpole effectiveness seems to have
decreased, and a corrective additional 1.5turns is required to maintain the nominal
deploymentprofile.Thisrelativelysuddendecreaseineffectivefrictionmaywellberelated
totheoscillationsinactuateddeploymentvelocityobservedinthisperiod.
Duringthefirst1500sthevelocityofthedeploymentrevealsarelativelylargeoscillation.
Thefeedbackthenovercomesthisstartupproblem(Figure172).Thesamebehaviorshows
upinpretestsimulations(compareFigure172 andFigure173).Theovershootistherefore
considered to be a result from the initial errors combined with a local lack of feedback
effectiveness.Apparentlytheinertiadrivenpartofdeploymentrequiresafeedbackdifferent
from the remainder of the first stage. This type of initial overshoot has prompted the
developmentofafeedbackwithvaryingfeedbackparameters(Section5.5.4).
Despitetheinitialovershoot,andjustasinthesimulationsthathavebeenruninthepretest
investigation,thevelocityerrorcanbekeptundercontrolandthefinallengtherrorremains
intheorderofmeters.ThecongruencebetweensimulationandtestsuggestthattheMonte
Carlo disturbance modeling gives a good indication of the performance of the actual
hardware.
250 Chapter5
Figure170.Deployedfirststagelengthvs.
reference(TSE)
Figure171.Deployedfirststageinplaneangle
vs.reference(TSE)
Figure172.Deployedfirststagevelocityvs.reference
(TSE)

Figure173.Deployedfirststagevelocity
vs.reference(MCsimulation)
Figure174.Measuredtension(TSE) Figure175.Barberpoleturnsactualvs.reference
(TSE).
At the end of the deployment after 3880s, again oscillations start sweeping up in the
simulateddeploymentvelocity,thistimewithamuchshorterperiodofabout6s.Although
thedeploymentaccuracyisnotnoticeablyaffected,ithasledtoamanualabortofthetestas
the oscillations cause the deployment to alternately halt (or even drive backward) and
increasestrongly,severalhundredsofmetersbeforethenominalendofdeployment.
Atfirsttheresonanceisthoughttobeonebetweenthesimulatedtetherspringmassmotion
(duetothesimulatedtetherstiffnessEA)andthecontroloftheunwindingwheelsinthetest
setupduringthebrakingphase.Theidentificationofthisproblemleadstoareevaluationof
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [s]
L
e
n
g
t
h

[
m
RTS Length
Ref length
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Time [s]
T
h
e
t
a

[
d
e
g
RTS Theta
Ref Theta
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [s]
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
m
/
s
RTS Velocity (AvgdActL)
Ref Velocity
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [s]
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
m
/
s
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [s]
T
u
r
n
s
Turns Ref
Turns Real
DeployerSystemDevelopment 251
an important simplification of the tether test rig software. The deployment velocity as
commandedbythesimulatortotheTSEversionofthetestrigincludesnotrealistically
alsothestrainrateofthe tether. Amore realistic testsetupactuatesonlythe velocityat
whichthetetherisdeployingfromthecanister,andnotincludethestrainrate.Thestrain
rate is nevertheless included to make the commanded velocity more smooth. At low
velocities or at steep deceleration this decision can have an impact. For example, if the
deployment has stopped, any residual oscillation of the endmass on the tether will
unrealisticallybetranslatedintoacommandeddeploymentwithalternatinglypositiveand
negativevelocity.Nowinthisfirsttest,theperiodofthedeploymentvelocityoscillationof
6secondshappenstobecomparabletothelongitudinaloscillationperiodofa3kmtether
withanEA=5000Nand46kgendmass.ItisthereforeexpectedthatsimplyanEAincrease
by alarge factor, toe.g. 100,000N,willsolve theproblemina nexttest.However thisis
found not to be the case. Another mechanism for the resonance has therefore to be
identified.
Closerinspectionofthetestrigcontrollerdatarevealsthatacontrolsystemresonancestarts
already earlier, right after the deployment peak at 3200s into deployment, affecting the
actuated deployment velocity, minutes before the simulated deployment velocity itself
startstooscillate.
Itisnecessaryheretoexplainabitmoretheunwindingrigsphilosophyfordeployment
velocity actuation. The realtime tether simulator calculates the deployed length and
deployment velocity based on the tension input. The control software of the unwinding
motor drive has as its task to command the speed of the rigs flywheel to match as
accurately as possible this simulator deployment velocity output. The flywheel inertia
makes it impossible to follow any commanded velocity precisely (Section5.2.2). It is
thereforecommandedwiththehelpofafeedbackloop.Thedrivesencoderreturnstothe
controlsoftwarethevelocityasactuatedandthenumberofrotationsofthetakeuprollers,
such that the actually deployed length can be determined. In order to minimize the
accumulationofdeviationsbetweenactuallydeployedlengthanddeployedlengthinthe
realtimetethersimulator,acorrectionisappliedtothecommandedvelocity.
Figure 176 shows the actuated velocity, the simulated velocity and the commanded or
requested velocity that includes the length correction. The implementation of the length
correction appears to cause a peak in the control to appear in a cyclic manner. The
flywheels large inertia combined with these corrections makes the systems velocity
oscillationsweepup,eventhoughthesimulatedvelocityisstillsmooth.
It can be imagined that at first the actuated deployment oscillation has little effect on
deploymenttensionandtherewithlittleeffectonsimulateddeployment.Howeveritseems
thatunderrapidvelocityoscillations,thebarberpolebecamelesseffective,leadingtolarger
number of turns and larger noise in tension, eventually around 3880s impacting the
simulateddeploymentvelocityandstrainrateinresonance,possiblywitheachother,butin
anycasewiththeactuationsystem.
252 Chapter5
Time [s]
Figure176.DifferentHardwareControlSpeedsLeadingtoResonantOscillations
intheTestRig.Thesmoothercurveissimulated,thetopcurvecommanded.
Although the test has been aborted at 93% of the target deployed length due to
aforementionedtestrigrelatedresonance,thedatashowsthatthedeployerhardwareand
feedback,despitebeingpesteredbytheeventuallyhighlyirregulardeployment,isstillable
tocontrolthedeploymentandkeeperrorswithin20mor0.65%oflength,andafractionof
adegree(inplaneangle).
5.6.2 FirstandsecondstagetestsonYES2unwindingrig
Testrigimprovements
BasedonthelessonslearnedwiththeTSEunwindingrig,aswellastheaddedrequirements
of mobility and tether recoverability a completely new, more compact and lighter
unwinding rig has been developed. The flywheel, with its inertia issues is replaced by a
godet(Section5.2.2).AlthoughtheTSEexperiencehasshownthattheverticalcanisterset
up(Figure91)providesatensionprofileoverthecourseofasingleunwindingofaloopthat
is hardly affected by gravity [Kruijff2001.III], for compactness the new test rig uses a
horizontal spool configuration. It has been verified to work sufficiently well. The initial
feedbackovershootistackledbyimplementationofanew,simplerfeedbackwithvariable
gains(Section5.5.4,Eq.5.38).Thesimulatoralgorithms(Section2.3)areadaptedtoallowfor
a decoupling between deployment velocity (applied by the test rig) and strain rate
(calculatedbythesimulator).
Thedeploymentsdescribedinthissectionhavebeenperformedwithbreadboardversions
of the YES2 barberpole, OnBoard Computer (OBC), OBC software and OLD electronics,
andwiththeTSEcanister.Theyareperformedinanearlystageofspooldevelopment(see
alsoSection5.3.3).Dueto,atthistime,stillunresolvedlimitationsinthewindingmachine
measurement system, length estimation of the windings is about 1% accurate. For the
DeployerSystemDevelopment 253
improvedgenerationsofwindingmachineandspools,anaccuracyof0.1%hassincebeen
achieved. Closed loop deployment tests on these improved spools have been performed
usingtheflighthardwareEngineeringModel(Table39,Section8.1.4),butarenotreported
here.
Firststagedeployment,undisturbed
Seven undisturbed closedloop deployment tests are performed assuming an endmass of
12kgandwitha32kmtetherlength.Theouter4.8kmarewoundat4turnspercycle.A
typicalresult(Test015)ispresentedhere.Fortheinitialtestnointentionaldisturbancesare
introduced. This means that the initial velocity is nominal, spool and pole parameters in
Eq.5.30areselectedtomatchthecharacterizationtestsand(simulated)tetherpropertiesin
the test are identical to those used during determination of the deployment profile and
feedbackparameters.
A deployment to a (simulated) vertical orientation has been achieved (Figure 177, Figure
178).Asaresultofthemodificationsinthefeedback,nolongeranovershootintheearly
deploymentiscreated.Deviationsfromthereferenceprofileremainverysmall.Thetether
deployment is initially stopped at the exact target length (better than 0.1%) at t=5900s.
However,asthetestrigsunwindingmachineisstopped,thetensionbecomesslackonthe
tensiometerandprovidesnomoresignaltotherealtimesimulator.Asaresultthetestrigis
commandedtodeployfurther.Thiscontinuesforsometensofmeters, Figure180b.Atthe
conclusionofdeployment,the(simulated)inplaneangleislibratingbyjust0.2,andclearly
lessthanthe3target.Thesamevalueof0.2isalsofoundasaveragefinallibrationangle
forallfurtherundisturbedtests.Alsothevelocityfollowsthereferenceprofileveryclosely.
The velocityoscillationaroundt=3600s canbe attributed toan irregularity in the spool.
Duringthefinalgradualdecelerationattheendofdeployment,velocityisverylow,andthe
velocity error therefore is also very small (<0.04m/s). In fact it is not enough to trigger
sufficient feedback (Figure 180b). Also, at this very low deployment velocity of only
centimeterspersecond,theOLDshavebeensometimesobservedtofailtoregisteratether
passage.
Figure177.Firststagedeploymenttest(closedloopcontrol)lengthandvelocityvs.reference
254 Chapter5
Figure178.Firststagedeploymenttest(closedloopcontrol)simulatedinplaneangleandLHLV
trajectory
Thetensionnoisecanbeseentoincreasewithtensionandatlowervelocities, Figure179.
Thebarberpolepositionrequiredtofollowthenominalprofiledeviatesgenerallylessthan
0.5turnsfromthenominalprofilebasedonhardwarecharacterization. Atvelocitiesfrom
0.5m/sdownto0m/suptoafulladditionalturnisrequired,suggestingthatthefriction
coefficientreducesatlowvelocities.
The(simulated)transversetethermotioncanbeobservedfromFigure180a,wherethein
plane angle of various points on the tether are compared. The transverse wave have an
amplitudeofnomorethan0.3andaperiodofabout250s,aspredictedbyEq.2.19.
Near the end of deployment (57005900s), tension oscillates in about 27s periods,
equivalentwithawindingcycleof4loopsofabout75cmeach.Asthevelocityreduces,the
period for unwinding of one winding cycle becomes longer. The velocity oscillates 90
ahead of the tension. In this case both deployment velocity and strain rate contribute in
harmony and about equally to this oscillation. What is shown in the figure is only the
deploymentvelocity.Thebarberpoledevelopssmoothlyatthistime,anddoesnotresonate
withthedeploymentoscillation.
Boththestrainandendmassdecelerationareadirectresultofthefriction.Anynewfriction
level is introduced within seconds over the (relatively short) length of the tether, being
translated into an increased strain with help of the endmass inertia, or a reduced strain
throughadditionalextractionofsomecentimetersoftetherfromthecanister.Theresulting
tensionthencontrolsthedecelerationoftheendmass.Atverylowendmassvelocitiesitis
possiblethatittakesawhilebeforeenoughstrainisbuiltuptoovercomethefrictionanda
partial or fullspringmassmotionfollows. (Noteforcomparisonthatapurespringmass
oscillationatzerodeploymentvelocitywouldhaveaperiodofabout20swithmaximum
4cm/s strain rate amplitude, Eq.2.17). Deployment velocity and strain rate can thus
alternateascomponentsofthemotionoftheendmass.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 255
Figure179.Firststagedeploymenttest(closedloopcontrol)tensionandbarberpoleposition
Figure180.Firststagedeploymenttest(closedloopcontrol)simulatedtetheroscillation(a.)and
behaviorduringfinaldeceleration(b.)
Based on the results of the undisturbed closedloop first stage tests, a number of system
improvementshavebeenintroduced.
Theobservedvelocityirregularityhaspromptedfurtherdevelopmentofthewinding
machinesprecision(Section5.2.1).
Theunrepresentative,staccatocontinuationofdeploymentbysometensofmetersafter
first stage completion, caused by a slack tether on the tensiometer, has triggered a
revisionofthetestrigsoftware.Itimprovestherigsfunctioningasitkeepsthetether
under tension during the hold phase, by applying a very low (and for all purposes
negligible)velocityof2mm/s.Inthiswaythetensiometercandeterminethefriction
level and the simulator can reproduce the deployment stop (and restart) more
realistically.
Becauseofthelackoffeedbackatverylowvelocitiesattheendofthefirststage,itis
recommendedtoraisethefeedbackparametersneartheendofdeployment.Tomake
suretheflightOLDscandealwithveryslowlymovingtether,specifictestshavebeen
performedandOLDplacementwithrespecttothepassingtetherhasbeenimproved
(Section5.3.2).
Followingtheobservationoflowbarberpoleeffectivenessatlowvelocities,anadjusted
frictionmodelhasbeendeveloped(Section8.1.1).
256 Chapter5
Firststage,disturbed
To evaluate the robustness of the deployer, some tests have also been performed with
severalparametersinthespacesimulatorandcontrolleraltered,withrespecttothevalues
as used to prepare control parameters and reference trajectory. A heavily disturbed case,
Test011,isherediscussed,basedonthefollowingdisturbances:
Controller/referencefile Actual(testrigsimulator/deployer
hardware)
Orbitaltitude[km] 300 290x280km
Exospherictemperature[C] 1000 600
Ejectionangle 0 10forwardfromlocalvertical
Frictioncoefficient 0.3 0.25
T0 0.03(fromt=5001000s) 0.01
Table51.EnvironmentaldisturbancespurposefullyintroducedforDeploymentTest011.
The resulting deployment is satisfactory and matching simulations with similar
disturbances. Final libration is approximately 5, well within the approx. 10 libration
requiredforsufficientlyaccuratelanding(Section5.5.5)andprimarilycausedbytheinitial
ejectionangleerror.Thereisnofeedbacktoinplaneangleassuch,andanyinitialerrorwill
thus not be actively controlled away, although the error is nevertheless dampened,
particularlyforbackwardejections.Lengthovershootisjust0.3%,wellwithintheallowable
3%.
The large error in minimal deployment tension (a factor 3), introduced at a critical time,
causesthedeploymenttocometoacompletehalt,despitethebarberpoleturningdownto
zero.Thedeploymenthoweverrecommencesandreacquiresthereferenceprofilesmoothly.
Some oscillatory behavior is visible, related to imperfections in the velocity filter of the
controller.Furthertestsshowthismatterresolved,e.g.Test032, Figure182b.ForTest032,
T
0
=0.02insteadof0.01,measuredfrictionisincreasedby3,a5forwardejectionerrorhas
beenintroducedandinitialvelocityis2m/sratherthan2.5m/s.
Holdphase
After the first stage, when the deployment has been stopped by the controller with the
minimalamountofturnspossible,theholdphasealgorithmisactivated.Thisalgorithmis
designed to trigger a small increase in barberpole turns whenever the OLDs register the
unwindingofanew(andundesired)tetherloop.Thisalgorithmmayleadtoaccumulation
of wraps of the tether around the barberpole brake. Before the start of the second stage,
these accumulated wraps need to be unwound. The pole will turn back and the present
gravity gradient (about 0.18N) should now extract the freed length of tether around the
pole,withouttheunwindingwrapsuntangling.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 257
Figure 181. First stage deployment test (disturbed, closed loop control) length and deployment
velocityvs.reference
Figure182.Firststagedeploymenttest(disturbed,closedloopcontrol)simulatedinplaneangleand
Test015deploymentvelocity
The behavior of the tether inside the canister during the hold phase, as well as the
unwrappingofaccumulatedloopsonthebarberpolehavebothbeentestedinaparabolic
flight campaign. The tether inside the canister is observed to remain calm and does not
oscillateinfrontoftheOLDsnordoesitspontaneouslydeploy.Slowlyunwindingloopsare
correctlyregisteredbythe(nowimproved)OLDsystem.Uptoeightwrapsoftetheraround
thebarberpolecanbeconsistentlyunwoundwithoutentangling.Asadditionalmarginthe
maximumallowablenumberofaccumulatedloopsduringtheholdphaseisrecommended
tobesettosix.
Theendoffirststage,holdphaseandstartofsecondstagehavealsobeentestedinclosed
looponthetestrig,usingtheYES2flightdesignsEngineeringModel.Thedeploymentis
smoothlystoppedattheendofthefirststage,keepsstillandisrestartedquicklyintothe
secondstage(Figure183).
258 Chapter5
Figure183.Deploymentvelocityandstrainratenearhold
phase
SecondStagetest
During the second stage of deployment, the gravity gradient is already large enough to
provideamplemarginforcontrol.Still,thisstagehasitsownchallenges.Someclosedloop
secondstage deployment test have been performed, some partial and one full, both
undisturbedanddisturbed,inordertoconfirmthebehaviorofthesystemandthecontrol
abilityathighvelocities.Alsothebarberpolesabilitytodeceleratetheendmasseffectivelyis
puttothetest.Itshouldnotcausestrongoscillationsnorshowanyoverheatingthatmay
causeameltingofthetether.
The results of the full deployment test are presented inFigure 184Figure 186. Generally
speaking,thedeploymentissmoothlycontrolled.Thereisasmallerrorinactuallydeployed
lengthof0.3%(causedbyOLDfailure)vs.thetargetofunder3%.Thetrackingofthein
planetrajectoryisbetterthan0.5(vs.thetargetofunder5).Theonboardmeasuredlength
deviateslessthan0.1%fromthenominallength.Therequiredbarberpolebrakingdeviates
generallylessthan0.5turnfromthenominal,Figure184b.Theplotsshowsomefeaturesof
interesthowever.
Most importantly, the test has actually been performed in two parts due to a test rig
software memory overflow at 1600s (the failure has since been solved). The
recommencementofthetesthasrequiredanewinitiationoftheboththetestrigssimulator
andthedeployersonboardcomputer.Bothneedtocontinuefromastatethatmatches,as
wellaspossible,thefinalstateoftheprevioustest.Unavoidably,therestartincludessome
distortedinitialconditions.Thetestrigneedstorampupfromzeroto8m/s,duetowhich
aninaccuracyofinitiallengthof150misintroduced(unintentionally).Thelatterexplains
the controllers action towards velocity undershoot from 16001700s. These significant
disturbancesarehowevercontrolledaway.
Formostofthedeploymentthetensionissmoothandfollowsthebarberpoleturnsnicely.
After t=3200however, an oscillation is seen, even though the barberpole turns develop
DeployerSystemDevelopment 259
smoothly. Theoscillationisnotacontrol resonance,buta direct resultoftransitionfrom
crisscrosstoparallelwinding.ThetensioneffectsdiscussedinSection5.3.6comeintoplay.
At high velocity the ball effect dominates, but as the deployment slows below 1m/s, the
tetherstartsrubbingthespool,andthehardlayer/easylayereffecttakesover.Notethatthe
coreflangeishardlyexposedsohaslittleimpact.Theseirregularitiesdemonstratethevalue
ofaclosedlooptestwithrealhardware.
Despitetheserealworldoscillations,thestrainrateremainsatthelevelofcentimetersper
second withamaximumnear3470sofabout40cm/s(notshownhere).Itwillthushave
littleeffectonthedeploymentandcontrol,andbasedonsuchadeploymenttheswingcan
beexpectedtoshowfewtetheroscillations.Duringmostofthedeployment,thefeedback
doesnotrespondheavilytothenaturaloscillationsintensionsuchthatthereferenceprofile
iswellmaintained.Near3500sthevelocitydropstoomuchandthefeedbackkicksin.A
recommendation could be to avoid the parallel section for the nominal deployment, to
reducethecyclictrendsintensionbye.g.alargercoreconeangle(Section5.3.6)ortotake
themintoaccountinthereferenceturnsdefinition,thelatterbeingamoreriskyoption.
TheOLDvelocityfiltergenerallyperformswellbutrevealsanissuetoo.Therigsapplied
velocity significantly exceeds the deployers measured velocity between 2500and 3000s.
Thisdeviationcouldeitherbebecauseofslipofthetetheronthetestrigdriveorbecauseof
a failure of the breadboard OLD sensors. Data analysis suggests that the cause is
misalignmentof(primarily)oneofthetwoOLDs,andmalperformanceinabout2%ofthe
passages. The missed loops cause an irregular measured velocity which the controller
attempts to maintain around the nominal profile. As a result, temporarily, the actual
deployment deviates significantly from the reference. Note that, during the steep
deceleration,theOLDfilterestimate,whichisessentiallyaweightedaverage,runsbehind
ontheactualvelocity,butnocontrolresonanceiscausedbyit,Figure187.
AnearlierhighvelocitytestusingtheTSEbreadboardbarberpolebrakehasledtomeltof
thetether,indicatingapoletemperatureofaroundorabove150C(Kruijff2001.III).Thisis
oneofthereasonsthatthebrakehassincebeenredesigned(Section5.4.2).Thetemperature
oftheYES2breadboardbarberpoleisverifiedinthistest.Itdoesnotgoabove30Cduring
thebraking(ambienttemperature21C)thusthereislittleworryoftethermeltingduring
thedeployment,Figure186b.
Finally,adisturbedsecondstagedeploymentisperformed,seefordisturbancesasapplied,
Table52,andfortheresults,Figure188.
260 Chapter5
Controller/referencefile Actual
(testrigsimulator/deployerhardware)
Orbitaltitude[km] 240x280 234x286
Exospherictemperature[C] 800 920
Ejectionangle[] 0 10(forwardfromlocalvertical)
Frictioncoefficientf[] 0.35 0.25
MinimaldeploymenttensionT0[N] 0.01 0.01
StiffnessEA[N] 6000 4440
InertiamultiplierI[] 3.7 3.1
Table52.Environmentaldisturbancespurposefullyintroducedforsecondstagedeploymenttest.
Theaccelerationatstartofthesecondstageissignificantlyfasterthannominallyplanned
becauseoftheverylowbarberpolepositioninthenominalfile.Theerrorishoweverslowly
corrected.Again,aroundthesamepointinthedeployment,theOLDseemstomissloops
erraticallyorpossiblyslipoccursontheunwindingwheel,leadingtocontrolnoise.Thetest
iseventuallystoppedduetoatechnicalmalfunctioninthetestrigstetherrecoverypart.
ImprovedoutliningoftheOLDsandsubsequenttestingat18m/sappearstohavesolved
theOLDsensitivityissue.FurthermoreitisrecommendedtohaveasetupwiththreeOLDs
rather than two (Section5.3.2). An algorithm to deal with just a single OLD (and thus a
doubleOLDfailure)isalsorecommendedandincluded.
Figure 184. Second stage deployment test. Left deployment velocity vs. reference. Right brake
control,referenceversusactual.Thespikeatt=1600stestresultsfromateststopandrestart.
DeployerSystemDevelopment 261
Figure185.Secondstagedeploymenttest.Leftdeploymentlengthvs.referenceversusachieved.
Rightsimulatedinplaneanglevs.reference.
Figure186. Secondstagedeploymenttest. Leftdeploymenttensionvs.reference.Rightbarberpole
temperaturemeasurements.
Figure187.Secondstagedeploymenttest.Zoom
ondeceleration,controllervelocitiesandtension.
Figure188.Secondstagedeploymenttest
disturbed.Deploymentvelocityvs.reference.
262 Chapter5
5.6.3 DiscussionandRecommendations
Therealtimeclosedloopdeploymenttestshaveinvolvedtheactualdeploymenthardware
andcontrolsoftware,andanewlevelofrealismhasbeenachievedfortetherdeployment
groundtests.Thisisconsideredtobeofsignificance,astetherdeploymentscannoteasilybe
evaluatedonground,andflightexperimentsforthesakeoftechnologydevelopmenthave
beenfoundtobeforbiddinglycostly(Section1.3).
The tests have been technically successful for various reasons. Controllability of the two
stagesofdeploymentaswellasoftheholdphaseareconfirmed.Disturbanceshavebeen
artificially introduced to the system, e.g. by changing the simulated environment with
respect to the environment that has been used to develop the control. System response
remainswithinthe3performancerangeasdefinedbysimulationonly(Section5.5.5),and
in general response was akin to simulated performance. Other disturbances have been
unintentionally introduced by the hardware, particularly tension irregularities of the
winding(sinceremoved)andcyclicbehaviorfortheparallelwinding(nowmostlyavoided
for nominal deployment). No deployer system resonances have been encountered, and
(simulated) strain rates remain low even in case of steep deceleration at the end of the
secondstage,sotheriskofsuchresonanceisjudgedtobesmall.
A number of deployer system improvements has been implemented as a result of the
observations.Inparticular,theOLDperformanceisfoundtobecritical,whichintheTSE
breadboardhasnotbeenallthatstable.TheYES2deployerdesignshowsnosuchproblems.
Feedbackgainshavebeen tailored to dealwith therecognizedissues andthe barberpole
frictionmodelhasbeenadjusted.Thewindingmachinehasalsobeenimprovedbasedon
unwindingresults,e.g.thelengthmeasurementprecisionhasbeenimprovedbyanorderof
magnitude.
Thetestrigitselfhasevolvedthroughtwomajordevelopments,andnowallowsmobility,
recoveryofthetetherforreuseandapromptlowinertiaresponsetovelocitychanges.With
theunwindingrigv2,forexample,parabolicflighttestscouldbeperformed,andasecond
stagedeploymenttest,interruptedduetotechnicalissuesatadeploymentvelocityashigh
as8m/s,couldneverthelessbesuccessfullyrestartedandcompleted.Theunwindingrighas
undergoneamultitudeofincrementalimprovements,suchasmorepropercommandingof
deploymentvelocitytothemotordrive.Oneofthelatestadjustmentsallowsthefacilityto
dealbetterwithstaticconditions,suchastheholdphaseandtransitiontothesecondstage.

PartIIITheYoungEngineersSatellites
!(Poyekhali!)
YuriGagarinsplainwordsonthelaunchpad,offwego!
Experimentaldatashowthatthecablesuccessfullydeployedtoitsfulllengthof31.7km(19.7miles),
thelongestmanmadestructureeverdeployedinspace.
GuinnessBookofRecords,YES2entry,2009edition
PartIIIofthisthesisdescribestheYES(19961997)andYES2projects(20022007).Itdiscussesthe
lessonslearnedthatarerelevantforfuturetetherandinnovativeexperiments,andconcludeswiththe
analysisoftheYES2flightdata.
TheFirstYESSatellite 265
6 TheFirstYESSatellite
Theengineeroftomorrowshouldexcelinonlythreethings:creativity,initiativeandresponsibility.
FirstDutchastronautProf.Dr.W.J.Ockelstohisstudents,1994
In October 1997, the second Ariane5 qualification flight A502 launches the Young
EngineersSatellite(YES)asoneelementofTEAMSAT(Technology,scienceandEducation
experiments Added to MaqsatH). The other element is called TEAM and contains four
further experiments (FIPEX, AVS, VTS & ODD). TEAMSAT is a 350kg experiment box
mountedtoAriane502supperdummysatelliteMaqsatH.TEAMSAThasbeenconceived
andbuiltwithinonly8months.
In orbit, good data is obtained from most experiments. However, the tether deployment
cannotbeperformedandotherfailuresoccuraswell.Theseproblemsarepartiallydueto
factorsbeyondcontrolofthedevelopmentteamortheresultofengineeringissuesbutcan
alsobeattributedtolackingcommunicationandcooperationwithintheteam.
YESexperiment Objective Maincomponents
Tether RotatingtetherinGTOfor
controlledmomentumtransfer
Doublestrandtether,SEDScanister(incl.2opticalloop
detectors),barberpolebrakeandAirtectethercutters,Tether
OrbitInsertable(TORI)withautonomoustethercutter,
ejectionsystem,absorptivetether,Joris!(OBC),rangingS
bandtransponder(Olympusengineeringmodel).
Commercial
Technology
Evaluateuseofcommercial
technologyinGTO.Takeimagesof
tetherandbarberpolebrake
PowerdwarfPC104(backupOBC),twoadaptedQuickCam
CCDcameras.
Accelerometers InorbitdemonstrationofMEMS
technologies(maidenflight)
Triad442T(2x)(LIGAandSisensors),connectedtoJoris!
GPS FirstreceptionofGPSsignalsfrom
belowlocalhorizontal
AdaptedTrimbleTansII,connectedtoPC104andJoris!
Sunsensors Studentbuiltattitude
determinationsystem
2UnitsconnectedtoOBDH(ESTECdevelopedOnBoard
DataHandlingSystem)
Radiation
experiment
Technologydemonstration ScintillatingFibre(maidenflight)&RadFET(forreference),
connectedtoOBDH
Table53.OverviewofYESexperimentsandrelatedcomponents
266 Chapter6
6.1 YESanditsobjectives
YES has been proposed by Van der Heide & Kruijff at the International Astronautical
Congress(IAC)inBeijinginOctober1996,addingfunctionalitytotheAriane502sdummy
payload and featuring a tether experiment in Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO). The
experimentconsistsof2autonomoussatellites:theYoungEngineersSatellite(180kg)and
the 12kg Tethered ORbit Insertable (TORI), Figure 189. YES has been delivered to
ESA/ESTEC by DeltaUtec in May 1997, under joint sponsoring of ESA and the Dutch
aerospacedevelopmentagencyNIVR.Itcontains7experiments,mostofwhichhavestand
alone value but together support scientifically or technically a 35km tether deployment
betweenYESandTORI.
TheYESsatellitecontainsthetetherandhasasitsprimaryobjectivetoinvestigatetether
dynamics in GTO, and specifically the particularities of deployment and dumbbell
dynamics in an elliptic orbit. The GTO orbit has an ellipiticity of 0.72. The tendency of
tetherstogointorotationaboveanellipticityof0.44canbeusedforvariouspurposes(see
Sections1.2,2.2.1,3). In case of YES the demonstration goal is a reentry of the TORI
endmass at nearinterplanetary velocity. Further primary objectives are the study of
endmassattitudebehavioranddemonstrationofmomentumtransferandendmassrelease
technology.
Secondaryobjectivesaretobeachievedbyfurthertechnologydemonstrationexperiments.
A GPS receiver has been included to study performance at higher velocity and higher
altitudethantheGPSsystemisintendedfor.Twotypesofradiationsensorsarealsoadded:
a RADFET sensor, to measure ionizing dose in GTO behind thin shielding, and a
Scintillating Fibre Detector to measure particle fluxes in GTO. A compact
PC104486computerandtwoQuickCamwebcamerasareintegratedtodemonstratetheuse
ofcommercialtechnologyforshortspacemissions.Finally,todemonstratetheapplicability
ofMEMStechnologyforuseinspace,thenewlydevelopedLIGA/Sisensortechnologyisto
betestedintheformof3axisaccelerometers[ORourke1997].
6.2 Missiondesign
YES,theYoungEngineersSatelliteiscontainedinsidetheTEAMSATboxtogetherwiththe
Tethered ORbit Insertable, which is a 12kg torusshaped endmass (TORI), and TEAM,
whichcontainstheremainingexperimentsofTEAMSAT.TheTEAMSATboxasawholeis
mountedtoMaqsatH,a2100kgcylindricaldummysatellite.WhereasYEScarriesthetether
deployer,TORIisessentiallyametaldishwithonlytwosubsystems:anautonomoustether
cuttersystemaddedformissionsafety,andanabsorptivetetherasortofdeployablerod
thatservestobringitoutsidetheTEAMbox.
TheFirstYESSatellite 267
Figure189.YESandTEAM

Absorptive
tether
TORI
YES push-
off H/W
TEAM
OBDH
TEAM
electronics
Names of TEAM
members
Connections to TEAM
sensors , cameras &
antennae
GPS
t
S-band dipole
YES lid side
TEAM side
Safety plugs
Sun sensor
Radiation expts .
Trickle charge
Download plug
Pyro
YES top view
(inside TEAM)
GPS antenna
QuickCam to on-
board computer
Sun sensor
S-band patch
antenna
Spring
guidance
Tether cutters
Tether brake unit
QuickCam to
PC104
Power
ti
plugs to TEAM
TEA
268 Chapter6
Thetethermissionisplannedtostartatatrueanomalyof90withabackwarddownward
ejectionoftheYESsatelliteoutoftheTEAMSATboxat1.7m/s,seeFigure190.Shortlyafter
YESejectionalsoTORIispushedoutoftheboxbysmallspringsandwillberestrainedby
theabsorptivetether.AdeploymentofthetetherfromYESwillfollow,aidedbythegravity
gradientforces,atavelocityfluctuatingaboutanaverageof2.5m/s.Inthefirstapogeeafter
ejection, 15450s after ejection, the deployment will be smoothly stopped as the tension
dropsduetothereleaseofTORIfromthebox,byacutoftheabsorptivetetherattachment.
Thismannerofsmoothdeploymentstopminimizestheoccurrenceoftetherslackness.The
newly created tethered system, consisting of YES tied to TORI, will have an apogee and
perigeealtitudesmallerthanthoseofMaqsatH.Thesystemwillpickupaninplanerotation
duringitspassthroughperigeeasgravitygradientincreasesstrongly.Theserotationsare
prograde,i.e.inthedirectionoftheorbit.Eachrotationrequires50minutestobecompleted.
Closetotheapogee,amomentisselectedwhenTORIisswingingbackwardwithrespectto
theorbitalmotion.AtthistimethetetherwillbecutattheYESside.
ThetimingofthecutwillbebasedonrangingmeasurementsoftheYESsatellite.YEShasa
coherenttransponder[Kruijff1998].Itsrangingcapabilityisusedtodeterminethemotionof
theYESsatellite,fromwhichalsothetetheredsystemscenteroforbitcanbederived.Ifthe
tetherisfullydeployed,thedistancebetweenYESandthecenteroforbitis2.9km.Theorbit
ofthetethersystemscenterofmasscanbeassumedtocoincide,approximately,withthe
orbitofapointmass.Itispossibletoreconstitutethisorbitfromintegrationandaveraging
oftheYESmotion.Therangeaccuracyofthetransponderisaround20m.Thissufficesto
determinethemotionofYESwithrespecttothecenterofmass.Thetetheriscutwhenthree
requirements are fulfilled. First, YES must be within a 75minutes from apogee. Second,
TORI shouldbe atlesseraltitudethanYES.Third,the angle betweenTORI, YESand the
localEarthdirectionmustbelessthan45degrees.Thelattertworequirementsaremetifthe
transponderisatleast2.1kmhigherthanthesystemscenterofmass.Threewindowsof
each12minutesdurationareavailableforeachpassagethroughapogee.
Figure190.TheYESmissionprofiledesign
TheFirstYESSatellite 269
6.3 Subsystemsdesign
6.3.1 Tetheranddeployersubsystem
FortheYESproject,aSEDSdeployersystemcouldbemadeavailableonshorttermandhas
beenselectedforthisreason.Itincludesabarberpolewithtethercuttersandacanisterwith
two Optical Loop Detector (OLD) tether passage sensors integrated (infrared
emitters/receiverpairs).
The35kmtetheritselfishousedinsidethecanisterandisdetailedinFigure191.Thetether
connectstoTORIontheTEAMsidethrougha260mlong,0.7mmdiameterKevlarsection,
suchthatcontactwithasunlitandhotTORIwillnotleadtotethermelting.Duetothelow
foreseen tension loads of only a few Newton, most of the tether can be very thin. For
micrometeoroidsurvivabilityandlowmass,ithasbeenmanufacturedasadoublestrand,
CarrollCaduceusdesign,withstitchesevery180m,anda1%excesslengthforthesecond
strand (Section4.3.1). Each strand is a 7x100Dyneema braid, with a rectangular cross
section.Thelast10meterstobedeployedareagainamoreruggedsinglestrandtether.
Figure191.YEStetherdesign(seealsoTable)
Segment Tethersegmentdesign Length[m] Breakload[N] Meltingpoint[C]
1 1strand8x400,0.7mmKevlar 260 450 425
2 2strands7x100DyneemaSK66 34750/35100 275/165 150
3 1strand11x215Spectra 10 800 150
Table54.YEStetherproperties
Table54 providesanoverviewofthetetherproperties.Notethatthelongerstrandwithin
thedoublestrandsectionisslackundernormalconditions.Electrostaticforcesaresupposed
to secure adequate separation between the strands. The industrial specification for the
strandbreakstrengthis240N.TestingbyJ.Carrollprovidedalowerresultof165Nper
strand.Theshortertetherwillundernormalcircumstances,carrythetensionbyitself.For
loads above 45N or a strain larger than 1%, the second strand will join in carrying the
tension. Under break load (3.6% strain), the shorter tether will carry 60% of the tension,
whichresultsina275Nbreakloadifbothstrandsareintact.
The tether is wound tightly in crisscross pattern around a hollow core, in total about
86000loops.Itisfinallytieddownby3knotslocatedontheoutsideofthewindingwithabout




T
E
A
M



T
O
R
I

Absorptive
tether
3
1 2
Y
E
S


270 Chapter6
2m spacing, which need a 2030N tension jerk and 0.51.0J to break. The winding is
performedwithpretwistsuchthatatunwindingthistwistiscanceledout.Thetwostrands
have been positioned tightly together on the spool and, every 180m, have been manually
stitchedtogether.Theexcess1%lengthwasinsertedatthispoint,foldedasa90cmloopand
positionednexttothealreadywoundpart.
Anopenloopdeploymenttestofa35kmlongdoublestrandtetherhasbeenperformedon
anengineeringmodel.Noparticularissueswereobserved.TheOLDtransitionalgorithm
hasbeensuccessfulinidentifyingactualloopsdeployingandfrictionbehaviorofthespool
andpolehasbeenassessed(Section5.2.4).
The Tethered ORbit Insertable, TORI, attached to the opposite end of the tether, is fixed
betweenTEAMandYESbytwopretensionedpyrotechnicbolts.Uponcutofthefirstbolt,a
weakspringwillejectTORIwith0.2m/soutoftheTEAMSATbox.AhollowontheTEAM
facingsurfaceofTORIhousesthesocalledabsorptivetether,thatistunedtoabsorbTORIs
ejectionenergyasitextendstoitsfulllengthof1.4m.TORIisthenlinkedtotheMaqsatHby
this 0.8cm link [Ockels1987] that in effect becomes a rod and oscillation damper. The
absorptivetetherisasteelcableencasedinalternatingcylindricalandsphericalbeads.Ifthe
cableistensioned,thebeadsarepressedtogetherandwhenbent,africtionforceisinduced
betweenthem,thusdissipatingenergy.
Whendeploymentisfinished,theabsorptivetetheriscutbythesecondpyroattheTEAMend
and TORI is released to create the free flying system TORItetherYES. TORI contains two
payloads, a personal item container and on the opposite side, an AUtonomous TEther
Cuttercircuitry(AUTEC).TheAUTECistriggeredbyamicroswitchuponejectionsandwill
cutthetether3daysafterejection,tocoverforcontingencycases.ThecuttersusedinYESarea
militarygradeAirTechtethercutter,designedforparachuteapplications.
6.3.2 Stabilizationofthesatellitebytethertorque
YES has no active attitude control system and this imposes a challenge to successful
deployment.Iftheinitialtipoffrateishigherthanafewdegreespersecond,thenominally
lowtethertensionwillnotbeabletopreventYESrotation.TheYESmaywrapitselfinside
thetether,haltingdeployment.
Analysishasinfactshownthattipoffratesashighas10/scanbeexpectedwiththecrude
ejectionmechanismoftheYES.Fourheavyspringsarepreloadedby2kNeachtopressYES
out of the TEAMSAT box. One group of six copper beryllium pyrotechnic bolts and a
second group of two more bolts on the YES lid restrain the YES to the TEAMSAT box
(Figure189).Intwoindependentstepsthepyrosarecut. Thefirststepcutsthegroupof
6boltsleaving2oppositeboltsaroundtheaxisofthelidwiththehighestmomentofinertia
(9kgm
2
).Oncethelasttwopyrosarefired,thetethermissionstartsThestoredenergyof
the springs will provide a velocity increment AV=1.7m/s to the 180kg YES satellite.
Guidingareprovidedonlybytheconicalspringcontactplates,andbytheedgesoftheYES
structure.Themaincontributiontothetumblingisduetothedelaybetweenfiringofthe
lasttwopyros:about1msat1o.
TheFirstYESSatellite 271
Theinitialtipoffratemustthereforebelimitedbyothermeans.TheAriane5launchercan
forexampleprovideaninitialspinrateasameansofpassivestabilization.Arateofonly
0.5rpm has however been requested by the YES team, as a compromise between two
conflictingrequirements.Firstly,thereshouldbesufficientspintopreventatransitioninto
flat spin (tumbling) of MaqsatH or YES during the deployment phase. A flat spin is
unwantedasitleadstounknownejectionattitudeandwrappingofthetetheraroundYES
duringdeployment.Secondly,thespinstabilizationshouldbeweakenoughsuchthatthe
torqueexertedbythetetherontheYESduringtethersystemrotationwillorientYESmostly
alongthetether,againtoavoidwrapping.
Asanalternativesolution,applicationofanadditionalbrakingprofilehasbeenstudiedto
increase the tension in the initial seconds of deployment, to dissipate rotational energy
[Kruijff1998]. The stepper motor would start turning directly after ejection close to
maximumvelocity,holdforafewsecondsandturnbackagain.Theshortbutopenloop
brakepulsemustbetunedtoreducetoanoscillationanyinitialtumblingofYESwithinthe
expectedrange.
6.3.3 Supportingsystems
MostoftheremainingsubsystemsoftheYESsatellitearedesignedinsupportofthetether
experiment.Theyarepositionedaroundthetethercanister,whichiscentrallylocatedwithin
YES(Table53,Figure189,Figure194).
The YES is not a typical satellite, rather is shaped by some particular requirements and
opportunities.Itisdesignedforamissionmaximal7days,alimitimposedduetolimited
availability of the Sband communication window. The design is driven by development
timeandlowcostratherthanmass.YESthereforecarries,whereeverpossible,engineering
modelsandflightspares, or refliescomponentsofearlier ESAmissions.As aresult it is
usingforexampleESAflightsparerechargeablebatteriesasaprimarypowersource.There
is no need for solar panels. The batteries are the major design and mass drivers of the
system. They are placed around the centrally located tether canister. Another majorly
simplifyingconditionisthatYES,asexplainedhasnoactiveattitudecontrolsystem,except
thetether. Someinstruments andpayloads involvingnewtechnologiesweredeliveredat
low or no cost by their developers to have their maiden flight on YES. Commercially
availablepartsareusedforselectedfunctions,withadjustmentsandtestingforsufficient
shock,vacuumandoutgassingproperties.Wherepossible,multiplesolutionsandmargins
wereimplementedinparalleltocreateflexibilityandredundancy.
The YES structural design is a rigid crossshape placed on top of an octagonal plate that
servesaslidfortheTEAMSATboxandasbaseplaneforthesatellitessensorsandantenna
(Figure 189). The lid plate also houses wiring and the pyrotechnic bolts that connect the
plate to the TEAMSAT box. An intermediate platform level houses further electronics
including the GPS system, computers and a space qualified transponder. The canister
protrudesthroughthislevel.Thetopofthesatelliteisaplatethatcoversthetethercanister.
Mounted on this plate are patch antennas (designed to avoid tether catching) and more
272 Chapter6
sensors,aswellasthebarberpolebrakesystem.Beforeejection,becausethistoppanelthen
residesinsidetheTEAMSATbox,theSbandantennathereisswitchedoff.
ThreecomputersarewireduptocontroltheYESsatellite,asdetailedintheelectricaloverview
diagram(Figure194). TheOnBoardDataHandlingsystemprovidesadirecttelecommand
and telemetry link to the other two computers and the GPS system onboard. It is an
innovativesystemusingasynchronousvirtualchannelmultiplexingandwasdeliveredto
TEAMSATbyESTEC[Habinc1998]

foritsmaidenflight.Itslatchingcircuitryisalsousedto
firethepyros.Furthermoreitprovidesanalogdatainterfacestosomeofthesensors.
ThecustomdesignedYESonboardcomputerJoris!isabletocontrolnearlyallexperiments
autonomouslyorbasedontelecommandsandtakescareofdatastorageandpreparationof
telemetry.ThedesignisbasedontwocoldredundantSH7032RISCcontrollersfromHitachi
operatingat32MHzwithalternatinghostselectorandoptionalexternalhost(thePC104,
seebelow).ThehostcontrollersshareaccesstoaFieldProgrammableGateArray(FPGA)and
32MBofFlashstorage.
The FPGA controls the various interfaces. It offers a more flexible interface to the GPS, in
additiontotheOBDHlinktotheGPS.Alsoitcontrolsandswitchesthepowerforthestepper
motorofthebarberpolebrakeandconnectstotheinterfaceelectronicsfortheOLDcircuitry
thatareintegratedonJoris!.Itinterfaceswiththebarberpolecamerathroughaparallelport.
TheFPGAisoneofthefewsinglepointfailurecomponent,asaredundantversionwouldbe
electronicallytoocomplex.However,theinterfacingishighlysimplified,whichisthereason
thatthissolutionhasbeenaccepted.
SeveralfeatureshavebeenincludedtoincreaserobustnessfortheJoris!asawhole,including
watchdog circuitry that controls the host selection, latchup detection and redundant
softwareloadingbothforcontrollerandFPGA.
Joris! runs the Joris OnBoard Software (JOBS), which is based on a simple multitasking
operating system uCOS written in C and C++ (Figure 192). JOBS features use of direct
memoryaccess,multitaskingandsemaphorestocontrolthedatatrafficbetweendifferent
tasks.JOBSsupportsafullrangeoffeaturesfortelecommandsandtelemetryofrealtime
andhistoricaldata.Thesoftwareispatchablebytelecommand.
AthirdOnBoardComputerisincluded,acommerciallyavailablePowerDwarfPC104486,
addedasademonstratorforfutureuseontheYES2satellite.Itisalsointendedasabackup
hostincasetheJorisorJOBSwouldnotbeoperational.Theflexibilityoftheinterconnection
between the computers has been used when the optical link between TEAM and YES
proved to be unreliable. The PC104 has successfully served as a relay to provide
telecommands via TEAM to Joris!. The PC104 is connected to a commercial QuickCam
camerathatispointedatthedeployingtether.ThePC104hasbeenonlyslightlymodified
for space flight. The board has been coated and components glued to withstand launch
vibration.Theprocessorhasbeengivenathermallyconductivelinktothemetallichousing.
TwonewlydevelopedTriad442TMicroElectroMechanicalSystems(MEMS)accelerometers
built by Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe are installed symmetrically with respect to the YES
TheFirstYESSatellite 273
center of mass and approximately 30cm away. Their primary sensing elements are
manufacturedwithXraylithographyandarebasedontheprinciplethatasmallseismicmass
suspendedbyspringscan be balanced underaccelerationsby electrostaticforce.Obtainable
accuracy and resolution are respectively 1ug and 1ug/\Hz. For lack of calibration, due to
thermalhysterisandthermaldrifttheguaranteedaccuracyduringYESisbelow0.4mg.When
comparedtotheorderofmagnitudeoftheexpectedaccelerationsduringthemissionitcanbe
seen, that during the larger part of deployment no accurate tether tension level can be
determined(Table55).Themainuseoftheaccelerometersishowevertowitnessmajormission
eventsqualitativelysuchasejectionandfinaldeceleration,tetherspinning,releaseofTORIand
thetethercut.Contingenciesmayalsobeobserved,suchasperiodsofslacknessandpotential
tetherjamming.

Figure192.YESOBCandSoftwarelayout

Measurementobjective Scale
Ejection 4g
Firstminuteofdeployment peaksof20mg
Largerpartofdeployment 1060ug
Endofdeployment 5mg
TORIejection dropto0.1mg
SpinningYESTORIsystem 0.6mg
Tethercut dropto0g
Spin/tumbling 25200ug
Table55.YESpotentialaccelerometermeasurementobjectives
ThetwoQuickCamsonboardareintendedtowitnesstheejectionsandthedeploymentofthe
tether.TheseblackandwhiteCCDcamerashavearesolutionof320x240pixels,andafieldof
viewof30x23.BotharemountedonthetopcoverplateoftheYESsatellite,insidetheTEAM
boxuntilYESejection.Oneunitobservesthebrakesystemandthewaythedoublestrandtether
Micro C Operating System
Main Application
Circular
Buffers
TC
Decoder
Bandwidth
Allocator
32 MB
Flash-
ROM
Internal
USART
External
UARTS
Serial Line Driver Flash-
ROM
Driver
Deployment Control
QuickCam Accelero-
meters
Brake
Motor
Optical
Turn
Counters
Stepper
Motor
Driver
OTC
Driver
A/D
Converter
Driver
QuickCam
Driver
GPS
Service


H
a
r
d
w
a
r
e
D
r
i
v
e
r
s
S
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
274 Chapter6
passesaroundthebarberpole,Figure193.Thetethercutcanbewitnessedaswell.Thesecond
unitisorientedtowitnesstheejectionofYESandTORIandthedeployingtether(Figure189).
Figure193.YESbarberpolephotographedbyQuickCam
ATrimbleTANSIIGPSreceiverLEOconfiguration[Pol1997]isaddedtoassesswhethera
commercialGPSreceivercouldbeusedforfutureshortspacemissions,providingrelative
GPSpositioningoftetheredsystems.Theselectionoftheunithasbeenforreasonsofprice
andavailability.ItisthefirsttimethataGPSreceiverisusedatanaltitudeabovetheGPS
constellation,whereonlyEarthskimmingsignalscanbereceived,arrivingtoYESbelowthe
local horizontalplane. In GTOperigee, the receiverexperiencesahighorbitalvelocity of
nearly10km/s.TheGPSisplannedtocollectsignalsfromthesidelobsoftheGPSsatellites
whenYESisat20.000kmaltitudeaswellasrawdatafromtheweaksignalsofthesatellites
behindtheEarthwhenYESisinapogee.Ideally,about14satellitesareexpectedtobein
viewinthisrangeoftheorbit.Twoantennasareconnectedtothesinglereceiver.Oneison
theoutsideoftheTEAMSATboxandisoperationalbothbeforeandafterejection.Theother
ismountedonthetopplateofYESandcanbeusedonlyafterejection.TheGPSisconnected
bothtoJoris!anddirectlytotheOBDH.TheJoris!GPSapplicationpropagatestheYESorbit
tosupporttheperformanceoftheGPS.
Thereare7studentdevelopedsolaraspectsensorsontheTEAM/YESsatellitesthatcanbeused
todeterminethedirectionofthesunvectorwithanaccuracyof2.5degrees[Noteborn1997],
andthereforewillgiveinformationaboutthespacecraftattitudeandrotationrates.
6.4 MissionSummary
6.4.1 Tetherexperimentcancellation
Theriskposedbythetethertotheoperationalsatelliteenvironmenthasbeenassessed.Itis
negligibleforthenominalYESmission.Thetetherwouldreenterwithinadayandwould
spendonlyafractionofthistimeintheLEOregionwheremostoperationalsatellitesare
concentrated. However in an offnominal mission scenario, the tether with its 35m
2
projectedsurfaceareacouldstayinorbitformuchlonger.
In this case, the tether orbital lifetime would be mainly dependent on the effect of solar
pressure.TheeffectisofoneorderhigherthanthatofthegravitationaleffectoftheSunand
TheFirstYESSatellite 275
Moonandtheeffectofatmosphericdragat600km(Section3.3).Thelineofapsidesoftheorbit
maybeorientedsuchthatthesolarpressuredeceleratesthetetheredsystematapogeecausing
theperigeealtitudetodrop.Theeffectisstrongestwhenthesolarvectorisperpendiculartothe
lineofapsides.Theanglebetweenthelinesofapsidesandthesolarvectorisnotconstant.The
initialangleisafunctionoflaunchtimeandisshowninFigure196.Duetothenodalregression
of0.373/day,theapsidalprecession0.738/dayandtherotationoftheEartharoundtheSunby
0.986/day,theanglebetweenthelineofapsidesandsolarvector,asdepicted,recedeswith
0.621/day.Takingintoaccounttheprecessionoftheorbit,theintegratedeffectofsolarpressure
onthereentrytimeofthetetheriscalculatedasshowninFigure195.
Tethersystem
Joris!
OnBoardComputer
top
antenna
lid
antenna
switch splitter
transponder
OBDH
TC
TM
lidpyros16
lidpyros78
batteryHK
sunsensors
scintillatingfiber
RadFET
housekeeping
channel(HK)
PC104
tether
camera
brakecamera
GPS
downloadconnector
accelerometers
2OpticalLoopDetectors
(OLD)+95%deploymentsensor
barberpolebrake
+steppermotor
thermistors
2tethercutters
switch
CPU1
watchdog,SRAM,EPROM
CPU2
watchdog,SRAM,EPROM
interfaceelectronics
32MBFlashROM,thermistors
FPGAinterfacecontrol
opticallinktoTEAM
Figure194.YESElectricaldiagram
276 Chapter6
For these calculations, the reflection coefficient is 0.8, absorption coefficient is 0.2. The
effective drag surface is based on a rotating tether (22.3m
2
). The tether is assumed
disconnected from both its endmasses by the primary release system on YES and the
Autonomous Tether Cutter (AUTEC) on TORI. No atmospheric drag is assumed above
150km.Whenthetetherdipsbelowthecriticalperigeeheightof150km,theatmospheric
drag will quickly circularize the orbit and reentry will take place. The calculations were
verifiedbyindependentefforts[APEX1997].
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hours
M
o
n
t
h
s
Figure195.DeorbittimeYEStetherfromGTOinmonthsasafunctionoflaunchtimeinKourou
LocalTime(KLT)

9:35KLT
15:35KLT
TetherinGTO
0.621/day
Figure196.RelativenodalrecessionofGTOorbitwithrespecttosolarpressuredirection.TheSun
positionwithrespecttothelineofapsidesdependsontheKourouLocalTimeoflaunch(KLT).
The graph showsthetimeneeded for theperigeetodrop to 150km, againstthe hourof
launch. Launches before 13.00KLT will not lead to a quick burnup and lifetimes in the
orderof(tensof)yearscanbeexpected,withanassociatedcollisionriskwithoperational
satellitesoforder0.1%[APEX1997].Thisriskfigureisgenerallyconsiderednotacceptable.
Launchesafter13.00KLTwillleavethetetherinorbitforsomefewmonthsandwouldlead
toareductionoftheriskbytwoordersofmagnitude.
The launch window of Ariane5 was finally selected in May 1997, unfortunately between
9:00and12:00KLT.Thistimeisnotcompatiblewiththeproposedriskmitigationapproach
TheFirstYESSatellite 277
and it has been decided not to deploy the tether on YES. In fact, the tether has been
physicallydisconnectedfromTORIbeforelaunch(Figure189).
6.4.2 ExperimentControlCenter
InthesixweeksbeforelaunchthethencrudeElectricalGroundSupportEquipment(EGSE)
is developed into a sophisticated Experiment Control Center (ECC), with graphical user
interfaces for the Prime Investigators (PI), prepared telecommand sets and detailed final
missionplanning[Jones1998]. TheEuropeanSpaceOperationsCenter(ESOC)isincharge
ofthecontrolofthesatelliteandtakescareofthetransferofthedatatotheECC.
AlthoughYESistobelaunchedwiththetetherexperimentscomputerJoris!disabled,an
engineeringmodelisbuiltupintheECCandconnectedtotheTM/TCloop.Inthiswayit
cannotbedistinguishedfromasystemoperatingontheYESsatellite.TheJoris!Engineering
Model thus supports the YES experiment by processing in realtime GPS data and by
preparing automated GPS telecommands. The Joris! Engineering Model is also setup to
perform,withsupportofESOC,andthroughthecommunicationlinkwiththeYESsatellite,
amocktetherexperimentaccordingtotheoriginalmissiontimeline,inordertogaintether
missioncontrolexperience.
6.4.3 Missionoperations
On the 30th of October 1997 the Ariane502 is launched. It reaches an orbit significantly
deviatingfromthenominalGTOorbit,withaperiodof7.8hoursinsteadofthetargetof
10.7hours, calling for an improvised mission scenario. Moreover TEAMSAT is inserted
withoutspinstabilization,andendsupinanearlyflatspin,seeTable56 andFigure197.
With some difficulty, communication is finally established. Images from Arianes Speltra
separationtakenbytheTEAMsVTScameraarereceivedsoonthereafter.Theyareusedby
the author to determine the offnominal attitude, flat spin direction and rate using an
improvisedcloudpatternidentificationfromcomparisonwithMeteosatimages.Theresults
arelaterconfirmedandenhancedbyboththesunsensordatafromYESaswellasthestar
sensordatafromTEAMsAVS[Betto2000].

Insertionparameter Nominal Achieved

Perigeealtitude[km] 580.942 531.337
Apogeealtitude[km] 35926.000 26746.241
Spinrate[/s] 3 0.08
Nutationangle[] 0 74
Nutationrate[/s] 0 0.3
Table56.YES(A502)nominalvs.achievedorbitinsertion
278 Chapter6
Figure197.YES(A502)nominalvs.achievedorbitinsertion([Pol1998]&CNES)
Thefirstpartofthemission,beforeYESejection,hasbeenreservedmostlyfortheTEAM
experiments, suchthatTEAMcanbenefitfrom thelargebatteriesinside YES viaaset of
bananaplugs.TEAMcollectsimages,testsastarsensorandmeasurestheatomicoxygen
fluxinperigee.
During this period, contact with YES is reserved for health checkouts and preliminary
measurements.Thecommunicationlinkislimitedtoonesatelliteatatime,soswitchingis
required between YES and TEAM. Also, until ejection, YES has only hemispherical
coverage, and because it is tilted strongly from the nominal orientation (Figure 197),
communicationwithYEShasbecomeamatterofopportunity.Periodictelemetryblackouts
due to the tumbling last about 510minutes. Nevertheless, during the first five orbits,
contact with YES has been successful and good quality data had been received multiple
times from the operational experiments (Figure 198): the radiation experiments, the self
developedsunsensors,technologydemonstrations(PC104,camera)andtheGPS.
Onthethirddaysofthemission,atthe6thorbit,ejectionofYESisplanned,withtwoTEAM
camerassettowitnesstheevent(Figure200).Theejectionwillexposeasecondantennafor
telemetry and also for the GPS, thus enhancing their coverage to omnidirectional and
improvingYESperformance.Furthermore,ejectionwillexposethetwocamerasonYESand
anadditionalsunsensor.Inadvanceoftheejection,therehearsaltethermissionisbeing
prepared.Basedontheavailablepower,afurtheroneortwodaysofoperationareforeseen.
TheoperatorsarehoweverunabletoswitchontheYEStelemetry,despitenumeroustrials.
ThepassivethermaldesignofYEShasbeenbasedonaSunpointinglid,withanominal
inclination of +48. With the satellite in a flat spin, the Sun inclination actually varies
periodicallybetweenapproximately68(effectivelyshadowingthelid)and+36,asaresult
ofwhichYESiscoolingdownslowly.Itisnowbelievedthatthetransponderatthistimeis
cooling down below operational range, and it stops operating. Hoping that the failure
wouldbesomewhereinthedirectcommandreception,itisfinallydecidedtotrytoswitch
onYEStelemetryviathebackuproutingfortelecommands,thatleadsviaanopticallink
fromTEAMtoYES.Theopticallinkisknowntobeunreliable.Commandsignalsthroughit
havethereforebeenisolatedfromtherestofthecommandsandareonlyconsideredasalast
resort. As soon as the command is sent, a number of times the YES eject flag in the
TheFirstYESSatellite 279
housekeepingisraisedandadropinthebatterytemperatureofTEAMisnoticed.Garbled
data isreceivedthrough theopticallink. Somehow, despitecarefully implemented safety
features,suchasadigitalverificationofthetelecommandcodeandthemultipleinhibitsin
thepyroarmingcircuits,bothsetsofpyrosmusthavefiredandYEShasbeenejected.One
orbit later, both VTS and AVS make images of a bright object closing in on TEAM. It is
highlylikelythatthisisYES(Figure199).
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Perigee
OBDH, no ranging
OBDH (RadFet, SciFi,
Sunsensors) & Ranging
GPS
PC104
Hours from launch
Figure198.OperationsofYESmission
Figure199.ObjectobservedbyAVS(TEAM)oneorbitafterejection.Fromapparentsizeandlow
relativevelocitytoTEAM,itwasdeterminedtobeYES
Simulations show that YES cannot possibly be any further away than two kilometers,
depending on the orientation at ejection. Figure 199 suggest a distance of only tens of
meters.CommunicationwithYEScanhowevernotbereestablished,suggestingcontinued
failure of the transponder. The search is stopped when even the most optimistic power
estimatespredictbatterydepletion,about96hoursafterlaunch(Figure200).Theneworbit
ofYESislaterconfirmedbyradartrackingandopticalimagestakenfromtheground.
6.4.4 YESmissiondata
Contact with YES has been for 5orbits, about 40hours, about half the planned duration,
during which all instruments performed nominally but with limited visibility for camera
andGPSantennas.Distributedover15communicationsessionsforhealthchecks,YEShas
provided6hoursworthofrealtimedata(Figure198).Thebodynutationrateisestablished
fromthesunsensordatawith0.1/saccuracy,andtheinertialspinratehasbeenestimated
with0.02/saccuracy.AnalysisoftheGPSsignalsreceivedprovidesevidencethatforthe
first time, GPS data has been received below the local horizontal plane from Earth
skimming signals (Figure 201). Both radiation experiments have performed well and
280 Chapter6
providethefirstScintillatingFibreradiationdatafromspaceaswellasRadFETdatainside
the Van Allen belts. The PC104 demonstrated excellent health and the QuickCam CCD
imagesshowednoevidenceofradiationdamage.[Noteborn1997,Pol1998,Kruijff1999.III]
reporttheresultsinmoredetail.
Figure200.EventstimelineofYESmission
Figure201.ReceptionbyYESofGPSsignal(PRN10)
asseenfromtheNorthPole[Pol1998]
6.5 AspectsoftheYESprojectapproach
6.5.1 Challengeandopportunity
The historyof YESandTEAMsatellitesdevelopmentis reminiscent oftheearlydays of
spaceflight, in terms of schedule and level of pragmatism during the development. The
project gets a goahead in November1996, about one month from the initial idea. At the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Perigee
OBDH
YES TM not regained
Actual YES Eject
Planned YES Eject
End TEAM Mission
End YES Search ESOC
Hours from launch
TheFirstYESSatellite 281
officialkickoffofthedevelopment,thesatellitesaretobelaunchedwithin5months,andto
bedeliveredwithin10weeks.Inthatshorttimeframealsoachallengingtethermissionhas
tobeprepared.Mostoftheplannedteammembersatthistimehavelittleornoexperience
andthebudgetisseverelylimited,initiallyabout700kEuroforthe350kgTEAMSATasa
whole.
Anumberofsimplifyingconditionsandconceptualdecisionshelptheprojecttogetstarted
effectivelyandgetthepreliminaryTEAMSATdesignacceptedforlaunchonAriane502.It
has been decided to include both TEAM and YES in a common strong box, to minimize
safetyissueswithrespecttothelauncher. Forinstance,thereisnomassconstraintforthe
initial design, due to the dedicated character of the launch opportunity. A target mass is
estimated, based on an inventory of likely components and a straightforward non
optimizeddesign.Thistargetmasswillthenhoweverbeadheredto.Fromacommunication
pointofview,theSbandcommunicationfrequencyreservedforlaunchoperationswillbe
used. This frequency is reserved for one week after launch, setting a limit to allowable
TEAMSATlifetime.Thislifetimeismorethansufficientforalltheexperiments.Itwillkeep
the operational costs low, and makes it possible to work with nonspacequalified
components.Thepowersystemcanbesimplifiedsignificantly,asbatteriescanbeusedas
solepowersource.Furthermore,spinstabilizationisplanned,apassiveattitudecontrolto
furthersimplifydesign.
Theuniqueworklocationhasproventobeespeciallyhelpfulforturningtheconceptinto
reality.TheteamiscollocatedatESTEC,mostwithinasinglelargeroom(nowtheErasmus
UserCenter).ESTECtestfacilitiesandexpertsaremadeavailablebyESA.Inthefirstweeks
of the project a successful search is performed at ESTEC for reusable retrieved flight
componentsorengineeringmodels.CarefullymaintainedbatteriesfromECS2aredonated,
as well as 12 leftover space qualified pyrotechnic devices and transponders from the
EUREKA platform and the Olympus project. These represent some of the most critical
componentsandformthebasisfortheTEAMSATconceptualdesign.
6.5.2 Conceivingasatellitein8months
Itisfirstattemptedtodeliverintimeatleastthephysicalsatelliteasanintegratedpieceof
hardware.Itisalreadyconsideredlikelythattherewilleventuallybealaunchdelaythat
mightbuytheteammoretimeforsoftwaredevelopmentandtestslater.Guidelineforboth
thedesignandhardwaresearchisthatoverdesign,ifasimplification,istobepreferredover
optimization.
Theinitialfocusoftheprojectisonidentificationofcomponentsandconfiguration.Thisis
necessary also because a massrepresentative dummy of TEAMSAT is to be constructed
withpriority.ThisdummywillbeusedincasetheactualTEAMSATisnotavailableforthe
scheduledvibrationtests.Afullscalewooden/foammockupisbeingfabricated,following
closely component selections in order to do develop the configuration and do the first
practical fittests. Foam representatives of the ESAdonated components as well as of the
already selected SEDS tether deployer help to establish the initial configuration within
weeks.
282 Chapter6
The remaining TEAMSAT components and subsystems are obtained and collected in
various ways. Some components, such as the realtime, asynchronous and multiplexing
OBDH,aswellastheRADFET/ScintillatingFibreradiationexperimentshappentobeunder
development atESA. The YESand TEAMprojectwillprovideafocusand maiden flight
opportunity.Alsoindustryhasofferedinstruments,suchasaccelerometersandGPSatlow
cost,asanactofsponsoringorforamaidenflight.Hardwaretobepurchasedisselected
based on price and most of all a delivery time of less than 8weeks. Often commercially
available components are selected, such as the tether cutters or cameras, then slightly
adaptedandtestedatESTECasapartoftheYESqualification.Remainingpartsaretobe
developed by the team, including the onboard computer, the power distribution system
and the autonomous tether circuit. In certain cases, multiple options are developed in
parallel,andspareinputandoutputsignalsareincludedforrobustnessagainstlaterdesign
changes.AnexampleofthisapproachisthelinkbetweenthetwoonboardcomputersJoris!
andthePC104.ElectronicsareintegratedinanESTECcleanroom.TheESTECworkshop
manufacturesthestructureforbothTEAMandYESinparallelwiththedesignandalsostill
duringintegration.Mosthardwareisdeliveredorbuiltwithinaboutthefirstfourmonthsof
theproject(Figure202).
System engineering is performed pragmatically. As a result of this approach, the final
product is capable but in no way optimised, and very close to the original concept with
nearlyallplannedperformanceplussomeguestpayloads.
Thesystemdesignistrackedunderresponsibilityoftheleadsystemengineerandshared
withtheteamonacontinuousbasis. Aproducttreeismaintainedfromwhichmassand
power budgets are updated about once every two weeks. Electrical interfaces are
graphicallydisplayedinafewblockdiagramsanddistributedonpaperandthroughpublic
display.Adedicatedharnessteamcollects,checksandmaintainsexactpinoutsinasingle
largedocument.Thecriticalitemlistisupdatedinadailymeeting,thetimelineinaweekly
meetingperitemintheproducttree.
Mostrequirementsarenotgatheredinasingledocumentbutcommunicatedorallyorby
emailandincludedinsubsystemdesignupdatedescriptionsthataredistributedregularly.
System and subsystem requirements are generated ad hoc, starting from the initial
conceptual design, mission and experiment objectives and accounting for spares and
margins.ParticularlycloselyfollowedaretheinterfacerequirementsoftheOBDHandJoris!
Computers.AnoticeableexceptionismadeforthedevelopmentoftheJOBSsoftware,for
whichanextensiveUserRequirementDocumentandArchitecturalDesignDocumentare
produced. For this case, such a level of documentation is deemed necessary, due to the
complexityofJOBSandtherelativeisolationofthesoftwareteam.
TwointernalreviewshavebeenheldinJanuary1997,duringthetransitionfromdesignto
integration: a Critical Design Review and a Mid Term Review (Table 57). Despite the
announcedlaunchdelay,attheCDRalargenumberofopenissuesisidentified,aswellasa
manpowershortage.AttheMTR,solutionsforbothproblemsweredelivered,intheformof
additionalESAstaffsupport, theintegrationmanager. Integration,subsystemverification
TheFirstYESSatellite 283
andsystemtestingistobeperformedwithinthenextfourmonths.Inparallel,onlynow
thatallelectricalconnectionsarewelldefined,softwaredevelopmentisinitiated.
Theintegrationeffortisorganizedperphysicallevelwithinthesatellite.Everyindividual
component is assigned to a responsible person and to one out of four priority levels.
Progress per component is henceforth tracked on a weekly basis. The satellite parts are
assembledintheESTECHighbay,whichisnotacleanroombuttheteamsrestrictedand
wellventilatedworkingroom.
Verification before and during system integration is mostly performed informally, and
formallythereafter.Beforeintegration,thetypicalprocedureatsubsystemlevelconsistsof
theleadengineersreviewofdesign,thedesignersperformancetestsandoralorwritten
briefingsthereof.Electricalsubsystemtestsareperformedinparallelwiththeintegration,
with intermediate software versions. Once the system is integrated, the shaker test is
performedwithmostoftheharnessingnotyetconnected.Thisisjudgedasacceptable,due
toTEAMSATssafeboxapproach.Followingtheshakertest,theTEAMSATisreassembled,
this time with harness connected. Detailed test procedures and test reports are now also
produced for electrical subsystem and system tests. Three comprehensive functional test
campaigns, of about two weeks each are planned: one campaign before shipment to the
launch premises in Kourou, and two campaigns on location in Kourou where also final
adjustmentsaremadeandthefinalversionofsoftwareandtimetaggedtelecommandsare
uploaded,aswellasthemostrecentGPSalmanacandephemeris.
DuringtheKouroutestcampaigns,mistakeshavebeenmadethathavedegradedtheYES
performance further. Because of the cancellation of the tether experiment, a decision has
been made to lower the priority of the YES experiment and no dedicated manpower is
availableduringthesecondcampaign.
To save time, it is decided not to cover the YES lid with multilayer insulation (MLI), as
recommendedbythethermaldesignengineer.ThisMLIwassuggestedtoprovidebetter
protectionincaseofanoffnominalsolarorientationduetoapossibleshiftinlaunchtime.
During the YES mission, this decision can be directly related to the suspected cause of
failure of the YES transponder shortly before ejection. The offnominal orbit insertion
combined with limited thermal robustness unfortunately causes the transponder to cool
downbelowitsoperationallimits.
Thelackofmanpowerhasalsoleadtoabreachofprocedureleadingtoanunrecoverable
failureoftheJoris!onboardcomputer.TheJoris!computerfailedwhenasoftwareupdate
wasinstalledontheflightmodelafteraseeminglyminorchangeofaparameterwithouta
priori verification on the engineering model, as the procedure prescribed. The procedure
wasbreachedsincetheavailableengineerwasnotonlyunderseverepressure,distributing
his attention over various subsystems, but also not sufficiently knowledgeable about the
Joris! hardware design. The changed parameter happened to concern the watchdog reset
interval, which was selected longer than the actual reboot trigger time. This led to a
continuousandunstoppablecycleofJoris!rebooting.Asthetetherexperimenthadalready
beencancelled,theimpactislimitedtothelossoftheaccelerometerexperimentandofone
284 Chapter6
of the two cameras. All other experiments have primary or backup connections to the
remainingtwoonboardcomputers.
6.5.3 Milestonesandmanpower
AllinalltheYESdesignapproachhasbeenadhocandopportunistic,withalinearfirst
things first approach as illustrated in Figure 202. During the project, two major launch
delayshavebeenannounced:thefirstafter~1.5monthsatatimethattheTEAMSATdesign
had reached significant maturity, the second occurred during integration. The first delay
basicallyhasallowedtoflytheYESitselfinsteadofthedummy,thesecondhasallowedto
do detailed testing and develop the flight software. The timeline shows a relatively long
testingperiod,butalsoinhindsight,thiscouldnothavebeenmuchmorecompressed.The
detailedmilestonesoftheYESprojectaresummarizedinTable57.
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mrt Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
H/W design & collection
S/W development and testing
Integration
Electrical testing
EGSE
Time
Figure202.YESdevelopmenttimeline

YES Work Effort Development

Management
Mission Planning
Experiments
Structure/thermal
Power
Harness
OBC
SW
OBDH
TMTC
EGSE
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (months)
W
o
r
k
f
o
r
c
e

(
u
n
i
t
s

o
f

1
6
0

h
r
/
m
o
n
Figure203.YESworkeffortdevelopment
TheFirstYESSatellite 285
Date Event
Projected
launchdate
9October1996 YESproposedatDutchstandatIACBeijing. 21April1997
24October1996 YESproposaltoESAHeadquarters.
15November1996 TEAMSATfundingsecured,officialkickoff.
1December1996 Firstdesigndecisionsmade
20December1996 Launchdelayannounced. 15July1997
7January1997 Mockupcompleted.
l6January1997 CDR
24January1997 MTR,ESAintegrationengineerassigned.
31January1997 TEAMSATdummypassesstructuraltesting.
February1997 Launchdelayannounced. 30October1997
BeginMay97 FirstfullTEAMSATintegration.
30May1997 TEAMSATstructuraltestpassed[Bradford1997].
7June1997 FRR
11June1997 Tetherexperimentcancelled[APEX1997]
20June1997 YESfullfunctionaltest,testversionofsoftware(S/W)
EndJuly1997 YESKourou,testperiodI,fixes,flightS/Wv1.0
914September1997 TestperiodII,flightS/Wv2.0,systeminitialization,Jorisfails
15September1997 LastdataaccesstoYES
30October1997 Launch&firstdataYES Asplanned
1November1997 YEStransponderdies,YESejected
3November1997 EndofTEAMSATfligthT0+80hr
Table57.YESprojecttimeline
About69peoplehavecontributedtotheYESdevelopment:17students,23youngengineers
(lessthan4yearsworkingexperience)and29seniorengineers.Manyofthemhaveworked
parttime or spent considerable time on the TEAM satellite as well. The Full Time
Equivalent(FTE)fortheworkonYEScontributionvariedfrom5people(initially)toabout
20people (integration and S/W), on the average about 15 (Figure 203). The onboard
softwareisrathercomplexandthereforehasclaimedasignificantpartofthetotaleffort.
6.6 LessonsLearned
6.6.1 Failureanalysis
Ashintedalreadyintheprevioussections,variousproblemshaveledtodegradationofthe
YESmission.Theseproblemsincludefirstofallthecancellationofthetetherexperiment,
butalsotheprelaunchfailureoftheYESonboardcomputerJoris!,andfinallythelossof
286 Chapter6
YES telemetry during the mission. They have been critically analysed in detail in
[Kruijff1999.III],aschematicoverviewoftheresultsisprovidedinFigure204.Asummary
of the primary failures, causes and effects is provided inTable 58. Some other problems
couldberesolvedthankstothevariousredundancieswithinthesystem.Thefailuresthat
persistedarecausedbyacombinationofexceptionalfactors.
External causes beyond control of the team have played a role here, most notably the
decisiontolaunchatanhourincompatiblewiththeYESrequestaswellasthestronglyoff
nominalattitudeofYES.
An important internal contributor has been the increasing friction within the team. A
degrading team atmosphere has led to exclusion of sufficient and sufficiently
knowledgeablemanpowerfromthesecondtestcampaigninKourouandthuscontributed
tothelossofJoris!andYEStelemetryduringthemission.Anegativeatmospherewithinthe
teamhasbeencreatedduetotimepressure,conflictbetweenresponsibilityandauthority,
stress,personalfactorsandacompetitionforresourcesbetweenYESandTEAM.
Otherinternalcauses,atthesametime,aremorerelatedtotheYESengineeringapproach
under time pressure. The Joris! failure is an example of insufficient communication and
traceability of documented information. Overall, the Joris! development has proven to be
toocomplex,andprobablyhasbeenapoordesignchoicegiventhetimepressure.Similarly,
the tether experiment was perhaps too demanding. Virtually no groundtesting for the
experiment has been performed. The missions nominal success probability was therefore
judgedlowandthisaffectednegativelytheriskanalysis.
Date(1997) Failure Primaryexternal
cause
Primaryteammistake ImpactonYES
mission
May APEXSteering
Committee
cancelstether
experiment.
Launchhour
changedfromYES
request,increases
collisionprobability.
Insufficienttesting,probabilityof
nominalmissionsuccesstoolow.
Primaryobjectives
cannotbeachieved.
September Shortlybefore
launchJoris!is
disabled.
Delayscause
financiallimitations.
Internalfriction(keyexpertsnot
present),timepressure,under
management(miscommunication),
procedurenotfollowed.
GPSdegraded,
accelerometers,brake
control,imagingof
brakelost.
November Shortlybefore
plannedejection,
communication
withYESislost.
Offnominal
insertionbyA502,
unfavorableorbital
attitude.
Internalfriction,timepressure
(thermalinsulationnotapplied).
Nopostejection
mission(omni
directionalcoverage
forGPS,imagingof
ejection/Earth).
Table58.MainproblemsummaryYESmission
TheFirstYESSatellite 287

Figure 204. Failures in the YES project, relationship between external and internal causes, incl.
partial recovery. From left to right prelaunch cancellation of tether experiment; Loss of
communication&prematureejectionofYES;PC104harddiskfailureinshakertest(recovered)&
legend;commandproblemduetointerference(recovered);failureofJorisOBC(impactlimited).
288 Chapter6

TheFirstYESSatellite 289
6.6.2 Recommendationsforafollowupproject
Even if YES is an atypical project and not without problems, it has been shown that the
model of involving young inexperienced people in an intense project, if sufficiently
inspiring,canleadtoexceptionalresults.Ofcourseitwillnotbepossibletobuiltsatellitesin
themannerofYESroutinely.Afreelaunchwithoutmassconstraintisarareluxury.The
YESplatformwasessentiallybasedonsparepartsandengineeringmodelsfromprevious
ESAmissionsandaonetimegenerousandintensesupportofESAstaff.Theseresources
cannotbereproducedatwill.However,theYESexperienceandthefailureanalysisprovide
a reference case for a followup development, both from a point of view of tether
experimentdefinitionandformoreprogrammaticlessonslearned(Table59).
Themanynewsidestothetetherexperimentandtheapparentsimplicityofsuchahighly
visible technology have contributed both to its attractiveness and its risk. It has to be
appreciatedthattheenthusiasmforatetherexperimenthasbeenthebasicdriverbehindthe
proposalofYES.However,thesuccessprobabilityofthenominaltetherexperimentinGTO
wasconsideredverylow,duetothemanyuncertainties,complexstagingsandinsufficient
testing.InadditionlifetimeofamechanicaltetherintheAriane5GTOorbit,withits600km
perigee altitude, can be tens of years and is heavily dependent on launch time. For a
successormission,asafeorbitispreferablebelowtheSpaceStation(350km)andacomplete
testingofallaspectsofdeploymentandstagingisnecessary.
Thesamedichotomyholdstruefortheveryfast,andlowcostapproachtowardstheYES
development.Managementofasuccessoreducationalmissionshouldbemoremindfulof
timepressureandteammotivationandcommunicationaspects.Thesameaspectsthatallow
fortheprojecttohappen,canleadtorisksandtomalfunctions.
Forexample,astheYESprojecthorizonwasshortandthescoperatherunique,ithasbeen
relativelyeasytomotivatepeopletodedicatethemselvestoit.Theintensityoftheproject,
rightfromthe start,has added asense ofurgencyandhasbroughttheteamtofocuson
prioritiesandachieveahighlevelofproductivityandeffectiveness.Alotoftimehasbeen
savedwiththeconfidencethatproblemscanbesolvedastheycamealong.Inthiswayan
efficientplanningcanbedone.ThecollocationpioneeredbytheYESteamhasbeenakey
factorofsuccess,andhasfoundfollowupnotonlyduringYES2,butalsohasbeenamodel
forthesetupofESAs EuroMoon project(19982000)and theConcurrentDesignFacility
(CDF)inESTEC.
Ontheotherhand,thecontinuousstrainandproactivenessasrequiredfromtheYESand
TEAMgroupshaveledtoirritationsandsometimesasenseofcompetition,conflictsof(too
much) responsibility and (too little) authority, as well as conflicts between effort and
recognition. These factors have affected the tradeoffs and therewith the quality and
robustnessofthefinalproduct.Motivationandinvolvementarepowerfulenablersbutcan
beturnedaroundintofrustrationifnothandledproperly.
290 Chapter6
1 Lessonslearnedlistsseemtrivialuntilyouexperiencethemyourself.
2 Highandrelevantproductivitycanbeobtainedinaneducationalprojectiftechnicalneedsaretaking
preferenceovereducationalvalue.
3 Insomeway,YEShasbeenaonetimeshot,e.g.freelaunchopportunitywithoutmasslimit,freeuseof
availablespacequalifiedhardwarecomponentsandfreeinvolvementofESAexperts.Afollowupexperiment
hastoaccountforthis.
4 Regularshortteammeetingswithstricttimelimitareeffective(about12minutesperpersonperday.)
5 Makingadecisionisoftenbetterthanmakingtheoptimaldecision.Ithelpsheretoquantifywherepossible;
buildinmarginstodealwithfuturechanges;takeresponsibility;andhavetheconfidencethatwithcreativity
laterproblemswillbesolved.
6 Motivationisanemotionnegativeteaminteractionshavebeentheprimereasonforcrucialfailures.
7 Whatseemthefixedrulesoftheinstitutecanbebentifnecessary(theconsequenceswillhavetobeaccepted).
8 GettingtohardwareearlyonpaysoffgetoffthepaperASAP.
9 Findabalancebetweencommunicationanddocumentation.Onedoesnotreplacetheother.
10 Testtesttest!
Table59.ProgrammaticlessonslearnedsummaryfromYESproject
6.6.3 HeritageoftheYEStethersystemdevelopment
TheYESprojecthasmadesomecontributionstothetethercommunity,evenifithasnot
featuredatetherdeployment.
Somerelevanttethersystemdevelopmentshavebeenmade.Afirsttetherexperimentina
highlyellipticorbithasbeendesignedandimplemented.Withthedoublestrandfailsafe
CarrollCaduceustetheranewtypeoftetherhasbeendeveloped,woundandqualifiedfor
launch. A similar tether has later been deployed in a test setup (Section 5.3.8). The
degradable tether concept and investigation (Section4.4) also is a spinoff from the YES
tetherexperiment.
YES has triggered a high level investigation in Europe into the danger of creating space
debris with tethers, involving industry, universities and the European Space Agency
[APEX1997].Thisleadtoindependentverificationofsolarpressureandsolarlunargravity
effectsontethersinGTO,followedbythedefinitionofsafeorbitalregimes(Section3.3).It
hasalsotriggeredthedevelopmentofanapproachtoestimatetethermissionrisk(Section
3.2.3).
The implementation has revealed a number of further criticalities that have been given
particular attention in YES2 (Section 7), such as safe orbit selection and ejection system
designforlowpitchoffrate.Thecontingencyandmissiondecisiontreemethoddeveloped
forYEShasbeenusedasabasisfortheYES2contingencyanalysis.Thedevelopmentand
TheFirstYESSatellite 291
testofonboardandgroundsegmentsoftwarehasrevealedproblemareasthatweretackled
wellfromthebeginningoftheYES2development,suchastheimportanceofauserinterface
thatguidestheuserthroughthemissionandparametersettings,andautomatedloggingof
theselectedparametersettingsforeachtest.
Finally,theYESelectronicsdevelopmentshavebenefitedlaterprojects.Thesuccessofthe
PC104hasleaddirectlytotheselectionofaPC104asYES2flightcomputer.Theintegrated
onboard computer design with tether control features has been the basis for new
developments, such as the SID computer (Tether Applications, USA) and the YES2 OLD
electronics(Section7).
292 Chapter6

YES2 293
7 YES2
Simplicity,Commonality,GradualChange,Perseverance.
ThekeyprinciplesoftheRussianspaceprogramthathaveservedasinspirationforthe
YES2development,asquotedfromMarcToussaint(ESA,1994)
7.1 Introduction
TheideaforasecondYoungEngineersSatellite(YES2),early2001,followedcompletionof
the deployment tests for the TSE project [Kruijff2001.II, Kruijff2001.III] and the
identification of the Russian Foton microgravity platform as a very suitable and safe
platformforaSpaceMaildemonstrationmission[ESA2005].TheYES2isprimarilyfunded
bytheESAEducationOfficeandtheHumanSpaceflightdirectorate(HME).Itisdeveloped,
designed,builtandtestedbyprimecontractorDeltaUtecwiththehelpofsomehundredsof
students,accordingtotheapplicableESAdesignstandardsintheFotonproject.
TheinitialfocusfortheYES2hasbeenthedevelopmentofalightweightreentrycapsule,
thatwouldbedeorbitedbytetherandwouldbeabletolandwithoutparachute,providing
inthiswayaninherentdegreeofsafety[Kruijff2002,2003.II].AnInflatableReentrycapsule
(AIR)hasbeenunderdesigned,plannedtobereenteredaccuratelyoverSwedishterritory
[Kruijff2003.I, Morel2003]. Flexible heatshield materials have been tested and selected
[Heide2003.I]. In 2004 a partial prototype of the inflatable capsule has been constructed
[Benetti2004].FollowinganassessmentofcostandESAinterest,theAIRhashoweverbeen
abandonedinfavorofaninnovative,ultralightsphericalcapsule,Fotino[DePascale2006,
DePascale2008,Asma2008].TheSwedishterritoryhasbeenreplacedbythelandingzone
inKazakhstanthatisintendedformannedRussianspacecraft,andthatisalsoinusefor
Fotonitself.
TheYES2SpaceMailprojectusesa30kmlongswingingtethertoaccuratelydeliverFotino
totheground.Theprojectsthreehighlevelobjectivesare:
1. toprovidespaceeducation,
2. todemonstratecontrollabilityofatwostagetetherdeployment,andfinally,
3. todemonstrateSpaceMailbydeterminationofthecapsulelandingpoint.
From a point of view of tether system and mission objectives, the project is a logical
successortotheSEDSmissions.SEDS1demonstratedasinglestageopenloopdeployment
to a large angle. SEDS2 included a closed loop deployment to the vertical, using a
barberpolebrakesystem.YES2stwostagedeploymentcombinesafirstdeploymentstage
controlledtoa vertical, under low gravitygradientlevels, withasecond stagetoa large
forwardangle.Itisfollowedbyaswingbacktotheverticalandatargetedcapsulerelease
294 Chapter7
(see Section3.1.1). YES2 builds on the SEDS deployer concept, but relies on European
developedtechnologyonly(Chapter5).
ThischaptercoverstherelevantdesignaspectsoftheYES2experiment,themissionandthe
lessonslearnedfordevelopmentofsmalltetherexperiments.Themissiondataanalysisis
coveredinChapter8.
7.2 Systemdesign
7.2.1 YES2andFoton
YES2 is designed to operate from a Russian platform, FotonM3, which carries ESA
microgravity experiments, under the flag of ESAs HME department (Figure 207). This
platformprovidesseveraladvantages.Fotonsorbitalaltitudeof300kmiswellbelowthat
oftheISS,thereforetheprobabilityofcollisionofthetetherwiththeISSisextremelylow.
Ontopofthat,Fotonprovidespower,somebasictelemetryandtelecommandcapabilities
thatsimplifytheYES2design.Itfeaturesattitudecontroltoprovideaninitialorientationfor
endmassejection.Duetoitslargemass(7tons)itcanserveasastableplatform.Fotonitself
carries a 2500kg reentry vehicle, which is pressurized and temperature controlled.
AlthoughforlackofspaceYES2subsystemscannotbehousedhere,thevehiclecontainsan
ESAequipment,theTelescienceSupportUnit(TSU),thatprovidesabackupdatastorage
function to YES2 via a serial cable. Groundstations on Russian territory are available for
basicFotontelemetryandtelecommandduringtheYES2mission,whereastheTSUdatais
downloadeddirectlytogroundstationsinCanada(Saskatoon)andSweden(Kiruna).
Fotonisprimarilyamicrogravitymission.Inordertominimallydisturbtheotherpayloads,
YES2isswitchedonforitstethermissiononlyonthe11
th
dayofthe12dayFotonmission.
7.2.2 Keyelements
AsdepictedinFigure206,YES2hasthreeelements:
1. Fotino, the 6kg reentry capsule containis recovery beacon, science payload,
transmissiontogroundandparachute.
2. MASS,the8kgtetheredsubsatelliteMechanicalanddataAcquisitionSupportSystem,
retains anddecouplesthe Fotinocapsule. MASS alsocontainsa sciencepackage and
transmittertoFLOYD.
3. FLOYD (Foton LOcated YES2 Deployer). This 22kg system containing the tether
deployer is bolted onto FotonM3, and will eject the MASS/Fotino endmass towards
Earth.ItalsoprovidesthemechanicalstrengthandservesasthesoleinterfacetoFoton.
AnoverviewoftheYES2mainelementsandconnectiontoFotonisprovidedinFigure205
andTable60.
FLOYD is the most critical element. The main components of tether deployer are a
barberpolebrakedrivenbysteppermotorandthreetetherpassagesensors(OpticalLoop
YES2 295
DetectorsorOLD).TheOLDsare critical for deploymentcontrol andarethemostdirect
sourceofdeploymentdata.Atleastoneofthemmustbeoperational.FLOYDcontainsalso
the deployment control OnBoard Computer (OBC), the ejection system and three
independenttethercutters.Lastbutnotleast,ithousesthetetherspoolwith31.7kmof0.5
mmthickDyneematether.
OthercriticalelementsformissionsuccessaretheMASSonboardtimerandcapsulerelease
system(MASSFotino Decoupling or MFD), aswell asthe beacon inside Fotino, whichis
requiredforconfirmationofthecapsulelandingpoint.
System Subsystem Description
Foton BatteryPack MountinglocationofYES2.
TSU TelescienceSupportUnit,storageandSbandtransponderexternalto
YES2.
SSAUGPS ExperimentbyYES2CenterofExpertise(SamaraStateAerospace
University)mountedonbatterypack(GPS+Glonassand
magnetometers).
TM Fotontelemetrysystem.
TK Fotonrealtimeandtimetagbasedpulsecommandsystem.
Power 27Vpowersupply.
FLOYD (Foton Located
YES2Deployer)
Canister Containstetherandcore,aswellasvariouselectronics,incl.aUHF
receiver.
Barberpole Brakesystemwithtethercutterassembly.
StepperDriver ControlsforbarberpolepositionbasedonOBCsignals.
OLD OpticalLoopDetection(lengthsensor).
OBC OnBoardComputer,interfaceswithStepperDriver,PDU,OLD,UHF
receiver,FotonTMandTSU.
PDU PowerDistributionUnit,alsocontrolsejectionandtethercutviaRelays
Box.
MASS (Mechanical and
data Acquisition Support
System)subsatellite
MBox Containsmicrocontroller,onegyroscopeandtwomagnetometers,MFD
timerandpowerconditioning.
GPS GPS+Glonasssystem.
UHF Transmitter.
MFD MASSFotinoDecouplingsystem,releasesFotinocapsule.
Fotinoreentrycapsule DAS DataAcquisitionSystem(incl.sensorboard,thermocouples,pressure
sensors,gyroscopes,accelerometers,magnetometers,UHFtransmitter.)
PRS PrimaryRecoverySystem,includingARGOSbeacon,parachutesystem
andBeacon&ParachuteActivationSystem(BAS/PAS).
Table60.OverviewofYES2relevantsystemsandsubsystems
296 Chapter7
Figure205.SimplifiedoverviewoftheYES2relevanttothetethermomentumtransfersystem.

FOTINO
MASS
FLOYD
Figure206.YES2containsFLOYD(FotonLOcatedYES2Deployer),MASS(Mechanicalanddata
AcquisitionSupportSystem)andFotino,thesphericalreentrycapsule.
Canister
FOTON
T
M
/
T
C
Stepper
motor
Control
Encoder
signal
Relays
box
Cut&eject
signals
D
a
t
a
Capsule
Fotino
SubsatelliteMASS,timer,
capsulereleasesystem
P
o
w
e
r
TxI/F
Ejection
pyro
T
e
t
h
e
r
OLD
sensors&
electronics
Ejectionsystem
Cutters
Barberpole
friction
brake
Tetherspool
andcore
Stepper
Driver
XBOX
(PDU+OBC)
RxI/F
YES2 297
Figure207.YES2onFotonduringthefirst11days
7.2.3 InterfacestoFoton
ThesixboltmechanicalconnectionbetweenFLOYDandFotonsbatterypackisdesigned
suchthatthethermallinkisverypoor,about20K/W.InthedaysbeforetheYES2mission
startsFotonismaintainedinuncontrolled,randomorientation.InaworstcasetheFoton
outersurfacearoundtheinterfacecouldthereforecooldowntotemperaturesaslowas
120C.
FLOYD and Foton are electrically interfacing through 4connectors (YK1through YK4),
TheseincludePower,TelemetryandData.DetailedspecificationsareprovidedinTable61.
ThefourthconnectordeliverstheTelecommandsfromFotontotheYES2(referredtoasTC
or YTK). The telecommands are six timetagged pulse commands that control the YES2
mission(Table62).
Eachphysicallyseparatedsystem(Foton,FLOYD,MASS,FotinoPRSandFotinoDAS)has
itsownzeropotentiallevelwithasinglegroundpoint.Eachsystemiselectricallyisolated
fromtheothersviaDC/DCconverters,mechanicalrelays,optocouplersandRS422drivers.
InsupportofYES2,aGPS/GLONASSsystemhasbeeninstalledontheFotonbatterypack,
bySamaraStateAerospaceUniversity,theYES2CenterofExpertiseinRussia.Itisplanned
toworkinconjunctionwiththeMASSGPSsystem,toresolveforthetetherpositionwith
respect to Foton. It has two diametrically positioned antennas (Figure 208) and is
furthermoreequippedwithasetofmagnetometers.
7.2.4 Systemcharacteristics
Table61summarizessomeofthesystemsmaincharacteristics.
298 Chapter7
Dimensions 1020x410x475mm
MassYES2 35.7kg(FLOYD21.8kg,MASS7.9kg,Fotino6.0kg)
Mission
Duration
7hours
Ground
Support
TsUPRussianMissionControlinMoscow(Telemetry,Telecommand)
PayloadOperationCentreinKiruna(Sweden)andSaskatoon(Canada):sciencedata
Attitude
Control
Fotonplatform(withFLOYD)isactivelycontrolled,MASS/Fotinostabilizedbytethertension
Telemetry
TelemetrysystemviaFoton.YES2statussummaryisstoredonFLOYDevery30s.Amaximum
of90minworthofstatussummariescanbetransmittedfromYES2togroundviaFotonTMat
one time (unidirectional, 16 bit parallel at 10 Hz), inside a window of 24minutes per orbit,
followingatriggerbytheTKTMtelecommand.
Telemetry system via TSU: detailed YES2 data report is transmitted to TSU every second
(bidirectionalRS422,19200bps)andstoredthere,forwardedtogroundbyTSUoverKirunaor
Saskatoon.AlsoprovidesdatastoragerecoveredafterFotonlanding
Datalink
MASSFLOYD
UnidirectionalUHF(ISMband,437MHz),1200bps,0.5W,hemispherical,verticalpolarization
patchTMantenna,largeloophexagonicalcircularreceiverantenna[Rolo2007].
Datalink
FotinoGround
0.5W omnidirectional, transmits last 300s of data every 30s. 437MHz, Manchester coding,
12.5kbps.
Power
FLOYD:27VunregulatedviaFotonS/C,nominaloperation100Wh,peak56W,average24W
during tether deployment. One of the three redundant tether cutters is powered by a YES2
batteryforredundancy.
MASSandFotinohaveautonomousprimarybatteries.
Thermal Passivethermalinsulation,thermostatwithheaterforOBC.
Propulsion Nopropulsionsystem;tetheredmomentumtransfer.
Tether DyneemaSK658x200braid31700mx0.5mm(polyethylene),30kmtobedeployed.
Table61.YES2characteristicsoverview
YES2 299
YES2TCnumber Name Function
YTK2 Eject PDUfiresejectionpyro,OBCstartsdeployment
YTK3 CutTether PDUfirestethercutterpyrostoreleasetetherfromFoton
YTK4 StartSecondStage OBCwillputinmotionsecondstageofdeployment(from3.4to30km)
YTK8 MASSON PDUswitchesonMASSandUHFreceiver
TKTM TMdata OBCwillsendallremainingstoredmissiondatatoTSU/DHU
YTK10 Armpyros PDUsetspyroarminglatch,OBCpreparesfordeploymentortethercut
YTK12 Disarmpyros PDUdisarmsallpyros(testonly)
Table62.OverviewofYES2telecommands
Figure208.YES2integratedwithFotonbatterypack(Samara)
7.3 Missiondesign
TheYES2missionconsistsofthreephases.Inthefirstphase,Fotonexecutesamicrogravity
mission(11days).Inthisperiod,thedeploymenttimelineisadjustedtotakeintoaccount
theactualandmostrecentFotonorbitalparameters.YES2isswitchedonattheendofthe
first phase. In the second phase, the tether is deployed in two stages according to the
adjusted timeline (2:40hours). In the third and final phase, the Fotino makes its reentry
(40minutes). The YES2 experiment operates for 7 hours in total. The mission events are
summarizedinFigure212 andTable63.FortypicaldeploymentprofilesseeSection5.5.1.
Notethatthefinalreferenceprofilesfordeployment,determinedshortlybeforeflight,are
showinFigure249,Figure250,Figure252andFigure255.
7.3.1 Preparingfordeployment
InordertobeabletoachieveaccuratereentryofFotino, shortlybeforetheYES2system
switchon, theexactYES2missiontimeline has to bedeterminedanduploadedtoFoton.
TheYES2missionisperformedonedaybeforeFotonsownreentry,Figure207.Aboutone
daybeforeMASS/Fotinoejection, Fotonorbitalparametersaredeterminedpreciselyfrom
radarmeasurementsonground.ThentheYES2groundcontrolteamperformsasimulation
oftetherdeploymentandreentrybasedonthoseparameters,combinedwiththereference
300 Chapter7
deploymentfilealreadystoredinFLOYD(essentiallyatableoftargetlength,velocityand
tethertensionversustime).Fromthissimulationthecriticalmissiontimesaredetermined
withinafewsecondaccuracysuchastoachieveaprojectedlandingsitenearthenominally
assignedlandingpoint(66.2E,50.6NinKazakhstan).Theseeventtimetagsarenextsentto
Foton(Table62).DuringtheYES2mission,theFotonsystemmakessurethatattheproper
time,thesetelecommandsarethenforwardedascurrentpulsestotheYES2unit.
NotethatthetimeofreleaseofFotinofromthetether(theactualreentryorbitinsertion)is
hardwired before launch using a special plug on MASS. This preprogrammed time is
measuredrelativetoejection,andcannotbealteredafterlaunch.Controlofthelandingsite
is therefore done by adjusting the ejection time and start time of the second stage of
deployment(Section5.5.2).
YES2 is eventually oriented towards the Earth. The FLOYD is then switched on by
telecommand, and its health status is checked via Foton TM, in particular YES2s OBC
temperature and OLD length sensor health. As Foton has spent the 11days prior to this
momentinarandomorientationandwithYES2thermallyisolatedfromFoton,thereisa
smallrisktheOBCistoocoldtoreliablyperformthemission.Testshaveindicatedthatthe
OBC is not reliable below 10C. Telemetry is requested from YES2 by the Foton TKTM
command,whichissentonceperorbitduringa24minuteinterval,whenFotonisinview
ofaRussiangroundstation.Atsuchatime,theOBCtransmitsovera20Bytes/slinkthe
mostcriticalmissioninformationonYES2health,deployedtetherlength,velocityandbrake
position. The data is evaluated in ground control in TsUP, Moscow, against a table of
nominal ranges. MASS is powered up by FLOYD shortly before ejection, in response to
YTK8,andreportsitsstatustoFLOYDwithatwobitcodethroughaReleasableConnector
(ReCon).
MASSandtheFotinocapsulearejointlyejectedwhenFLOYDreceivesthesequenceoftime
tagged armandfire telecommands (YTK10 and YTK2). The springbased ejection system
provides 40J ejection energy or 2.4m/s initial velocity to MASS/Fotino (Figure 209). The
MASS/Fotino pitchoff rate resulting from ejection system asymmetries is expected to be
about5/s.MTBSimattitudesimulationsindicatethatduringdeployment,tethertensionis
sufficienttomaintaintheMASS/Fotinoendmassintoamereoscillation.Uponejection,the
lossofsignalfromFLOYDwillinitiateonMASStheactivationtimerfortheMASSFotino
Decoupling system (MFD) that is to release Fotino 2.5hours later. At a distance of some
7meters from Foton the MASS UHF transmitter is switched on for data transmission to
FLOYD.FLOYDforwardsthisdatatotheTSUdatastorageunitinsidetheFotoncapsule.
Fotino is fully isolated from MASS and FLOYD and remains powered off during tether
deployment.ThereisnodataflowortelecommandcapabilitytoorfromtheFotinocapsule.
7.3.2 Deploymentofthetether
Deployment of the first stage of 3.4km is performed at low tension with levels of
centinewtonstypically.Thefirst500marethemostcritical.Deploymenthereisdrivenby
inertiaalone,andfrictionslowsdowntheMASS/Fotinotoabout0.5m/s.Toohighfriction
couldstopthedeployment.Itisexpectedtherewillbetheopportunitytomonitorthrough
YES2 301
telemetrythedeployedlengthdatafromthiscriticalphase.Astetherlengthincreases,also
thegravitygravitygradientbetweentheendmassesincreases,whichcreatesapullingforce
thatwilleventuallyacceleratethedeploymentagain.Allthistimeacontrollerisactiveon
FLOYD that adjusts the tether tension as necessary. The required braking level is
determined by comparison of deployed length measurements with the reference profile
(Section5.5).Thefirststagedeploymentlastsaboutoneorbit.Attheendofthefirststage,
whenthetetheris3.4kmlongandorientedverticallyandstablybelowFoton,thecontroller
stopsthedeploymentsmoothly(Figure210).
OverRussianterritory,ashortholdphasewillnowstart.InSiberiatheremaybeanoptical
viewingopportunityofthedeployedtetherfromtheground,ifweatherandtimeofday
permits. Ifnecessary,anupdateofthedelayedcontinuationcommand(secondstagestart,
YTK4)canbesenttotheOBC,oranyoftheabortorcontingencycommands. Duringthe
hold phase, if any increase of length is observed, the controller will apply some gentle
increaseoffriction.
Figure209.EjectionofMASS/FotinofromFLOYD
Figure210.MASS/Fotino3.5kmbelowFotonduringtheholdphase.
Upon reception of the YTK4 continuation command, the OBC will release the brake to
continue the second stages full deployment. Velocity goes up quickly due to the large
gravity gradient and reaches 13m/s within 30minutes. Due to the Coriolis force, the
MASS/FotinorunssignificantlyaheadofFotonatthispoint,atanangleofabout45degrees.
Afterabout35minutes,deploymentisneartocompletionandthetetherissloweddown
rapidlyyetgentlybythecontroller.Amarginof1.7kmontopofthe30kmtetherlengthis
availabletodealwithanycontrollererrors.
302 Chapter7
Thelastphaseofthetetherexperimentstretchesfromdeploymentcompletiontotherelease
ofFotino,fromMASS,andthereleaseofMASSandthetether,fromFoton.First,thefully
deployed tether behaves as a gravitygradientcontrolled pendulum and MASS/Fotino
swingsbackunderneathFoton.Itisatthatmoment,exactly9344secondsafterejection,that
theMASStimertriggerstheMASSFotinoDecouplingsystem(MFD)tofireandreleasethe
Fotino.Thiseventoccursaboutonehourintothesecondstage(theexacttimingofYTK4is
notknowninadvanceoftheflight).TwentysecondslaterthetetherwillbecutontheFoton
side (YTK3), releasing the MASS plus tether into its own reentry trajectory and leaving
Foton free (Figure 211). The tether remains attached to MASS and will burn at around
110kmaltitude.LineofsightwithFLOYDismaintaineduntilthispoint,butnodatafrom
MASS is expected at this time, due to the poor link between MASS and Fotino (see also
Section7.4.2).

Figure211.FotinoisreleasedbyMFD,tetheriscut,FotinoandMASS+tethercoasttowardsthe
atmosphere.
Aroundthistime,theFLOYD, stillforwardingitsdatatotheTSU,isswitchedoff.Foton
reorientsitselfforits ownreentry.About 3hourslater, the TSU transmitstheremaining
YES2datatoKiruna,completingtheYES2mission.
Figure212.YES2groundplotwithmajorevents,referencemission
7.3.3 Fotinoreentry
TheFotinoreentrytimelineispresentedinFigure213.Thetimelineandtriggersequences
havebeendesignedtoberobustwithrespecttotheidentifiedcontingenciessuchastether
deploymentandorbitinsertionfailures.ThereleaseofFotino,throughabreakwire,starts
YES2 303
upthesciencepayloadcontainedinside,aswellasatimerforthesciencedatatransmission
toground.About1200slaterFotinowillentertheatmosphereat100kmaltitude.Atthis
point,awireonthenoseofFotinowillmeltandstartthetimeroftheBeaconandParachute
ActivationSystem,BAS/PAS.Inthemeantime,thesciencepayloadwillregister,storeand
transmittowardsgrounddynamicandaerothermodynamiccharacteristicsofthereentry.
TheArgosbeaconisswitchedonwhenthetimerreaches5minutes,or,alternatively,bya
pressure sensor indicating that 5km altitude has been reached. If the timer has passed
beyond5minutesandthe5kmaltitudehasalsobeenreached,theparachutewillbeejected
anddeployed.
Missiontime[s] Event Orbit# Reference
1 0 YES2switchON,startFotonattitudemaneuvertoestablish
NADIRorientation.
171 Figure207
2 1800 YES2healthandFotonattitudecheck. 172
3 7400 MASS/Fotinoejection,startof1
st
stageoftetherdeployment. 173 Figure209
4 13150 Startof2
nd
stageofdeployment. 174 Figure210
5 16744 Fotinorelease,tethercutonFotonside. 174 Figure211
6 19100 LandingFotino. 175
7 24000 SwitchoffYES2. 176
Table63.PlannedYES2missionmajorevents,timesareindicative.
FotinoisplannedtolandinKazakhstanonSeptember25
th
2007atabout15m/stouchdown
velocity.ThebeaconandFlashmemoryaredesignedtosurvivethecaseofparachutefailure
andimpact.Thebeaconsignalisexpectedtobereceivedwithin3hoursafterlandingbya
satellitecarryingArgosequipment[Castillejo2008].TheArgossystemwilltriangulatethe
beaconpositionfromDopplershiftwithabout350maccuracyandreportthepositionon
the internet. Reception of this position is considered full mission success. Monte Carlo
simulationsusingMTBSimhavedeterminedthe+/3o landingareatobearound380x60km,
Section5.5.5[Stelzer2006].
Recovery of Fotino or its data is not supported by ESA and can therefore only be an
informal lowbudget initiative of the YES2 students themselves. The YES2 students have
builtaportabletrackinggroundstationtobepositionedalongtheFotinogroundtrack.It
willbeattemptedtocapturerealtimeandhistoricaldataduringtheFotinodescent.Toaid
possible recovery the Fotinos UHF transmitter switches to a homing mode and will
continuetooperateforatleast3days.
304 Chapter7
Figure213.Fotinoreentrytimeline
YES2 305
7.4 Subsystemsdesign
In this section, the design of tether, FLOYD, MASS and Fotino are detailed to provide
furtherinsightintothesubsystemsrelevantforthisSpaceMaildemonstration.
7.4.1 Tetherdesign
The YES2 tether meets a number of basic safety needs. Its 0.5mm diameter has been
selectedforhighprobabilitymeteoroidsurvival(estimatedat99.8%,Section4.3.1).Itslow
ballistic coefficient of 0.34kg/m
2
combined with the orbital altitude below 300km
guarantees a very brief orbital exposure or days rather than weeks even in case of some
failure(Section3.3).SimilartotheYEStether(Section6.3.1)theendofthetetheronMASS
sideismadeofKevlar,topreventmeltingoncontactwithahotaluminiumsurface.YES2
tether stiffness and damping coefficient were determined as EA=5000N and =0.08
respectivelybasedonhangingandbouncingtests(Section4.1).
In order to deal with the risk of jamming and bounceback during deployment, with the
potential to collide with the Foton platform or wrap around it (Section4.2), the tether
deploymentwasseparatedinvariousfailuremoderegions.Foreachregionasuitablesafety
measurewasimplemented.Ingeneralitmustbeconsideredthat,thelongerthetether,the
lower the shock that it will experience in case of jam, ranging from hundreds to a few
Newton over the full range of deployment. The exact dependency depends on the tether
properties(Section4.2.1).
Forthefirst15mtensionwillbehundredsofNewtonsandajamcanleadtoabounceand
collisionoftheMASS/FotinoendmasswithFoton.APrusikknotfixation(Section4.2.4)is
thereforeusedtoconnectthetethertotheendmass,suchthatincaseofsuchashockthe
endmasscanslipfree.Obviouslythisincreasesriskofmissionfailure,butprovidessafetyto
Foton. A 3wrap knot with 55N slip tension has been selected, providing reasonable
probability that the tiedowns will not initiate the slipping. Based on the expected shock
loadforajamat15m,thefreeendbehindthePrusikknothasbeencutto14cmtoprovide
sufficientmargin(Figure72).
Ajamduringthenext350meterswouldcauseaslowwrappingofthetetheraroundFoton.
Asimpledampingsysteminthetether(ripstitch),tunedtotheminimumshocktensionfor
thisregion(1520N)andabletodampennearlythefullkineticenergyinsuchacase(40J),
hasbeenproducedandtested(Section4.2.3).Notethatincaseofajamafter350m(57s)
intodeployment,theendmasswouldnotreachFotonanymore.
Evenwiththissystemimplementedfrom15to130m(657s)intodeploymentajamwould
leadtorecoiloftheendmassaroundFotonandadditionalmeasureneedstobetaken.After
a jam the endmass would float slowly towards Foton with the energy left over from the
dampened shock (Figure 216). It would take at least 6minutes before a second jam and
actual wrapping would occur (Figure 215). A collision on the first pass of Foton is not a
concern.ThesidewaysdriftduetotheCoriolisforcewouldpreventadirectcollision.Even
if there were to be a collision with the host, it will be after 3 minutes and at a very low
306 Chapter7
energylevelbelow0.1J.Topreventasecondbounce,whichmayindeedleadtoacollision,
an additional safety level is introduced. In the early deployment, the YES2 OnBoard
Computercontinuouslyevaluatesthevelocityofthedeployment.Ifajamisnoticedduring
thefirst500m,thetetherisautonomouslycut.Theonboardcomputerneedsabout30sto
recognizeajam,wellwithinthe6minutesavailable.
Theresultingtetherandfixuredesignisillustratedin Figure214.Theimpactofthesafety
measuresonthetetherdeploymentphasesandtheassociatedriskissummarizedinTable
64.Probability,severityandcriticalityofthecontingencieshavebeensignificantlyreduced
(seealsoSection4.2).
9 m
Kevlar
Prusik slip
fixture
5.3 m
Ripstitch damper
30000 m
Dyneema
FLOYD
Spool
Splice Splice Cutters
0.5 m
Free end
Loosely
taped
end
9 m
Kevlar
Prusik slip
fixture
5.3 m
Ripstitch damper
30000 m
Dyneema
FLOYD
Spool
Splice Splice Cutters
0.5 m
Free end
Loosely
taped
end
Figure214.Tetherdesignandsafety.
L[m] t[s] Event Risk
015 06 MASSslipsfree. Safe.
15130 657
MASSkineticenergydissipated
byripstitch.
Driftingendmass.
MASS/FotinocanbenearFotonafter315minutes,
at0.1m/s,under0.1Jresidualenergy.
130400 57200
Tetherslackensintermittently
(aboutevery10minutes),
eventuallybecomespendulum.
Safe.
40015000 2007300 Pendulum. Safe.Randomreentry.
1500031700 73008900 Pendulum. Safe.Nominalordownrangereentry.
>31700 ?
Tethercomeslooseifshocktoo
large.
Safe.Downrangereentry.
Table64.RiskregionsandsafetyapproachduringYES2deployment
YES2 307
Figure215.Approachtimetodeployerplatform
afterjam
Figure216.Velocityneardeployerplatform
afterjamandbounce
7.4.2 FLOYD
FLOYDfunctionsnot only asthe Fotoninterface, but alsoasthebaseofthe YES2 tower
structure, and containsthe tetherdeployer andMASStelemetry receiver(Figure217). Its
electricalsubsystemsandconnectionstoFotonandMASSareschematicallyrepresentedin
Figure218.
The tether spool is wound onto an aluminium core (Figure 95, Figure 219). This core is
hollowed out to include the three Optical Loop Detection (OLD) receivers and the OLD
signalconditioningelectronicsbox.Theinfraredtransmittersareplacedinacompartment
ofthecanistercalledtheattic.Deploymentofthetethergoesovertheheadofthecore
through a small central hole into the attic plate that covers the FLOYD tether container
(Figure96).Thetetherunwindspassingthroughthethreeinfraredbeams.TheOLDsignals
areconvertedintointerruptrequeststhatarefedtotheOnBoardComputerthroughthe
PowerDistributionUnit(PDU)interfacecircuitry.
Figure217.FLOYDunderfunctionaltestinunwindingtestrigatESA/ESTEC.
308 Chapter7
PDU
OBC
FOTON
TM,TC
5
V
,

D
a
t
a
OLD Rx
Stepper
driver
Stepper
motor
OLD Tx
UHF Rx+
antenna
Relays
box
Forwarded
tether
cutSignal
Cutcommands, 5V, 24V
27Vfiringpulses
Fuses
Inrush,filter,
converters
Ejectioncutters
Tethercutters
and melter
ReCon
FLOYD
M
A
S
S

O
N
M
A
S
S

S
t
a
t
u
s

b
i
t
s
ReCon
MASS
YK5 EGSE
TSU
DataStorage,Clock
YK9
Melter
battery
YK12
EGSE
DHS+
sensors+
UHFpower
GPS+ LNA
+antenna
Latch,
Power,
Firing
Timer
Timer
plug
UHFTM+
antenna
Tensiometer
YK10
YK6
MFD
pyros
10.5V
battery
Fuses
EGSE,UHFpowerarming
S
t
a
t
u
s

b
i
t
Statusbit
Ejectsignal
MASSOFF
E
j
e
c
t

s
i
g
n
a
l
Ejection
microswitch
FLOYD
MASS
Figure218.FLOYDMASSelectricaloverview(seetextfordetails).ThenumberedYKsareEGSE
connectors.
The winding is divided into five parts, the parallel winding at the core, covered by four
crisscrosspartswithawindinganglesettinggoingfromseventofourturnspercycle.For
each of thesepartsa quadraticfitoflength versusunwound loopshasbeen determined,
which is used by the OBC to determine the unwound length from the incoming OLD
interruptsignals(Section5.3.3).Thedeployedtetherlengthcanbedeterminedwithabout
0.3% accuracy (Section5.3.5). Three tiedowns keep the tether in place during launch
(Section5.3.4).Eachknot,whenbreakingattimeofejection,dissipatesabout1J,andlasts
forabout10ms,peakingat40N.Thisleadstolossofvelocityofabout0.1m/sbutalsohas
an intended positive sideeffect. The tie downs are placed on the spool about a seconds
worthofdeploymentapart,suchthatastheybreak,thetorqueexertedbythetetherwill
reducetheMASS/Fotinopitchoffrate.
YES2 309
The spool is contained in the canister, which is made from six panels that also provide
structuralstrengthandstiffnesstoYES2.Thepanelsarehardanodized.Theyaremounted
ontoasolidstructuralinterfaceplatewhichismountedtotheFotonbatterypackwithsix
bolts.Theatticistheshallowcompartmentinthetopofthecanister.Itcontainsnotonlythe
theOLDtransmittersbutalsodriverelectronicsforthebarberpolesteppermotor,aswellas
apyroarmingandfiringrelaysbox,andaUHFreceiver.Allboxeshavetheirconnectorson
theoutsideoftheFLOYDcanisterpanels.Thetetherpassesthroughthecenteroftheattic
intothebaseofthebarberpolebrakebox.
Figure219.YES2tetherspoolFlorian
Thebarberpole(Figure220)ishardanodizedandabout2.4cmdiameter(Section5.4.2).The
surface roughness of about 1micron is matched to obtain the proper friction coefficient
(Section5.4.4).ThewormgearcontainsaReliaflexflexiblecouplingandaPhytronVSS
32.200.1.2vacuumsteppermotor. Asthetetherexitsfromthebarberpoleitpassesthrough
thecutterassembly,thatcontainstwoAirtecparachutecutters(Figure217),poweredbythe
Foton27Vsupply,andonethermalelementthatisdesignedtomelttheDyneematether
inabout30secondsasabackup,usinga3.6Vbattery.Thecuttersareactivatedonebyone
witha0.4sdelay,toallowformaximumfunctionalityincaseofanytypeoffailureofeither
of the pyros. The first cutter signal is received directly from the YES2 PDU, the second
cutter, is controlled by the OBCs internal logic, and allows, as an added feature, for an
autonomouscuttingcapability.
Severalcustomdesignedunitsofelectronicscontrolthetetherdeployerhardware.Outside
the canister is mounted a cubeshaped box, the ElectroniX Box or XBOX for short, that
contains the OnBoard Computer and the Power Distribution Unit interface electronics.
InsidetheatticarelocatedtheStepperDriverandtheRelaysBox.
The PDU, inside the XBOX, contains three Interpoint power converters in a shielded
compartment, a small, 1.5W converter for primary 5V PDU functions, a 30W unit to
providepowertoall5VFLOYDelectronics, andadedicated24VsupplyfortheStepper
310 Chapter7
Motor.The27VFotonpowersupplyisfusedandinrushlimited.ThePowerDistribution
Unitisdevelopednotonlytoprovideapowersupplyfunctionbutalsoforsignalprocessing
and interfacing. It validates and executes in hardware the incoming telecommand pulses
fromFoton.Eachsuchpulseisrepresentedbyabout1Acurrentlastingforabout0.4s.The
PDUalsotakesthe17bitparallelanddigitaltelemetryoutputfromtheOBCandoffersitto
theFotontelemetrymultiplexersystem.Bothfunctionsuseoptocouplers.Finally,thePDU
convertsincomingandoutgoinginternalYES2signals,mostlyusingRS422.
Figure220.YES2Flightbarberpolebrake
The XBOX contains also the OnBoard Computer, a 133MHz PC104 (SECOM543) and a
DiamondSystemsIOboard(MMAT).Duetothermallimitationsthatbecameobviousin
thesubsystemtesting,a3WheaterhasbeenaddedtotheXBOX,aswellasathermostat
boardthatswitchesanother6Wwhenthetemperaturedropsbelow20C.TheSECOboard
runstheonboardsoftwarebasedonaQNXoperatingsystemfeaturingmultiplesoftware
processesguardedbyaHighAvailabilityManager(HAM).
The Stepper Driver (Figure 221) has been developed as a highly compact internally
redundantsubsystem,basedonAtmelmicrocontrollers,withwatchdogandseveralother
safetyfeatures[Graczyk2008].ItiscommandedbytheOnBoardComputerthroughRS422.
ThedriverkeepstrackoftheactualsteppermotorpositionindependentoftheOBCtoallow
for robust control. Every control interval, if the brake has to be moved to a different
position, the stepper motor is ramped up from the selected low initial frequency of coil
current switching (Section5.4.2) to its operational frequency of 4000Hz halfstep until the
new position has been achieved. A current shaping is used to maximize torque
[Graczyk2008].TheStepperDriverisabletoprovidetelemetrybacktotheOBCincluding
temperatures and brake position, however, this communication line has eventually been
reroutedtothecuttersystemviatheRelaysBox.Thisawkwardsignalroutingistheresultof
alatechangeinrequirements,bywhichanautonomoustethercutcapabilityisaddedfor
safety. The Stepper Driver is thus being used as a relay station for the OBCs tether cut
signal.
YES2 311
Figure221.YES2StepperDriver
The Relays Box contains redundant latches, that arm, disarm and fire FLOYDs pyro
circuitry,whichactivatestheejectionsystemandthetethercutters.Latchcontrolcommands
aresenttotheRelaysBoxasRS422pulsesignals.Pyrosaredoublelocked:bothelectrical
polesarelatchedsimultaneously.Apyrofirepulsesignalwillleadtoswitchingarelay
onandoff for the duration of the input pulse, i.e. about 150ms. Each pyro function is
redundantlyperformed,firstlybyamechanicalandsecondlybyasolidstatelatch.Pulse
power comes from the 27V Foton supply directly and each firing pulse is individually
inrushlimitedforcurrentandslope.
Thefirstpyrotobefiredisthatoftheejectionsystem(Figure222).TheYES2ejectionsystem
isascaledupversionofadesignoriginatingfromtheSwedishSpaceCorporationthatuses
threespringspushingagainsttheMASSplate.MASSisheldtightlyagainstFLOYDbythree
levers.Theleversthemselvesareheldbyasinglepretensionedcablethatcanbecutbya
redundant Holex 2801pyro cutter. The cut releases the levers such that the springs can
freelypushbothMASSandtheleversaway.Threespringscombinedcontain40Jenergy,to
provide2.4m/sinitialvelocitytoMASS/Fotino.
Amisalignmentbetweenspringsorcenterofmassandthegeometricalcenteroftheejection
system will lead to unwanted angular rates of the endmass. Such a pitchoff rate may
adverselyaffectdeploymentandcommunicationbetweenMASSandFLOYDormaycause
thetethertowraptheFotinocapsule,impairingitsrelease.Therequirementisapitchoff
ratebetterthan10/s,basedonMTBSimsimulations.Alsoadifferenceinlengthbetween
twoofthethreespringsofaslittleas0.2mmcancausesucharate.Inordertomeetthe
requirement,thecenterofmassofMASS/Fotinohasbeenbalancedwithin2mmfromthe
ejection system center line. The springs are selected from a batch of about 20 based on
uniformityindimensions,springconstantandenergy.
The ejection system plate contains also a microswitch that is read out continuously by
Fotons telemetry system to confirm successful ejection. The ejection plate as a structural
element supports also the barberpole brake and the FLOYDMASS Releasable Connector
interfaceorReCon.
312 Chapter7

Figure222.YES2studentsholdingtheejectionsystemengineeringmodel,operatingprinciple.
7.4.3 OBCsoftware
The OBC software, written in C++, controls the tether deployment control but also data
handling, storage and telemetry (TM, TSU) as well as confirmation and execution of
telecommands(TC).TheelevencooperatingprocessesmakingtheOBCsoftwareareshown
inFigure223.TheprocessesarecontrolledandrestartedifnecessarybytheQNXoperating
systemsHighAvailabilityManager(HAM).TheMASTERprocessactsasadataserialiser
and decision maker, while the actual work is performed by other processes. A full
descriptioncanbefoundin[Spiliotopoulos2008].Themostrelevantprocessesforplanning
andcontrollingthetetherdeploymentareEGSEandSTEPPER.
The EGSE process is only functional in test configuration. It interfaces to the Electrical
GroundSupportEquipmenthardware(EGSE)foruploadofsystemsoftwareanddatafiles,
as well as to send telecommands for testing purposes. The OBC software and all its
parametersarefixedbeforeflightanduploadedthroughEGSEconnectors.TheOBCallows
forlateuploadofamissionparameterfile.Onlyalimitedsoftwaretestisthereforerequired
incaseoflatechanges(Section8.1.5).
TheSTEPPERprocessistheprocessinchargeofcontrollingthedeployment.Itcalculates
the current deployment velocity and deployed length based on interrupt requests (IRQs)
from the OLD sensors, and commands the required barberpole brake position via the
Stepper Driver according to the current mission phase, deployment profile and control
parameters(Section5.5).Robustnessisincludedagainstaccidentalorforcedrebootofthe
OBCduringdeployment.
WheneveraninterruptrequestfromanOLDchannelarrives,theOBCsoftwaremarksthe
time and identifies the OLD channel transition to determine the increase in length and
change in velocity of the tether. The transition algorithm inherently deals with a single
brokenOLDchannel (Section5.5.3). Afilter isincludedtosuppress high frequencynoise
above 125Hz in front of a single OLD, as might appear due to tether vibrations or
electromagneticinterference.Finallyanalgorithmisaddedtotakecareofthecasewhere
twoOLDchannelswouldbebroken(Section5.5.3).
YES2 313
ViatheStepperDriver,theOBCsoftwarealsocontrolsatethercutcapability.Itistriggered
if a tether cut command (YTK3) is received, but also can be activated autonomously if,
withinthefirst500mafterejection,thedeploymentvelocitydropsbelow1cm/s.
ThemissionissplitintovariousphasesduringwhichtheSTEPPERprocessisexpectedto
displayaspecificbehaviourregardingtetherdeploymentcontrol. Themissionphasesin
theirnominalorderarelistedinTable65.Phasetransitionsaremadeinthefollowingcases:
- Timeout(endofreferenceprofile,nominalcondition).
- Criticalstagelengthisachievedduringdeployment(backupcondition).
- CutcommandYTK3isreceived(triggeringtransitiontoWaitPhase).
- Autonomoustethercutexecuted(triggeringtransitiontoWaitPhase).
Figure223.YES2controlsoftwarehighlevelflowdiagram
Phase Description
Disabled Initialphase,nodeploymentcontrol.
Enabled Armedfordeployment,nodeploymentcontrol.
1
st
Stage Firststageofdeployment.Deploymentcontrolaccordingtofirststagedeployment
profile.
Hold Tetherdeploymentstoppedwithminimalbrake.
Transition Preparetocontinuedeployment.
2
nd
Stage Secondstageofdeployment.Deploymentcontrolaccordingtosecondstage
deploymentprofile.
Swing Tetherbrakesettomaximum.
Wait Sendcuttethercommand(forredundancy),endofmission
Table65.YES2softwarecontrolphases
314 Chapter7
7.4.4 MASS
MASS is a piece of support hardware with as primary function restraint and accurately
timed release of Fotino into its reentry trajectory. Furthermore, it provides inertia to the
deployment of the tether. Finally, MASS has a science subsystem with transmitter to
contribute to the tether deployment data collection. Figure 218 provides a schematic
overviewoftheelectricalsubsystemsinvolvedinthesefunctions.
MASS has a very basic signal connection with FLOYD. MASS is powered on through
mechanicallatchesbyapowerpulsefromtheFLOYDPDU(followingYTK8),thatarrivesto
MASS via a Releasable Connector (ReCon). MASS can only be powered off through an
EGSE connector (YK6). Before ejection status bits are exchanged via the ReCon. Some
secondsafterejection,MASStransmitsdatatoFLOYDviaaonedirectionalUHFlink.The
FLOYDOBCdirectlyforwardsthedatafromMASStotheTSUforstorageandpostflight
recovery.
TheMASSstructureprovidesaninterfacetotheFLOYDejectionsystem,theMASSPlate,on
which also the ReCon and patch antennas for UHF and GPS are mounted, as well as a
centrallymountedcylinderof20cmdiameter.ThecylindersupportsaconeinwhichFotino
isplaced(Figure206).ThecircularMASSPlate,opensintothecylinder,providingacavity.
In launch configuration this cavity contains the FLOYD barberpole brake system as it
protrudesfromtheejectionsystem.
The tether is routed from FLOYD to the MASS structure. As the tether exits the FLOYD
cutterbracketitloopsaroundapulleymountedinsidetheMASScylinderandconnectedto
theMASStensiometer.Fromtherethetetherexitssidewaystotheoutsideofthecylinder.
HerethetetherisfinallyconnectedtotheouterstructureofMASSviathePrusikslipping
knot.
Three brackets are mounted on the outer surface of the cylinder, holding the UHF
transmitter,aRussianbuiltGPS/GLONASSreceiver,theBatteryBoxaswellastheMBOX.
The MBOX houses electronics for the science function, provided by the Data Logging
System(DLS),aswellasfortheprimaryfunctionofMASS,whichistoprovidereliableand
timelyreleaseofFotino.
TheMASSDLSmeasuresthedynamicbehaviorofthesubsatelliteandthetether.A0.5N
tensiometer, threemagnetometers,andagyroscopeareconnectedtotheMASSDLS.The
MASSDLSalsocollectsdatafromtheGPS/GLONASSreceiver.Itforwardsalldatainreal
timetotheUHFtransmitterat1200bps.ThepowertotheDLSisfusedsuchthatthecritical
MASSelectronics,thatcontrolthereleaseofFotino,areprotected.
The Timer Board initiates the firing signals for the MASSFotino Decoupling pyros. It
contains a triple hardware timer of which the median time is used. The firing time is
programmed by a hardwired plug. The plug allows for a 4bit coding of release time,
anywherebetween8192and10112s,in128sresolutionandatbetterthan1sprecision.
YES2 315
ALatch,PowerandFiringboard(LPF)receivesthefiringsignalsfromtheTimerBoardand
makes sure three pyros are fired in the MASSFotino Decoupling system (MFD). It also
provides 5V power to the Timer Board and 10.5V to the Data Logging System. After
ejection,10.5VisalsosenttotheGPS/GLONASSunit.
The MFD is acrossedbeltsystem withthe purpose to restrainFotinoduringlaunch and
deployment.ThebeltsareheldtogetherwithaKevlarcableontopofFotino.Threecable
cutters secure its release, until they are fired by the LPF. One of the cutters also cuts an
electricalbreakwire,attachedtoFotino,whichstartsuptheFotinosciencesystem.
7.4.5 Fotino
Fotinoisasmallreentryvehicleof40cmdiameterand6kgmass.Ithasbeendevelopedas
aminimallysizedsphericalcapsulethatcouldbringameaningfulpayloadfromspaceto
Earth. The spherical shape has been selected for simplicity of design analysis and of
construction. Fotino includes a parachute, and is to be retrieved by means of a beacon
[DePascale2006].
Fotinoisatechnologydemonstratorthatcarriesalsoascientificexperiment.Thetechnology
to bedemonstrated concernslowcostand lightweightstructural andflexible heatshield
materials. The core of the capsule is made of polyurethane (PU) foam, whereas the
heatshield is made of low density Alumina flexible felt protected by vacuumformed
aluminabased material, impregnated with red silicon ablator. The spherical PU core
contains an aluminium octagonal lightweight box, that is positioned around the central
parachute cylinder and houses the electronics and scientific payload (Figure 225)
[DePascale2006, DePascale2008]. Fotino probes a yet untried regime of reentry where
useful lessons about the atmosphere can be learned. With its relatively low ballistic
coefficient it will decelerate primarily during the rarefied and slip flow regimes
[Asma2008]. From a scientific point of view the spherical shape is also considered
interestingasflightdatacanbestraightforwardlyfittedtothemodels.
A model of the capsule was tested in the Plasmatron facility at VKI, Brussels, under a
representativeenthalpyprofilebasedonsimulationsusingtheMTBSimsreentryphysics
modelthatmergesresultsfromCFD(ComputationalFluidDynamics,continuumregime)
andDMCS(DirectMonteCarloSimulation,rarefiedregime),Figure224.
Despite its small size, Fotino contains two separate electronics systems, the Primary
RecoverySystem(PRS)andtheDataAcquisitionSystem(DAS),schematicallyrepresented
inFigure227andFigure228.
ThePrimaryRecoverySystemsmaincomponentisanArgosbeacon(seeSection7.3.3).The
Argosbeaconisdesignedtosurviveanimpactwithoutparachute,andforthispurposeit
hasitsownbatteryandasystemthatkeepsthepowerrunningonceithasbeenswitchedon,
evenifthewiringtoArgosbreaks.ThebeaconusestwodiametricallyorientedDDRRloop
antennas intended to achieve nearomnidirectional transmission. These antennas are the
moresensitivepartofthePRSsystem.
316 Chapter7
Figure224.FotinomodelinPlasmatron
Figure225.CrosssectionofFotinostructure
Toreducetheprobabilityoffailureandriskatimpact,aparachutesystemisincluded.The
singleparachuteisabout1mdiameteranddeceleratesFotinofrom60m/sto15m/s.The
parachute is folded and kept between two halves of a foam container, the sabot. The
ejectionsystemfortheparachuteiscompactandusestwoconcentricsprings(Figure226).
Thesmaller,centralspringopenstheheatshieldatthebackofthecapsulebypushingonthe
sabot.TheouterspringacceleratesthesabotwithchuteoutofFotinoat10m/s,sufficientto
overcome the worst case atmospheric drag force and extend the parachute cord. Once
outsideofthecapsule,thetwosabotpartssplitupandtheparachuteisreleased.Various
safetyfeaturesareincludedtoavoidinadvertentfiringofthepyro.
Both Argos power and parachute ejection are triggered by the Beacon and Parachute
Activation System (BAS/PAS), a logic device in hardware. A timer starts to count down
from300safterawireonthecapsulenosehasmoltenearlyinreentry.Apressureswitch,
triggeringat5kmaltitude,isusedincombinationwiththetimer.Itswitchesonthebeacon
usingORlogicforreliabilty,andinitiatesejectionoftheparachuteusingANDlogicfor
safety.
Fotinos Data Logger System (DLS) is similar to that of MASS, and is switched on when
FotinoisreleasedfromMASS, asabreakwireiscutbyaMFDpyro. TheDLStransmits
sciencedatatothegroundinUHF,usingtwoDDRRantennas,butstoresthedataonFlash
as well. The transmission starts based on a timer, at about 1000seconds after release, i.e.
shortlybeforeatmosphericentry,andtransmitsthemostrecent300sofdatainbinsof30s.
Shortly after landing, about 40minutes after release, the DLS switches to homing beacon
modetoassistrecovery.
TheDLSisconnectedtoalargenumberofatmosphericsensorsanddynamicsensors.The
atmospheric sensors are 8absolute pressure sensors, 4high precision relative pressure
sensors,functioningasabsolutesensorsinvacuum,and15thermocouples,distributedover
YES2 317
thefrontheatshieldofthecapsuleformaximumsciencereturn. Dynamicsensorsinclude
onchipgyroscopes,magnetometersandaccelerometers.Fotinoalsocontainssomepassive
experimentalradiationsensors.
Figure226.Fotinoparachuteejectionsystem
BAS/PAS+
pressure
sensor
YK8 Batteries
Meltwire
Timer
ARGOSBeacon
+splitter+
antennas
Meltwires
safe
Parachute
igniter
ARGOSBattery
andSwitch
Figure227.FotinoPRSelectronicsdiagram.YK8isanEGSEconnectorforarmingandmonitoring.
DLS
Sensorboard
Pressuresensors
and
Thermocouples
Dynamic
sensors
YK7
Batteries
Breakwire
TM&
homing+
antennas
Figure228.FotinoDASelectronicsdiagram.YK8isanEGSEconnectorforarming,monitoring
andprogramming.
318 Chapter7
7.5 ManagementoftheYES2project
7.5.1 Systemsengineeringtoolsandapproach
YES2hasbeendevelopedtotherelevantdesignstandardswithinESA,takenandtailored
fromtheEuropeanCooperationforSpaceStandardization(ECSS)andthedocumentation
standard in use by the ESA/MSMG department (GPQMAN01, 1998). Documentation
deliverableshave beeninherited fromtheQPQstandard,aswellasthe requirementsfor
traceability of configuration items, interface requirements and verifications. In addition,
particular attention has been paid to traceability of tradeoffs and design decisions,
inventory management, safety, definition of manufacturing processes and operational
proceduresaswellasstreamliningofinterfacedocumentation.
Two webbased interactive system engineering tools have been developed. These tools,
STEFI andALBATROS,havemade itpossible to achievetraceability andefficiency,even
withalarge,disperseandvolatilegroupofteammembers.
Thefirsttool,STEFI(SupportToolforEternallyFilingIssues)servestodocument,organize
andformalizetherationaleofdesigntradeoffs,andmakethosediscussionstransparentand
easilyaccessibletoallteammembers.STEFIisasimpletoolthathassavedalotoftimeas
decisionscanbetracedbackandreiterationofsimilardiscussionsisprevented.
Thesecondtool,ALBATROS(AutomatedListing,BudgetingandTraceabilityRepOSitory),
is a flexible configuration item management tool [Hambloch2007]. The ALBATROS tool
contains all about 15000 configuration items of YES2 and their interrelationships.
Configuration items in YES2 are defined very broadly as all entities that are considered
valuable to keep track of, including contact information, requirements, project
documentation, subsystems, hardware parts andtheirstoragelocationsaswell assignals
andtheirconnections.Itisbasedonaproducttreethatstartsfromasubsystemtreewhereto
allnewitemsarelogicallyattached.Interrelationsbetweentheitemscanbeeasilydefined.
Specificqueriesandprocessingfunctionscanthenbedefinedthatsearchandprocessthe
treeviathoserelationships.
Because the tool is accessible for all team members and from anywhere online, a single
statusofthesystemisavailableatalltimes.Inconsistenciesarethuseffectivelyprevented.
An advantage of ALBATROS is that the often monotonous and repetitive task of
configuration control can be easily distributed between team members. This allows the
system engineer to focus on primary tasks, such as system design and verification of
documents,ratherthanondataentryandconsistencychecks.
ALBATROScanproducesemiautomaticallymuchoftherequiredandoftenusedproduct
assurancedocumentation.Examplesaretherequirementflowdownandtraceabilitymatrix,
the validation matrix, harnessing manufacturing procedures and electrical interface
documentation.Thetoolprovidesallsortsofoverviewlistingsandbudgetssuchasforthe
inventory,assemblylogsandsystemmassbudget.
YES2 319
ElectronicfilesaremanagedseparatelyfromAlbatros.Documents,evenifonlyintended,
areregisteredonALBATROS,andwhenwritten,keptinasinglepoolonanFTPserver.
Version control and naming of documents is performed manually according to a
predescribed standard. Software versions are maintained through an automated CVS
system.
7.5.2 Innovationfromeducation
UndertheleadofDeltaUtec,theYES2subsystemshavebeendesignedandbuiltwiththe
helpofhundredsofstudentsandyoungengineers.Around180studentsfrom25countries
and50universitiescontributedwithdesignreportsandhandsonworktotheYES2effort.
Theworkhasresultedinabout100internships,90conferencepapersand50Bachelorand
MasterTheses.Over200morestudentsparticipatedinearlybrainstormsessionsorproject
work. An overview of educational results of YES2 is provided in [Kruijff2003.III,
Kruijff2007].
In working effectively with this many students, a personal relationship between
managementandthestudentshasbeenfoundfundamental,suchthatmutualinterestsare
appreciatedandrespected.Taskassignmentsandtradeoffs,forexample,havetakeninto
account the need for student motivation. It has helped therefore that, as with YES, the
innovativeandchallengingcharacterofthetetherandalsoofthereentrysystemhasclearly
contributedtothemotivationalvalueoftheproject.Theobjectivehasbeenforthestudents
to lose fearofcreatingand to haveconfidenceinthescientificprinciplestheyhavebeen
taught.Furthermore, thestudentshavebeenmaximallychallengedandprovidedwithas
muchresponsibilityastheyarecomfortablewith.Someparticularlyinvolvedstudentshave
beengiventhepossibilitytogrowandforexamplemanagenewlyarrivedteammembers.
Personal issues have been addressed with care, and in most cases, housing and other
primary needs could also be arranged. The students satisfaction level with their
participationhasremainedhighbothduringandaftertheinvolvement.
A side effect of this approach has been that the design has been partially shaped by the
educationalobjective.Thishasworkedoutintwodirections.Notalltheinnovativework
endedupinthefinaldesign.Forexample,intheearlystagesoftheproject,considerable
efforthasbeeninvestedinthedevelopmentofaninflatablereentrycapsuleprototypethat
was eventually not completed but replaced by the simpler Fotino. On the other hand,
students and universities yet without experienced in space technology have introduced
novelsolutionsfromotherdomainssuchastextile,materialandinformationtechnology.
SimilarlyasforYES,YES2hasbeenperformedunderconsiderablefinancialconstraints,yet
has been helped forward by its sympathetic character. In contrast, more industrial
SpaceMail initiatives have proven to be not financially viable [Sabath1996.I, Alenia1995,
Gavira2000].
Allinall,theYES2projectisaproductofaninteractionbetweeneducation,innovationand
motivation, as schematically represented in Figure 229. It has led to an output beyond
320 Chapter7
education or a satellite design. In addition, meaningful technology development and
innovationhasbeenachieved.

Education
Innovation
Motivation
Figure229.Theproductiveinteractionsofasufficientlychallengingeducationalprojectleadtomore
thanjustdesign
These results have not been trivially achieved however. Students often need intense
managementandrequireseveralmonthstogetaccustomed.Ithappensregularlythatthey
arerequiredtoleavebeforetheycancompletetheirtask.Informationtransferbetweenthe
generationsandprovisionofconsistencythroughouttheprojectarethuskeyneeds. Ithas
proven critical for success that a dedicated core of involved professional provides this
continuity. In case of YES2, DeltaUtec has carried the project responsibilities. It has
providedaclearandcontinuousinterface,guardedtheprojectfocusandhasmadethefinal
design decisions. It is recommended for challenging projects with extensive student
involvementthatsuchadedicatedcoreofprofessionalsperformsatleasttheplanningand
management, finds necessary sponsors, defines the system requirements and leads the
criticaltasks ofsystemsengineering, knowledge managementandsystem verification. If
thereareknowledgegapswithinthiscoreteam,thereisaresponsibilitytoinvolveexternal
experts.
7.5.3 Projectphasing
TheYES2project,inretrospect,hasgonethroughthreephases.Ineachphase,adifferent
pathhasbeenfollowed. Table67 providesinsightintothetimelineandeventsthatdefine
theYES2project.Thethreeidentifiedphaseshavebeenframedforclarity:
1. abrainstormphase,
2. adetaileddesignphase,andthe
3. integrationphase.
The brainstorm phase involved about 250students and 25universities, and focused on
requirements setup, conceptual ideas and tradeoffs, parallel conceptual design works,
dynamics analysis and preliminary testing. The brainstorm inputs have been many yet
dispersedandnotnecessarilyconsistent.IthasbeennecessaryforDeltaUtecmanagement
toactivelyintegratethemintoaconsistentPreliminaryDesign[Kruijff2002,Kruijff2003.I
IV].
YES2 321
Thedetaileddesignphasethatfollowedcanbecharacterizedbytwomajorsubphases.Firstly,
thedesign,analysisandtestandsecondly,theproductionofformalCriticalDesignReview
(CDR)documentation,targetedtomeettherequiredqualitystandards.Atanytimeabout
60studentshavebeeninvolved,locatedatDeltaUtecandESA/ESTEC(mission&system
engineering) as well as at four Centers of Expertise: University of Patras (mechanical
design),SamaraStateAerospaceUniversity(missionanalysis),UniversityofReggioEmilia
(capsuledesign)andHochschuleRemagen/Krefeld(tetherdeploymentandwinding).The
design effort has proven to be very well suited for student involvement. The CDR
documentationefforthasbeenatimeconsumingchallengecoveringmultiplegenerationsof
students.
Theintegrationphasehasbeenperformedwithabout25students,allasinternsinDeltaUtec
andatESA/ESTEC.ThisphaseresemblestheYESconstructioninthesensethatithasbeen
intense and productive and has required only a single generation of collocated students.
Such a team configuration seems to be a prerequisite for successful completion of a
volunteersatelliteproject.DuringthisphaseithasbeendiscoveredthattheYES2projecthas
lackedcontinuityincertainknowledgedomains.ForYES2thislackconcernedparticularly
the field of electronics. As a result, a number of troubleshooting exercises have become
necessary.Externalexpertshavebeenhiredtoresolvesomecriticalissues,whereasforother
systems emergency solutions have been implemented or degraded performance has been
accepted.
As is clear from the project timeline, YES2 has not been immune to fundamental design
change,oftendrivenbybudgetorothernontechnicalincentives.Ithasbeendescopedor
expanded several times, thus renewing again and again the challenge and need for
motivation. It is probably not possible in future projects to avoid such changes a priori.
Ratheritisimportanttoclarifytotheteammembersthatthesedynamicsarepartofaliving
projectandbelongtotherealityofspaceengineering.
7.5.4 LessonslearnedfromYESandYES2
Most of the success factors of YES have been successfully reapplied. The team has been
maintained through a flexibility in the way of student involvement. The assignment of
prioritylevelshashelpedtobringfocusintothedevelopment.Collocationhasbeencritical
during integration. The final year of YES2 resembled the YES development in terms of
intensity,timepressureandsenseofachievement.
For YES2, most of the YES pitfalls have been avoided. Broken team spirit and excessive
complexitycouldbepreventedbypersistentlymaintainingasingle,cleardirection.Testing
hasbeenmadeaprimarypartofthesystemdevelopment(seee.g.Section5.2.4).Thefirst
fouryearsofdevelopment,testinganddocumentationhaveclearlypaidoff.Amuchhigher
qualityproducthasbeenbuilt,thatisreproducible,andthishasbeenachievedingoodteam
spirit.
YES2 featured also some new challenges and problems. The focus on testing and the
increaseddocumentationrequirementhasmadethehorizontoolongforasinglegeneration
322 Chapter7
of students andthesense ofurgencyhasoften beenabsent.Whereasthe YES designhas
remained consistent and flexible throughout the project, YES2 design requirements were
changed throughout the project, often outside team control. The mass constraint became
tighterwithtimeandnewfeaturesandrequirementswereaddedalongtheway,oftenfor
nontechnical reasons. The design went through many stages of change and
(re)optimisation. Safety concerns and financial uncertainty caused more delays. This
amounted to time pressure and exhaustion and would cause a failure that could, in
retrospect,havebeenrathereasilyprevented(Section8.5.1).Theoftenmadeattemptbythe
YES2teamtooptimizethesystem,sometimesbutnotalwaysbynecessity,haslimitedthe
flexibilityandcontrastsagainsttheYESapproachtoincludemarginswherepossible.More
thanforYES,educationhasbeenaprimaryobjectivethistime,soworkpackageshavebeen
definedsometimeslargelybyacademicratherthandirectprojectinterest.Thishasledto
reduced focus and a stretched project duration. Considering the experiences of YES
(manufacturing oriented) and YES2 (education and curriculum oriented), it can be
concluded that a good compromise is to limit the educational element to closely guided
internshipsandthesisworks.
ThemostimportantlessonslearnedaresummarizedinTable66.
1 Persistenceisakeyelementofcreativity.
2 Beopen&responsivetocritics.
3 ItishardtoMISS:itishardtomakeitsimple&smart.
4 Itpaysofftodesignwithmarginsandbackupoptions,toplanforextensivetesting&toinvestinquality
management(traceabilityofdesign,configurationitems,tradeoffs).
5 Motivation,educationandinnovationcanreinforceeachother.Responsibilityisakeyelementofmotivation.
6 Workingwithstudentscanbeenablingbutisnottrivial.Closeguidanceandcontinuityisrequired.System
engineering,therequirementsandverificationisbestlefttoexperiencedengineers.Educational
considerationsshouldnotoverruletechnicalonesthesisworksandinternshipsarethereforethebestsuited
mechanisms.Duetotheadhocnatureoffundingandorganization,regularcompromiseandrescopingis
hardtoavoid.
7 Tobeproductive,collocationiskey.
8 Getinexternalknowhowwhennecessarydespitecost.
Table66.SummarylessonslearnedfromYESandYES2
YES2 323
2000December Projectpreparationstarts.
2002April KickOff.
2002Summer Promotourto30universities.Capsuleconceptbrainstormstarts[Kruijff2002,2003.II].
2002October TethertestrigpresentedatIAFHouston,builtbyCenterofExpertiseRemagen/Krefeld.
2003April InflatablecapsulefromCranfieldselected[Morel2003].YESSimreentrysimulator
developmentstarts[Calzada2004].
2003July 1
st
RussianEuropeanSamaraSpaceSummerSchool,including30studentsfromRussiaand
Europe.Focusoncapsulestabilityandtethersafetyissues.[Belokonov2003]
2003July Parabolicflighttetherdeploymenttests.
2003August HeatshieldsampletestinginARCS,Vienna[Heide2003.I].
2003August YESSimtethersimulatordevelopmentgainsmomentum.
2003October IAFBremen,YES2contributeswithnolessthan10papers.PatrasCenterofExpertisejoins
(mechanical,dynamic,thermal).
2003December PDR(PreliminaryDesignReview)[Kruijff2003.IV].
2004February SSAU,SamaraopensCenterofExpertise.
2004March InflatablecapsuleprototypebyCenterofExpertiseReggioEmilia[Benetti2004].FLOYD
breadboardoperational.
2004July ESAdropsinflatablecapsuleduetocost.Fotinoisproposedasreplacement.Itshandson
designanddevelopmentkicksoffimmediatelywithdroptestfromplaneduring2nd
RussianEuropeanSamaraSpaceSummerSchool.
2004July YES2finalconfigurationandmissionprofilefixed(verticaltower;XBOXnolongerinside
Fotonbutmountedoncanisterpanel).YES2aimsforCDRin2005.
2004Autumn Tetherdeploymenttestcampaignforflightspoolsstarts.Windingmachineforflightspools
operational[Camps2005].YESSimcompleted[Stelzer2005].
2004October ESTECWorkshop.STEFItradeofftoolintroduced.
2005January Firstclosedloopdeploymenttestsresultinsuccess.
2005April CDRfails.Fotinoneedsmajorredesign.RequestfromESAtoupgradeYES2tomeetESAs
ECSSqualitystandards.Majorredocumentationrequired.Noextrafundingavailable.
Therefore,astudentdesigncoreteamof4,theTigerTeam,supportsDeltaUtec.
2005May FotonM2mission.PlanneddemonstrationofaFotinoprecursoronFotonM2iscancelled
duetolackoffunding.
2005October ESArequiresscienceinstrumentationandparachutesystemtobeaddedtoFotinoin
exchangeforadditionalfunding.
2005November ALBATRoSsystemengineeringtoolonline.PlaceofYES2onFotonM3highlyuncertain
duetounspecifiedreductionofmassavailability,massreductioneffortstarts.
2006February PreCDRworkshop.EmxyscompanyjoinstosupporttheYES2electronicsdesign.
2006March TsSKBperformsfeasibilitystudyforinclusionofYES2onFotonM3.Interfacerequirements
forYES2updated.[TsSKB2006]
2006Spring
/Summer
FotinoheatshieldpassesPlasmatrontestsatVKI,Brussels[Asma2008].Capsuledroptests
toverifyparachutesystem.Theyfailthreetimesduetohumanerrors.
2006April CDRpassed[YES22006].StartofimplementationofReviewItemDispositions.
324 Chapter7
2006July Goaheadtopurchaseflighthardwareandconstructthesatellite.Teamof25studentsstarts
internshipatDeltaUtec.
2006August FotonM3teamannouncesinterfacerequirementsupdatesforYES2,includingpoorthermal
connectiontoBatteryPack.
2006Summer RFequipmenttesting[Castillejo2008].HighaltitudeballoontestofFotinoelectronics
postponed.
2006Julyto
2007January
PCBmanufacturingandtest.
2006Septemberto
2007January
MechanicalpartsmanufacturingatBradfordEngineering.Finalmassreductioneffort.
2006November Safetyreview.Decisiontoswitchfromgasgeneratortospringbasedparachutesystemfor
Fotino[Hausmann2008].
2006December TetherwindingstartsinESTECcleanroom
2007January YES2MassDummyUnitcompleted.TeammovestoESTECforintegrationandsubsystem
tests.Theintendedflighttether,Ferdi,foundtoostickyduetomanufacturingflaw.Cold
vacuumsubsystemtestsindicateproblemsforbarberpolegearandOBC.Gearisredesigned.
XBOXequippedwithheaterandexternalMLI.YES2EGSEdevelopmentstarts.
2007April YES2systemtestscompleted:EMC,thermalcycle,shaker,missiontest.
2007May YES2shippedtoSamara,Russia.Newtether,Florian,producedtoreplaceFerdi.
2007June FloriantestedandintegratedinSamara.SystemtestswithFotonM3.
2007July Finalsoftwaretesting(onengineeringmodel)withclosedloopdeploymentintestrig.
ShipmentYES2toBaikonur.
2007August Safetyreviewrequiresadditionofautonomoustethercutfeature.Itisimplementedin
Baikonur.Finalmissionparametersdeterminedanduploaded.
2007September14 Launch.
2007September25 Mission.
Table67.YES2Maineventstimeline
YES2MissionandResults 325
8 YES2MissionandResults
Onetestresultisworthonethousandexpertopinions.
WernhervonBraun
ThisChapterpresentsthevariousstepsfromfinalflightpreparationtoflight,dataanalysis
andflightdatamatchingbysimulation.
8.1 Flightpreparation
TheflightpreparationphaseofYES2isdescribedinthissection.Beforetheflight,thetether
deployer friction model parameters need to be estimated. Using those parameters, the
controlgainsandreferencetrajectorycanbedeterminedanduploaded.Testsareperformed
inordertoverifytheperformance.
8.1.1 Deployercharacterization
Thefirststepinthepreparationoftheinorbittetherdeploymentisafinalestimationofthe
deployerparametersofEq.5.30.Tensionbehaviorismeasuredwiththeunwindingtestrig
for two sets of parameters, using two types of deployment tests: a full deployment to
characterize the spool, and partial deployment to characterize the brake. The results are
summarizedinTable68.
Thefirstsubsetofparameters,relatedtothedynamictensioneffects,isdeterminedbasedon
a full test unwinding of the prefinal spool, without making use of the brake system. A
predetermineddeploymentprofileisfollowed,approximatelyrepresentativeofthenominal
flightprofile,butaccordingtodiscretevelocitysteps.
Figure 230 shows the test results for the YES2 flight winding. It can be seen that the
simplifiedtensionmodelfitoverestimatesthetensionatlowvelocitywhenthereisnotyeta
centrifugaltetherballcreatedthatinteractswiththecanister.Asaconsequence,thebestfit
underestimatesthetensionathighvelocity.Atlowvelocity,whenthedeploymentcontrolis
morecritical,itwillberelativelyeasytoincreasefriction,soeventhoughabetterfitcould
beachievedbyusingseparatemodelsforlowandhighvelocity,thefithasbeenacceptedas
aconservativeapproximationguaranteeingdeployment.Aftercompletionofthistest,the
spoolneedsobviouslytoberewoundinasimilarmanner.
326 Chapter8
Figure230.Testresultsfordeterminationofdeployerhardwaremodelparameters,unwinding
tensionasafunctionoflengthatvariousconstantvelocitylevels.
Theremainingparameters,relatedtothebrakeperformancecanbedeterminedfromjusta
partial unwinding. It is important that the tether unwinds with the same twist
characteristicsasinflight,asthisaffectsthebehavioronthebrake(Section5.4.1).Forthis
reasonanexcessamountoftetheriswoundonthespool,andthisextrakilometerisusedfor
abrakeperformancetest.Deploymentisperformedaccordingtoatightschedule,atthree
velocities(0.5m/s,1m/s,2m/s).Foreachvelocitysetting,thebrakeispositionedstepwise
through its range of settings (from low braking activity to high, and back), and at each
setting,theaveragetensionismeasured.Thevelocitysettingsarerevisitedtwicetoobtain
better statistics. The data is used to determine the friction coefficient and the spools
minimaldeploymenttension(tetherstickiness)asafunctionofvelocity.
Thesameprocedureisfollowedfortheengineeringmodelandfortheflightmodeltether.
Incaseoftheflightmodel,theexcesstetheriscutoffafterunwindingandstoredforfuture
referenceasatethersectionwiththesamemanufacturinghistoryandawinding/unwinding
historyascloseaspossibletotheflighttether.
Figure231showstheresultforfinalflightpole.Thedatapointsaretensionaveragesovera
15sinterval.Thestandarddeviationofthetensiondatatypicallyrangesfrom2030%.The
curvefitisobtainedusingaleastsquaresfit.Thelogarithmicrepresentationunderlinesthe
exponential behavior to at least 6wraps (effectively 5.75, see Section 5.4.1). T
0
can be
estimatedfromthemultiplierofthefit,0.0085N,andtakingintoaccounteffectofvarious
guidesintheflightsystemitwillbeabout0.01N.Thefrictioncoefficientisdeterminedfrom
theexponent1.082andisapproximately1.082/2t 0.17.Atlowturnsthepolecanbeseento
belesseffective,probablyduetopoorcontactpressureatthelowincomingtensionpresent
duringthetest.
YES2MissionandResults 327
Further research has shown that the friction coefficient f depends on velocity and varies
most at low velocity, under 2m/s a situation occurring during much of the first stage.
Unwindingtestshavethereforebeenperformedatvariousvelocities.
Theanalysishasbeenperformedforthevariouscombinationsoftethersandpolesinuse
(engineering and flight models, Figure 232). Florian is the flight tether, Ferdi is the
engineeringmodeltether.Duetocircumstances(Section7.5.3),thetetherFlorianwasnever
testedontheflightmodelofthepole,thelikelyperformanceisthereforeextrapolatedfrom
theavailabledata.
Figure231.Exponentialrelationshipbetweenbarberpolebrake
turnsandtension
Figure232.Tetherbarberpolefrictioncoefficientestimateforflightbasedon
groundtests
328 Chapter8
Parameter Symbol Preflightvalue
Tension[N] T
0
0.0085
Inertiamultiplier[] I 8
Density[kg/m] r 0.000182
Annulussolidity[] Asol 0.9
Areaexponent[] E 0.73
Frictioncoefficient[] f =0.2above1.5m/sdeployment
velocity,decreasinglinearlyto0.1at
zerodeploymentvelocity
Frictioncoefficientonguides[] fguides 0.184
Bendingangleoverguides[rad] u
guides
0.64
InplaneorientationofFoton[rad] u
Foton
0,assumed
Table68.Preflightdeployermodelparameters
8.1.2 Developingandtestingofthedeploymentalgorithms
Thereferencedeploymentisdeterminedbydefiningandsolvingthesinglephaseoptimal
controlproblemwherevariablefeedbackgainparametersareobtainedthroughreceding
horizon optimization using a GaussLobatto Quadrature discretisation, Section5.5. The
problemdefinitionincludesthebarberpole tensionperformancemodelandthe following
boundary constraints that are imposed for reasons of deployment robustness and to
improveeffectivenessandaccuracyofthemomentumtransfer(Sections3.1.1,4.2.1):
anominalejectionvelocityv
0
=2.2m/s,basedonejectionenergyandtheestimated
effectofthetiedownsbraking
afirststagelengthofabout3400mand
asecondstagelengthofabout30km,
aminimumvelocityduringthecriticalpartofthefirststageof0.5m/s,
amaximumdeploymentvelocityinthesecondstageof13m/s,yet
obtainaneffectiveswingangleofatleast30degrees(Section2.2.1).Thelatterisa
rather limiting requirement but necessary to provide the required AV to the
capsule.
agentlefinaldecelerationtoavoidspringmassoscillationoftheendmass.
Eachofabouttendeploymenttrajectoriessuggestediniterativestepsbytheoptimization
process (length and velocity vs. time, hereafter referred to as profile) [Williams2007,
Williams2009]hasbeenverifiedintheMTBSimsimulator.Thischeckisperformedinorder
toverifythesettingsarecompatiblewiththe(simulated)softwarecontroller,toconfirmthat
the tether does not bend due to Coriolis effects, which may cause a standing transverse
wave after deceleration, and finally, to make sure the endmass does not bounce after
YES2MissionandResults 329
deployment is stopped. A preliminary selection has been made based on the minimum
velocityearlyinthedeployment,ahighervalueoftheminimumvelocityisconsideredto
provideamorerobustprofile.Variousremainingprofileshavebeencomparedusingfive
setsofextremeparameterdisturbances.Themostrobustonehasbeenselected.Themost
extremecasesusedarepresentedinTable69.Theycoveralargedispersioncomparedtothe
nominalvaluesofTable68:
Worstcase v0[m/s] f T0[N] I
Highfriction 1.7 0.3 0.03 20
Lowfriction 2.4 0.12 0.0055 2
Table69.Extremecasesfordeploymentpreflightrobustnesssimulation
Asacceptableoutputforthesecasesisdefinedalengtherrorofunder3%,andafirststage
oscillationangleunder10,aswellaslimitedtransverseandlongitudinalwaveexcitation
(i.e.avoidingoccurrenceoftetherslacknessatanytimeduringthemission).Thecontroller
outputoftheadvancedsimulatorforthemostrobustandsmoothsolutionisusedasthe
finalnominalprofile.
Anumberofotherparametersaresetintheflightsoftwareinitializationfile.Someofthese
parameters impact details and tradeoffs of the deployment control. Velocity filter
parametersareoneexample.Thefiltersize,i.e.thenumberofhistoricalvelocityestimates
takenintoaccountbythevelocityfilterimpactsthetradeoffbetweensmoothnessofcontrol
versusdelayofthecontrollerresponse(Section5.5.3).Theparameterissettofourvalues,
equivalenttoeightsecondsofhistoricaldata.Anotherexampleisthedurationofinitially
uncontrolleddeployment.Foranumberofsecondsafterejection,thefilterwillbefilledwith
the reference velocity rather than with the measured velocity, in order to provide an
opportunity for the filter to establish an accurate estimate. The brake feedback will be
startedafter16seconds.Withthesevalues,YES2aimsatamorealertcontrolthanSEDS2,
wherethefilterhasacutofffrequencyof0.02Hz(50speriod)andfeedbackisnotactivated
until750sintodeployment[Lorenzini1996].
Theinitialpositionofthebarberpolehasbeensubjecttoatradeoffaswell.Havingnoturns
onthepolewouldeaseinitialdeploymentandwouldmorelikelyleadtofulldeploymentin
case of gear or stepper mechanism failure. A single turn on the pole would increase the
shock of the breaking of the tiedowns and therefore increase the stabilizing effect on
ejectiondynamics.However,incaseofgearorstepperfailure,thisoptioncouldleadtoa
closetonominal,yetsinglestage,passivedeployment.Azeroturnpositionisselected.
Anotherbarberpolesettingisthemaximumallowablebrakepositionduringtheholdphase,
suchthatthebrakecanbesuccessfullyreleasedatthestartofthesecondstage,withoutthe
tether jamming in the brake mechanism or gear. In a parabolic flight test, it has been
330 Chapter8
establishedthatamaximumnumberofsevenwrapsofthetetheraroundthebarberpolecan
beunwoundinazerogravityenvironmentwithouttetherjam.
Somecontingenciesarecoveredbysoftwareandcontrolledwithprogrammableparameters.
Forexample,ifthesecondstagestartcommand(YTK4)forsomereasondoesnotarrive,the
holdphase timeout parameter (set to 2200s) makes sure the second stage will still be
executed late, but better than never (see also Section7.4.3). The value for this timeout
value has been selected to still have sufficient flexibility for ground control to adjust the
second stage start time during the mission, whereas, in case of YTK4 failure, a closeto
nominalperformancecanbeachieved.
Asimilarautonomyhasbeenincludedforacontingencytethercut.Incaseofcutcommand
malfunction(YTK3),theYES2OBChasbeenprogrammedtocutthetetheronehourafter
theendofthesecondstage.Anautonomoustethercuthasalsobeenincludedincasethe
deployment velocity drops below 1cm/s during the first 500m of tether deployment
(Section7.4).
Withallparametersdecidedupon,ideallyMTBSimisusedtoperformaMonteCarlorunto
verifyrobustness(Section5.5.5).The3olandingareaobtainedforthiscasehasadimension
ofabout384x60km,typicalforballisticreentrycapsules.Therelativelylargecrossrangeis
duetothelargesusceptibilityofthelightweightFotinocapsuletowind.
8.1.3 Testingtheflightsoftware
Inanextstep,thedeployerhardwareemulator(Section5.2.3)isusedtotesttheOnBoard
Computer(OBC)anditssoftwarewithoutactuallydeployingatether(Section7.4.3,using
anengineeringorflightmodeldependingonavailability).Itisintendedtoverify,inareal
time environment, successful parameter upload, electrical signal interaction with the
surroundingequipmentand,finally,controllerperformance.
In absence of the physical tether deployer, not only the tether deployment, but also the
performance andelectrical interfacesignalsofthat tetherdeployer,aresimulated in real
timebytheemulator,whichrunsonastandardPC.Theemulatormimicssignalsfromthe
tetherlengthsensors(theOpticalLoopDetectorsorOLD)andfeedsthemtotheOBC.The
emulator receives the stepper driver control commands from the OBC, and uses this
informationtocalculatewhatwouldbe,inarealsituation,thenewbarberpoleposition,the
resultingfriction,andtheimpactonthetetherdeploymentvelocityandthusontheOLD
signaloutput.Andsoon.Telecommandscanalsobesentandtelemetrymonitored.
ThisapproachallowstorealisticallytesttheOBC,softwareandcontrollerperformance.The
initial conditions (such as FotonM3 semimajor axis, ejection velocity) and hardware
parameters(e.g.barberpolebrakefrictioncoefficient)intheemulatorcanbedisturbedwith
respecttothoseusedintheOBCtotestcontrollerrobustness.Hardwarefailurescanalsobe
straightforwardlysimulatede.g.bydisconnectingoneortwooftheOLDinputsignalsorby
performingarebootoftheOBCduringdeployment.BecausethePC104requiresasmuchas
38stostartup,theOBCcontrollersoftwareextrapolatesthedeploymentoverthetimeof
reboottoestimatelengthdeployedinthemeantime.Forthisreason,theOBCsavescritical
YES2MissionandResults 331
deploymentstatusparametersonceasecondintoFlashmemory.Theemulatorisalsoused
totuneparametersofthesoftwaresOLDpulsefilter(Section5.5.3).
The emulatortestcan replacea fullsystemtest inthe projectsdevelopmentphasewhen
designisbeingtuned or changes rapidly, but alsoaftersystem completion. At thattime,
when electrical system performance has already been demonstrated, the emulator can be
usedtoquicklyverifytheimpactoflatechangesinsoftwareparametersettings.
8.1.4 Testingthesystem
Thetetherdeployerandcontrollerperformancecanbetestedrealisticallyintheclosedloop
deploymenttestrig(Section5.2.2),andincaseofYES2,thishasbeendone3monthsbefore
launch using an engineering model of the deployer system. Such tests are much more
laboriousthananemulatortest.Thewindingrequiredforasinglefullunwindingtesttakes
minimallytwodaystoproduce.Althoughanexperiencedengineercanthendoseveraltests
inoneday,itisrecommendedtwomoredaysarereservedforpreparationandexecutionof
atest.Theclosedloopdeploymenttestaddsfeaturesthattheemulatordoesnotprovide:
1. thefullflightsystemcanbeused,soelectricalsignalsaremorerealistic,
2. loop unwinding irregularities as a result of the spool winding are represented
(stickslipprocess),
3. tensionpeaksresultingfromwindingpatternandirregularitiesappearrealistically,
4. actual, rather than simulated hardware performance is featured (with respect to
unwindingtension,brakefrictionetc.),
5. impact of environmental features can also be assessed (zerog, vacuum, off
nominaltemperature,impactofthermalcycling,vibrationsetc.).
TheYES2testriginparticularhasproventobesuitableeventotestsubtlefeatures,suchas
maintaining zero deployment velocity during the hold phase (by increasing the brake
slightlyifaloopdeploys)andtherestartofdeploymentatthebeginningofthesecondstage
(Section5.6.2).Insuchsituations,stickslipprocessesoccuronthedeployer,andthetether
may be alternatingly deploying and halting depending on the balance between gravity
gradient tension and the friction in the deployer. The test rigs godet (or deployment
actuator)ishoweverdesignedforapplyingvelocitytothetether,nottension.Torealistically
simulate a hold phase and the stickslip processes that may occur, the godet probes the
deployerfrictionlevelby deployingataminute velocityofabout 2mm/s.The measured
tensionisameasureofthedeployerfrictionandiscomparedtothesimulatedtensionfora
nondeployingtether,inordertodeterminewhetheratanytimethetetherwouldstartto
slip.
The unwinding test rig (version 2) can reproduce the effect of tether oscillations on
deployment velocity to a good extent. The RTBSim simulator includes tether flexibility,
whilethetestriggodet hasalowinertiaandcanquicklyrespond.Anearliertestrig(for
ESAs TSE project) was found to uncontrollably resonate in such cases due to the large
inertiaofthe drive system,see Section5.6.1.Alsothecaseofabouncingendmasson the
332 Chapter8
tether, in combination with intermittent deployment is realistically reproduced. Some
limitationsoftheYES2unwindingrigaredescribedinSection5.2.2.
8.1.5 Makinglatechanges
It is convenient to have the possibility to make late changes. For example it may be
necessarytoadaptcontrollerparameterstodealwithlatechangesinthelaunchersorbital
elements or the tethers endmass. All parameters in YES2 as well as the reference
deployment profile are contained in an initfile that is uploaded into the YES2 OBC one
weekbeforelaunch.Untilthattime,newinitfilescanberevisedandupdated.
Theinitfilegeneratordevelopedforthispurposeisaseparatepieceofsoftwarewithauser
friendly graphical user interface. It provides warnings of potential anomalous data entry
and logs copies of all input inputs and files used for traceability. This setup makes it
possible for example that the deployment profile and feedback gain optimization can be
based on the latest insights and system parameters and can be reliably updated without
impactingtheflightsoftware.
It may also happen that the actual flight software requires an update. This has in fact
happened with the YES2 software after interface communication tests with the FotonM3
vehicle,twomonthsbeforelaunch.Impactofanychangeinsoftware,evenifnotdirectly
relatedtothetetherdeploymentcontrolmustbeverified.
Forthisreasontheemulatorsystem(Section8.1.3)hasbeenbroughtalongtothelaunchsite,
togetherwithanengineeringmodeloftheOBC.Thefinalemulatedrealtimedeployment
testsweresuccessfulandthenewsoftwareandparameterswereuploaded.
NotethattheYES2missiondesigndoesallowforintroductionofsmallchangesduringthe
actual flight, to respond to a safety critical situation or to updated orbital parameters.
AlthoughneitherthesoftwareparametervaluescanatthistimebechangednortheFotino
release time from MASS, a number of events can still be controlled by timetag (ejection,
start second stage, cut tether: see Table 62), and this is sufficient for finetuning of the
mission. The final telecommand timeline is uploaded one day before the start of
deployment.
8.2 Missionsummary
Launch of FotonM3 and YES2 on a Soyuz rocket from Baikonur is as planned on 14
September11:00:00UTC.Theorbitachievedissoclosetonominalthattheplannedtether
missiontimelinecanremainvirtuallyunchanged.Onthe24thofSeptember,10daysinto
the FotonM3mission, the tether mission timeline is uploaded to Foton by telecommand
based on the most recent Foton orbital parameter estimates. The mission timeline is
summarizedinTable70andFigure233.
At this time, there is significant worry about the YES2 system temperature at switchon.
QualificationtestshavedemonstratedthattheYES2onboardcomputermaynotstartup
YES2MissionandResults 333
properlyiftheambienttemperatureisbelow10C.Oncestarted,theinstalledheaterswill
improvethethermalcondition.YES2islargelyisolatedfromthethermallycontrolledFoton
M3spacecraftandshieldedfromtheSunononesidebythe1.8mdiameterbatterypack.On
the other hand, reflections from the thermal blanket on the FotonM3battery pack help
increasetheamountofreceivedsolarradiation.YES2ispoweredon,onSeptember25
th.
.
Fortunately,initialdatafromYES2,receivedthroughtheCanadiangroundstation,showsa
benign temperatureof2C, see alsoFigure233.In thisfigurethe shaded zonesindicate
periodsofeclipse.Theapproximatetemperatureofthetetheronthespool(OLD)andOBC
(XBOX)arealsoindicated.Thesetemperaturesseemhardlyaffectedbythedaynightcycle
thatFotonisgoingthrough,onlyaweakchangeinratemaybeobserved.Theheaterworks
properlyandisswitchedoffasplannedwhenthetemperaturebreaches20C.Confirmation
ofarmingofthepyrotechnicsisreceivednext,andhealthdatafromallsystemsarenominal.
Itisthendecidedtoproceedwiththeejectionanddeploymentasinthenominaltimeline.
Inthe groundcontactsfollowingejection, theOBCreportstotheRussianground station
statussummariesthatincludetheprocessedlengthandvelocityresultsasestimatedbythe
softwarebasedonthereceivedOLDpulsetimetags.ThemuchmorebulkydataoftheOLD
timetagsarestoredontheTSUunit,andarepartofthetelemetry.Insuccessiveground
contacts,thefollowingeventsareconfirmed:
properejectionandsafeinitialseparationofendmassachieved,
first stage achieved within 10meters of nominal length, hold phase and start of
secondstagealsonominal.
The OBCestimated length as collected during the final groundstation passage however,
indicatesonlyapartialdeploymentof8.5kmatcompletionofthesecondstage.Telemetry
furtherindicatesthattheOLDsensors healthisgood,whilethevelocityappearstohave
deceleratedtozerooveranextendedperiodofnearly40minutes,whereasallthistime,the
brakeissettozero.Theimpliedverylowlevelofdecelerationisconsideredsuspicious,asit
means that friction must have somehow consistently and closely tracked the gravity
gradientasitchangedwithtetherlengthandinplaneangle.Nophysicalmechanismcanbe
offered that explains this behavior. If correct however, the Fotino and tether have been
released into a low Earth orbit with a lifetime of several days and essentially a random
landinglocation.Astudentteamthathasdeployedamobilegroundstation,downstreamof
the nominal landing site in Kazakhstan [Castillejo2008], has not received any signal of
Fotino, nor is any Fotino or MASS signal received by the ground stations in Kiruna or
Canada.YES2teammembersandcolleaguesaroundtheworldarecharteredtowatchfor
thesunlittethervisuallyasitwouldbepassingthenightskyoverhead,buttonoavail
despitesomegoodobservationconditions.USSTRATCOMhoweverdispatchesamessage
thatitbelievesFotinohasbeenreleasedaroundthenominaltimeandhasinalllikelihood
reenteredrathernominally.
Somedayslater,whentheOLDdatahasbeenmadeavailable,postflightanalysisrevealsa
problem in the length and velocity registration during the second stage deployment. It
334 Chapter8
becomesclearthat,towardsthefinalpartofdeployment,neart
eject
+6260s,anintermittent
butincreasinglyfailingregistrationofthereceivedOLDpulseshasledtheOBCtowrongly
conclude that the tether deployment is slowing down, and it has therefore released the
brake

[Spiliotopoulos2008](Section8.5.1).
Theactualeventsofthefinalpartofdeploymentcannowbereconstructed.Infact,muchof
the uncontrolled deployment that follows the said failure resembles the nominal
deployment profile, as also in the nominal profile the second stage deployment involves
verylittlebrakeeffort.Thelackofacontrolledfinaldecelerationtowardsthetargetlength
of30kmresultsinanuncheckedoverdeploymentby1.7kmandasignificantshockasthe
endofthetetheronthespoolisfinallyreachedatt
eject
+8626s,atalengthof31.7kmanda
velocity of 15m/s. Nominal deployment should have reached the target length of 30km
onlyat t
eject
+9189s.Thepostflightanalysisshowsthattheintendedswingtothevertical
has nevertheless occurred and release of the tether from FotonM3 can be confirmed as
planned t
eject
+9364s,verycloseinfacttothenominalinplaneangleforrelease. Thehigh
velocitydeploymenthasledtoalargerdeploymentangleaswellasanearlierdeployment
stop and thus a longer swing time than foreseen, two effects that to some extent have
canceledeachotherout.Theincreasedtetherlengthhoweverhasnotbeencanceledbyany
othereffect,suchthattheFotinoisestimatedtohavereenteredtowardsaprojectedlanding
pointasmuchas1250kmupstreamfromthenominalone.
TheYES2deploymentsmajorparameterscanbequantifiedasfollows.Deploymenttension
hasbeenclosetonominalandvariedbetween0.03Ninthefirststageto0.16Nduringthe
hold phase, while increasing to about 1.8N in the second stage. The nominal maximum
tensionfortheswingis3.7N,butinthemission,duetotheoverdeploymentashockofa
much higher tension of 40N was introduced as the end of the tether was reached. The
passive release system on MASS, designed to trigger at a tension of about 55N, did not
activate,allowingthetethertothenmaketheswingtothevertical.Inplaneanglesduring
deployment ranged from 0to 50 (forward direction), with a final downwardbackward
swingreturningfromabout40backtowardsthevertical.Thedeploymentvelocityranged
from2.2m/sinitiallytoa16m/smaximum.

Figure233.Temperaturedevelopmentofcriticalsystemsvs.themajormissionmilestonesduring
YES2mission.SeealsoTable70.
YES2MissionandResults 335
Event Date UTC Orbit# tteject[s] Description
LaunchFoton 14September2007 11:00:00 1
Upload
telecommands
24September2007 14:00:00 163 Representingthemissiontimeline.
SwitchYES2on 25September2007 2:03:00
Firstrelayed
rawdata
2:07:00
YTK10 2:13:00
171 9813
9573 Through TSU (data storage and
forwarding):temperatureOK.
9213 Armpyros.
TKTM 3:17:00 172 5375 Receivetelemetry(confirmarming).
YTK8 4:45:33
YTK2(t=teject) 4:46:33
TKTM 4:50:00
Startholdphase 5:55:13
173 60 SwitchonMASS.
0 Ejection.
207 Receive telemetry (confirm ejection,
reaching300msafelength).
4120
YTK4 6:19:32
Startsecond
stage
6:21:12
TKTM 6:23:00
ReleaseFotino 7:22:17
YTK3 7:22:37
174 5580 Prepareforsecondstagedeployment.
5680
5786 Receive telemetry (confirm first stage
andstartsecondstagedeployment).
9344
9364 CuttetheronFotonside.
ProjectedFotino
landing
7:57:00
TKTM 7:53:00
175 11420 Nominal landing site 66.2E 50.6N.
Ground recovery team situated
downstream at 67.5E 51.6N. No
beaconsignalisreceived.
11186 Receive telemetry (confirm second
stagedeployment).
SwitchYES2off 9:16:00 176 16166
Lastrelayed
rawdata
downlink
12:15:00 178 Through TSU (data storage and
forwarding) inside Foton (full
downloadrawdata).
LandingFoton 26September2007 ~7:58:00 189
Table70.YES2missiontimeline,majormilestonesinbold.
336 Chapter8
8.3 Dataanalysis
8.3.1 Analysisobjectives
Animportantdriverofboththedesignphaseandthemissionanalysisistodemonstrate
safety and predictability of the tether deployment and control. The achieved deployment
trajectoryandprojectedoractuallandingspotisthustobedeterminedandcomparedtothe
nominalvalues.
The hardware performance is assessed based on recorded tension data and compared to
resultsfromgroundtestsandsimulations.Thepredictabilityofdeployerhardwarefriction
and the possibility to adjust those friction levels in a predictable manner determines the
hardwares potential to control the deployment. Apart from the friction and brake
performance,tetherpropertiessuchasstiffness,speedofsoundanddampingarederived
fromtheflightdataandcomparedtopreflighttestresults.Theclosedloopcontrolsoftware
performanceintheactualflightsituationistobeevaluatedbystudyofthedatafromthe
deployment sensors and the software controller and by correlating the control to the
dynamicresponseofthedeployment.
Itisthenattemptedtomatchtheflightdatabysimulation. Asimulatormatchcanhelpto
reveallacksinthesimulatorandtostudyhypothesesorremediestoobserveddeployment
problems. The amount of parameter adjustment necessary in order to achieve a match is
helpfulinputtodefinetheapplicabilityofthesimulatorortheuncertaintyintheparameter
value. Furthermore, the match is based only on a subset of measurements length and
velocityyetitprovidesawindowonallaspectsofatetherdeployment,includinginplane
angle,tension,controlactivityandtheoccurrenceofwaves.Itcanthusgenerateadditional
informationthatcanbecomparedagainstotheravailabledatafortheseremainingaspects.
The simulator or its settings are ideally to be updated to account for any discrepancies
found. The validity and limits of simulations and ground tests are assessed and
recommendationsaretobedefinedforthepreparationproceduresoffuturetethermissions.
If sufficient confidence exists, the simulator can then be conveniently used to extrapolate
behaviorbeyondtheactuallyoccurringdeploymentandgeneratebettersestimatesforthe
landingpointofFotinoinparticularandmoregenerally,fortheSpaceMaillandingaccuracy
obtainablewithacertaintetherdeployersystem.
8.3.2 Datasourcesandediting
Sensorsandavailabledata
A variety of sensor data is available to track the deployment (Table 71). Housekeeping
informationsuchasvoltages,temperatures,commandedbrakeposition,errorflagsetc.is
usedtocorrelateandverifythemeasurements.TheprimarysensorsofYES2arehowever
theOpticalLoopDetectors(OLD).Averyhelpfuladditionprovestobeaccelerationdata
fromtheDIMACpayload,notapartoftheYES2system.MASShasprovidedusefuldata
forstudyoftheejectionandestimationofendmassdynamics.
YES2MissionandResults 337
The OpticalLoopDetectors providetheonlysensoryinputfor closedloop controlofthe
deployment.Theyareusedtodeterminelengthandrateandhelptoreconstruct(postflight)
deploymentangleandtensionbymeansoftheapproximatedescriptionoftetherdynamics,
Eq.2.16,oralternatively,viasimulatormatching.
InsideFoton,sensitivethreeaxisaccelerometersandmagnetometers,operatingat1000Hz
and belonging to the DIMAC payload (DIrect Measurement of Acceleration)
[Beuselinck2008], have registered the full deployment, as well as the subsequent swing.
Theyhavefirstbeusedforanindependentderivationoftethertension.Thedirectionofthe
tether near Foton can be obtained from the perpendicular components of the disturbing
accelerationinFotonsbodyframe,ifcombinedwithmagnetometerdataonFotonsattitude
in space. A spectrograph of the DIMAC data is used to determine the deployment rate
versustime.Alsothetimeofdeploymentofanumberofmilestonepointsalongthelength
of the tether can be recognized as the major changes in the tethers winding pattern, as
detailedinthewindinglog,leavetheirmarksonthefrequencyofthetensionsignal.
On MASS, magnetometers, a tensiometer and a gyroscope have made it possible to
determinetheendmassdynamicsandthedisturbancescreatedbytheejection.Thebehavior
of the safety and securing features, included in the first 15m of the tether, can also be
monitored. The simple MASS sensor package has provided information for a range of
150m.Thisisconsideredapositiveresult[Castillejo2008],sincethereceivingantennaon
FLOYD was heavily handicapped. The performance of this innovative hexagonical loop
antenna[Rolo2005],hadbeencompromisedbynecessitywhenadditionalMLIwasplaced
underneathittocompensateforthelowconductivitybetweenYES2andFotonM3.
ThenavigationreceiveronMASS,notyetlockedat150mdistance,hasthusprovidedno
data.Navigationdata(GPS/GLONASS)oftheFLOYDpositioninspaceduringthetether
deployment has been collected by the YES2 SSAU experiment, but not yet been made
available[Belokonov2008]

.IntheabsenceofnavigationdatafromMASS,itisnotexpected
thatthisdatacanimprovealreadyachievedestimatesforinplaneanglesortetherlength.
Clockalignment
The datafrom thevarioussources havebeeneditedtoaligntheirtimetags. Forexternal
sourcesofinformation(Foton&USSTRATCOM), UTChasbeen used. FortheYES2data
analysis,themaintimereferencehasbeentheTSUclock.Thisclockhasrun42secondsslow
with respect to UTC over the 11day Foton mission until ejection. During the YES2
deploymenttheerrorisjust0.2s.
The DIMAC clocksource is based on the TSU and has been used to align the start of
deploymentbasedonthemeasurementoftheaccelerationresultingfromtheejectionevent.
AlsotheMASSclockstartsatthemomentofejection.Thismomentisdeterminedfromthe
timetagoftheejecttelecommandaswellasfromextrapolationtozerooftheOLDloopcount
data,andisknownwithinabout0.2s.
ForFLOYDdata,boththeTSUclocksourcesandtheYES2OBCinternalclockhavebeen
used.TheTSUclocksignalisfedtotheOBCoveralongserialcablepassingthroughthe
338 Chapter8
walloftheFotonM3reentrycapsuleandovertheoutsideoftheFotonM3spacecraft.In
ordertoproviderobustness,theYES2softwarehasbeendesignedtobeabletoworkwith
itsownclockwhenevertheTSUsignalwouldbeabsent.
Duetoasoftwareproblem,theOLDinterruptscarrytimetagsalternatinglyfromTSUand
onboardclocksources.FromstudyofthedataithasbecomeapparentthattheOBCclock
hasbeendivergingfromtheTSUclockrapidly.TheYES2OBCclockhasrunslow3356us/s
or about 28.95s over the full deployment, as compared to the corrected TSU clock. This
ratherlargeerrorhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognizedandisthoughttooriginatefroman
impact onthe OBCscrystalduringa coldperiodinthe mission oreventhe premission
thermaltests.
ThehalfoftheOLDinterrupttimetagsthatisbasedontheOBCclockthereforehasbeen
corrected. Representing a total interval of 8622s, they could be corrected assuming a
divergence developing linearly with time. The correction as implemented maintains the
exact order of all 30547registered interrupts. A shift in the correction function, in either
offsetorgain,ofaslittleas0.01sover8622sleadstodisruptionoftheorder.Sincethebest
linearfitpreventssuchadisruptioncompletely,themaximumerrorintimingis0.01s.
OLDperformanceandfirststagelengthmeasurement
BecauseoftheawkwardlengthestimatesproducedbytheOBCduringthesecondstageof
deployment(Section8.2),theOLDdatahasbeencarefullystudied.Inordertounderstand
whether any tether passages might not have been registered, the record of OLD channel
transitions(seeSection5.5.3)hasbeensubjectedtoarandomnessanalysis.InFigure234an
adhoc measure of randomness R is plotted against the gap, i.e. the time between two
successiveOLDinterrupts.Risdefinedas:
R=(1f
N
)/(1f
rand
) (8.1)
wheref
N
isthefractionofthetransitionwhereapairofsuccessiveOLDchannelsmatches
thenominaltransitionforaproperdeployment(i.e.12,23or31),andf
rand
isthefraction
that would be expected in case of random interrupt events, e.g. due to temporary OLD
malfunctioning. Perfectly random interrupts would display all possible 9 transitions in
equalamounts.Thisanalysisisparticularlyofinterestfordatagapsmuchlongerthanthe
averageloopperiod.IfR1,theOLDdataseemscompletelyrandom.IfR0,thedataseems
systematic, matching nominal OLD performance
12
. A change in randomness appears to
occuratt
eject
+6400s.
This analysis has revealed that in the first 6400s of deployment, nearly all channel
transitionsareconsistentwithproperdeployment,albeitsometimesirregular.Channel1,a
12
Thegraphhastobeinterpretedwithcare.JitterorasituationwithonlyoneOLDchanneloperationalwouldappear
asR>1.Forsimplicityoftheanalysis,f
rand
hasbeenassumedconstantovertimewithineachinterval.Inreality,thisis
notthecase,infact,itisincreasingduetotheincreasingdominationwithtimeofchannelsOLD2andOLD3overthe
mostaffectedchannel,OLD1(seeSection8.5.1).Becauselargergapsoccurlater,whenOLD1isnearlynonfunctional,
anequallyrandomsignalwillreceivealowerrandomness.Thisiswhatisvisibleinthetimeintervalbetween6400s
and8200s,whichisinfact(near)fullyrandom.
YES2MissionandResults 339
malperforminginterruptrequestlineontheOBCsSECOboard,hasbeenpatchedbefore
theflight. Ithasperformedabit lessin flightthanChannels2and 3, andsometimeshas
missedatetherpassage.Otherthanthatallexceptionsplus30doubtfulchanneltransition
caseshavebeeninspectedindividually.Itisconcludedthatthesinglegapcorrectionfeature
oftheOLDalgorithm(Table47B)hasperformedwithoutproblemsduringtheflight,andso
has the noise rejection feature (Table 47C). Virtually all instances of such noise could be
verifiedbyinspectiontobehandledproperly.Analysisoftherawflightdatashowsthatthe
thirdpotentialanomalythatwastakenintoaccount,adoublechannelfailure(Table47D),
hardlyeveroccursandthisadditionalfailurerecoveryfunctionhasbeenfoundtobemore
damagingthanhelpful.Ahandfulofobviouserrorshasbeencorrectedbyhand.Insome
cases,aboutonceevery1000s,noclearconclusioncouldbedrawn.Themaximumerrorfor
the first stage deployment is estimated as 20m, based on the likelihood of the various
transitionsincaseofOLDfailure,combinedwiththeobservednumberofsuchtransitions.
After6400sintodeployment(laterrefinedto6260s)mostOLDtransitionsrelatedtogaps
haveinsteadbeenidentifiedasrandom,indicatingmissingdata.
Source Datatype Application Comment
FLOYD OLDinterrupttimes;
Barberpoleposition;
TemperatureXBOX;
Commandreception,
timeline,ejectionandtether
cutstatus;
TSUtime.
Ejectionvelocity;
Deploymentlengthandvelocityreconstruction;
Timelinereconstructionandclockcalibration;
OLDproblemanalysis;
Tetherdeploymentirregularities.
Lengthuntil
6400s;
Rateuntil
8400s.
MASS Gyroscopes(angularrate);
Magnetometers(angle);
Temperature;
Tensiometer.
Pitchoffratecapsuleafterejection;
Initialconditionsforattitudesimulation;
Deploymenttensioncalibration,polefriction.
First70safter
separation.
Foton DIMACaccelerationsin
Fotonbodyframe;
DIMACspectrograph;
FotonattitudefromDIMAC
magnetometerandTsSKB
provideddata.
Deploymenttensionestimate;
Fotonattitudecontrolactivity;
Tetherexitangle,inplaneanglereconstruction,tether
bending;
Spooltensionparameters;
Confirmationfinalsnag;
Tetherstiffness,viscosity,speedofsoundintether;
Tetherswingreconstruction,Fotinorelease
investigation;
Confirmationoftethercut;
Deploymentrateconfirmation.
DIMACdata
complete.
Foton
orbital
parameters
USSTRATCOM
observations;
USSTRATCOMestimate
tetherreleasetime;
TsSKBupdates.
Initialconditionsformatchingsimulations;
Tetherreleaseconfirmation.

Table71.UseofdatasourcesforYES2dataanalysis
340 Chapter8
DeploymentratefromOLD
Withthetotaldeployedloopcountimpairedduringthesecondstageofdeployment,still
estimatesforthedeployment rate canbeobtainedfromtherateatwhichOLDinterrupts
havebeenarrivingbetweenthedatagaps.Asimplewaytoestimatethelooprateistotake
theinverseoftheinterinterruptduration.Aregularsequenceofinterruptswillresultina
goodlocalestimateoflooprate.Insomecases,withinabriefsequenceofinterrupts,asmall
numberofintermediateinterruptsismissing.Whenapplyingtheestimationtoallinterrupts
thesecaseswillyieldvarioussecondaryarmsshadowsoftheactualloopratecurve,asin
Figure235. Thefalsely representedloopratesinthese armscanbe multiplied by thearm
numbertoyieldabetterestimate.Forexample,thesecondarm,i.e.theonebelowthemain
arm, representssequencesofinterruptswithasinglemissinginterrupt. Thetimeinterval
hererelatestotwoloopsunwound.
Bycombinationofthebestsegmentsofthesemultiplearms,thebestsubsetofdatacanbe
obtained(Figure237).Duetotheaveragingeffect,athigherlooprates,thehigherorderarms
providemoreprecisedata.Atlowlooprates,sufficientnominalsequencesofinterruptsare
available such that the time intervals between subsequent interrupts can be averaged in
ordertoobtainhigherprecisiondata.Themostprecisesegmentsofthearmsthusproduced
happentobethosesegmentsrepresentinggapintervalsofabout0.2s.
Despite the incompleteness of the OLD data from 6260to 8626s, still sufficient data is
availabletodeterminetheloopratetobetterthan1Hz(about 0.3m/s)until t
eject
+8250s.
The timeofdeployment completionisalsoknownwithinonesecond, as atensionpulse
thenoccursthathasbeenregisteredbyDIMAC.Withthehelpofthisadditionaldatapoint,
theremainderofthedeploymentcaninprinciplebeinterpolatedwithanaccuracyof1m/s.
Figure234.StatisticalanalysisofOLDchanneltransitionsintendedtodistinguishbetweennormal
OLDperformance(randomness0)andOLDmalfunctioning(randomness1).
YES2MissionandResults 341
Figure235.Roughlooprateestimate(basedontimebetweenrecurrencesofsuccessiveOLDchannel
passage)showsmultiplecurves,indicativeofunregisteredintermediateOLDpassages
DeploymentratefromDIMAC
Theresultingloopratedevelopmentandinterpolationhasbeenindependentlyconfirmed
with the help of a spectrograph of FotonM3 accelerations as measured by DIMAC. This
spectrographdisplaystheintensityofdisturbancestothe6535kgspacecraftasafunctionof
frequencyandtime,basedonasequenceofFourieranalyseson32sintervals.Remarkably,
therattlingoftheunwindingtether(weighingonly0.2g/m)isclearlydistinguishedbythe
DIMACexperiment(Figure236).Itappearsaboveabout3m/sdeploymentvelocity,andis
resolvedwitharesolutionofabout0.3Hz.ThespectrographrepresentationofFigure236is
amanualcompositeofmeasurementsinthevariousaxes,inordertomaximallyhighlight
the YES2 looprate curve against the background levels. The spectrograph contains
informationthatcanbeusedtofurtherimprovetheaccuracyofthefit.
Detailsofthewindingpatterncanbeobserved,suchasthecyclicfrequencyofthewinding
head

(Section5.2.1). Transitions to smaller winding angle lead to shorter loops, and an

instantaneouslyincreasedlooprate,asrecognizableinthegraphatpoints1and2. Point3
showsthetransitionfromcrisscross(7turnspercycle)toparallelwinding.Finally,point4
representst=8626s,coincidentwiththecompletionofdeployment.Itisthereforepossibleto
extractfromthespectrographfourabsolutelengthmeasurements(Table72).
Atpoint3,thecleanloopratecurveisreplacedwithabroadswathoflooprates.Thisswath
isnotcausedbyincreasednoiseasonemightthinkg,butbyaknownparticularityofthe
unwindingprocess.Duringunwindingofthe33parallelwoundlayers,eachtakingabout
10secondstocomplete,thepointoftetherreleasetravelsfrombasetoheadofthecorein
onelayerandviceversainthenext(seeSection5.3.6).Thiscoreisconical:thebaseiswider
thantheheadofthecore,by10%inthefirstlayerandupto13%inthelastlayer(Section
5.3.1).Thislengthperloopcyclicallydecreasesandincreases,causingazigzagdevelopment
342 Chapter8
of loop rate for a smoothly unwinding tether. If this known zigzag is computed and
superimposedonthemedianasrecognizedinthespectrograph(blacklineinFigure237)a
good match is found to the swath outline as registered by DIMAC (red lines). A small
deviationisobservedonlyforthelastfourlayersofdeployment,whichcanbeexplainedif
the looprate development is not linear but first accelerates and then flattens out (purple
lines).
Withthegeometricknowledge,theloopratecanbereconstructedbetterthan1Hzevenin
theparallelregion,equivalenttoavelocityaccuracyofabout0.20.3m/s.Figure238shows
anoverlayoftheunwindingratesresultingfromthetwoindependentsources:theOLDrate
andtheDIMACspectrograph.
Figure236.DIMACspectrographwithindicationoffourabsolutelengthmarkers.
Windingevent t[s] Length[m] Loops[]
1 5to6turnspercycle 7512 15421 24135
2 6to7turnspercycle 7937 21168 35754
3 crisscrosstoparallel 8397 27979 53306
4 endoftether 8626 31705 66776
Table72.WindingeventsrecognizedduringdeploymentbyDIMACinstrument
YES2MissionandResults 343
Figure237.Zoomoftransitionfrom7tpctoparallel,includingsketchof
zigzaglooprate(blackline)aswouldbeexpectedbasedoncorecone
dimensions(purpledots).
Figure238.LoopratedevelopmentduringuncontrolleddeploymentinStage2.
Fulllengthreconstruction
Withthelooprateknownalengthprofilecanbedetermined.Theprofilehasbeenadapted
withamultiplierclosetounityastoobtainthecorrectfinaltotalwoundlengthatthecorrect
time. The integratedrate based length profile thus computed matches the four known
length milestones (each known from the spectrograph to within 16s), providing further
independent confirmation. The maximum length reconstruction error during the second
stageisestimatedtobe0.3%or100mtheresultoferrorsinwindinglengthmeasurement
(44m),tetherstiffnessestimate(10m),quadraticfitsforloopsvs.lengthused(20m)and
spectrograph resolution (90m). With improved spectrograph resolution (not yet made
available),about50metersaccuracymayeventuallybeachieved.
CharacterizationofOLDmalfunctioning
Withthelooprateknownasafunctionoftime,alsotheextentofOLDmalfunctioningcanbe
bettercharacterized.ThenumberofOLDchannelpassagesthathasbeenregisteredcanbe
comparedtothenumberoftetherpassagesthathasactuallyoccurred.Figure239indicates
how the performance of the channels breaks down increasingly with time, with OLD1
clearlyperformingworsethantheotherchannels.Neartheendofdeployment,onlyabout
oneinthousandOLDpassagesisregistered.
344 Chapter8
Thecauseofthisbreakdownissoughtinelectromagneticinterference,possiblyincreasing
withsystemtemperature(Section8.2).AnSshapedslowdowncanbeobservedintherate
ofworseningoftheOLDperformancebetween7300and7900s.Itmaybehypothesizedto
berelatedtoaweakbutsimilarlyshapedslowdownintemperatureincreasebetweenYTK4
andYTK3inFigure233,withaflatteningduetoenteringofeclipse.Thishypothesishasnot
beenfurtherinvestigatedyet.
Figure239.Estimatedfractionofregisteredpassagesovertotalnumberofpassages,perOLD
channel.Movingaveragesareindicatedfromtoptobottom:channels3,2,and1.
Tethertension
TethertensionisprimarilyreconstructedfromDIMACaccelerometermeasurements.MASS
tensiometerdatahasalsobeenused.
DIMACaccelerometerdatahasbeenconvertedtotensionassumingamassforFotonM3of
6535kg,asprovidedbyTsSKB.Thisinformationcanbeexpectedtobeaccuratewithin1%.
A correction has been applied to account for the rocket term (Eq.2.15) that affects tether
tension, but not the acceleration as measured on Foton. Ringing of the ejection springs
pollutedtheDIMACdataafterejectionbeyondusabilityforabouttenseconds.
InitialDIMACbasedtension biasiswell below 5mN, ashas beenestablished usingpre
ejection data in the microgravity environment. Various sources of drift for the DIMAC
accelerometerhavebeenremovedbytheRedShiftteam[Beuselinck2008],relatede.g.tothe
magnetic field and spacecraft attitude. The remaining error is less than 1ug, or 6cN per
1000s.Theknowntensionduringtheholdphasehasbeenusedtoestablishthattheerroris
infactbelow2cNatt
eject
+5000s,althoughduringthesecondstagedeployment,underlarger
disturbances,moresignificantdriftmayhaveoccurred.
The MASS tensiometer bias has been determined to be about 155mN, from fit to the
DIMACdata.TheMASSdataisparticularlyusefultofillintheDIMACdatagapfollowing
ejection,e.g.forestimationofpostejectiondecelerationandpitchanglereconstruction.
YES2MissionandResults 345
ImpactofFotonattitudecontrolactivity
ThedirectionofthebodyaxisofFotonisdefinedasX.Perpendiculartothat,intheorbital
planeandinitiallyindirectionoforbitalmotion,liesY.Zisorientedaccordingtotheright
hand rule. Z accelerations are indeed found insignificant throughout the deployment, so
outofplanedynamicsareignored.
TheFotonM3spacecraftappliesattitudecontrolusingacoldgasthrustersystemactingin
Ydirectiononly(Figure240).Thecontrollawhasnotbeenspecifiedbutseemsapparent
fromtheDIMACdatais(seealsoFigure241).Itappearsattitudecontrolaimsatfollowing
thetether(minimizingtorque)toanangleof30.Abovethatangle,itattemptstokeepthe
Fotonangleconstant.
TherawYaxisaccelerationdatacontainsclearlyidentifiablepeaksofconstantamplitude
thatcoincidewithfixeddurationburstsofthrusteractivity.Thesepeaksaresuperimposed
on the tether tension effects and can be filtered out largely simply by subtraction of the
constantvalue.Nevertheless,theYvalue,evenwhencleanedfromFotonattitudethruster
activity,remainsslightlylessreliablefortethertensionestimationthantheXvalue.Forthe
initial1000sofdeploymenttheYvalueissmallcomparedtotheXvalueasFotontracks
thetetherdirection.Inthistimeinterval,whiletensionissmall,onlytheXvaluehasbeen
usedfortensionanalysis,toreducethenoisecontributionfromthenearzeroYcomponent.
TheDIMACmagnetometerdatahasbeenusedtodeterminetheattitudeofFotonwitha
claimed accuracy of some degrees. The DIMAC data accuracy for attitude reconstruction
maybefurtherreducedduringFotonthrusteractivity(Figure241).Duringthelatterpartof
thesecondstageofdeployment,whenFotonsXaxisisinclinedwiththeverticalbymore
than30, tetherandFotonthrustertorquesareespeciallysignificant, asinthissituationa
differentattitudecontrolmodeisactive.AdivergenceofDIMACandOLDbasedtension
calculations isobservedhere(Section8.4.1), as wellasadiscrepancy betweenthe Fotons

T_Y
CoM
Armtether =3.55 m
ArmACS =1.15
m
FACS
vorbit
T_X
Figure240.GeometryofFotonattitudecontroltobalancetether
torque
346 Chapter8
maximumdeviationfromtheverticalasprovidedbyTsSKB(30.1)andbyRedShift:Foton
attitudeaccordingtoDIMACrisesover30 byseveraldegrees.Themagnetometerresults
were therefore edited by limiting the maximum Foton angle to 30. This simple action
providesindeedamuchbetterfittotheOLDdataderivedtrajectory,Figure241.
Figure241.Fotonattitude,reconstrcutedthrusteractivityand
tetherinplaneangle
Inplaneangle
Estimatesofthetetherinplaneangle,atleastasitappearsonFotonside,areobtainedby
combination of the two sources of DIMAC data: the magnetometer data, providing the
Foton angle with respect to nadir, and the threeaxis accelerometers, providing the angle
betweentheFotonXaxisandthetetherasitexitsthetethercutterbracket.Notethatsince
thetetherisnotstraight,itwillnotnecessarilyprovidedirectinformationontheinplane
angleoftheendmass.Thetetherinplanedeploymentanglecanbedeterminedtoabout25
accuracydependingonthesignaltonoiseratioandthemagnetometeraccuracy.
The inplaneangle canalso be determinedfromdeploymentreconstruction based onthe
lengthandrateprofilesincombinationwiththesimplifiedequationsofmotionormatching
byYESSimsimulation.Inplaneestimateresultsofthevariousmethodsareinagreement
withinthe25accuracyestimate,e.g.fortheholdphasependulumlibrationamplitudeor
forthemaximumachievedangleastheswingstartstowardsthevertical(Figure253).
YES2MissionandResults 347
MASSdata
MASStensiondataisobtainedfromtheFUTEKtensiometer,whichhasbeenoperatingat
roomtemperatureduringthemission,atwhichithadbeenaccuratelycalibrated.Errorsin
tensionmeasurementsfromthisdevicearecausedfromfrictiononthepulleythatisusedin
themeasurementandisassumedfrictionless.Theseerrorsareestimatedtobebelow10%.
Figure242.MASSorthogonalmagnetometersrawdata
TheMASS(single)gyrodatahasbeenusedtoscalethemagnetometerdataandlearnabout
the endmass pitch angle (Section8.3.3). From the ratio of the three perpendicular MASS
magnetometersignalsitcan bederivedthat theinitial attitudedynamics havebeen mild
and(coincidentally)inclinedbyonlyabout8.5degreesfromthegyroscopesensingdirection
(Figure242),allowingdirectinterpretationofthedatafromthe(single)gyro.
MagnetometerandgyrobiasesfromMASSduringthemissionseemtohaveshiftedwith
respect to ground tests in ambient temperature. The bias estimate in the gyroscope
measurementhasbeenrefinedbyafittingprocess.Thedynamicdatafrommagnetometer
andgyroscopehavebeenmatchedtoresultsofattitudesimulationsthatareinturnbasedon
torquesasderivedfromMASStensiometerandDIMACaccelerometerdata(Figure247).
Fotonorbit
The data on FotonM3 orbital parameters provide indirect information on tether
deploymentandmomentumtransfer.FotonM3hasbeentrackedbeforeandaftertheYES2
mission by USSTRATCOM. A precision in altitude of +61/75m could be achieved with
99.3% probability using their Special Perturbations model (SP), rather than SGP4
13
. The
datamatchthecalculationsfromtheRussiancounterpartmostlywithin200m,seeFigure
243.Severalestimationsoftwolineelementshavebeenmadeeachday,butoverthecourse
oftheYES2deploymentonlyasingleobservationhasbeenmade.AfterthereleaseofFotino
overAsia,USSTRATCOMhasnotbeenabletotrackit,theirfirstmeasurementstationbeing
Hawaii,suggestingthatithasreenteredoverAsia.
13
Private communications with Taft Devere, USSTRATCOM, 23 October 2007.
348 Chapter8
Figure243.SMAFotonfromTLEUSSTRATCOMandTsUP
8.3.3 Deploymentreconstructionandinterpretation
The deployment starts with ejection of the MASS/Fotino endmass. The first minute after
ejection has been studied in detail, as a number of disturbances are expected to be
introducedasaresultoftheejectionthatcanaffecttheremainderofthedeployment:
- Errorinejectionvelocity(nominal2.4m/s).
- Endmasspitchrateduetoejectionspringsmismatchorcenterofmassoffsetfromthe
bodycenterline.
- Unknownsindissipationoftiedownsat0,0.75and3.75mlength,littlecottonknots
holdingthetetherinplaceduringlaunch.Eachtiedownisexpectedtodissipatesome
2Jofenergy,resultinginatotal0.2m/svelocityloss,oraneffectiveejectionvelocityof
2.2m/s.Thethirdtiedownsisplacedsuchastohaveabeneficialeffectanddecreases
thecapsulepitchoffrate.
- Unforeseenbehavioranddissipatonduringpassageoftheripstitchsegmentthrough
thesystem,arelativelythick(~1mm)5.3mlongpieceoftether,startingfromalength
of9m.Itshallbeverifiedthattheejectioneventdoesnotcausetheripstitchtoactivate.
Thetensionshouldstaybelow6N.
AnalysisoftheOLDdataindicateaneffectiveejectionvelocityof2.2m/s(circleinFigure
244),matchingthenominalvalue,takingintoaccountthebrakingofthetiedowns.Afit,
appliedoverthefirst70seconds,betweenthevelocityderivedfromintegratedacceleration
on one hand and the OLD derived velocity profile on the other confirms this ejection
velocity.TheaccelerationlevelsarederivedfrommeasurementsfromDIMACandMASS
tensionmeasurements.Thefitismadebyadjustmentoftheinitialvelocityoffset,forthe
curvebasedonintegratedacceleration,suchthatthiscurvepredictsthesametotallengthas
theOLDshavealsoregistered,withintheintervalof70safterejection.
ThebreakingofthetiedownsmayberecognizedfromtheslightirregularityintheOLD
patterndirectlyafterthetimeoftheirexpectedoccurrence, t
eject
+0.3sandt
eject
+1.7s(vertical
arrows in Figure 248), as well as in brief and sharp tension peaks registered by MASS
YES2MissionandResults 349
[Kruijff2009.II].ThemoresteadypeakintensionvisibleshortlyafterejectioninFigure245
canberelatedtothedeploymentoftheripstitchsection,andremainswithinlimits.Forthe
reason of such disturbances, the onboard velocity filter is programmed to use only
referencefileinformationduringthefirst8seconds.
Figure244.Velocityinformationdirectlyafterejection
Figure245.Tension,averagedpersecond,andbrakingactivitydirectlyafterejection.
The pitchoff rate of the capsule has been determined from MASS gyroscope and
magnetometer data (Figure 246) to be only 1.550.3/s (Figure 247). As compared to the
design requirement to remain below 10/s, this demonstrates successful alignment of the
MASS/Fotinosystemscenterofmassandnominalperformanceofthe40Jejectionsystem.
Thebreakingofthelasttiedownappearstohavecausedafavorablereductionofthepitch
offratebyabout2025%,matchingtheforeseeneffect(Section5.3.4)[Stelzer2006].
350 Chapter8
Figure246.PitchanglebasedonMagnetometer1dataand
DIMACbasedsimulation
Figure247.MASSmagnetometerandgyrodatadirectlyafterejection,includingsimulator
matching
OLD data show that during the first few minutes the deployment is quite irregular.
Deployment appears to take place through a stickslip process. In addition, two types of
anomaliesareobservedinthisbriefinterval.Firstly,someOLDpulsesaremissingfroma
single channel. The filter correctly filters in for them (squares in Figure 248). Secondly,
sometimestherearetwosubsequentpulsesfromthesamechannelwitharelatively long
intervalbetweenthem(lightdiamonds).
Thelatterisamoreambiguoussequencethathasbeeninvestigatedinmoredetailandis
foundtohavecausedacontrolproblem.Thesesuccessivesignalsfromasinglechannelmay
be caused either by jitter of the tether during the stickslip process (Table 47C), or, by a
subsequenttwochannelOLDfailure(Table47D).AdoubleOLDfailurewouldmeanafull
loophasdeployedinbetweenthetwosamechannelpulses.TheOBCfilterisprogrammed
to assume this explanation and the software adds a loop, increasing the length and raw
velocityforthatmomentintime.
YES2MissionandResults 351
It is however concluded that the samechannel transitions are due to jitter, rather than a
doubleOLDfailure,forseveralreasons.Firstly,throughouttheremainderofthefirststage,
eventsasindicatedarequiterare,onlyabout25intotalforabout4700loops.Insteadthey
generally are associated with recognizable stickslip patterns in the surrounding time
interval(asdeterminedbyvisualinspectionofthedata).Thesestickslippattersoccuronly
during two distinct phases, at the start and at the end of the first stage deployment.
Secondly, statistical analysis of occurrence and OLD channel signature of long duration
gapsshowsthatsuchgapsareabout20timesmorelikelytomaintainproperorderofthe
pattern than random OLD malfunctioning would predict (Section8.3.2). Most such
occurrencesarethereforerelatedtotetherjitter.Finally,thedeploymentvelocityprofilethat
theOBCfilterextracts,byassumingthenoisyeventsaremissedloops,showsananomalous
deviationfromthetrendaroundt=35s(FilteredVelocityinFigure244).Thisbreakingof
thetrenddoeshowevernotoccurwhenthegapsareattributedtostickslipjitter(seethe
curvefortheunfilteredTrueOLDVelocity).
The OBCs doublechannel failure algorithm has therefore been applied unnecessarily,
severaltimesinarowshortlyafterejection,andhascountedmultiplefalseloopsoftether.
Asaresultofthefalsetriggerings,thedeploymentvelocityhasbeenoverestimatedbyabout
10%forsometensofseconds.Theresponseofthecontrollertothiseventhasbeentoturn
upthelevelofbraking,ascanbeseeninFigure245.Theincreasedbrakeactivityaftert=30
35s decelerates the endmass significantly, some 40cm/s under the nominal velocity. By
itself thisisnotaproblemasthebrakecanbereleasedtorecoverthislossinvelocity.But
becausealsothetetherminimaldeploymenttension(stickinesstothespool)justexceedsthe
acceptablerange(Section8.3.4),thereisnopossibilitytorecoverimmediately.
As regards to the cause of jitter during this stickslip process and a similar one at t=5s
(horizontalarrowsinFigure248)itisplausiblethatitistheresultoftensiondisturbances
duetoendmassoscillationsincombinationwiththe(still)shorttetherlength.Notealsothat
theirregularitiescoincideintimewiththeonsetofmaximumpitchamplitude(Figure246).
ThisinitialirregularstickslipbehaviorsmoothedoutasdistancetotheFotonM3increases
anddisappearsatabout470m.Aroundthe1kmpoint,theminimumdeploymentvelocity
of 0.3m/s is reached. The tether stickiness on the spool is the dominant source of tether
tensionhere.Atlowdeploymentvelocities,tensionreconstructionfrombothDIMACand
OLD data indicates a T
0
=0.023N, about 2.7times higher than nominal, but below the
acceptablemaximumof0.03Nforwhichthedeploymentprofileisdesigned(Figure256).
Atvelocitiesabove1m/s,thevariousdatasourcesimplyanoutofspecT
0
=0.04N.
Afterthe1kmpoint,gravitygradientforcestakeoverandacceleratethedeploymentsuch
thatthelostdistanceduetothesubnominalvelocityiseventuallycompensatedfor.During
thisperiod,OLDdatashowsarathersmoothunwindingbehavior.Atthetimethelength
meetsthenominalvalueagain,thedeploymentvelocityissignificantlyhigherthannominal
(Figure250).Att=2220s,alengthof2kmandavelocityoflittleover2m/s,thecontroller
kicks in and decelerates the deployment steeply. This abrupt braking leads to transverse
waveswithaperiodofabout250s,thatinturnresultinirregulardeploymentvelocity.The
352 Chapter8
brakecontroller,doesnotdampenouttheshockandresonateswithdeploymentvelocity
changes(Figure251).Significanttransversewavesinthetetherandsignaturetensionpeaks
are the result (Figure 253). Nevertheless the controller manages to oscillate around the
nominaltrajectoryandbringsthesystemsafelytoastandstillatanominallengthandwith
an acceptable pendulum oscillation of about 10degrees below Foton (Figure 249, Figure
259). In this last phase of the deployment, the transverse waves have induced a second
periodofstickslipdeployment(aftertheinitialphaseatejection).Inafewinstanceshere,
thenewlyintroducedirregularityinthedeploymentleadsagaintofaultytriggeringofthe
doublechannel failure algorithm. Despite the additional loopcounts the first stage length
that has been accurately obtained. Inspection of the OLDs by statistic and visual means
revealsthatthelengthdeterminationbytheOBChasbeenaccuratebyabout10mandthe
totalfirststagelengthachievedis 3378m (20m)compared to atargetlength of 3390m,
providingagoodbasisforanominalsecondstagedeployment(Figure249).
Figure248.OLDchannelactivationdirectlyafterejection.Seetext.
Figure249.YES2deployedlength,firststage
YES2MissionandResults 353
Figure250.DeploymentvelocityofYES2missionflightdatavs.nominalinfirststage.
Figure251.YES2flighttensionandbrakeactivityfromejectiontostartofsecondstage
Theholdphaseisnominal,thelengthbeingheldnearlyconstantbythesubtleincrementsof
0.2turns applied by the controller whenever a loop deploys. The transverse oscillations
dampens out somewhat in this stage. Also the continuation into the second stage
deploymentoccursmuchasplanned(Figure251,Figure252).
Some 500s into the second stage however, the OLD data as recorded by the OnBoard
Computer(OBC)startstoshowintermittentandincreasinglylargegapsonallchannels.A
largerandlargerfractionofarrivinginterruptsisnotrecorded.Thefailureisduetoafaulty
electronicspatch(Section8.5.1).Inresponse,thecontrollerturnsthebraketozeroandthe
deployment continued in a free, uncontrolled manner. The velocity profile has been
determinedfromacombinationofthelooprateandthelooplengthasafunctionofloop
count, information known from the winding process. The deployment has accelerated
smoothly. At about 3m/s significant rattling inside the tether canister is observed by
DIMAC (Figure 236) indicating that from this moment onward the centrifugal force has
liftedthetetherfromthespoolandtheballstartsscrubbingtheedgesofthecanisterand
increasingtension significantly.Asimilarbehaviorhasbeenseen inground tests (Figure
230).Withthebrakesettozero,deploymenthasbecomesomewhatfasterthannominal(to
16m/s rather than 13m/s) and overdeploys to the full length of 31.7km rather than the
354 Chapter8
targetlengthof30.0km.Thereisnogentledecelerationneartheend,thedeploymentstops
abruptly at about 15m/s, an event that leaves a distinct tension signature at t
eject
+8626s
(Figure264).
Figure252.DeploymentvelocityofYES2missionflightdatavs.nominalinsecondstage.
Thedevelopmentofinplaneanglewithtimemustbedeterminedpreciselyifthetrajectory
and projected landing site of the Fotino capsule is to be determined. The DIMAC data
providesinformationonlyontheangleatwhichthetetherleavesFoton.Theangletowards
theendmassisreconstructedindependentlyfromtheOLDdata,throughintegrationofthe
tether length and velocity profile according to Eq.2.16. The same equation is used to
reconstructdeploymenttensionthroughoutthedeployment.Theseequationsignoretether
flexibilityaspectsandassumecircularorbitaswellasinfinitemassforFotonM3.Forthis
reason,averificationsimulationhasbeenmadeusingMTBsim,alsomatchingthelooprate
profile(Section8.4.1).
TheresultsarecombinedinFigure253.WhencomparedtotheDIMACangledata,agood
general match is found and one can clearly identify in the DIMAC data a superimposed
oscillation that is related to transverse waves. The endshock at deployment completion
occursnearu =40.ThereleaseofFotino(t=9344s)andtethercut(t=9364s)isnearu=0.
Release of the tether near the vertical is confirmed by a sudden disappearance of tether
tensionatt=9364s(Figure254).
Release at this time has been computed as well by USSTRATCOM. USSTRATCOM has
identified a sudden change in Foton orbital elements (Figure 243), and calculates the
momentofdivergencewiththeoriginalsetat t=9365(!)900swithanaltitudeimpacton
Foton perigee of 1050m [Kruijff2007.II]. This raise in altitude compares well with the
momentum transfer that can be expected for a swing angle of 40 and a fully deployed
tetherreleasedattheverticalifcombinedwithanestimateoftheFotonM3attitudecontrol
thrustereffect(Figure240).ThisFotonM3attitudecontrolalgorithm(Section8.3.2)hasbeen
simulatedbyMTBSimaswell.ThetethereffectofFotonperigeealtitudecanbedetermined
to be 950m3% plus 150m25% for the Foton thruster contribution, or about 1100m
50mtotal.
YES2MissionandResults 355

Figure253.ThemeasurementsandsimulationofthetetherexitanglewithrespecttoFotonevidence
presenceoftransversewavesstartingfrom2200s.
Figure254.ConfirmationofnominaltethercutfromsemiprocessedDIMACdata
Length and inplane angle profiles can be combined to provide a convenient Local
HorizontalLocalVerticalviewofthetetherdeployment(Figure260).Thependulummotion
duringtheholdphasecanbeeasilyrecognized.Withthebrakesettozeroinmostofthe
secondstageahighervelocitythannominalhasbeenobtained,leadingtoahigherinplane
anglethanforeseen.Thepronouncedswingoftheflightdeploymentcontrastsagainstthe
verysmoothandslowdecelerationofthenominalmission,inwhichconsiderableeffective
swing angle (Eq.2.11) is lost. Although the release of the endmass can be considered
nominalintermsofinplaneangle,theincreasedswingvelocityandtetherlengthimparta
greaterAVontheendmassandasteeperentry,towardsalandingpoint1250kmfromthe
nominallandingpoint,Section8.5.4.
TensionhasbeendeterminedindirectlyfromEq.2.16bforcomparisonwiththemoredirect
DIMAC data (Figure 258). The fit between these two independently determined tension
reconstructions is quite good until t=7500s. From that moment some divergence can be
observed.Thedifferenceintensionbuildsuptoalmost30%attheendofdeployment.The
differenceisthoughttoariseduetoavarietyoffactors:largesensitivityoftensionlevelto
even small changes in velocity, imperfection of the model of Eq.2.16 or the determined
velocityprofile,andpollutionoftheDIMACmeasurementsaftert=7000sduetoincreasing
Fotonattitudecontrolthrusteractivity(Figure241).Indicationsforsuchpollutionexistas
DIMACdataisnotconsistentwithFotonmeasurementsafterthistime.Thecontributionof
356 Chapter8
model imperfection is assessed in Section8.4.1. A more representative dynamics model
(YESSimversionofMTBSim)providesatensionprofileclosertotheDIMACvalue.
In order to quantify the potential impact of the inaccuracy of the deployment velocity
profile, the consequence of an adjusted loop rate has been determined. To this end, the
maximum deviation from the bestfit loop rate as allowable by the limited measurement
precision is applied in a direction to approach better the DIMAC tension. The impact is
foundsmall[Kruijff2008]andnegligibleontheinplanetrajectory(Figure255).Thebestfit
isthereforemaintainedasthemorelikelydynamicestimate.
Figure255.LHLVplotofnominaldeploymentandreleasepointvs.
reconstructed

8.3.4 Deployerperformance
Three main parameters have been assessed for inflight qualification of the deployer
hardware. In other words, it has been verified whether the tether spool and barberpole
brake can be sufficiently characterized on the ground to allow reliable control of
deployment in space. These parameters are taken from Eq. 5.30 and some samples are
plottedinFigure256:
1. theminimaldeploymenttensionT
0
,
2. barberpolebrakefrictioncoefficientfand
3. I,theinertiamultiplier.
YES2MissionandResults 357
TheminimaldeploymenttensionT
0
(tetherstickinesstothespool)isimportantintheearly
part of the first stage when gravity gradient is low and the endmass dynamics are
determinedbyendmassinertiaandthedecelerationcausedbythisminimalfrictionlevel.Its
nominalvalueis0.0085N,theacceptablelevelforrobustcontrolofdeploymentis0.005to
0.3N. During the first stage of the YES2 mission, the zerobrake deployment tension is
higherandrangesfrom0.027to0.045N,equivalenttoaT
0
=0.0230.038Nwhencorrected
forthedynamicterm.
Figure 256. Quantitativeevidenceofsuitabilityof tetherdeployerperformance for theSpaceMail
application,forthethreemainhardwareparameters.
Thebarberpolebrakefrictioncoefficientfbecomesimportantwhenthedeploymentneedsto
becontrolled(forbetterprecision)oractivelydecelerated.Nominalvalueisf=0.2.Afriction
levelbelow0.12wouldrequiretimeconsumingamountofactivationofthebarberpoleand
358 Chapter8
wouldleadtoalargenumberofwraps,decreasingbrakeeffectiveness.Alevelabove0.3can
leadtocontrollerresonance.Acleanflightmeasurementisavailablefortheinitialbraking
phase(Figure245)andresultsinavalueof0.175,wellwithinacceptablelimits. Basedon
DIMACdataalone,furtherestimatesoffcanbemadeduringthebrakingoscillationsafter
t=2200sandstartupofthesecondstage.Thisworkremainstobedone.
TheinertiamultiplierIrepresents(insimplifiedmanner)thedynamicdependencyofspool
unwindingtensionondeployedlengthanddeploymentvelocity,includingeffectssuchas
tetherinertia,shockenergyandcompressibilityofthespool.Thecriticalityofthisparameter
isnotveryhigh,asitisdominantinthehighvelocitydeploymentpartofthesecondstage,
wheregravitygradientishighanddeploymentisrathereasytocontrolwiththebarberpole
brake. The acceptable range for the value of I is 220, with 8as nominal. The zerobrake
settingduringthefinalpartofthesecondstagesettingallowsforathoroughassessmentof
thisdynamiceffectinthedeployertensionmodel.Theresultshowsthatthedynamiceffect
ontensioninflightmatchesthepreflightmodelwithin20%.Thisissignificantlybetterthan
themaximumacceptabledeviation(75%to+150%).TheriseofthevalueofIattheendof
deploymentcanalternativelybeabsorbedbyalargerareaexponentE,butthishasnotbeen
investigatedfurther.
8.4 Tetherdeploymentdatamatchingbysimulation
8.4.1 Simulateddeploymentwithmatchingvelocityprofile
TheadvancedtethersimulatorMTBSim(YESSimversion,seeSection2.3.2)hasbeenusedto
reconstructthedeploymentinamorerepresentativemannerthancanbedonebasedonthe
simpledynamicmodel(Eq.2.16).Ratherthanbyenforcingthedeploymentlooprateprofile,
such as done for the reconstruction based on the simple dynamic model, a match to the
deployment rate profile is obtained indirectly from finetuning of only a few simulator
parameter settings. MTBSim uses a hardware friction model and a controller software
modelasinput.Thedeploymentvelocityisanoutput.Asthevelocityprofileinflighthas
beenwellcharacterized,ithasbeenselectedasthebasisfordeploymentreconstruction.The
deployerparametersT
0
,fandIhavebeentunedmanuallyuntiltheMTBSimvelocityoutput
matchestheflightdata.
Infact,thematchingexerciseisa(nonautomated)meanstotranslatedeploymentratedata
via the MTBSim tether dynamics model, into estimates of inplane angle and oscillatory
dynamics, independent from DIMAC measurements. Since each of the three deployer
hardwareparametersisdominantinclearlyseparatedphasesofdeployment,oneparameter
at a time can be adjusted, such that a systematic insight is obtained in the magnitude of
these values during the flight, as well as into the sensitivity of the deployment to these
values.TheMTBSimdeploymentreconstructionbymatchingisusedforanumberofother
purposes. Better insight can be gained into tether properties. Once confidence has been
gained into the representativeness of the simulation, extrapolations can be performed in
YES2MissionandResults 359
ordertodevelophypotheses.Impactofparametersettingsoncontrollerperformancecanbe
studied,andthecapsuledynamicsandtrajectorycanbepropagated.
Thevelocityhasbeenmatchedmostlywithin13%.Toachievethisprecision,T
0
andIneed
to be tuned within 5%. They are thought to provide a realistic indication of the actual
hardware performance. Some particularities have been introduced, as it is believed these
maybephysicallymeaningful.Thecontrollermalperformanceshortlyafterejection(Figure
248)issimulatedbyartificiallyintroducinganoverestimateofthevelocityof0.3m/sovera
periodof14seconds.Asettingisusedfor T
0
=0.027Nforzerovelocity(deviatingby17%
from the value found in Section8.4.3), linearly rising to 0.04N at 1m/s and higher. This
velocitydependencyofT
0
iscreatesahighlyprecisematchofthelowvelocitydeployment
early in the first stage, at 0.3m/s. Friction itself is chosen to be f=0.2for zero velocity,
linearlyrisingtoabout0.25at1m/sandhigher.TheelectricalpowerfailureontheOLD
interface is simulated by artificially introducing a condition of free deployment (n=0) at
t=6300s.Theexacttimingisnotcritical.TheparameterIisimportantforthesecondstage
deployment.AgoodfitcanbeobtainedwithI=8.2,closetothenominalvalue.Thisfitcan
beimprovedfurtherbysplittingthedeploymentin35segmentseachwithitsownvaluefor
I,deviatingbylessthan10%fromtheaverage.Notethatthesevaluesaregenerallycloserto
thenominalvaluesthanthevaluesfoundinSection8.4.3 thereasonforthishasnotyet
beeninvestigated.Comparedtotheallowabledeviations(Section5.5.5)thedeviationsare
small.
Marked flight features are recognized, such as control activity, resonance and occurrence
andcharacteristicsoflongitudinalandtransversewaves.Somedeviationisfoundinthelast
few hundreds of seconds of deployment, where the velocity is only known with 0.5m/s
accuracyandtheeffectoftheareaexponentEbecomesnoticeable.
In order to cover the extreme cases, various profiles have been developed by different
tuning of I and the tether properties stiffness and damping coefficient. Two matches are
reportedhereinparticular.ThefirstMatch#1maintainsthegroundestimatesofstiffness
but adjusts damping coefficient to match the oscillation performance after the endshock
better (Section8.4.3). A single value for I is assumed. No controller resonance and little
transverse waves are produced (as described in Section8.3.3). Match #2uses the tether
propertiesasresultingfromtheinvestigation(Section8.4.3)andacloserfittothevelocity
profileistargetedbysegmentingthevalueforIintofiveintervals,wherethevaluechanges
fromsegmenttosegmentbyabout10%aroundtheaverage.Transversaloscillations,similar
butprobablyheavierthanthoseinflight,areproduced.Theresultinginplanedeployment
trajectorymatchesthesimplemodelwell,towithin12.Themissiondataismatchedwithin
itsaccuracyofabout25. Figure253, Figure257Figure260 showthematchingresultsvs.
flightmeasured/derivedcurves.Thecoincidenceofsimulatedvs.measuredparametersnot
used for the matching exercise (tension and inplane angle) provide confidence in the
applicability of deployer hardware and tether dynamics simulations within the required
levelofaccuracy(seealsoSection8.1.1).
360 Chapter8
Figure 257. Matching of deployment velocity (first and second stage) by simulation including
controlleroscillations
Figure258.Matchingofmissiontensionbysimulation
Figure259.Matchingofdeploymenttrajectory,first(left)andsecondstage(right).
YES2MissionandResults 361
Figure260.Nominaldeploymentandflightdatamatch.ThelocationfromwhichOLDswereno
longerregisteredisindicatedbyanarrow.Flightdatamatchisthencontinuedincludinga
(simulated)OLDfailure(leftbranch,closetoactualYES2flight),aswellaswithoutthisfailure
(rightbranch,hypotheticalextrapolation)
8.4.2 Controllerperformance
Theimportanceofaccuratesimulationofdeployerhardwareandcontrolsoftwarehasbeen
demonstrated in the matching exercise. Given sufficient sensitivity analysis, the insights
gainedcanthenbeusedtoimprovedeployerandcontrollerdesign.
In the matching simulations controllerdeployment resonance with resulting transverse
waves iseventuallyreproduced,reminiscentofthemissiondataasshowninFigure 261.
Early matching attempts however, with a simplified onboard controller model, that
assumes immediate and accurate knowledge of the velocity, did reproduce the strong
decelerationat t=2200s,butdeploymentvelocitythenrecoveredsmoothlyandnoheavy
andenduringvelocityoscillationswereobserved(suchasinFigure257)norwerethereany
tension peaks associated to transverse waves (such as in Figure 262). Adjustment of the
simulatorhasbeennecessarytosufficientlyimproveitslevelofrealismandmakeitpossible
toreproducethismorecomplexbehaviorobservedinflight.
First, the observed macroscale (order 100s) pulsewise control after t=2200s leading to
repeated, large, butstillrelativelysmoothvariationsinvelocity(albeitnofullstandstills)
has beenobtainedbyproperlysettingthehighvalueof T
0
asobserved,combinedwitha
slightadjustmentinvalueforthefrictioncoefficientfascomparedtonominal.Notethatthe
occurrenceofthisbehaviorprovestobedependentonthebrakeresponsespeed,expressed
inappliedwrapspersecond.Thisbrakeresponsespeedisprogrammedinsoftwareandis
basedonthemaximumrecommendedoperatingfrequencyforthesteppermotor.Ahigher
responsespeedthanthesettingusedduringYES2isrecommended.
Thehigherfrictionalonedoeshowevernotcausetheheavyandfastvelocityandcontrol
oscillations(order20s)thataresuperimposedonthemacroscaleprofileintheflightdata,
and that can also be distinguished in Figure 261. As a potential candidate cause, classic
362 Chapter8
stickslipforaspringmasssystem has beensimulatedby introduction ofa staticfriction
coefficienthigherthanthedynamicfriction.Butnosignificanteffecthasbeenobserved.
Instead, the cause of the noisy response lies in the limitation with which the onboard
velocity estimate can be obtained. The velocity is approximated from the length estimate
usingalowpassfilter,anditsestimateisinfactsmoothenedandrunningabout8seconds
behindreality.Ifvelocitychangesonlyslowly,thisdelayleadstoasmall,quiteharmless
zigzagbrakebehaviorwithaperiodofabout20s.Undercertainconditions(suchasthe
high friction levels) this zigzag response can resonate with the velocity. When a high
velocityismeasured,thevelocitymayinrealitybealreadylow,asthebrakeisturnedup,it
lowers even more. Then the brake is released and the pattern repeats and amplifies.
Transverseoscillationscanprovidethemomentum thatcreate peaksintension when the
brakeisappliedandacceleratethetetherstronglyassoonasthebrakeisreleased,causing
further excitation of the resonance. As a result, the higher frequency control noise is
superimposedonthelowerfrequencypulsesrelatedtothetransversewaves.
Theabovementionedsimulatedeffectsaccountformostoftheirregularitiesobservedinthe
velocity and OLD pattern seen in flight. This indicates that the endmass velocity due to
macrodynamicsandcontrolleractivitygoverntherateofdeploymentofthetetherfromthe
spool,morethancapsuleangulardynamicsorcomplexphysicssuchasstickslipprocesses
orsoundwavesinthetether.SomeoftheirregularitiesintheOLDpatternseenintheflight
didhowevernotoccurduringthetestingorpreflightsimulations,specificallyinthefirst
minuteofdeployment.Hereitisassumedthatendmassdynamicswerestillinfluential.This
is yet to be confirmed by further simulations with MTBSim upgraded to include the
endmassdynamicseffectontension.
Figure261.Brakecontrollercausestensionpulsesinconjunctionwiththetransversewavethat
arosefromthefirstpulse.
8.4.3 Tetheroscillations
The three main types of tether oscillations as observed during the YES2 mission are
compared to simulation data. Mechanical tether wave dynamics in space are well
representedbythesimulatororcanbeotherwiseunderstood.Notethatthisanalysisisfora
YES2MissionandResults 363
shortdurationmission,anddoesnotincludeCoulombdampingeffectsasobservedinthe
1996TiPStethermissionthatsurvived10yearsinspace[Barnds1998].
Transversewaves
Tetherbendingduringdeploymentcannotbefullyavoided.ItoccursduetoCoriolisforces
actingalongthedeployingtether.Thisisspecificallytrueinearlydeploymentwhentension
is low (about 3cN in case of YES2), while at the same time deployment velocity is high
(YES2 maximum velocity is 16m/s) or if tether mass is significant with respect to the
endmass(YES2endmassis14kgvs.6kgtether).Transversewavesareintroducediflow
tension deployment is followed by abrupt braking, as occurred in YES2 at t=2200s.
Amplification of the waves after this shock was observed as a result of the controller
resonance with the deployment. In the hold phase and then the second stage, the waves
become less dominant, until finally the endshock introduces new and heavy transverse
wavesthatremainedpresentthroughouttheswingandsuperimposedonthespringmass
oscillation.
TransversewavesarerecordedbytheDIMACinstrumentthroughtheirsignaturetension
shocks(especiallyinthefirststage),butalsomoredirectlybymeasurementsoftheangle
under which the tether leaves Foton, Figure 253, Figure 262. The deployment matching
simulationrealisticallyportraysbothshockwaves.
Springmassoscillationsanddamping
Intheendshockthetetherisbroughttoanabruptstopfromavelocityofabout15.4m/sand
stretchesmorethan100meters.Asthetetherrelaxes,MASS/Fotinobouncesbackintoafree
orbital trajectory towards the local vertical below Foton. A combined orbital
bouncing/springmass oscillation is created (including also transverse and sound waves)
causingrepeatedtensionpeaksofabout10N.
MTBSim reconstruction of the mission deployment matches this complex behavior
qualitativelywithproperselectionofdampingandstiffness, Figure263.Inthisfigure,the
time reference is the time of completion of deployment and start of the swing back. The
tethercutoccursat740s.
Manipulationofthesetetherpropertyvalues,dampingcoefficient. andstiffnessEA,show
that general shape and frequency depend on the ratio EA/.
2
. Higher stiffness or lower
damping leads to a faster succession of pulses. The absolute numbers determine the
amplitude. Good fits are obtained for a . =0.140.16 and a stiffness of EA=510kN. The
somewhathighervalueforstiffnessisnosurpriseasthetensionlevelsarehigherthanthose
expectedinthenominalmissionandthestiffnessforDyneematethersisknowntorise
with the loading. The damping appears to have been significantly higher than tested
(. =0.08), which is for now attributed to a limited applicability of the test method
(Section4.1.5),althoughanimpactoflimitationsofthesimulatorcannotbeexcluded.
364 Chapter8
Longitudinalwaves
One event recorded during YES2 shows clear impact of a sound wave echoing back and
forththroughthetetherseveraltimes:theendshock.Thespeedofsoundinatetherisnot
relatedto thebraidingstiffnessbuttothefiber stiffness andforDyneema isashighas
a=10km/s. Thismeansasoundwaveshouldtravelbackandforththroughthetetherin
about6.5seconds.Thisisclosetowhatwasobserved.Figure264isthetensionprofileofthe
endshockrecordedatFoton,thetetherdeployerend.Thecuriousshapeoftheshock(rather
thanthetypicalsinepulsethatMTBSimproduces)isexplainedinanumberofsteps.
Asthedeployingtetherisbroughtinstantaneouslytoastandstill,atthesiteofthedeployer
inFoton,fromaboutv
0
=15m/s,theremainderofthetetherisstillunawareofthiseventand
travelingfurther.Theinformationofthedeploymentstoptravelsdownthefull31.7kmof
tetherwiththespeedofsound.Asthedeploymentstopreachesanypointinthetetherat
distancexfromFotoninAt=x/aseconds,thispointhasmovedv
0
Atandthereforethetether
hasbuiltupanadditionalstretchbyAl=xv
0
/a.Tensionisassumedtoremainconstantand
followHookeslaw,AT=EAAl/l,thereforealsoT=EAxv
0
/a/x=EAv
0
/a.
AfterP/2seconds,withPtheobservedtimebetweenshocks,thestandstillreachestheother
end of the tether. Fotino has significant inertia and pulls on the tether. The 15m long
ripstitchdampingdevicemountednearFotinoactivatesandreducesthetensionforabouta
secondto~6N.ThenFotinoinertiarestoresandincreasesthetensionsuchthattheshockin
the tether is reflected back to Foton where it is being measured Ps later as a further
suddenrise.AsFotinoslowsdown,theshockleveldrops,untilthereflectionreturnsagain,
and7slaterathirdandfinaltime.ThenFotinohasrebouncedandthetetherisslack.
Theobservedpulsecanbeusedtoaccuratelydeterminesometetherproperties.Thespeed
ofsounda canbeobtainedthrougha=2l/P8.8km/s.Theestimatefor a insidethefiber
should be corrected somewhat taking into account that the braided tether fiber is
approximately 3% longer than the tether itself, yielding a final estimate of
a
fiber
=1.03*8.8=9.1km/s. An expression for the tether stiffness can now also be obtained
fromthetensionmeasurement: EA=2ATl/(Pv
0
)10kN.Themaximumamplitudeof ATof
about37NissomewhatlargerwhiletheshockdurationP
shock
=14sissignificantlyshorter
thanwouldbeobtainedsimulatingaspringmasssystemwithinfinitespeedofsoundfor
which T=v
0
\(EAm/L)=33N and P
shock
=t/\(EA/mL)=24s, using m=m
Fotino
+0.34m
tether
accordingtoYost[Yost2002].
The measured pulse can be compared to predictions of mathematical tether model. Note
thatMTBSimdoesnotsimulatethespeedofsoundasithasanexplicitassumptionthatthe
speed of sound is infinite (Section2.3.2). Is has shown to be a more than sufficient
approximation for most practical applications. Prof. Smirnov and Ass. Prof. Alexey
Malashin from Moscow M.V. Lomonosov State University have kindly provided below
simulation that illustrate the qualitative behavior The simulation is without damping,
includesnoripstitchandhasalowerEA=5000N, v
0
=14m/sanda=10km/s(Figure264).
ThedifferencewiththeYES2measurementisprimarilyduetothestiffnessdifferenceand
partly alsoduetolack of dampingintheirmodel. Their derivationshowshowFotinois
YES2MissionandResults 365
deceleratedinasequenceofasymptoticexponentials,everytimetheechoingshockreaches
the body [Smirnov2010]. Foton experiences a longer tension increase than at Fotino. On
macro scale (so from a point of view of MTBSim comparison) the shock is delayed from
Foton perspective by 7s (albeit preceded by a 7s lower level shock) and from Fotino
perspectiveby3.5s.

Figure262.Tensionpulsesfromtransversewavesduringfirststageandholdphase.Left:flightdata,
right:deploymentmatchingsimulation.
Figure 263. Matching of complex tension signature of complex wave form (mostly springmass)
duringswingbacktovertical.
Figure264.Measuredandsimulatedendshockshowingechointhetether
366 Chapter8
8.5 Failure analysis and extrapolation of the YES2
missionresults
InthissectiontheimplicationsoftheYES2missionanalysisresultsarestudiedinabroader
context.Howdotheresultscomparetothoseoftheearlier,similarSEDSexperiments?What
conclusionscanbedrawnfromthecombinedflightresultstodayonpredictabilityoftether
dynamics?WhatcanwethensayaboutthefateofthereentrycapsuleFotino?Andwhat
are the implications for the suitability of the system for SpaceMail and other future
missions?Beforethesequestionscanbeanswered,theanomaliesobservedduringtheYES2
mission are analyzed. They need to be viewed in the proper perspective before further
projectionsaremade.
8.5.1 Failureinvestigation
The YES2 mission has deviated from the nominal in various ways. In this section these
problemsarefurtherinvestigatedandpossibleapproachestowardssolutionsareproposed:
Intheinitialmeters,thedeploymenthasbeenirregular. TheOLDfiltersthirderror
recovery feature (Table 48, row D) has not dealt well with this irregularity and
estimatesvelocitytoohigh,leadingtooverbraking.
Recoveryfromtheoverbrakingisthenimpededduetounexpectedlyhighstickinessof
thetether.Thisstickinesscausesthedeploymenttocontinuebelowthenominallength
profile for 2200s. This leads to heavy control activity, which succeeds in getting the
length development back in check. However, a controller resonance causes an
excitationoftransversewavesthatmayhavebeenavoidedgivenabetterselectionof
controllerparameters.Althoughnotconfirmed,tetherslacknessmayhaveoccurredfor
intervals long enoughtocauselargeoscillatoryamplitudesinthe endmasswhichin
turnmayhavecontributedtoadverseentryconditionsforFotinoandincreasedriskof
burnupinreentry.
Finally,afterasuccessfulstartofthesecondstage,thecomputersregistrationofOLD
loopcount pulses fails and leads to an overdeployment, shock and slackness in the
tether as well as a too steep reentry for Fotino. Fotino reenters out of range of the
studentdeployedmobilegroundstation.
Initialdeploymentirregularity
Simulationoftheimpactofendmassdynamicsontensionanddeploymentvelocityinearly
deployment should be performed to study the cause of the irregularity. Possibly the
mechanismbehindtheirregularityisstickslipbutsimulationswithstickslipfeaturesalone
withouttheeffectofendmassoscillationshavenotreproducedthebehavior.Dealingwith
thisprobleminpracticehoweverpromisestoberathersimple.Miscalculationofdeployed
lengthcanbeavoidedsimplybyremovingthedoublefailurefeature(Section5.5.3)fromthe
software.Thisalgorithmhasprovenunnecessary,asdoublefailurehasbeenextremelyrare
YES2MissionandResults 367
during the first stage of deployment. Sufficient redundancy is already provided by the
remainingOLDfeatures.Thesinglefailurefeatureworkedverywellinflight.
Stickiness
Therehavebeenvarioushypothesesfortheobservedunexpectedlyhighlevelofstickiness:
1. outgassingandsubsequentdepositofstickycomponentsinthepolyethyleneandanti
staticfiberfinishintheouterkilometersofthetetherand/ortetherguides,
2. lack of humidity as present in the ground tests that could provide a molecular low
frictionfilm,
3. outgassingoftheantistaticfinishleadingtofiberendstostandoutandinteract,orthe
deployingandchargingtethertosticktosurfaces,
4. lowtemperatureeffectsmakingtheantistaticfiberfinishstiffer,
5. chemicalchangeintheantistaticfiberfinishduetopreflightthermomechanicalloads
andthermalvacuumenvironmentthatcausemolecularbondsbetweensurfaces,
6. purelythermomechanicaleffectsduetoexpansionandcontractionofthespoolduring
thermalcyclesaffectingtension.
In order to study these hypotheses, the environment has to be understood that the YES2
tether has been exposed to. The YES2 tether has spent 11days in space mounted in the
center of the FotonM3 battery pack, with YES2 unpowered and wrapped in a thermal
blanket.ThermalanalysisshowsthattherangeoftemperaturesthatYES2hasgonethrough
before poweron may have slowly fluctuated between 20C and +40C as Fotons
uncontrolledmotionandattitudewithrespecttotheSundeveloped.WhenfinallyYES2is
switched on temperatures are relatively moderate. Presumably rather homogeneous as
YES2iswrappedfullyinthermalblankets,thetemperatureofYES2atthetimeis2.5C
(Figure 233). At start of deployment, the tether core has already warmed up to room
temperature,duetoreceivedEarthradiationandconductionfromthestructureheatedup
byYES2electronics.
Measurementsmadeinvacuumprovidesomeinsightintothermalconductancethrougha
tetherspool(Figure265).Ittakes4hoursforthetemperaturetopropagatethrough1.12kg
oftethermass.Thistestshowsthattemperatureoftheouterlayerofthe6kgofflighttether
will hardly be affected by the 45hours of heating during the second stage deployment,
thereforetethertemperaturetheremusthaveremainedcloseto0C.
Asmalltestcampaignhasbeenheldpostflighttotestthemainhypothesesindividualor
combinedeffects. In preparationofthe testplan, outgassing effectsareseen asthe likely
mainculprit.Asegmentof1350moftether,cutfromtheflighttetherFlorianbeforelaunch,
iswoundontopofa4700mspooloftetherGianlucaoriginatingfromthesamefiberbatch
(butwithtighterbraid).Thespoolhasacylindricalaluminiumcoreandincludingtetherhas
a diameter of 130mm, smaller than the flight spools 250mm. In order to obtain
368 Chapter8
approximately the same winding angle of 9, the tether is wound at 7turns per cycle as
comparedto4turnspercyclefortheflighttether.
Thetetherhasbeendeployedusingasimplereelsystematatypicalfirststagedeployment
velocityof0.55m/s(someforreferenceat0.85m/s),Figure266.
In between deployments, the environmental conditions have been changed to study the
impactofvariouseffects(Figure268).Startinginambientatmosphere,thepreflightground
testresultsisindeedreproduced.Thetetheristhencooleddownanddehydratedinadry
nitrogenenvironmentinordertoprovideareferencecaseatsuspectedflighttemperature
and without humidity. A deployment test is performed. Next, the tether is exposed to
vacuum,includingsomeriseintemperaturetosimulatesomethermomechanicaleffectand
tostimulatetheoutgassing(Figure265).Asthetetherundertestissignificantlylessmassive
than the flight tether, the vacuum exposure duration is restrained to 3days. Exposure to
cold in vacuum is suspected to have little effect on outgassing and is omitted. After
exposure to vacuum the tether is brought into dry cold again and tested to study the
vacuumeffect.Thenitrogenisthenwarmedupslowlyforadrytestatroomtemperatureto
isolatethetemperatureeffect.
Figure265.Vacuumexposurecharacterization
Althougheffortsareundertakentoisolatethevariouseffects,someeffectsareobviouslynot
reversible and are maintained following their first occurrence, even if conditions are
reversed.Anotherchallengeistoseparatelocaleffects.Forexample,theouterlayerofthe
spoolloseswindingtensioninstorageconditions.Possiblythewindingtensionalsovaries
throughthespool.Thetestsperformedattempttoidentifyalsotheseeffects.
A typical deployment tension profile is provided in Figure 267. A cyclic behavior is
observedthatcanbecorrelatedtotherecurringlocationoftheunwindingpartofthetether
on the spool. Video has been used to correlate the behavior to tension measurements to
understand the link with winding geometry. Particular telling step levels of tension are
labelled Bottom/Up/Top/Bottom and these levels are therefore used to characterize and
compare the various deployment tests. These effects take place on the timescale of loops
rather than layers (see Section 5.3.6), but similarly directional effects of mechanical
impedimentscanbediscernedthathamperdeploymentofloopsoverthespooloritsedges.
YES2MissionandResults 369
The test results are summarized in Figure 268, where individual test conditions are
representedandtestsareidentifiedbysequentialnumbering(TestID#1#15).Foreachtest
conditionthetypicallyobservedsteplevelsaregraphicallyrepresented.Theoccurrenceof
thevacuumtestandtransitiontotheGianlucatetherarealsoindicated(arrows).Movingto
higherTestID,wearrivedeeperintotheoriginalspool,intotalabout1400m,10layersor
5mmofdepth.Afteraperiodofpause(durationisindicated),deviatingbehaviorisseenfor
about15m(#3,#6,#11).Followingthatshortlength,behaviornormalizedtothebehaviors
seenintest #4 resp. #7. Mostother tests are 50m.Betweentest #13 and#14a significant
amountof3layers(350m)hasbeenremoved.
N
2
Chamber
Tensiometer
Spool
Feedthrough
Reel
Teflonguide
Figure266.Tetherstickinessenvironmentaltestsetup
Figure267.Typicaltensionpatternforverticalunwinding
Figure268.Summaryoftestsperformedandtensionpatternresults
370 Chapter8
The ambient reference tests #1 and #2, as to be expected, provides results similar to pre
flighttestingandshowsagentlewaveoftensionwithtwomaximapercycle,oneforeach
unwindingdirectionwithinthecycle.
Thecoldnitrogenenvironment(#3andfurther)radicallychangestheimage(Figure268).
Theminimaremaininplace,butthemaximaareamplifiedanddiversifyintotwotypes,one
foraxialdeploymentdirectionfrombasetotop,and,aboutthriceaspronounced,onefor
thedeploymentdirectionfromtopbacktobase.Brieftensionpeakscanbeseentooccur
when the tether passes a crossing between two layers, which is where the tether has the
smallestbendingradius.Inotherwords,thestickinessseemsnotsomuchincreased,rather
the tether interaction with the winding has, due to increased stiffness or memory or a
settlingofthetetherontothespool.
Thereturntoambientconditions(test#10)doesnotleadtoareturntotheoriginalambient
results(tests#1and#2).Thispointsstrongertoasettlingofthetether,perhapsalsoatfiber
level,duetothethermalchangeinthespoolandpossibleothereffectsthatcouldnotbe
isolated with the test sequence as it was performed based on an initial hypothesis of
outgassingeffects.
This interpretation is reinforced by the fact that vacuum or hydration, which may be
expectedtocausechangesinmicroscopicsurfaceinteractions,havelittleeffect.Thevacuum
seemseventoreduceabitthepeaks,atleastintheouter5layersuntiltest#13,possiblyby
evaporationofthesurfacefinishintheselayers.
Areleaseoftensionintheouter15mandreturntotheinitialconditionsisobservedafter
thevacuumandoutgassingexposure(test#6).Theimpactedsegmentoftethercoversmuch
lessthanthefullouterlayerthatstretches130m.Anyoutgassingeffectwouldaffectthefull
layer. The tension release can thus be attributed to progressive loss of tension traveling
throughthetether,startingfromitsfreeend.InFigure268thistypeofbehaviorcanindeed
beobservedinallthreetestsperformeddirectlyafterasignificantpause,asindicatedby
white blocks in the test condition bar (tests #3, #6, #11). Subsequent tests can be seen to
returntotheoriginalsituation.
Itmaybeobservedthattheoutgassinghasreducedabitthesettlingimpactcomparedtothe
prevacuumcoldtest(#4),whereasthelevelsofthatprevacuumcoldtestdoreturn,deeper
inthespool(#14).Ifthisisindeedaneffectoftheenvironmentchangeitmaybeexplained
by the hypothesis that outgassing of the surface finish reduces the settling memory
somewhat,butdidnotreachverydeep,onlyapartialoutgassingoftheouterlayersmay
haveoccurredinthevacuumchamber.
Totestthishypothesis,avolatilesextractionhasbeenperformedonsamplesofabout2mg
taken from different depths in the spool (both before and after vacuum exposure), using
etherassolvent.Theaccuracyofthebalanceusedisreportedas1g,andreproducibilityis
3g.Thereferencemeasurementisdoneforasamplefromthetopofthespool,removed
beforevacuumexposure.Theextractionyieldsareferenceof1.9%ofmassloss.
YES2MissionandResults 371
Samples taken from postvacuum exposure show less mass loss, consistent with volatiles
havingevaporatedinvacuum.Thedifferenceofmasslossafterextractioncomparedtothe
referenceisthereforeameasureofoutgassing.Fromthisandfurthersamplesfromdeeper
in thespool, Figure269 isproduced.TheRecovered MassLossfor Dyneema(a standard
measure for outgassing in vacuum) is also indicated, and comparison with the
measurements seems to indicate that the outer layers of the spool have fully outgassed,
howevernotsothedeepersamples.Theresultseemsthustoconfirmthehypothesisthatthe
deeperlayingtethersampleshaveoutgassedless,somoreantistaticcoatingisstillpresent,
which can explain the trend of unwinding tension rising somewhat when deeper in the
spool.
Figure269.Evidencethatleveloutgassingin
vacuumreducesfortetherdeeperinsidethespool
Alternative hypotheses, such as a slow humidification penetrating the spool over a time
spanofdays,orsheerrandomnessoftheresults,havebeenevaluated.Theycouldnotbe
decisively rejected but require additional nontrivial assumptions to achieve consistency
withthetestresults(Kruijff2009.II).
Deeperinthespoolisplacedadifferenttether,braidedfromthesamefibersastheflight
tether Florian, but much more tightly, and therefore more stiff. This Gianluca tether is
thereforepresumablylesssensitivetosettlingeffects.Unwindingtensionhoweverisfound
tobesimilarlyhigh,althoughabitmoresmooth.Thistypeofbraidingdoesthereforenot
provideaclearsolutionagainsthighunwindingtension.
Moredetailedanalysisisnecessarytounderstandandpreventtheincreasedfrictionfrom
occurring,suchastestingoftetherbendingstiffnessandmemoryatlowtemperature,the
effect of preflight removal of the surface finish, the effect of long term storage and
reversibilityoftheeffectbeforeandaftervacuumexposure.Ifsettlingratherthanchemical
changeisthecauseofthetensionincrease,arewindingofthetetherexposedduringthis
campaign would provide original low tensions again. Untested conditions such as static
chargesordeploymentinvacuummaystillhavefurtherinfluence.
AsummaryofthefindingswithrespecttotheoriginalhypothesesisprovidedinTable73.
The observed amplification of minimal deployment tension from YES2 flight results has
372 Chapter8
beenmadeplausibleandappearstobesimplytheresultofmechanicalsettlingduetocold
cycling. Although it is recommended to confirm the result by a more extensive test
campaign, ifthisisindeedthecauseoftheobservedstickinessincrease,simplepreflight
testssuchasperformedherewillsufficetopredictinflightbehavior.
Hypothesis Finding Influence
1 Depositofstickycomponentsinouterlayers. Innerlayersdonotoutgasmuch,outerlayers
haveratherlowerfriction.
None
2 Humidityrequiredforlowfriction. Ambientvs.N
2
testrevealsnoinfluence. None
3a Outgassingofantistaticfinish,tetherhairy. Outgassedtethersshownosuchevidence. None
3b Outgassingofantistaticfinish,tethercharged. OutgassedlayersshowlowerT0nothigher. None
4 Antistaticfiberfinishstiffenstetherwhencold. Temperatureoftestbyitselfhasnoinfluence. None
5 Flightenvironmentcauseschemicalbonding
betweentethersurfaces.
Noinfluencefoundfromvacuum/thermal
cycling.
Unlikely
6 Thermomechanicaleffects. Settlingisidentifiedasthelikelycauseof
apparentstickiness.Theoppositeeffect,reduced
unwindingtensionduetorelaxation,wasalso
observed.Retestofthesametethercouldconfirm.
Likely
Table73.Overviewoffindingswithrespecttoinitialhypothesesregardingcauseofstickiness
Controllerresonance
Thesimulatortoolcanbeusedasadiagnostictooltostudytheimpactofcontrollerortether
properties on tether dynamics. The occurrence of persistent transverse waves and a
resonance of controller and deployment velocity could for example be recreated by
modelingtheflighthardwareandcontrollerindetail,seeSection8.4.1.Inareverseprocess,
by changing simulation parameters, various ways have been found to avoid or be more
robustagainstoccurrenceoftheunwelcometransversewavesandresonance(Table78).It
isrecommendedto:
Usea fasterstepper motor, abletoachieve one wrapreliably inabout4seconds
ratherthanthe8secondsusedinYES2.Thisisthesimplestmeansofpreventing
theproblem.
MakesurethefrictionlevelofthetetherisnothigherthanT
0
=2cNandthatofthe
brakeisnothigherthanf=0.2(precisevaluesdependentonmissionparameters).
Tunethevelocityfiltercutofffrequencytoavoidresonanceinahighfrictioncase.
Adjustthecontrolgainstoavoidresonanceinahighfrictioncase.
YES2MissionandResults 373
ThethresholdvaluesmentionedhereareparticularlydeterminedfortheYES2systemand
mustbeseparatelyestablishedforotherdesigns.Inadditiontotakeintoaccountthelimited
applicability of ground measurements and simulator, a sensitivity analysis should be
performed,includinga20%marginonfrictionparametersasmeasuredontheground.
MissingOLDinterrupts
ThecauseofthelossofOLDinterruptdatainthesecondstagehasalsobeeninvestigated.
Fromitsonset,theperformancelosshasbeengraduallyincreasing,Figure239.Examplesof
parameters that can be related to such a manner of signal degradation are time (e.g.
componentdegradationoroverload),deploymentrate(monotonouslyincreasinginmostof
the second stage) or temperature (mildly increasing by about 2degrees per hour, Figure
233).
Somepossiblecausescanberenderedunlikelybasedonflightdataandpreflightground
tests. Alignment and health signals from the three OLD channels show no degradation
duringthemission,evennotduringperiodsofsignaloutage.Thisisstrongevidencethat
thesensorsthemselveshavebeenproperlypoweredandoperational.Preflightdeployment
testing with integrated flight hardware has shown that the OLD electronics have no
problem with providing clean pulses for the full range of looprates. Tests on the YES2
engineeringmodel,includingarobustnesstestandarepresentativedeploymenttesthave
shownthatbothsoftwareandhardwareareabletocopewiththesignalrateassociatedwith
veryhighlooprates.
Anindicationofthecauseofthefailurecomesfromthefactthatattimesofsignaloutage,
signals are mostly absent on all three channels at the same time, and would then jointly
reappear.Thispointstoafailureofasharedsystem,suchassoftware(whichhasalready
been largely cleared of suspicion), the PIC controller (translation chip for the interrupt
signals on the CPU board) or the joint power supply to the RS422 receivers of the OLD
signal(Figure271).
The OLD receivers get their power from the 1.5W auxiliary DC/DC converter meant for
lowpowersafetycriticalsignalsinthePDUsuchastelecommandsandtelemetry,whereas
thelesscriticalOBCandOLDboardsreceivetheirpowerfromthe30Wmainconverter.
Withinthiscircuitrythereisaneasilyidentifiablesuspect.Itisanelectronicpatchthatdeals
withaknown,faultyinterruptrequestchannel(IRQ)ontheOBC
14
.
TheOBCboardselectedforflightoriginallyhadonlytwointerruptlinesavailableforthe
OLDboardinterface.Itwasthenfoundthatthethirdinterruptlinecouldbeactivatedas
well,aslongassufficientpowerwassupplied.TheRS422receiverchipinterfacingbetween
OLD and OBC could however not supply sufficient power. Therefore, an additional
transistor was added to boost the output signal from the RS422chip. It was decided to
14
AgeneralproblemwiththeselectedOBCboard(SECOM543)hasbeenthatintheincomingunittests,bothforthe
flightmodelandseveralengineeringmodels,someofthedigitalI/OandIRQs(notalwaysthesame)havebeenfound
nonfunctional.Whetherthisproblemhasbeencausedatthemanufacturer,atthesupplierorduringtheincoming
inspectionisnotclear.Acriticalreviewofallboardsandproceduresinvolvedhasidentifiedflawsoriginatingateach
ofthethreelocations[Kruijff2009.II].
374 Chapter8
connectthetransistortothesame1.5WpowersupplyastheRS422chipitselfratherthan
themain30Wconverter.Thiswasamistake.
Areviewofpreflightpowerandvoltagemeasurementshasbeendone,whichrevealsthat
thepatchtransistorhasbeenoverloadingthesmall1.5WDC/DCconvertertotheedgeofits
range. At this loading, even a small increase of power demand leads to a steep drop in
DC/DCsupplyvoltage(Figure270).
Figure270:FromMCH2805Sdatasheet(5V_PDU).Maximumis1.5W.
V A
V
5V
OBCboards
OLDboard
RS422
Rx1
RS422
Rx2
RS422
Rx3
27V
5V
R1
Figure271.Testsetupforrecreationofflight
condition
Tests indicate however it is unlikely that a large enough voltage drop has occurred to
disabletherelevantequipment.TheRS422chipsremainfunctionaldowntoaslowas1.3V,
although their output drops with the input. If those output levels drop below a critical
voltagelevelofapproximately2.5V,nomoreinterruptsignalsareregisteredbytheOBC.In
thetests,noincreasedpowerconsumptionisobservedforhighlooprate,longdurationor
YES2MissionandResults 375
excessiveheatingofthetransistor.AlsointermittentthermalshutoffofthePICcontroller
ontheOBChasbeenfoundanunlikelyfailuremechanism.
Interestingly,closescrutinyofpreflightdeploymenttests,aftertheinstallationofthepatch
show evidence that the gap problem already occurred several times, again on all three
channelssimultaneously,albeitbrieflyandforasmallfractionoftime(3%).
Interestingly,whenanengineeringmodeloftheDC/DCconverterunitisincludedinthe
rebuilt circuitry, and the power dissipation is tuned to match the preflight consumption
level,similarsignalvoltagelevelsareobtainedasmeasuredfortheflightmodelafterpatch
installation (4.7V for channels2and3, and 4.0V for channel1). Rather than requiring a
voltagedropdownto2.5Vbeforelossofinterrupts,aremarkableeffectisnoticedwhenthe
voltageisdroppedbyaslittleas0.1V.Bythisminuteincreaseinpowerdissipation,oreven
asmalldecreaseinsensitivityofthePIC,asiscommonlyseenwithtemperatureincrease,
noise on the overloaded DC/DC converter suddenly triggers the interrupt signals on the
OBC,onallchannelsandataveryhighfrequencyofabout10kHz.
Thesoftwarerespondspromptlytothisnoise.TheOLDnoisefilter(Section5.5.3,Table48)
istriggeredonallchannels.Notonlythenoise,butalsoproperinterruptsindicatingtether
passagearethenfilteredout,moreandmoreassensitivityofthePICorpowerconsumption
increasesduetotheincreaseintemperature.Thisobservationseemstoprovideanadequate
and consistent explanation of what has occurred during the YES2 flight, leading to
underestimationofthedeploymentvelocityanditsconsequencesonthecontrol.
8.5.2 ComparisonYES2toSEDSmissiondataandanalysis
The SEDS1 and SEDS2 missions in respectively 1993 and 1994 have inspired the
conceptual design choices for YES2. Furthermore, YES2 mission objectives have been
definedasanincrementaldevelopmentoftheSEDSmissions.Themainmissionfeaturesare
comparedinTable74.
TheSEDSmissionsbothfeaturedafulltetherdeploymenttargetingtounwindallloopsto
reachatotallengthof20km.WhereastheSEDS1missionwasanopenloopdeploymentto
a large angle, the SEDS2 tether featured a closed loop deployment to the vertical at full
length. To avoid control risks in the critical early phase of deployment, SEDS2had no
brakinginthefirst750saltogether.Stabilizationwasobtainedtowithin5degees.
YES2 targeted a combination of two closed loop deployments, first to a vertical at only
3.4km, and a subsequent largeangle deployment. YES2 has aimed to reach a smooth
deploymentstopat30km,with1.7kmadditionallywoundonthespoolascontrolmargin.
Considering the small endmass (albeit with virtually identical ejection energy, see
Section4.2.1)and firststagelength, theYES2firststage libration amplitudeof10degrees
can be considered a control success. In the mission YES2 features velocities higher than
SEDS1,mainlybecausethefinalpartofYES2deploymentisuncontrolled,leadingtothe
31.7kmfulltetherlength.
The main length and velocity data is obtained in both missions through Optical Loop
Detectors.TheSEDStensiometerwaspositionedatthetetherexit,resultinginrathernoisy
376 Chapter8
measurements.Forthisreason,theYES2tensiometerispositionedattheMASSendmass,
resulting in clean measurements. However, data has only been collected from the MASS
shortlyafterejection.Highqualitydataonthetensionhasneverthelessbeenderivedfrom
the DIMAC threeaxis accelerometer positioned close to the YES2 deployer. These
measurementsallowalsoforanobservationofthetetherexitanglefromthedeployer.In
plane angle data has been determined by combination with magnetometer data. This
concepthasproventobeanexcellentprinciplefordeploymentobservation.
TheSEDSsubsatelliteprovidedendmassdynamicsdatathroughoutthemissionwhichhas
beenextensivelyanalyzed[Stadler1995].Understandingofendmassdynamicsisimportant
alsoforYES2,inordertoavoidtetherwrappingaroundtheFotinoreleasemechanismand
tounderstandinitialconditionsofFotinosreentry.Irregularitiesinthefirsttensofseconds
ofYES2deploymentmaybeattributedtoendmassdynamics.Inthisrangethearmfrom
tetherattachmentpointtotheMASS/Fotinocenterofmassisstillsignificantwithrespectto
thetetherlength.Becausetheseendmassmodesarenotdampenednaturally,onSEDS a
heatshrinktubewasaddedaroundthetetherfixture.Inordertolimitendmassoscillations,
it is important to avoid tether slackness during deployment, and include a damping
mechanismaswasdoneonSEDS.
DuringtheSEDSmissions,deploymentvelocitywasnoisyfromtimeofejectionuntilitrose
aboveabout5m/s,withanamplitudeofabout30%at10saverageddata[Bortolami1993].
Explanations offered are stickslip due to the tether surface finish and scrubbing of the
tetheronthecoreflangeduetolowcentrifugalforcesatlowvelocity[Carroll1995.I].Glaese
relatesstickslipeffectstosoundwaves[Glaese1993].Particularlywhenthebrakeisactive
and tension is high, this stickslip is thought by the SEDS team to excite endmass and
transversetethermodes.
To some extent similar behavior was observed in YES2. However, YES2 deployment
velocity has been rather smooth from a minute into deployment until the large braking
causedoscillationsat2200s.Theseoscillationsseemtoberelatedtothecontrollerresonance
withthe velocityinconjunctionwithtransverse waves,ratherthantosticksliporsound
waves. MTBSim has instantaneous tension distribution, it does not simulate the speed of
sound,buttheoscillationsasseeninYES2after2200s canbemadevisible,evenwhenno
endmassdynamicsaresimulated.
ForSEDSnosuchresonancehasoccurreduntilthefinalstagesofdeployment.TheSEDS
controlintervalwaspurposefullyselectedmuchlongerthanthatofYES2andalowpass
filter was applied as low as 0.02Hz, as noisy OLD output was expected in advance
[Bortolami1993].Bortolamiattributesthenoisybehaviorsimilartostickslip,neartheendof
the SEDS deployment, to springmass dynamics arising under increase of tension at low
velocityduetoscrubbing.
Asfarasmatchingofthedeploymentisconcerned,thematchachievedforYES2appearsto
beratherexactandnoparticularproblemshavearisentoachievethismatch.ForYES2a
veryprecisematchisobtainedwithasimplemodel,withtheminimumdeploymenttension
lightlydependentonvelocity.Alsothecomplexbounceisreproducedtosuchanextentthat
YES2MissionandResults 377
tetherpropertiescouldbewellderived.Thebouncetensiondevelopmentissimilartothat
seeninSEDS1.In1993,modelandprocessingpowerlimitationsprecludedapropermatch
ofSEDSflighttosimulatorresults[Glaese1993].GlaeseexplainsthatinSEDS1,anearly
constantdecelerationwasobservedthatcouldnotbewellexplainedandacomplextension
dependencywasexpected.Bortolamie.a.statefurtherthat,althoughanimpressivequalitive
comparison can be made if noise models are used, the tension model is too simple for a
goodfit[Bortolami1993].
TheminimaldeploymenttensionaccordingtoCarrollresultsfromstickinessandstiffness
[Carroll1995.I].IthasbeendisplayingsurprisingvaluesinbothSEDSandYES2missions.
Similar to YES2, tether stickiness or minimal deployment tension for SEDS1 was
significantlyhigherthanexpected.Incontrast,theSEDS2missionshowedasignificantly
lower level than nominal [Bortolami1993]. The SEDS team related the difference to
manufacturer [Lorenzini1995] and suggests a relationship between low temperature and
highstickinessdueto(about1%watersoluble)surfacefinishonthefibers(inequivalence
with the known effect of braiding oils) [Wallace1995, Carroll1995.I]. Early SEDS tests
[Carroll1987] suggest that vacuum deployment testing produces large qualitative
differencesindeployment.DeploymenttestingatMSFCinrepresentativethermalvacuum
in fact produced estimates of the stickiness level matching SEDS2 flight results
[Lorenzini1995,Wallace1995].
Indeed, preflight testing in YES2 (Section5.2.4) has identified great differences between
tethersundergoingdifferentheattreatments,andforthisreasonseveraltethershavebeen
rejected(Erik, Ferdi). Postflight research onthe YES2 tethermaterialshowsthattheanti
static surface finish applied by the Dyneema fiber manufacturer is likely affected by
thermal prestretch (in the braiding process), thermal history and vacuum exposure and
could be to blame for the differences between individual tethers (e.g. tethers Erik and
Florian)andflightversusgroundtesting[Kruijff2009.III].Suchfinishisnecessarytoavoid
excessivespreadingofthefibersduringthebraidingprocess.
ForthecaseoftheYES2flighttetherthesurfacefinishorvacuumconditiononlyseemsto
haveplayedasecondaryrole. Atmosphericdrageffectsmaycontributetoadifferencein
deploymentbehavior,althoughheliumtestsperformedinthecontextofYEShaveshown
no significant impact of air density (Section5.3.8). At low velocity, where stickiness is
dominant,suchinfluenceshouldalsobesmall.Instead,postflighttestingpointsmostlytoa
settlingofthetetherduetothermalcycling,amplifyingthecyclictensionpeaksinherentto
the crisscross winding (Section8.5.1). As described in Section8.5.1, simple ground tests
may provide sufficient preflight information at least for the YES2 case. Due to budget
constraints,deploymenttestsinarepresentativethermalvacuumcouldnotbeperformed
for YES2, but considering the rather large effects observed for relatively small
environmentalchanges(suchasatemperaturereductionfrom20Cto0C)itisnevertheless
advisedforfuturemissions.
378 Chapter8
SEDS1 SEDS2 YES2stage1 YES2stage2
Year 1993 1994 2007
Tetherdiameter[mm] 0.75 0.75 0.5
Tetherlineardensity
[kg/m]
0.33 0.33 0.18
Endmass[kg] 26 26 14
Ejectionvelocity[m/s] 1.64 1.6 2.2
Control Openloop Closedloop Closedloop Closed(/open)loop
Controlinput Opticalcountof
unwoundloops,
2sensors
Opticalcountofunwoundloops,3sensors
Controloutput Tetherwraps
aroundcapstan
Tetherwrapsaround
capstan
Tetherwrapsaroundcapstan
Controlinterval[s] 8 2
Lengthtarget/obtained
[km]
20/20 19.75/19.78 3.38/3.39 30.1/31.7
Finalvelocity
target/obtained[m/s]
0/7 0/0.02 0/0.00 0/15
Angletarget/obtained[] /53 0/4 0/10 40/45
Minimumtension
expected/observed[N]
0.01/0.035 0.03/0.015 0.008/0.03
Maximumtension[N] 7 2.5 1 40
Maximumvelocity[m/s] 10.6/12.8 5.6/5.9 2.2/2.2 13/16
Length/velocitydata YES YES YES YES
Inplaneangledata NO Groundradardata
points
YES YES
Tensiondata Attetherexit
andendmass
Attetherexitand
endmass
Atendmass,deployer
acceleration
Deployer
acceleration
Endmassdynamics YES YES Partial NO
Table74.ComparisonSEDSmissionsvs.thetwoYES2deploymentstages
8.5.3 Simulatorapplicabilityandrepresentationofflightperformancebytests
Simulationvs.flight
It has been demonstrated so far that YES2 flight tether dynamics can be matched by
MTBSim simulation qualitatively and, with limited additional tuning effort, also
quantitativelytoahighdegreeofsimilarity.Variouscomplexbehaviorssuchasoscillations,
wavesandcontrolresonanceshavebeenreproducedbythesimulator.Thepredictivevalue
ofthesimulationswithregardstothesebehaviorsshouldberegardedasqualitative.Itcan
YES2MissionandResults 379
beconsideredadequateformissionplanningpurposesandselectionofparametervaluesif
a 20% margin is included and a sensitivity analysis is performed within the appropriate
rangeofthevariousparameters.
Littlecanbesaidaboutthesimulationoftetherviscosity,sincethevaluedeterminedfrom
flightdatamatchingdoesnotcoincidewiththevaluedeterminedfromsimplegroundtests.
Note also that internal (Coulomb) damping has been found to be pronounced in flight
[Barnds1998],butisnotincludedinMTBSim.
Forthe31.7kmYES2tether,nodetrimentalimpacthasbeenidentifiedforthelackofsound
wavepropagationinMTBSim.Ifashockoccursinwhichsoundwaveeffectsaresignificant,
itwillusuallybeacontingencysituation.Noimportantimpactofsoundwavesorstickslip
processesondeploymentdynamicshasbeenrecognized.
Theirregularityofthedeploymentcouldbepartiallyrepresented,inparticularoscillations
resultingfromtetherwavesandthecontrollerresonancewithdeploymentvelocity.Ithas
been necessary to integrate the controller details into the simulator. The irregularity
observed during the first hundred meters of deployment has not been recreated. It is
thereforerecommendedtoincludeendmassangulardynamicseffectsonthetethertension.
Thedeploymenttensionmodelcanbeextendedtoincludeknowncycliceffectsduetocriss
crossandparallelwinding,aswellastetherrubbingagainstthecoreatlowvelocityandthe
canisterathighvelocity.
Testvs.flight
Open and closed loop deployment testing for YES2 has provided results consistent with
simulations(Chapter5)andthereforehasprovedtobeusefulyetsufferingfromsomeofthe
samepitfalls.Theyhavebeenadequateforcharacterizationandverificationoftheoverall
hardwareandcontrollerperformance.Astagetransitionlikethetransitionfromholdphase
tosecondstagestartisrealisticallyreproduced.Withcalibrationofthetetherlengthsensors
inboththewindingandunwindingsystems,itcouldeventuallybeestablishedthata0.1%
deployedlengthdeterminationaccuracyispossiblewiththeOLDsystem,determinedfrom
thecongruencebetweenthelengthsmeasuredbyOLDandtestrig.Theattainablecontrol
accuracy both in test and in Monte Carlo simulation is better than 1%, where 3% is
consideredacceptable.YES2missionanalysishasshownthatwiththeYES2flightsystemas
operated in space a length measurement accuracy of about 0.3% is obtained, whereas a
controlaccuracyof0.6%couldbeachieved.
However, the ground preparation activities have not alerted the team in advance for the
irregularitiesobservedinflight,specificallyinearlydeployment,nortothehighvalueofT
0
.
It is necessary for now to treat such irregularities as a given and provide algorithmic
robustness.
Thesystemtestshouldbeasrepresentativetotheflightaspossible.Thisseemstrivial,but
when test costs and demands on the timeline are tradedoff against potential gains,
compromisesareeasilymade.ForYES2,despitealargenumberofpartialdeploymenttests
with the flight hardware subsystems, full closedloop deployment tests have been
380 Chapter8
performed only on the engineering model, with an external power supply and at room
temperature.ThefullextentoftheissuewiththeOLDpatchhasonlybeenrecognizedpost
flight,butwouldhavesurfacedinatestinafullyflightrepresentativesituation,including
thermalvacuum.Asimilarconclusionholdsforthetetherstickinessonthespool,T
0
,which
during the YES2 mission was significantly higher than expected. Again, despite a large
numberofgroundtests,includingthermalcycling,duetotimeconstraintstheflighttether
itselfhasonlybeendeployedinambientconditions,withoutthenecessaryapriori thermal
cyclingexposure(Section8.5.1).
Thehardwareemulator
The hardware emulator has proven particularly helpful to test the deployer systems
electrical and algorithmic performance without deploying an actual tether (Sections5.2.3,
8.1).Forthissystem,asusedforYES2,oneofthemainlimitationshasturnedouttobethe
levelofrealismoftheOLDpulses.Thepulsescomequiteregularly,givingtheOBCvelocity
filteraratherstraightforwardjob.Thelimitationcanbeovercomebyintroducingartificial
noiseinthesimulatedpattern.Thepossibilitytointroducesuchnoisemakestheemulator
test setup probably more suitable to test e.g. the dynamic interaction between endmass
oscillations and tether deployment velocity than the actual hardwareintheloop closed
loopdeploymenttest.
8.5.4 FotinoandtheSpaceMailpotential
ThereisnoconfirmationyetthatFotinohasbeendeliveredtothegroundasintendedand
itsintegrityandexactwhereaboutsareunknown(Figure272).
InanefforttodeterminethelikelypositionofFotino,afirstuncertaintytobedealtwithis
theexacttimingofitsreleasefromMASSandthetether.Althoughthereisdirectevidence
forthetetherreleasefromFoton,itprovesmuchmoredifficulttodeterminewhetherFotino
has released successfully from MASS at the nominal time. For this to happen, the tether
should not be wrapped around the Fotino/MASS endmass. In other words, the endmass
should have remained relatively stable at the end of the tether despite the stickslip
behavior, slacknessand multipleshocksthatthe systemexperienced. Themissiondesign
includesanintervalof20sbetweenFotinoreleaseandtethercuttoallowforconfirmation
ofreleasebyGPSortensionmeasurements,butthisintervalhasprovenhardlysufficient
duetothehighlydynamiccircumstancesaftertheendshock.Nosteadystatemeasurements
couldbemade(Figure254).
There are some indications that Fotino might have released successfully however, albeit
circumstantialatbest:
The tension drops deeply in the 20s after the release of Fotino, similarly to
deployment matching simulations that include a nominal Fotino release. The
deploymentmatchingsimulationsforthecaseofreleasefailureshowmostlyarise
of tension (sometimes preceded by a small drop). However the particular
deploymentsimulationthatfeaturesthebestfitbouncingpatterntotheflightdata
providesnoclearinsight(Figure263).
YES2MissionandResults 381
Simulation ofendmassdynamicsbasedonthemeasuredtensionprofileand the
initial angular dynamics (Section8.3.3) shows that MASS/Fotino did not
significantlytumbleattheendofthetether,butremainedlargelystabilizedbythe
tetherforce.
DIMACtensiondata(Figure254)showsthatthetimingoftheactualreleasewas
coincidentally optimal, at the peak of tension tending to separate Fotino from
MASS at a level better than nominal, comparable to the best cases tested in
parabolicflight[YES22006].
Detailed analysis of the endshock tension pulse shows that as the shock of the
halted tether reaches MASS/Fotino, a clear and brief drop in tension can be
distinguished,compatiblewithabrakingandunfoldingofthe15mripstitchtether
part. As this ripstitch part is included in the tether (for shock damping) at only
9metersfromtheMASS/Fotino,thesystemcouldnotbeheavilywrappedatthis
time(Figure264).
If release at the nominal time has failed, Fotino and MASS have entered the atmosphere
together,andreleasehasoccurredatabout110kmaltitudeduetomeltingofanyentangled
tetheraswellasthesmallKevlarcablerestrainingFotinotoMASS.Althoughthetetherin
suchacaseprovidessomeinitialstabilization[Kruijff2003.I],thelandingzoneforthiscase
is widely spread out due to the large amount of unknowns, covering most of the Foton
M3groundtrackthroughouttheKazakh/Russianlandingzone, or atotal area thesizeof
TheNetherlands.AlsoforthiscasethesurvivabilityprobabilityofFotinomaybereduced
duetopossibleviolentinteractionwiththeMASSstructure.
If release has been nominal or close to nominal, a much better estimate can be made of
FotinoswhereaboutsusingMTBSim.Theatmosphericconditionswereclosetoaverageon
the 25th of September 2007. The FotonM3 has landed the next day within 5% of its 3
landingdispersionrange. Notethatthe Fotino atmospheric dispersionestimator uses the
samemodelsastheFotonM3anditstrajectorycalculationanddispersionestimationhas
beenverified against that of FotonM3 [Stelzer2006, TsSKB2006]. Thedeploymentmatch
simulation#2 with nominal Fotino release (Section8.4.1) has been used to determine the
mostlikelyactuallandingsiteofFotino.Anerrorellipsearoundthishasbeendetermined
based on the error sources listed in Table 75. Most effects translate into several tens of
kilometersinlandingsitedispersion.
ThesimulationsshowthatreentryconditionsforFotinowouldhavejustfallenwithinthe
nominalwindowsforentryangle,heatfluxandangularrate.Theincreaseinentryangle
from1.4nominalto1.5actualresultsinabouta410%heatfluxincrease.Plasmachamber
qualificationlevelwas715%abovenominal[Asma2008].
ForsimulationofFotinoangularrates,theinitialconditionshavebeentakenfromtheMASS
sensors(Section8.3.2)andpropagatedbyMTBSimusingsimulatedtethertension.Withthe
worstcaseinitialangularrateof30/sasoccurringaroundthetimeofrelease(Figure274),
response to the aerodynamic torques during reentry has been calculated by YESSim. A
382 Chapter8
perfectlysphericalcapsuleshouldhavesufficientlystabilizedatabout50maximumangle
attacktoallowthepeakheatfluxtostrikeprimarilythemoreheavilyprotectedfrontofthe
capsule (Figure 275). The more sensitive capsule sides would however be significantly
exposed as well. Note that more advanced simulations performed by Samara State
AerospaceUniversity,including(realistic)capsuleasymmetriesof1cmindicatethatFotino
mostlikelyhasbeentumblingduringthepeakheatflux.Insuchatumble,thethinnerback
sideheatshieldorthegluelayerontheequatormayhavebeenexposedtothefullheatflux
[DePascale2006]. On the other hand, the heat may have been distributed over a greater
surface[Kruijff2003.II].
SuccessfulreleasefromMASS
Delayedentry,possibleimpactdamagefrom
MASSatMFDburnup.Nosignalwasreceived
bymobilegroundstation.
NO(somewhatunlikely)
1200kmupstreamentry,outsideofrangeofmobile
groundstation
Instabilityduetotethershockand
capsuleasymmetry
Survival NOT likely
Y
E
S
(
l
i
k
e
l
y
)
Siliconreleasesfromheatshieldor
excessiveheatflux
SurvivalbutnoArgosbeaconsignal
YES(possible)
Parachuteejectionfails
Y
E
S
(
p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e
)
YES
NO(unlikely)
NO(possible)
Waterlandingandelectricalshort
Argospowerfailure
BadArgosantennaorientation
NO(possible)
Figure272.FateofFotino
YES2MissionandResults 383
Disturbedparameter Comment
Actuallyachieveddeploymentprofile Avarietyofdeploymentprofilesisselectedtorepresentextremecases(i.e.
barelymatchingthedata),andincludingreleaseatdifferentphasesinthe
transversewaveoscillation.
Deploymentcompletiontime A3svariationisusedtotakeintoaccountthespeedofsoundeffect.
Fotinoreleasetiming Max.10sdelayinreleaseisassumed,e.g.duetounwrappingfromtether
ororientationfromFotino.
Fotonattitudecontrolsystem SimulatedFotonattitudecontrol(alongtheestablishedcontrollaws)is
switchedonandofftoobtainmaximumerrorcontribution.
Atmosphericdraginorbit Effectofabout1degreeoninplaneangleisconservativelytakeninto
accountasfulluncertainty
FotonM3orbitalparameters UncertaintyinreconstructedparametersasprovidedbyTsSKBand
USSTRATCOM.
Tetherdynamicmodel Errorestimatedbycomparisonbetweenvariousmodelresults,numberof
beadsetc.
Tetherproperties Possibleextremesofstiffnessanddamping.
Capsuleproperties Capsulemass(uncertainablationofheatshield),dragcoefficient,possible
liftduetoasymmetries.
Atmosphericlandingarea A150x20kmuncertaintyduetoatmosphericdensity/horizontalwind
uncertaintyduringentry,asdeterminedbyMonteCarlorunsusing1o
errorsontheenvironmentalmodelwindpredictionsand1.5oerrorson
density.
Table75.DisturbedparametersresultinginerrorestimateforFotinolandingsiteestimation
Figure273 showstheresultingreconstructedlandingarea,about1250kmupstreamofthe
nominal landing point. The area dimensions are 250x30km. The area appears wild and
uninhabited, in the border region of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and
covered with salty canyons, dry riverbeds, wet and dry lakes. Note that a wet landing
wouldexplainwhynoArgosbeaconsignalhasbeenobtainedfromFotino(Section7.4.5).
Fotino floats but the electronics are not water resistant. Alternative reasons could be a
failureinheatshield,parachuteorbeacon(Figure272).
Hypotheticallandingsite
Although the exact location of Fotino cannot be determined with certainty, the YES2
deployment is sufficiently understood such that credible extrapolations can be made to
assessthehypotheticalperformanceoftheYES2missionandanswertheenthrallingwhat
ifquestion.ThissimulationmayserveasaconfirmationofthesufficientlysuccessfulYES2
tetherdeployerhardwareperformance.
384 Chapter8
ThesimulationmatchversusflightdataindicatesthattheFotinotrajectoryinsertionerror
can be attributed almost fully to the interface electronics power failure occurring around
t
eject
+6260s.Whenthedeploymentmatchingsimulationisperformedwiththesamedeployer
hardware modeling yet without the artificial introduction of the electrical failure at
t
eject
+6260,deploymentrecoverssmoothlyfromthetroubledfirststageandlandingwould
still be within the nominal landing ellipse, about 150km downstream from the nominal
landingsite(Figure260,Figure276).Strikingly(butcoincidentally),thislocationhappensto
beonlyabout10kmfromthepositionofthe(inofficial)recoveryteam.
The filter resonance that has created the velocity oscillations in the first stage has a
noticeableimpactonthelandingsite.InFigure276 isalsovisibletheextrapolatedlanding
siteifthefilterresonanceproblemwouldhavebeenresolvedaswell.Thissitehappensto
nearlycoincidewiththenominallandingpoint.Thisresultputsanumberonthebenefitof
avoidingtransversewaveexcitation.
8.5.5 Lessonslearned
TheproblemsidentifiedduringYES2arelistedwiththeirproposed,oftenstraightforward,
solutionsinTable76 andTable78.Tensionlevelsinthefirststagedeviatedfromground
test values. A hypothesis has been defined but needs further testing. Software/controller
parameterissuesledtooverbrakinginthefirsttensofsecondsandunwantedresonance
between controller and deployment velocity. Various simple solutions to these problems
havebeenidentified.Also,stabilityoftheendmassattheendofthetethermustbelooked
intocarefullyintheplanningstages.
Figure273.ReconstructedFotinolandingarea.Theellipseis250kmlong.
YES2MissionandResults 385
Figure274.Fotinoangularratesimulationduringswingbounce
Figure275.Fotinosimulatedentryconditions

Figure276.Nominallandingareaincluding,thehypotheticallandingsiteofFotinoresultingfrom
extrapolationofmissiondataassumingnoelectricalfailureatt=6260s.Theellipseis380kmlong.
386 Chapter8
Programmaticissue Cause Suggestedapproach
Changing
requirements
ChangeofESAresponsibles
duringproject.
Startonlyafterclearandfulldefinition(thismaynotbe
sufficient).Reduceprojectdurationbysufficientinitial
funding.
Lackof/staged
funding
Insufficientbroadsupportat
startofproject.
Startonlyoncefullfundingissecured.Thiswillhowever
maketheprojectmoreunlikelytostart.
Missinginternal
deadlines
Insufficientknowhow
initiallyavailableintheteam.
Involveseniorexpertsfromtheearlystages.
Table76.AnalysisofprogrammaticissuesoccurringduringYES2andproposedapproach
Table77.Datasourcesused:deployerandtetherproperties
YES2MissionandResults 387
TechnicalProblem Cause Furtherwork/Solution
Tether more sticky than
expected, makes it more
difficult to control the
deploymentinthefirststage.
Possiblydueto11daysof
tetherinthermalvacuumof
spacebeforedeployment.
Confirmhypothesisbytestwithremainingflight
tether.Futureapproach:testtetherbeforeand
afterfullscaleexposuretorepresentative
environment.Preferablyalsoduring(though
costly).
Velocity filter overestimates
thevelocityinthefirstminute
after ejection, leading the
controller to command
additional braking, which
leadstoadecreaseofvelocity.
Softwarefilterparameternot
properlyadjustedtorealflight
condition.
Removetheparticularfilterfeature(itconcernsa
featuretocoverfortheunlikelydoublechannel
OLDfailurecase),or
adjustparameterbasedonYES2missiondata.
Software controller responds
poorlytofirsttransversewave
and amplifies the waves by
resonance. Effect decreases
landingaccuracypotential(by
about150km).
Softwarevelocityfilterhasa
delayduetoaveragingand
lowpassfiltering,whichcan
lead(inparticular
circumstances)toresonance
betweenvelocityandbrake
control.
Increasesteppermotorspeedbyafactortwo,
decreasefrictioncoefficientofbrakepole(nowit
issandblastedforhigherfriction),
decreasetetherstickiness(seeabove),
improvelowpassfilter,
improvefeedbackgains,
performasensitivityanalysistodemonstrate
controllerrobustness.
Electrical failure in OLDOBC
interface, leasd to openloop
controlatendofsecondstage
and bouncing of endmass on
tether after completion,
1250kmlandingerror.
FailureonCentralProcessing
Unit(CPU)boardatthe
locationoftheOLD1signal
input(IRQ).Thefailure
occurredbeforedeliveryof
YES2andwaspatched,but
couldnotbesufficientlytested
anymore.Itwasthepatchthat
turnedoutfaultyduringflight.
ConfirmhypothesisbyfurtherOLDdataanalysis.
InvestigationoftheCPUboardfailure,possibly
selectionofamorerobustCPUboard.
Failure to receive signal from
Fotino.
Possiblyfailuretorelease
properlyfromMASS(dueto
possibleendmassrotation),
heatshieldfailureorbeacon
failure.
Improveendmasssimulation(includeeffectof
endmassattitudeontensioninearlydeployment),
performasensitivityanalysistodemonstrate
robustnesswithrespecttocontrol.Include
(passive)oscillationdampinginendmass.
Confirmrelease:telemetry,simplercapsule(no
heatshieldsensors,focusonredundantbeacon
withrobustmonopoleantennas).Avoidtether
entanglementbycenterofmassposition.More
robustheatshield.
Table78.AnalysisoftechnicalproblemsoccurringduringYES2andproposedsolutions
388 Chapter8
Table79.Overviewofmissionparametersandresults;
DatasourcesusedIejectionandendmassdynamics
YES2MissionandResults 389
Table80.Datasourcesused:deploymentlengthandvelocity;
Datasourcesused:deploymentangleandcapsuletrajectory
390 Chapter8
Discussion 391
9 Discussion
Despite the promise of space tethers for essentially propellantless, sustainable space
transportation, it has proven difficult to move beyond theory towards a first tether
application,orevenaftersome(partial)inorbitfailuresinthe1990stomovetowardsa
furtherconceptdemonstration.
Inordertounderstandtheprogrammaticandtechnicalchallengescurrentlyfacedbytether
initiatives and to respond to them where possible, in this work, a broad approach of
analyses and developments has been implemented. The MTBSim/ETBSim tool has been
developed and used to analyze a range of candidates for tether applications, selected
primarily for a perceived nearterm suitability, i.e. based on a anticipated potential for
systemsimplicityandmissionsafety.FocusingontheSpaceMailapplication,asafetether
and tether deployment system has been developed and evaluated with the help of a
windingfacilityandunwindingtestrig.Twoflightsystems,theYoungEngineersSatellites
YESandYES2,havebeendevelopedandlaunchedintoEarthorbit,throughinvolvementof
alargenumberofhighlymotivatedstudentsandyoungengineers.TheYES2resultedinan
inorbitdemonstrationofatwostagetetherdeploymentandmomentumtransfer.
A review of this effort may shed some light on the questions posed and provide
recommendations towards the development of further inorbit demonstrations and
applications.Thisdiscussionisorganizedaccordingtofourmajorinsightsobtained:
1. Tetherapplicationsfacearatherparticulardevelopmentalchallenge.
2. Intheneartermtheuseoftethersislimitedtonicheapplications.
3. Tetherapplicationscanbesufficientlypredictableandsafe.
4. Tetherapplicationscanbeaffordablebutfurtherdevelopmentmaydependonan
educationalcontext.
1.Tetherapplicationsfacearatherparticulardevelopmentalchallenge.
Duetotheirnature,spacetethersystemsarenotverysuitableforongroundvalidation,as
compared to other systems whose performance may be sufficiently demonstrated in
vacuumchambersorinparabolicflights.Anydevelopmentofanewsystemrequiresacycle
of testing, failing andlearning. Theproblemfortether systems isthat much of thiscycle
typicallytakesplaceinorbit.Tethersseemsimplytoolongandtoononlinearinbehaviorto
fullyexploreonground.Theirdynamicsdependonverylowforcelevelsthataredifficultto
replicatereliablyoverthefulltetherlengthofmultiplekilometers,ifnotinorbit.Historical
failuresofinorbittethersystemtestsareeasilymisjudgedwhencomparedtoalternative
solutionsthathavebeenexposedtoamplegroundtestingbeforetheyhavebeenbroughtto
operateinorbit.
392 Chapter9
Thecostofinorbitdemonstrationisstillalimitingfactorfortethersystems.Oneparticular
aspectthatdrivesuptheminimalsystemmassoritscomplexity,andthatthusdrivesupthe
minimaldemonstration cost, is theneedtoachievesufficientinitialverticalseparationof
tetherendmasses.Thisseparationisrequiredsuchthatgravitygradientforcescanfurther
drive deployment. Actively driven reel systems and cold gas systems can provide the
requiredseparationbutincreasecomplexitycomparedtoaspringbasedseparationsystem.
Spring based separation systems rely on provision of sufficient initial kinetic energy and
momentumtoovercomethedissipativeeffectofdeploymentfriction.Atthesameejection
energy, a larger endmass offers a more robust deployment. Note that the deployment
frictionalsohasadvantages.Itcreatestensioninthetetherthatkeepsthetethertaughtand
canbeutilizedtocontroldeploymentandstabilizetheendmassattitude.Itisforthisreason
that,althoughfrictionless solutionsfortether deployment may bedevised, theyhave not
beenexploredwithinthiswork.Forthespooltypedeployeranda0.5mmDyneematether
as evaluated here, about 12 kg is required as a minimum endmass to secure successful
deployment.Suchconstraintsputasignificantpricetagonanytethersysteminorbittest
cycle.
Inorbit testingcanbereduced ifconfidenceisincreasedinthe applicabilityof computer
simulations.MTBSim/ETBSimhasalsobeendevelopedforthisreason.Increaseinsimulator
confidence for mechanical tether dynamics has been one objective of the YES2 mission
analysis. In addition, it is recommended that future tether missions should continue to
collect extensive data, through differential GNSS, ground observations and/or sensitive
threeaxisaccelerometers to fillinthe gaps leftafter theYES2mission.Thesegapsarein
particular related to stickslip behavior during deployment of the tether from the spool,
interactionbetweenendmassoscillationandtension,aswellasresonancebetweencontrol
anddeployment.TheDIMACthreeaxisaccelerometerdatahasproventobeinvaluablefor
YES2 providing information on inplane dynamics, tether transverse waves, longitudinal
waves, springmass behavior, damping coefficient, deployer platform attitude thruster
operation and, through Fourier analysis, even deployment rate. Electrodynamic tether
behavior is significantly more complex, and a thorough evaluation is advised of the
measurementsrequiredtocrediblyvalidatesimulatorssuchasETBSimagainstflightdata.
Furthermore, a need has been identified for improved groundbased deployment testing.
Forthisreason,atestfacilityhasbeendevelopedthatprovidesanunprecedentedpotential
for onground evaluation of tether deployment. The unwinding test rig described in this
work integratesarealtimeversionof theMTBSimsimulator andcan evaluateinclosed
looptheperformanceofdeployerhardware,softwareandcontrolleralgorithms,aswellas
interactionswithinorbitdynamics.Thelevelofrealismofgroundtestingwithrespectto
tetherdynamicsislimitedbythatofthesimulator.Neverthelessthesetestsprovideassolid
a confirmation of system performance as can be achieved onground. They help to
appreciate the timescale of unwinding, brake and control system dynamics. The closed
loop tests enable visual inspection of the interrelationships between unwinding tether,
operationofthebrakesystemand,dynamicbehaviorofthetetherasitfindsitwaythrough
the deployer. Anomalies can be identified this way that otherwise would escape the eye
Discussion 393
andhypothesesaremorereadilygenerated.Thresholdsandoffsetsincontrolsoftwarecan
be empirically evaluated and selected. Although a full deployment test typically requires
aboutaweektosetup,executeandevaluate,suchtestsdonotneedtobeperformedoften.
It is found that full system simulation and emulator tests that use a subset of deployer
hardware but no tether, can provide much of the required information. Closedloop full
deploymentdemonstrationisparticularlyofinterestforinitialsystemevaluationandfinal
confirmation.
2.Intheneartermtheuseoftethersislimitedtonicheapplications.
Thetetherapplicationsthathavebeeninvestigatedinthisworkareconsiderednearterm
for several reasons. In case of the proposed MARSg artificial gravity demonstrator, the
tether system is particularly enabling. No major technical showstoppers have been
identified.Concerningtheother,moremodestapplications,therequiredtechnologiesbuild
heavily on those of systems already developed so far, as well as on successful inflight
demonstrations. It is judged that application demonstrations can be readily performed
withinthecontextoflowcostexperimentsakintoYES,YES2andTREX.Theinvestigated
neartermapplicationscanindeedprovidebenefitscomparedtoconventionalalternatives
butareasyetlimitedintheirpotential,whenconsideringriskmitigation,programmaticand
technologicalaspects.
Anytether mission planned todayshouldtakeintoaccounttheoffnominalcase thatthe
tether or part thereof will be, or may have to be, separated from its endmass(es). Such a
disconnectedtethermayresultinasignificantprobabilityofcollisionwithactivesatellites;
measuresshouldthusbetakentolimitcriticality.Themostsecuremeasureistolimitorbital
altitudeofthetetherinthefirstplaceandrelyonmechanismssuchasatmosphericdrag,
possiblyincombinationwithsolarpressure,andelectrodynamicdrag.Forbothmechanical
and electrodynamic tethers, a rough recommended altitude regime has been provided in
thiswork,asafunctionofinclination,tobeverifiedbyanalysisonacasebycasebasis.
Thoseapplicationsinvestigatedthatarebasedonexpendablemechanicaltetherstakeplace
withinthissafealtituderegime,e.g.samplereturn/deorbit fromLEO(SpaceMail),launch
assist (TSeries) and shortduration lower thermosphere investigation. They have been
found technically feasible and competitive to conventional alternatives. It is then
unfortunate that the current International Space Station (ISS) is neither setup for, nor in
need of, a frequent sample return, whereas the TSeries application is limited to a rather
limited range of combinations of launcher, payload and target orbits. Isolated mission
opportunitiesmaywelloccurbuttheirvolumemaynotsufficetoturndesignersawayfrom
welldemonstratedexistingsolutionsbasedonpropellantexpulsion.
Endoflifedeorbitforsatellitesbyabareelectrodynamictetherisanotherapplicationwith
potential for mass and cost advantage over the retrorocket alternative. However, the
deorbitperformanceislimitedbytheneedtoavoidtetherslacknessasaresultofdynamic
instability. Caremust furthermorebe takenthatthetethers owncontributiontocollision
probabilitydoesnotworsen,ratherthanimprove,boththethreattoandthe(costly)need
forcollisionavoidancebythirdpartyactivesatellites.Forthisreasonitisrecommendedto
394 Chapter9
make a critical casebycase analysis. It is also advised to use a bare tether, as it will
experienceaLorentzdragforceevenwhendisconnectedfromacathode,toapplyground
controlofthedeorbitrateandtoreleasethetetherfromtheendmassesassoonasa25year
lifetimeorbithasbeenachieved.
For some applications there seems to exist no credible alternative to a tether solution. A
concepthasbeenproposedinthisworktoprovidecomfortableartificialgravityforresearch
inLowEarthOrbitthatseemsratherattractive,fromapointofviewofitsfavorablemass
andsystem simplicity. Further,particularlypromisingand enablingapplicationsexist for
electrodynamictethers.Aspacestationsorbitcouldbecosteffectivelymaintained,evenat
alower,moreaccessible,altitudethanthecurrentISS(withaMETStypesystem).Toclear
LEO from the large population of leftbehind spent stages, tether systems such as EDDE
seemtobetheonlycandidate.
Again however, there are considerable obstacles. In the absence of solid funding for
interplanetary manned missions, there is little urgency for a manned artificial gravity
laboratory.AlsotethersystemsfororbitmaintenancesuchastheMETS,developedforthe
MIR station, have no immediate application available. The current ISS is not as well
configuredastheMIRstationforattachmentofatethersystem.Moreimportantly,alsofor
orbit maintenance purpose, the continued use of the Progress and Autonomous Transfer
Vehiclesislikelytobepreferred.Finallytherearetechnicallimitations,evenifnotdirectly
relatedtotethers.Theimplementationofanysystemforremovalofexistingorbitaldebris
forexample,beittetheredoruntethered,ishamperedbythelackofaprovenandsuitable
grapplingsystemforthatdebris.
Onthepositiveside,theinternationalcalltotakeactiontowardstheorbitaldebrisissueis
gaining in strength today. The cards are being laid favorably here for a tether solution.
Anotherpromisingneartermapplicationislowerthermosphericinsituresearch.Itishard
toimagineanaffordablealternativetoatmosphericdragcompensationbyelectrodynamic
tether.Suchaloworbitingsystemwouldbeintrinsicallysafeandcouldbeagood,useful
caseforaapplicationdemonstrator.
In time, the situation is likely to improve further as new, critical, technologies become
available.Examplesaretethermaterialsthatare(even)lighterandstrongerorthatareself
degradable, systems for reliable tether retrieval and for inorbit grappling of debris or
payloads,aswellassolutionstoimprovelongdurationstabilityforelectrodynamictethers.
3.Tetherapplicationscanbesufficientlypredictableandsafe.
The results of the work reported here increase confidence in tether deployer hardware
reliability,performanceandsafeusage.LogicallyfollowingtheSEDSmissions,andadding
to those in terms of complexity and challenge, the YES2 mission and subsequent data
analysishasdemonstratedthattetherdynamicscanbesufficientlypredictedandcontrolled
toenableanapplicationsuchasSpaceMail.Itisapersistent,openandresponsiveattitude
towards a broad community of critics, that has covered most if not all of the a priori
expressed worries, and that has finally led to a goahead for the YES2s inorbit tether
Discussion 395
deployment. Driving elements during this approach have been a focus on mechanical
simplicity and commonality, comprehensive analysis and testing as well as attention to
safety.
Achoicehasbeenmadeforapassivespooldeployerandbarberpolebrakeconcept,thathas
been developed for controlled deployment of a mechanical, expendable tether. Passive
deployers have a nearperfect flight record. The barberpole system has a low number of
guidesandprovidesminimaldisturbancetothetether.
Nevertheless, such design simplicity comes at the price of nonlinearity and behavioral
complexity.Astepwisecharacterizationandtestingapproachhasthereforebeendefinedas
partofthemissionpreparation.Thedeploymenttestrig,alreadydescribedabove,benefits
fromequipmentandinsightsderivedfromtextileindustrytechnology.Itishighlycompact
and mobile so can be used in parabolic flights or other specific test environments. It is
possibletoreusethetetherthatisundertest.Extensivesystemcharacterizationtestscould
therefore be performed, including investigations into e.g. qualitative spool cyclic tension
patterns,frictiononthebrake,environmentalimpactsandtethertwistimpact.Someeffort
wasputintothedevelopmentofquantitativemodels,butthisworkisnotconcludedand
furtherworkhereisrecommended.
Regarding safety, key attentionpointshavebeen identifiedfordesignofmission, system
and tether. Mission design should include a responsible orbit selection, and simple but
adequate ground control and abort options. To increase the likelihood of successful and
controlled deployment from a spool, a minimal initial ejection energy and endmass is
prescribed. The YES2 system design provides both commanded and autonomous tether
release.Itstetherdeploymentschemehasbeensegmentedintointervalsofdeployedlength,
andeachintervalhasbeencharacterizedbyitsparticularcontingencycase.Foreachofthose
contingencies,relevantsafetymeasureshavebeenimplemented,beitinthesystemorinthe
tether,suchasthePrusikslipknot,theripstitchdampingandtheautomatedtethercut.Itis
notedthatoneofthemainpropertiesofthetetherdesign,itsdiameter,cannotbeselected
basedonfiberstrengthconsiderationsalonebutshouldconsiderfactorssuchasbraiding
and clamping effects, meteoroid/debris resistance and thermal heat input during friction
braking.
Tetherdeployertechnology,missionpreparationmethodologydevelopedwithinthescope
ofthiswork,aswellasrelatedtoolssuchasthetestfacilityandtheMTBSimsimulationtool,
canbeusedwithonlysmallmodificationsforfuturetetheredreentrymissionsandseveral
other early tether applications, including launch assist akin to the TSeries concept and
lowerthermosphericinsituresearch.
4.Tetherapplicationscanbeaffordablebutmayfurtherdependoneducationalcontext.
Educational projects severely limited in funding and with limited professional guidance,
such as YES, YES2 and recently TRex, the latter outside the scope of this work, have
succeeded in creating complete flight systems and led to successful demonstration of
innovativeandcontrolledinorbitdeploymentofbothamechanicalandabareconductive
396 Chapter9
tape tether. Still, the production of tetherrelated hardware has not been the major cost
driverintheseprojects.TheYEStethersystemforexamplewaspurchasedfromasmallUS
companyatafractionofthetotalprojectcost.TheYES2experiment,includingthetether
deployer system, was developed from scratch according to rather comprehensive design
and traceability standards. Virtually no commercially available subsystems were utilized.
Onthecontrary,theprojectincludedmultipletechnologydevelopmentsinadditiontothe
tetherdeployersuchasanejectionsystemanda(moreexperimental)lightweightreentry
capsule.Also,theYES2effortfeaturedasignificanteducationaleffort.Thetotalprojectcost
isestimatedtobeonlyabout1.5MEuro.Ithashelpedthatnocomplexorientationsystem
was required for the endmass and no special measures regarding personnel safety were
required, asmaybeexpectedforthedevelopmentofmoreconventionalrocketpropelled
spacecraft. These facts are testimony of the limited cost, limited complexity, and ease of
dealingwithtethersystems.Itseemsthereforeacredibleclaimthatatethersystemprovides
acostcompetitivesolution.
However,spacebusinessisnotyetcommercialandoftendrivenlargelybyotherinterests
rather than technical and cost arguments. Through the educational context it has
neverthelessbeenpossibletodevelopanddemonstrateinnovativetechnology.Inthenear
future, progress in the field of tethers may remain dependent on educationally driven
projectssuchasYES,YES2andTREX.
Notably,theeducationalapproachisnotnecessarilylowcostandcertainlynotwithoutits
particular challenges. Close and intense guidance and a proper traceability system are
required to safeguard quality. Still, securing handover and continuity requires notable
effort.Lackofexperience(andfunding)iscompensatedbyperseveranceandenthusiasmof
thewholeteam,whichcanonlybemaintainedbythemaintainingofcleargoalsandbya
generous distribution of responsibility. In order to secure progress, educational
considerations can neither be leading in decision making nor for task definition. Critical
phases of the project such as concept definition and testing, as well as overall system
engineering, should however be closely steered and monitored, or better, handled by
professionals.Despiteapplicationoftheselessonslearned,undertheparticularconstraints
anddynamicsofsuchprojects,ithasprovenhardtoavoidoccurrenceofanyflaw,beitin
the process or in the system. It is then an additional challenge that, due to the openness
typicalforeducationalactivities,suchflawsareeasilymagnifiedinpublicperception.
Despite these reservations, educational projects have enabled significant progress that, in
thecaseoftethers,wouldotherwisesimplynothavebeenmade.
Concludingremark
Tosomeextent,theabovediscussionmaysomewhatmoderateexpectationsoftherateof
implementationandthescopeoftetherapplicationsinthenearfuture.Itishopedthatthe
results achieved and methods explored by this work can take away key concerns and
obstaclestofurtherdemonstrationmissionsandtoearlytetherapplicationsbothofwhich
are neededfortheacceptanceoftethers asacredibledesignoption ontheroadtowards
sustainablespacetransportation,andtheyarepossibletoday.
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Summary 405
Summary
Tetherapplications
Space tethers offer a myriad of possibilities. Futuristic, reusable concepts have been
proposedthatmaycreateaparadigmshifttowardssustainableandubiquitousspacetravel..
The mostgraphicexampleistheSpaceElevator.Yet, eventodayssingleuseexpendable
tethers can provide significant advantages over conventional alternatives. They can
maintain space stations in low orbits essentially without propellant, provide endoflife
deorbitforsatelliteconstellations,orenableanacceleratedscientificprogressbyprovidinga
frequent return of samples from space to Earth. Tethers can uniquely provide artificial
gravity to prepare for mission to the Moon and Mars, as well as coordinated multipoint
sensing without the need for propellanthungry formationkeeping infrastructure. Tether
systemsforsuchapplicationsdemandsmartbuttypicallynotverycomplexsolutions.
Theprinciplesbehindthoseapplicationshavebeendemonstratedinorbitalready.Still,no
tetherapplicationisinusetoday.(Partial)failuresofthepastappeartohavedamagedthe
imageoftethers.Asmallstepforward,ademonstrationofatrueapplication,maybeableto
repairtheconfidence,andthuscouldbeofgreatconsequence. Yet,asthingshavebeen,
supportforanydemonstrationinorbitisinshortsupply.Forlackofopportunitiesthere
maybeatemptationtogathermanyobjectiveswithinasinglemission.Thenagain,aproject
that is very ambitious can well lead to a highvisibility failure and become
counterproductive.Alternatively,successcanbeachievedbysmallsteps,basedonprevious
experiences.
Inthisthesis,developmentsarebeingdetailedsurroundingtwoprojectsthathavefollowed
theapproachofsmallsteps:theYoungEngineersSatellites.YESandYES2havebeenmade
intorealityandhaveyieldedsomenewinsightsabouttethers.Theyhavebenefitedfroma
dedicatedyetlowcostapproachand fromtheattractionoftheirsympatheticeducational
aspects.
ThedrivingthoughtbehindtheYESandYES2projectshasbeentobringforwardthecaseof
tethers by improving and making accessible the general understanding of inorbit tether
behavior as well as tether mission aspects, related technologies and experimental
knowledge and including the highly relevant issue of safety and predictability. In the
contextofYES andYES2, asamplereturnapplicationhasservedas atechnologicalfocal
point. The projects publicandopenapproachhasallowedalarge communityofexperts
anddecisionmakerstoraiseanyconcerns,overthefullbreadthoftheissue.Theseconcerns
havebeenwelcomedandrespondedto,suchthatobstacleshavefinallybeensurpassedand
relevantlessonshavebeenlearned.
406
ThelegacyoftheYESprojectpossibilitiesandlimitationsofanewapproach
ThefirstYoungEngineersSatellite,YES,hastriggeredafocusonresponsibleuseoftethers
inspacepartlyasaresultoftheunconventionalapproachthatmadeitpossibleinthefirst
place.TheYESmissionistodeployandoperatea35kmrotatingtetherinGeostationary
TransferOrbit(GTO).ConceivedinOctober1996,YESisdevelopedandlaunchedwithin
the course of only one year (19961997). It is produced by students and yung engineers
assistedbyESAexperts,collocatedatESTECinNoordwijk,TheNetherlands.YESexploits
a free launch opportunity offered by the Ariane502 qualification flight. Much of its
hardwareisdonatedbyESTEC,somecomponentsbeingnewdevelopments,offeredfora
maiden flight, others originating from previous ESA projects. The YES project has been
particularly low on documentation and bureaucracy. The downside of this opportunistic
approachhasbecomeapparent.Themissiondesigniscomplex,developmenttimeisshort
andfinancesareseverelylimited.Thesystemisthusinsufficientlytested.Asaresult,the
probabilityofatleastapartialexperimentfailureisconsideredsignificant.Inaddition,the
high perigee altitude and orientation of the Ariane5 GTO orbit, as it is finally planned,
translates into an unacceptable probability of tether collision with operational satellites.
AlthoughYEShasbeenlaunchedinOctober1997,anditssecondaryexperimentshavebeen
performed,ithasbeendecidednottodeploythetetheritself.
Toavoidsuchproblemsinthefuture,severalinitiativeshavebeentakeninthecourseof
this work. Safe orbital domains and operational recommendations have been defined for
bothmechanicalandelectrodynamictetherapplications.Asearchforanintrinsicallysafe
tethersystemhasresultedintheideaofevaporatingtethersandthesubsequentstudyof
UVdegradationmechanismsinpotentialtethermaterials.Aclosedloopdeploymenttesting
facility has been developed to mimic tether deployment on the ground as realistically as
possible. An advanced tether and mission simulator, MTBSim/ETSim, has also been
developed.
TheYES2projecttakinginthelessonsfromYES
TheYES2projectisconceivedin2001,andthistime,safetyandpredictabilityhavebecome
primeconcerns.Thedevelopmenttakessixyears.SimilartoYES,YES2hasbeenbuiltwith
help of highly motivated students and young engineers. However, based on the YES
experience,significantlymoretimeisreservedforunderstandingofthesystembyanalysis,
development and testing. Multiple generations of students are required and there is an
increased need for documentation. A thorough system understanding and traceability is
requiredasEuropeanandRussianofficialsneedtoberepeatedlyconvincedofthemission
safety.Acarefullyselectedorbit,extensiveattentiontomissionsimulationandasafetether
andsystemdesignarefurtherelementsthatledtothefinalacceptanceoftheYES2mission.
Theadditionaleffortisnotinvain:onedecadeaftertheYESflight,onSeptember25th2007,
YES2succeedsindeployingarecordbreaking32kmtetherfromtheRussianmicrogravity
platformFoton.
The YES2 system and tether deployment have demonstrated a number of technological
novelties.YES2hastheSpaceMailapplicationasitsmaintheme.SpaceMailisaconceptto
Summary 407
provideafrequentsamplereturncapabilityfortheInternationalSpaceStation.Inanalogy,
theYES2ismountedonFotonasamassiveplatform,whereasthetetherisusedtodeorbita
small reentry capsule with scientific payload, Fotino. A tether deployer has been
developed,aswellastetherwindingandtestingtechnologyandthenecessarysubsystems,
such as the control electronics and an ejection system. In order to achieve high deorbit
accuracy,thetetherisdeployedintwostages.TheFotinocapsuleislargelydesignedand
builtbystudents.Itcanbesimpleandlightweight,exactlybecausethetetherprovidesboth
accuratedeorbitandattitudestabilization.
YES2technologydevelopment
The key elements of the YES2 tether deployer are the tether and spool, with ideally a
passive,predictableunwindingbehavior,andthefrictionbrake,whichprovidestheactive
deployment control capability. This concept has been first used in the Small Expendable
DeployerSystem(SEDS)missionsandhasresultedinthreesuccessfuldeploymentssofar.
Due to International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) it has unfortunately not been
possibletoobtaintheSEDShardwarefromtheUnitedStatesandtheYES2tetherdeployer
hadthusbeendevelopedfromscratch(Section5.4.2).TheYES2technologyitselfispublicly
available and it is hoped that new parties, also from beyond the European Union, can
benefitandbuildonthegainedexperiencewithlowinvestmentcosts.
Both tether and spool have been extensively characterized and their design and
manufacturingproceduresadjustedaccordingly.
Thetethermaterialwascharacterizedforpolefriction,outgassing,stiffness,dampingand
break strength. The tether was equipped with a system for shock damping tuned for
maximummissionsafety,basedondeploymentandjamanalysis,combinedwithpassive
and active tether release mechanisms. The tether design was verified for survivability in
caseofshocks,particleimpactandheatingbyfriction.Thelatterrequirementwasfoundto
beasignificantdesignparameter.
Both a tether winding machine and an unwinding test rig have been developed. The
unwindingrigrecoversthedeployedtetherforreuseaftertesting.Moretestscanbeheld
andabetterunderstandingofusagedependenteffectshasbeenachieved,suchasshrinkage
and twist. The final system can estimate tether length with an error of about 0.1%, an
improvementbyaboutafactortenwithrespecttotheinitialsystem.
The winding machine design has been optimized to achieve reproducible, stable and
compact tether spools. A partly empirical and partly mathematical approach has been
followedtodesignspoolshapeandwindingpattern,withtheobjectivetoimprovestability
and uniformity. The spools unwinding tension is characterized in tests and fitted to an
approximationinheritedfromtheSEDSprojects.Spoolpropertiesandbehaviorhavebeen
quantifiedunderawiderangeofconditions,includingvariousdeploymentvelocities,zero
genvironment,poststorage,afterthermalvacuumexposureandatextremetemperatures.
Alevelofpredictabilityhasbeenobtainedmatchingrequirementsforflight.
408
The brake system is based on the barberpole concept, which originates from textile
industry. The tether is guided around a capstan following a tortuous (helical) path to
accumulatefriction.Theamountoffrictioniscontrolledbytheamountofwrappingsofthe
tetheraroundthepole.Thewrappingitselfiseffectuatedbymeansofawormgear.
Tohelpimproveunderstandingandperformanceofthebarberpoleconcept,amathematical
modelhasbeendevelopedthatpredictsthegeneratedtethertensionandthepathfollowed
bythetetheronthepole.Asimpleformofthemodelpredictsahelicalpathandshowsthat
contactbetweentetherandpoleisguaranteedforthedeploymentofanonstifftetherfrom
aspool.Fromthismodelrecommendationsforgeometryandtargetleveloffrictioncanbe
derived.Amoredevelopedmodelapproximatesalsotheobserveddeviationfromsucha
helicalpath,byintroductionofastictioncoefficient.Thecontributionoftetherdiameter,
wrappingdirectionandtethertwisttothisstictioneffecthasbeenqualitativelyverifiedbut
couldasyetbeonlypartlyquantified.Duringdeploymenttests,thetetherpathisinstable,a
behaviorwhichisasyetnotfullyunderstood.Thelevelofinstabilityappearstodependsat
leastonincomingtensionlevel.
ThefinalYES2designforthebarberpolesystemtakesintoaccountthemodelresults,but
has undergone further iterations after mechanical, thermal and performance testing. The
brakes mechanical performance has been verified over a wide range of mechanical
frequencies and temperatures. The gear includes a flexible coupling and its fixtures are
specificallydesignedtoreducelossofdrivingtorqueinthepresenceofmisalignmentand
thermal expansion effects. The poles high heat capacity and good thermal conduction
allowsforoperationalsoathightensionandvelocities.Anoffcylindricalshapeforthepole
hasbeenintroducedtoguaranteespacingbetweenthetetherloopsandgear.Theresulting
poledesignhasbeenverifiedtomaintainexponentialbehavioratleastuntilsixturns.Since
eachadditionalturnrepresentsatensionincreaseofaboutafactorthree,thisguaranteesa
largedynamicrangeofcontrol.Finally,testsontheunwindingrighavebeendefinedand
performed to systematically determine the poles friction coefficient and to verify
effectivenessandreliabilityofdeploymentcontrolandfeedback.
YES2mission
TheflightplanofYES2featuresadownwardejectionofthetetheredendmassconsistingof
the Fotino capsule and a Mechanical and data Acquisition Support System (MASS). The
tetherisdeployedfromtheFotonvehicleintwostages,separatedbyaholdphase.Thefirst
stageisadeploymenttothevertical,similartothatofSEDS2albeitatashorterandmore
challenginglength.Thesecondstagedeploystheremainderofthetethertoalargeforward
angleandisfollowedbyaswingbacktothevertical,muchliketheswingofthe20kmlong
tetherofSEDS1.Whenthetetherpassesthroughthelocalvertical,theFotinocapsuleand
tetherarereleased.TheactualYES2missionhassuccessfullydemonstratedthesesteps.
Thefirststagehasbeensuccessfullycontrolledtothetargetlengthof3.4km,withanerror
under 20m. The deployment control algorithm compares length measurements to a
predetermined reference table that contains the target length profile as well as feedback
gains.Itthendeterminestherequiredbarberpolebrakeposition.Deploymentcontrolofthis
Summary 409
firststagewithsuchashorttetherisachallenge.Atthesetetherlengthsthereisasignificant
risk of premature deployment stop: the gravity gradient force that drives deployment is
comparabletothespoolfriction,whichtendstoslowdeploymentdown.
Overtwostagesfinally31.7kmoftetherhasbeendeployed,achievingthelongeststructure
in orbit so far. The maximum velocity of 16m/s also exceeds that of earlier tether
experiments. The available YES2 dataset includes length and deployment rate
measurements, detailed tension data, information on endmass dynamics sufficient to
reconstructinitialconditions,andorbitaldataintheformofTwoLineElement(TLE)sets.
TheYES2deploymentrevealssomeproblemstoo.Theinitialtensofmetersofdeployment
areirregularpresumablyduetooscillationoftheendmass.Asaconsequence,thelength
sensorfilterbrieflyoverestimatesthevelocity.Overaperiodofseveralsecondstoomuch
brakingisapplied.Byitselfsuchabriefdeviationdoesnotleadtoanylastingeffects.In
additionhowever,thetethersstickinesstothespoolislargerthanexpectedapparentlyasa
result of a mechanical settling due to thermal cycles and this impedes recovery of the
deploymentvelocity.Thecombinationofthesetwoeffectsleadstoanextendedperiodof
underdeployment.Whenthedeploymentvelocityfinallyincreasesagainasaresultofthe
increasing gravity gradient, the controller attempts to return to the nominal profile by
overcompensationandcausesatransversewaveinthetether.Intheremainderofthefirst
stage, heavy oscillations in deployment velocity can be observed. During the hold phase
betweenthetwostagesthetransversewavescontinueandleaveacleartensionsignature.
Amoresignificantproblemoccursduringthesecondstageofdeployment.Thisstagestarts
off promising. The tether accelerates cleanly out of the hold phase and the impact of the
transverse oscillations diminishes. However, due to a faulty electrical patch, unforeseen
electricalnoiseappearsonthecontrolcomputerssignallinesleavingthecontrollerwithout
lengthmeasurement.Asaresult,thefinal40minutesofthedeploymentisuncontrolled.A
free deployment follows and results in a 40N shock as it reaches the end of the tether,
whichisattachedtothespoolcore.Theshockisfollowedbysomeminutesofslacknessand
acomplexrecoveryoftensionduringtheswingtothevertical.Atthevertical,theFotino
capsuleisreleasedintoaslightlysteepertrajectorythanplanned,probablyhoweverwitha
significantspinrate,asaconsequenceofthetethershock.FromFotinonobeaconsignalhas
beenreceived,soitmaynothavesurvivedthereentry.Ifany,theexactlandinglocationis
unknown.
YES2dataanalysis
Fromapointofviewoftetherdeployment,tetherdynamicsanalysisanddemonstrationof
tethercontrolcapability,themissioncanbedeclaredasuccess.Tetherlength,deployment
velocity,deploymentangleandtensionhaveallbeensuccessfullyreconstructedforthefull
durationofthemission.Theimpactoftethertensiononinitialendmassdynamicshasalso
been determined. Save for minor deviations, data analysis has demonstrated that the
ejection system, deployer hardware and controller software performed nominally and in
linewiththeSpaceMailrequirements.Tetherstickinesstothespoolhasbeensomewhatout
of limits and must be better controlled. The tether length measurement filter has been
410
overoptimized,andassuchhasprovensensitivetodeploymentirregularities.Itcanbetter
besimplified.Thefrictionbehaviorofbrakeandspooldynamicalbehaviorhavebeenfound
closetonominal,validatingthedeployerhardwaresperformance.Tetherswingunderneath
Foton,releaseatthenominaltimeandmomentumtransferhaveallbeenconfirmedbyfrom
analysisofFotondisturbances.Theshocktensionmeasurementhasbeenusedtodetermine
independentlytetherbraidstiffnessandspeedofsoundinthefibers,theyareinlinewitha
prioriexpectations.
TheobservedtetherdynamicshavebeenmatchedcloselybytheMTBSimsimulator.This
matchhasmultiplepurposes.
In order to create the match, the deployer parameter settings have been adjusted as
necessary to reconstruct the observed deployment velocity profile. The fact that the
valuesrequiredforamatcharewithin1020%fromboththosemeasuredonground
and the inflight measurements, provides support for the applicability of simulation
toolsformissionplanning.
Also observed tether behavior that was not used to obtain the match is nevertheless
well reproduced, in particular the inplane deployment angle and the occurrence of
transversalwaves.
The tethers damping coefficient could be estimated from the matching exercise and
compared against ground measurements. Damping appears to have been higher in
flight than predicted. The deviation may be related to ground test limitations, in
particularlywithrespecttotetherlength.
ThematchedsimulationhasbeenusedtopropagateFotinossupposedtrajectoryand
estimateitspossiblelandingpoint.
Finally, with increased confidence, the simulations have been used to create credible
hypotheses for the cause of the observed transverse oscillations and to propose
preventive measures. The transverse oscillations were apparently reinforced by a
controller resonance with the deployment velocity due to the delay in the velocity
estimateasintroducedbyalowpassfilter.Effectivesolutionsderivedfromsimulations
remaintobeconfirmedbytesting.Theyincludeafasteroperatingbrakemechanism
and a barberpole with lower friction coefficient. A preflight sensitivity analysis by
simulationisrecommendedtoverifyselectedfeedbackcontrolparameters.
YES2 as an independent data point reinforces the conclusion by the SEDS team that
mechanicaltetherdeploymentandbehaviorisbothsufficientlypredictableandcontrollable
withregardstotheapplicationsconsidered,whereassystemandsimulationlimitationscan
bespelledoutmoreconcretely.YES2hasdemonstratedthevalidityofclosedloopground
testingand simulation ofdeploymentinordertounderstandhardwareperformanceand
tether deployment behavior in space. A perhaps not so surprising finding following the
analysisoffailuresoccurringduringtheYES2missionisthat, beforesuchtests,thetether
should be exposed to realistic environmental conditions, presumably to obtain a
representative level of settling of the tether on the spool. In addition, the YES2 data
Summary 411
demonstrates that for the more complex dynamics, such as resonance, shocks and other
adverse effects, simulations can provide valuable qualitative insight that can be used for
selection of hardware and controller parameters. Such selection should still take into
accountgenerousmargins,tobebasedonasensitivityanalysis,asabsoluteperformancefor
such complex dynamics cannot be reliably predicted, e.g. due the nonlinearity and
measurementuncertaintyforvariouspropertiesoftether,frictionandspool.Someshould
additional effects should be taken into account in future simulations. In particular,
unexpected deployment irregularities have been observed during the first minute of
deployment,thatarethoughttoarisefromaninteractionbetweenendmassoscillationand
deploymenttension,specificallyexcludedfromsimulationssofar.
Conclusions,recommendationsandoutlook
Despite the promise of space tethers for essentially propellantless, sustainable space
transportation, it has proven difficult to move beyond theory towards a first tether
application, and following some (partial) failures in the 1990s even to move towards a
furtherconceptdemonstration.
Inordertounderstandtheprogrammaticandtechnicalchallengescurrentlyfacedbytether
initiativesandtorespondtothemwherepossible,abroadapproachhasbeenfollowed.This
approach includes tether simulation development and preliminary analysis of a range of
potential tether applications, primarily from a perspective of potential for a small
demonstration mission, technology availability and mission safety. Focusing on the
SpaceMailapplicationasanexample,asafetetherandtetherdeploymentsystemhasbeen
developedandextensivelytestedwiththeuseofbothawindingfacilityandanunwinding
testrig.Throughinvolvementofalargenumberofhighlymotivatedyoungengineers,two
completeflightsystemshavebeendevelopedandlaunched.Ofthosetwosystems,theYES2
resulted in an innovative inorbit demonstration and evaluation of a twostage tether
deploymentandmomentumtransfer.
Firstly it is found from this approach that tether applications face a particular
developmentalchallenge,asduetotheirsheersize,theyarenotverysuitablefortestingon
ground.Muchofthetestingneedstotakeplaceinorbit.Thisconstraintputsasignificant
pricetagonanytethersystemtestcycleandmakesanyfailuresoccurringhighlyvisible,
eveniftheyareinfactanormalpartofthedevelopmentcycleforanycomplexsystem.For
thisreason,itisrelevanttoincreaseconfidenceintheapplicabilityofcomputersimulations.
The MTBSim simulator and the YES2 mission have provided progress for the case of
mechanicaltethers,althoughfuturetethermissionsshouldcontinuetocollectdatatofillin
thegapsidentifiedinthiswork.Complementarytosuchsimulations,groundbasedclosed
loopdeploymenttestingasexploredinthisworkprovidesassolidaconfirmationofsystem
performanceascanbeachievedonground.
Secondly, it is concluded that in the nearterm the use of tethers is limited to niche
applications,forconsiderationsofriskreductionaswellasprogrammaticandtechnological
reasons. For both mechanical and electrodynamic tethers, a rough recommended safe
altitude regime has been provided in this work. For applications based on expendable
412
mechanicaltetherssuchassamplereturnanddeorbitfromLEO(SpaceMail),launchassist
(TSeries) and shortduration lower thermosphere investigation, isolated mission
opportunitiesmaybeidentified.Endoflifedeorbitforsatellitescanbeachievedwithsome
advantagebybareelectrodynamictethers,particularlyifthedeorbitrateiscontrolled.Itis
advisedtoreleasetheconductivetetherfromthepayloadassoonasa25yearlifetimeorbit
hasbeenachieved.Designandcontrolmeasureshavebeenidentifiedthathelptoprevent
tetherslacknessresultingfromdynamicinstabilityasexperiencedbyelectrodynamictether
applications.
Forsomeapplicationsthereseemstobehardlyanalternativeexceptfortethers,although
theymaybemorefarofforasyetdependentonfurthertechnologicaladvances.Examples
are comfortable artificial gravity with the help of a mechanical tether, and in case of
electrodynamictethers,orbitmaintenanceofaspacestationandcleaningofLEOfromleft
behind upper stages. A promising and safe nearterm application is longterm lower
thermosphericinsituresearch.
Thirdly, the case of the YES2 mission and the analysis of its deployment have made
plausibletheclaimthatatetherapplicationsuchasSpaceMailcanbesufficientlypredictable
andsafe.Apersistent,openandresponsiveattitudetowardsabroadcommunityofcritics
hasfinallyenabledtheYES2inorbittetherdeploymenttotakeplace.Akeyelementofthe
YES2approachhasbeensimplicityandcommonalitybasedonthepassivedeploymentand
SEDScontrolhardwareconcept.Sincemechanicaldesignsimplicityherecomesattheprice
of nonlinearity and behavioral complexity, a stepwise characterization and testing
approach has therefore been defined as a compensation measure. Regarding safety, key
factorshaveproventobe:aresponsibleorbitselection,amissiondesignprovidingbasicbut
adequate ground control and abort options, as well as a system design that provides an
adequate response for each of the identified critical phases of deployment, particularly
regardingstagingsubsystems andtetherdesign.Tether deployertechnologyand mission
preparationmethodologydevelopedwithinthescopeofthisworkcanbeusedwithonly
smallmodificationsfornearfuturetetheredmomentumtransfermissionsandotherearly
tetherapplications.
Finally, the success of a lowbudget development and demonstration project like YES2
suggeststhattetherhardwareisaffordableinthesensethatitisstraightforwardtobuild
andqualifyandcanbehandledwithoutparticularprecautions.However,spacebusinessis
notyetcommercialandisoftendrivenbyspecialintereststhatbypasstechnicalandeven
costarguments.Thewellrecognizedneedforremovalofpreexistingdebrismayproveto
driveanexception,asnoreasonablealternativeisavailable.Unfortunately,suchapplication
ispendingthedevelopmentofcriticaltechnologiessuchasinorbitdebrisgrappling.Inthe
mean time, upcoming demonstration missions may further depend on an educational
context. Notably, the educational approach is not necessarily lowcost and certainly not
withoutitsparticularchallenges. Whereasithasprovenhardtoavoidoccurrenceofany
typeofflaw,beitintheprocessorinthesystem,theYES2projecthasdemonstratedthatthe
challengescanindeedbemet largely. Theeducationalapproach hasenabled significant
progressthatwouldotherwisesimplynothavebeenmade.
EpilogueTowardsSustainableSpaceTransportation 413
Epilogue Towards Sustainable Space
Transportation
Thepromiseoftethersforsustainablespacetransportation
Will all of us be astronauts one day? Will we find it normal to use the vacuum that
surrounds Earth for travels to our daily destinations, or for prolonged stays in
weightlessness?AndwillweleaveourhomeplanettotraveltotheMoonorMarsoreven
beyond?FirstperhapswedgoasbusinessmentomineresourcesthatarerareonEarthoras
scientiststopracticeastronomy,lifescienceandgeologylateritdbealsoastouristsandas
settlers.Ifwecouldweprobablywould.
Butthecostofspacetraveltodayisforbiddingandtheecologicalburdenonourplanets
fragileequilibriummaynotallowforsuchunrestrictedfreedom.Theneedforexpulsionof
largequantitiesofrocketpropellanttoacceleratespacecraftistoblameforthishighcost.All
thispropellanthastobecarriedonboardandacceleratedalong.Moreover,onceexpelled,
itskineticenergyisnolongeravailabletothespacecraft.
Incontrast,tetherapplicationsoftenrequirenopropellantatall.Exploitingthemechanical
link that space tethers provide, they can make it possible to conserve energy and
momentumalmostcompletely,andutilizethosetoachieverequiredchangesinspacecraft
motion.Furthermore,electrodynamictetherscanconvertsolarpowerintothrust.Thetether
mass is not a showstopper either. Modern fiber materials or tapes allow for singleuse
solutionslighterthanrocketenginescanprovide.Ontopofthatthetetherhardwarecanbe
designedtobelargelyreusable.Theconceptofspacetethersthereforeholdsapromiseofa
widespreadandsustainableaccesstospace.Eventuallytetherscouldalterprofoundlythe
wayweleadourlives,astheywouldredefinetheboundariestoourworld.
Imagine for a moment such a reality. Using a suborbital spaceplane as a spring board,
moving,say,at5km/s,wewouldhookontotheendofahundredkilometerlongtetherasit
rotatesarounditscenterofmass,severalhundredsofkilometersabovetheEarthssurface.
Afiveminuteswingbringsusabovethesystemscenterofmass,andhereitreleasesusin
forwarddirectionatavelocityrelativetoEarthseveralkilometerspersecondhigherthan
thatofthespaceplane.Onceinorbit,wecanadjustourtrajectorytofitourneeds.Velocity
increments of a few kilometers per second are sufficient for any transfer between Earth,
MoonandMarsorbit,orbetweenthesurfaceoftheMoonorMarsandanorbitaroundit.
LetusopttobehurledintoanorbitaroundtheMoon.Afewdayslater,uponarrival,wed
bepickedupbyanotherrotatingsystemanddroppedoffclosetotheMoonssurfacewith
justalittlebitofleftovervelocityhelpingustomaneuvertowardsourtarget.
In this future, several small spinning electrodynamic tethers move from orbit to orbit to
collect and clear space of those upper stages and defunct satellites that were left behind
duringmankindsfirstcenturyofspacefaring.Thesevehiclesarepoweredbysolarenergy
414
and steered through ingenious modulation of the current in the tether. Rockets are
becomingmoreandmoreindisuse,inanticipationofwhatisnowbeingconstructed.Itis
the Space Elevator, a giant tower made from a tapelike web of carbon nanotubes, held
taughtbythecentrifugalforceoftheEarthsownrotationandbyEarthsgravitypullasit
diminisheswithdistance.Asafirststepinitsconstruction,anultrathincarbonnanotube
tape has been lowered towards the Earth where it has eventually been connected to the
ground.Thisconnectionhassincebeenusedtocarryupmaterials,meanttoreinforcethe
towerandtopositionintermediatestations.Oncetheelevatorwillbecomplete,liftswith
cargoandpassengerswillbemovingbothupanddown,exchangingenergyamongsteach
other.Additionalenergyisprovidedbysolarcellsintegratedintheelevatoraswellasby
laser that is beamed from elsewhere. In the lower regions of the tower one can release
satellitesthatwillendupinanellipticorbitaroundEarth,andthatusetethersordragsails
forfurthertransportation. Fromtheorbitalcenteronecansimplyplacesatellitesintothe
geostationary ring. From the top of the tower, one can schedule a release to be hurled
towardsMars.Wheredoyouwanttogo?
Noothertechnologythantethersisknowntodaythatcouldachievesuchaparadigmshift
inspaceinfrastructureandspacetravelsustainability.Theenergygapthatseparatesa1000
kgmoduleinloworbitaroundEarthfromonestandingonthegroundisequivalenttothat
ofaboutayearsworthofgasolineforanaveragecommuter.Thismayseemlikealot,butit
shouldbe affordable for anyone in the developedworld. Unfortunately,theconventional
rocketisnotoriouslyinefficientattransferringenergytothemodulethatistobelaunched.It
propelsnotonlythemodulebutalsoitselfandallitsfueltohighvelocities.Asignificant
fractionofthispropellantoftentoxic,reactiveoractingasagreenhousegaswouldendup
inthestratosphere,whereeachlaunchcausesmeasurabledifferencesinparticleandaerosol
abundance.Thepollutionandchemicalimpactislonglived,typicallystretchingfordecades
andspreadingworldwide.Toraiseone1000kgmodule,arocketwouldconsumeaboutas
muchenergyasisburntawayduringafullcareerofcommuting.Evenifaspaceplaneis
used to bring the rocket into a suborbital trajectory as a starting point, all the necessary
propellanttoacceleratefromthereintoorbithastobecarriedalongbythespaceplane,in
addition to the module itself, and the energy cost will still equal several years worth of
gasoline.
ArotatingtetherinLowEarthOrbitontheotherhandcanfullybenefitfromtheprincipleof
energyexchangeandmomentumtransfer.Theenergytakenfromonemodulethatisabout
tolandonEarthortobeloweredinorbit,isprovidedtoanother,thatisjusttakingoffor
movingtoahigherorbit.Thesuborbitalspaceplanecanoperatemuchmoreefficientlynow
as it only needs to carry the manned module, and not any propellant for the modules
furtheracceleration.Aconductivetetherpartthatconvertssolarpowerintoorbitalenergy
can compensate any orbital losses of the tether system, e.g. resulting from the action of
atmosphericdragorfromanunbalancebetweenthepayloadmasseslaunchedbythetether
andthosereturnedtoEarth.Stillitistruethatatleasttheinitialinfrastructureforsucha
rotatingsystemwillhavetobebroughtintoorbittheconventionalway,byrockets.Inorder
tobeeffective,thetethersystemshouldalsobeatleastanorderofmagnitudeheavierthan
EpilogueTowardsSustainableSpaceTransportation 415
thetargetedpayload. Thisrepresentsasignificantinvestment, butit is onethat createsa
solution for multiple, sustainable use. Note also that, once a first smallscale system is
operational, it can be utilized to bring up materials and tools to help expand its own
dimension and performance. The cost of the tether system mass that was conventionally
launchedintoorbitcanbelargelydistributedoverthetotalpayloadmassthatthesystem
willlaunchoveritslifetime.Supposeatleastsomehundredpayloadscanbelaunched,each
withamassaboutonetenthofthatoftheinitialoperationaltethersystem,thensignificant
benefits can be obtained. In this manner (depending on the exact spaceplane cost) the
launchcostper1000kgmodulecanapproachandeventuallyalsodipbelowtheoneyears
worthofgasolinethatwasusedasthereferencefora100%efficiency.
Tether systems portrayed in this manner may seem too good to be true. Indeed, space
elevatorsthatletusclimbdirectlyintospace,rotatingtethersthatsendusoninterplanetary
trajectories:theyarelikelytobemanydecadesaway,pendingforexampledevelopmentof
inorbitconstructionandgrapplingtechniquesaswellasofrevolutionarymaterialssuchas
carbonnanotubes.Bythattime,otherinnovativetechnologicalconceptsyetunknownmay
havewellsurpassedthetethersprojectedcapabilities.
Yet, even todays singleuse expendable tethers can provide significant advantages over
conventionalalternatives.Theycanmaintainspacestationsinloworbitsessentiallywithout
propellant, provideendoflifedeorbitforsatelliteconstellations, orenablean accelerated
scientificprogressbyprovidingafrequentreturnofsamplesfromspacetoEarth.Tethers
canuniquelyprovideartificialgravitytoprepareformissiontotheMoonandMars,aswell
as coordinated multipoint sensing without the need for propellanthungry formation
keepinginfrastructure.Tethersystemsforsuchapplicationsdemandsmartbuttypicallynot
verycomplexsolutions.
Thegapofskepticism,andcrossingit
No such tethers are in use at the moment. There have been noticeable technology
demonstrations in the past, including several 20km tether deployments, and
demonstrations of the concepts of artificial gravity, momentum transfer, electrodynamic
thrustandpowergeneration.SincetheaccidentalcutoftheTSS1Rtetherin1996andthe
faileddeploymentoftheATeXtapetetherin1998,progresshasbeenslow.Projectssuchas
SEDSAT and ProSEDS have been cancelled for safety concerns. In the following decade,
until2007,therehavebeennotetherdeployments.
Spaceculturehasbecomeincreasinglybureaucraticandmoreandmoredistancedfromits
experimental and bold origins. Sound unambiguous predictions and demonstrated
performanceareaprerequisitebeforenewtechnologiesaretried.Buttetherscannotbefully
demonstratedontheground.Theyalsohavecomplexdynamics,bothwhenundertension
andwhenslack.Thisuncertaintyfeedsskepticismandlowerstheappealoftethersinthe
faceofotherinterests.
Sizeableinterestsarebehindtheconventionaltechnologiesandtheirsettled,oftenextensive
infrastructures.Aparallelmaybedrawnherewiththeoilindustryinthefaceofemerging
416
sustainableenergytechnologies.Largeplayersfaceanintrinsicconflictofinterestbetween
thehugeinvestmentsinconventionaltechnologyandorganizationalstructuresdonetoday
andthedevelopmentsoftomorrow.Theleadingtechnologiesofthefuturemayactuallyat
thisverymomentbecarriedforwardbystillobscure,smallparties,notyetofcommercial
interest.
Whentargetingspacetether developmentinthistypeofenvironment, itis achallenging
undertakingtoobtainfundsforsubstantialinorbitdemonstration,i.e.demonstrationofa
systemofrepresentativefunctionandcomplexity.Yetsuchademonstrationseemsrequired
toobtainthedesiredcredibility.
Thegapofskepticismistobebridgedbetweentheconceptualdemonstrationsdonesofar
and a first convincing application. This could trigger development of other lowrisk
applications, such as lowerthermosperic coordinated measurements. With confidence
gained,investmentscouldbemadeinthedevelopmentofmorecomplexapplications,e.g.
togetmorevalueoutoftheInternationalSpaceStationortoremovedebrisfromorbit.Ina
next step, space infrastructure may actually be designed with the use of tethers in mind,
thinkofanextgenerationofSpaceStationsoraartificialgravityfacility.Onlythatwould
finally open up the way for truly revolutionary tether applications and an interplanetary
transportinfrastructure.
Inthiscontext,theYES2missionhasonlyprovidedasteptobringbackrationalityintothe
discussion.Evenifasmallandimperfectstep,YES2hasdemonstratedresponsibilityand
predictabilityoftheapproachandreadinessandavailabilityofthetechnology.Thestephas
been taken not by the established industry but by rather inexperienced yet eager young
people.Wenarrowedthegap,now,willyoucrossit?
Samenvatting 417
Samenvatting
Detoepassingvantethers
Tethers, kabels in de ruimte, hebben een breed scala aan mogelijke toepassingen.
Futuristische, herbruikbare en energieefficinte concepten zijn voorgesteld, zoals een lift
van het aardoppervlak naar de ruimte. Dat soort toepassingen zou ons beeld van
ruimtereizen grondig veranderen. Maar zelfs de hedendaagse tethers kunnen voordelen
bieden ten opzichte van conventionele alternatieven. Zonder significant stuwstofverbruik
kunnenzeruimtestationsineenlagebaanhouden,inonbruikgeraaktesatellietconstellaties
uithunomloophalen,ofeenregelmatigeaanvoerbiedenvansamplesuitderuimtenaarde
Aarde (SpaceMail). Buiten tethers zijn er geen haalbare alternatieven die comfortabele
kunstmatigezwaartekrachtkunnenleverenvoormissiesnaarMars.Dergelijketoepassingen
vantethersystemenvragenomintelligente,maarmeestalnietergcomplexeoplossingen.
Deprincipesachterdezeideenzijnreedsgedemonstreerd,dochechtetoepassingenlaten
op zich wachten. (Gedeeltelijke) mislukkingen uit het verleden lijken het vertrouwen in
tethers geschaad te hebben. Een kleine stap voorwaarts, een demonstratie van een echte
toepassing,zouditvertrouwenkunnenherstellenendusvangrootbelangzijn,maarjuist
zonmissieisnuzeermoeilijktebewerkstelligen.Metzoweinigmogelijkhedenvooreen
demonstratieishetverleidelijkommeteenenkelemissiezoveelmogelijkvernieuwingente
demonstreren.Echter,hoeambitieuzerhetproject,hoegroterdezichtbaarheidenhoegroter
dekans op faleneneencontraproductief resultaat.Eenalternatieveaanpakishetnemen
vankleinestappen,bouwendopeerderesuccessen.
In dit proefschrift wordt de aanpak van kleine stappen toegepast. Twee inorbit
experimentenwordenontworpen:deYoungEngineersSatellitesYESenYES2.Dankzijeen
lowcost aanpak en mede door de sympathiekeducatieve invalshoek kunnen deze
experimenten worden gebouwd en gelanceerd. Het doel van de YES projecten is het
verkrijgenvaneenbeterinzichtintetherdynamicaentethermissieaspecten,zoalsveiligheid
en voorspelbaarheid. De eerdergenoemde SpaceMailtoepassing dient als casestudy. Een
brede en open benadering wordt gevolgd, waarbij studenten, deskundigen en
besluitvormers inspraak krijgen. Aan hun bezwaren en bedenkingen wordt systematisch
tegemoetgekomen, eenaanpakdieheeftgeholpenomhetsysteemenhetbegripervante
verbeteren.
YESmogelijkhedenenbeperkingenvaneennieuweaanpak
DeeersteYoungEngineers Satellite,YES,ismogelijkgemaaktdooreenonconventionele,
opportunistische aanpak. Deze methode is inspirerend gebleken, maar niet zonder
problemenenheeftgeleidtotmeeraandachtvoorverantwoordgebruikvantethersinde
ruimte. DeYESmissiebehelsteen35kmlange,draaiendetetherineenlanggerektebaan
omdeAarde(GeostationaryTransferOrbitofGTO).HetideevoorYESwordtvoorgesteld
inoktober1996precieseenjaarlaterwordtYESalgelanceerd.YESwordtontworpenen
418
gebouwd door studenten en jonge ingenieurs, bijgestaan door deskundigen van de
European Space Agency (ESA) bij ESAs technische afdeling ESTEC in Noordwijk. YES
maakt gebruik van een gratis lancering op de Ariane 502 kwalificatievlucht. Veel van de
YEShardwareisgeschonkendoorESTEC,sommigeonderdelenafkomstiguitvorigeESA
projecten,anderezijnprototypesdieinderuimtegetestmoetenworden.HetYESproject
schuwtdocumentatieenbureaucratie.Demissieechteriscomplex,deontwikkeltijdiskort
endefinancinzijnzeerbeperkt.Hetsysteemwordtpaslaat,envrijminimaal,getest.Als
gevolg daarvan wordt een (gedeeltelijke) mislukking van het tetherexperiment
waarschijnlijkgeacht.DedoorArianegeselecteerdebaanhoogteenorintatievergrotennog
verderdekansopeenbotsingvandetethermetanderesatellieten.YESwordtgelanceerdin
oktober1997,enalhoeweldesecundaireexperimentenwordenuitgevoerd,isbeslotende
tetherzelfnietaftewikkelen.
Ditwerkrapporteertookdemaatregelendiehieropzijngenomenomzulkeproblemenin
de toekomst te voorkomen. Banen om de Aarde die veilig zijn voor tethertoepassingen
worden geidentificieerd. Operationele aanbevelingen worden gedefinieerd voor zowel
mechanische als elektrodynamische tethertoepassingen. In reaktie op het idee van een
veilige, na gebruik verdampende tether wordt de degradatie van mogelijke tether
materialen, in vacuum en onder ultraviolette straling, in kaart gebracht. Een testfaciliteit
wordtontwikkelddieeentetherzorealistischalsmogelijkopAardekanafwikkelen.Ook
wordteengeavanceerdetetherenmissiesimulator,MTBSim/ETSim,ontwikkeld.
HetYES2projectbouwenopdelessenvandeeersteYES
Het YES2 project is bedacht in 2001. Deze keer zijn veiligheid en voorspelbaarheid de
belangrijkste aandachtspunten. De ontwikkeling ervan duurt zes jaar. Net als YES wordt
YES2 gebouwd met behulp van zeer gemotiveerde studenten en jonge ingenieurs. Echter
aanzienlijkmeertijdwordtnugereserveerdomhetsysteembetertebegrijpendoormiddel
vansystematischeanalyse,ontwikkelingentesten.Delangereprojektduurvereistmeerdere
generatiesvanstudenteneneengrondigedocumentatie.Eengoedgedefinieerdemethodiek
entraceerbaarheidisvereist,daardevaakskeptischefunctionarissenvandeEuropeseen
Russischeruimtevaartagentschappendienentewordenovertuigdvandeveiligheidvande
missie.Ookeenzorgvuldigbaankeuze,uitgebreidemissiesimulatieeneenveiligontwerp
vantetherenafwikkelsysteemhebbenbijgedragentotdedefinitieveacceptatievandeYES2
missie. Deze extra inspanning is niet tevergeefs: vrijwel exact een decennium na de YES
vlucht,op25september2007,slaagtYES2erinomeenrecordbrekende32kmlangetether
aftewikkelenvanhetRussischemicrozwaartekrachtplatformFoton.
HetYES2systeemendeafwikkelingvandetetherdemonstrereneenaantaltechnologische
nieuwigheden.YES2heeftdeSpaceMailtoepassingalsthema.Zoalsgezegd,SpaceMailis
een concept om regelmatig wetenschappelijke monsters naar Aarde te vervoeren vanuit
bijvoorbeeld het International Space Station. YES2 wordt gemonteerd op Foton, dat
dienstdoetalsrepresentatievanzonruimtestation.DetetherwordtgebruiktomFotino,een
kleine terugkeercapsule met wetenschappelijke lading, terug naar Aarde te sturen. Een
tetherafwikkelsysteemisontwikkeld,inclusiefdebenodigdeelektronicaensoftwareende
Samenvatting 419
benodigdemechaniekenomdeverschillendeelementenopdejuistetijdlostekoppelen.De
tether wordt afgewikkeld in twee nauwkeurig gecontroleerde fasen, zodat Fotino
nauwkeurigerlosgelatenkanwordenendichterbijdebedoeldelandingsplaatsopAardezal
landen. De Fotinocapsule is zelf ook behoorlijk innovatief en grotendeels ontworpen en
gebouwd door studenten. Ze is volledig uitgerust met meetapparatuur, een baken en
telemetriesysteemeneenparachuutsysteem. Desondanksheeftde capsuleeenmassa van
slechts6kgeneendiametervan40cm.Ditisalleenmogelijkdankzijhetgebruikvaneen
tetherdiedecapsulenietalleenineennauwkeurigebaanplaatst,maarookdeorintatie
ervanzekerstelt.
YES2technologieontwikkeling
DebelangrijksteonderdelenvanhetYES2tetherafwikkelsysteemzijndetether,despoelen
de rem. De tether wikkelt af van de (stilstaande) spoel, idealiter met een voorspelbaar
gedrag.Deremisgebaseerdophetbarberpoleconcept,waarbijdehoeveelheidwrijving,
die optreedt bij het afwikkelen van de tether, door een simpel mechanisme geregeld kan
wordenovereenzeergrootbereik.Hetconceptvoordecombinatievandezesystemenis
eerder toegepast in de Small Expendable Deployer System (SEDS) experimenten,
resulterend in drie succesvolle missies. Vanwege de International Traffic in Arms
Regulations(ITAR)ishetvoorYES2helaasnietmogelijkgeweestomdeSEDShardwareuit
deVerenigdeStatenteimporteren.Eennieuwsysteemwordtdaaromontwikkeld,metde
bijkomende voordelen dat hierdoor ook een beter begrip van het ontwerp en gedrag
verkregen wordt, terwijl het ontwerp bovendien nu publiek toegankelijk is, zodat ook
derdenintoekomstigeprojectenervankunnenprofiteren.
Het gedrag van zowel tether als spoel zijn uitgebreid in kaart gebracht. Ontwerp en
fabricageprocedureszijniteratiefverderontwikkeld.Eigenschappenvanhettethermateriaal
zijngemeten,waaronderwrijvingscofficint,stijfheidensterkte.Indetetheriseensysteem
aangebracht om schokken te absorberen die tijdens het afwikkelen zouden kunnen
optreden. Als het nodig is kan de tether, zowel passief als aktief, van de eindmassas
wordenlosgekoppeld.Ookmoethetontwerpberekendzijnopinslagvanmicrometeorodes
enmagdetethernietsmeltenonderdeteverwachtenwrijvingshitte.
Testopstellingen zijn ontwikkeld voor zowel het wikkelen als het afwikkelen. De
afgewikkeldetetherwordtopeentijdelijkespoelopgeslagenvoorhergebruik.Zokunnen
meertestswordenuitgevoerdendeeffectenvangebruikwordenbestudeerd,waaronder
krimp en twist. Na verschillende iteraties kan de afgewikkelde tetherlengte met een
nauwkeurigheidtot0.1%wordenbepaald,tegen1.0%voordeeersteversievanhetsysteem.
Dewikkelmachineisontworpenomreproduceerbare,stabieleencompactetetherspoelente
maken.Dooreencombinatievananalyseenexperimentwordtstabiliteitenuniformiteitvan
despoelverbeterd.Omvoldoendevoorspelbaarheidteverkrijgenvoordemissie,wordtde
voorhetafwikkelenbenodigdekrachtgemetenen/ofgemodelleerd,alsfunctievanonder
andereafwikkelsnelheid,zwaartekracht,opslagduur,blootstellingaanvacuumenextreme
temperaturen.
420
Het remsysteem maakt gebruikt van het barberpoleconcept dat afkomstig is uit de
textielindustrie. De tether wordt langs een spiraalvormig pad rond een cylinder geleid
waarbij wrijving zich opbouwt. Het aantal windingen om de cylinder bepaalt de totale
wrijvingenspanning in het touw. Metbehulpvaneenelectrisch aangedrevenwormwiel
kanditaantalwindingenwordengecontroleerd.
Een model is ontwikkeld dat de door de barberpole verkregen spanning in het touw
voorspelt, alsmede het door de tether gevolgde pad over de cylinder. Het contact tussen
tetherenpaalisgegarandeerdalseenflexibeletethermeteindigemassadichtheidvaneen
spoel afwikkelt en een spiraalvormig pad volgt. Het model kan worden gebruikt om
geometrie van de cylinder en wrijvingscofficint te kiezen. Een gedetailleerder model
voorspelteenafwijkingvandespiraalvormalseenzogenaamdestictiecofficintwordt
gentroduceerd. Zon afwijking is inderdaad waargenomen en hangt af van van tether
diameter,spiraalrichtingentetherverdraaing.Dezeafhankelijkhedenzijnnognietvolledig
gekwantificeerd.Tijdenshetafwikkelenishetgevolgdetetherpadooknietvolledigstabiel,
afhankelijkvandespanningindetetherwaardezedebarberpolebinnenkomt.Ditgedrag
isnognietvolledigbegrepen.
HetuiteindelijkeontwerpvoordeYES2barberpolehoudtrekeningmetdemodelresultaten,
metingenaandespanninginhettouwenmetderesultatenvanverderemechanischeen
thermischetesten.Deasvanhetwormwielisvoorzienvaneenflexibelekoppelingende
tandwielas heeft een aangepaste behuizing zodat in geval van verkeerde uitlijning en
thermischeexpansiedewrijvinginhetmechanismebeperktblijft.Depaalheefteenhoge
warmtecapaciteit en een goede thermische geleiding zodat de tether koel kan blijven bij
hogesnelheidengroteremkracht.Hetpaaloppervlakisenigszinsconcaafzodatdetether
wikkelingenmindermakkelijkoverelkaarheenlopen.Hetresulterendeontwerpblijftdicht
bij het ideale exponentieel wrijvingsgedrag tot minimaal zes windingen om de cylinder.
Aangezien elke extra winding een toename veroorzaakt in de kracht in de tether met
ongeveer een factor drie, staat dit garant voor een groot dynamisch controlebereik.
Afwikkeltestsgekoppeldaaneenrealtimetethersimulatiewordentenslottegebruiktomde
effectiviteitvandefeedbackencontrolemetbehulpvandebarberpoleteverifiren.
YES2missie
DeYES2missievoorzietinhetloskoppelenenneerlatenvaneenaandetethergebonden
eindmassa,bestaandeuitdeFotinocapsuleendeMASSsubsatelliet(MechanicalandData
AcquisitionSupportSystem).Detether wordt vanaf deFotonafgewikkeld in twee fasen,
gescheidendooreenzogenaamdeholdphase.Tijdensdeeerstefasewordtdetethertot
3.4 km lengte op zon manier afgewikkeld dat Fotino/MASS recht onder Foton komt te
hangen.DezefaseisvergelijkbaarmetdeSEDS2missie.DekorteretetherlengtebijYES2
maakt een nauwkeurige controle echter een uitdaging. Tijdens de tweede fase wordt de
tether onder een hoek naar voren afgewikkeld tot een lengte van 30 km, waarna deze
terugslingertnaardeverticaalonderFoton.DezetweedefaseisvergelijkbaarmetdeSEDS
1missie.AlsdetetherdeverticaalnadertwordeneerstdeFotinocapsuleendanookde
Samenvatting 421
tethermetMASSlosgekoppeld.DeeigenlijkYES2missieverlooptgrotendeelsvolgensdit
plan.
Deeerstefasewordtmetsuccesgecontroleerdenbereiktdegewenstelengtevan3.4km,
meteenfoutvanminderdan20m.Hetafwikkelenwordtgecontroleerdmetbehulpvaneen
feedbackalgoritme dat lengtemetingen vergelijkt met een vooraf vastgesteld
referentieprofiel.Hetbepaaltvervolgensde gewenstebarberpolepositie. Controlevande
afwikkelsnelheidtijdensdezeeerstefase,meteendergelijkekortetether,iseenuitdaging.
Bijdezetetherlengteskanhetmakkelijkgebeurendathetafwikkelenvroegtijdigstopt:de
gradint in zwaartekracht is nog te klein om te dienen als drijvende kracht achter het
afwikkelen, en is kleiner dan of vergelijkbaar met de wrijving in de spoel. Er is dus een
risicodathetafwikkelenkomttevertragen.
Tijdens de tweede fase wordt de volledige tether van 31.7 km afgewikkeld, de langste
structuurinderuimtetotnogtoe,meteenmaximaleafwikkelsnelheidvan16m/s.Datais
beschikbaarvantetherlengteenafwikkelsnelheid,spankrachtinhettouw,debewegingvan
deeindmassakortnadeloskoppelingvanFoton,engegevensoverdebaanomdeaardein
devormvanTwoLineElements(TLE).
Eenaantalproblementredenoptijdenshetafwikkelen.Deeerstetientallenmetersvande
afwikkeling zijn onregelmatig vermoedelijk als gevolg van de oscillatie van de
MASS/Fotino eindmassa. Als gevolg daarvan wordt de afwikkelsnelheid kortdurig
overschat door de boordcomputer. Over een periode van enkele seconden wordt te veel
geremd.Normaalgesprokenzouditgeenprobleemmoetenzijn.Echter,detethergedraagt
zich ietwat plakkerig en komt moeilijker van de spoel dan verwacht, waarschijnlijk als
gevolgvaneensoortinklinkingvandetetherindespoeldoorthermischecycli.Metdeze
plakkerigheid kan de afwikkelsnelheid zich maar moeilijk herstellen. De combinatie van
dezetweeeffectenzorgtervoordatdetetherlengtelangetijdachterblijftbijdereferentie.
Wanneer de afwikkelsnelheid eindelijk weer groeit, in navolging van de toename in
tetherlengte en de hiermee samenhangende toenemende zwaartekrachtsgradint,
overcompenseerthetfeedbackalgoritme enveroorzaakteentransversalegolfin detether.
Deze golf duurt voort tijdens de rest van de eerste fase en is ook duidelijk aanwijsbaar
tijdensdeholdphasetussendetweeafwikkelfases.
Eenbelangrijkerprobleemdoetzichvoortijdensdetweedeafwikkelfase.Dezefasebegint
veelbelovend.Detetherversneltnetjesuitdeholdphaseenheteffectvandetransversale
trillingenvermindert.Echter,alsgevolgvaneenfoutiefuitgevoerdeelektronischereparatie,
doet zich elektrische ruis voor op het signaal van de afwikkelsensoren. Het ruisfilter
aktiveertendecomputerkannietlangerdeafwikkelingvandetethermeten.Delaatste40
minuten van de afwikkeling zijn daarom ongecontroleerd en ongeremd. Zodra met hoge
afwikkelsnelheidheteindevandespoelwordtbereiktresulteerteen40Nschok.Deschok
wordtgevolgddoorenkeleminutenvanslapheidindetetherwaaropopcomplexewijzede
spankrachtterugkeerttijdensdeslingerbewegingnaardeverticaal.DeFotinocapsulewordt
op de verticaal losgelaten en gaat waarschijnlijk de atmosfeer iets steiler in dan gepland,
wellichtmeteenforserotatiealsgevolgvandeschokindetether.VanFotinowordtgeen
422
bakensignaalontvangen,vermoedelijkheeftdezedeterugkeerindeatmosfeerofdelanding
niet overleefd. Hoe dan ook, de exacte huidige locatie van Fotino of zijn fragmenten is
onbekend.
YES2dataanalyse
DeYES2missiekanalssuccesvolwordenbeschouwdwatbetreftdemonstratievantether
afwikkelingencontroledaarvan,alsmedehetverkrijgenvaninzichtenintetherdynamica.
Tetherlengte, afwikkelsnelheid, afwikkelhoek en spankracht zijn met succes gemeten of
gereconstrueerd voor de volledige duur van de missie. Ook de beweging van de
Fotino/MASS eindmassa is in kaart gebracht, met name tijdens het begin van de
afwikkeling. Het afwikkelsysteem en de besturingssoftware hebben zich grotendeels
nominaalgedragen.Eensoortplakkerigheidvandespoeliswaargenomenenmoetverder
wordenonderzocht.Desoftwarediedetetherlengteberekentistecomplexbevonden,en
daardoorgevoeligvoorafwikkelonregelmatigheden.Dewrijvingvanzowelremalsspoel
gedragenzichnominaal, waarmee het afwikkelsysteem positiefgekwalificeerdis. Ookde
afwikkelingintweefases,deslingerbeweging,deloskoppelingvantetherenFotinoende
hierdoorveroorzaaktebaanveranderingzijnbevestigd.Metingenaandeopgetredenschok
zijngebruiktomstijfheidvandetetherensnelheidvanhetgeluiderintebepalen.
De resultaten kunnen nauwkeurig door de MTBSim simulator gereproduceerd worden.
Dezereproductieheeftmeerderedoelen.
Parameterwaardes van het spoelwrijving en remmodel in de simulator zijn zodanig
aangepast dat het waargenomen snelheidsprofiel precies gevolgd wordt. De hiervoor
benodigdeaanpassingenwijkenslechts1020%afvandeopdegrondeninflightgemeten
parameterwaardes.Ditresultaatgeeftaanmetwelkemargesimulatiesvoorspellendkunnen
zijnvoordemissieplanning.
Ook waargenomen tethergedrag dat niet is gebruikt voor de reproductie is toch goed
gereproduceerd,inhetbijzonderdevoorwaartsehoekmetdeverticaalwaaronderdetether
afwikkeltenhetverschijnenvantransversalegolven.
Detetherviscositeitkanwordengeschatopbasisvandereproductie.Dezeblijktinflight
hoger te zijn geweest dan voorspeld op basis van metingen op aarde. Dit kan te maken
hebbenmetdebeperktelengtevanhetstuktetherdatgebruiktisvoordeaardsetesten.
Desimulatieisgebruikt omhetverondersteldetraject vanFotinote propagerenenhet
mogelijkelandingspuntteschatten.
Tot slot kunnen nu, met meer vertrouwen, de simulaties gebruikt worden om
geloofwaardige hypothesen te stellen voor waargenomen onverwacht gedrag tijdens het
afwikkelen, zoals de transversale oscillaties. Op basis hiervan kunnen ook, in verdere
simulaties,diversemogelijkepreventievemaatregelenuitgeprobeerdworden.Hetblijktdat
detransversaleoscillatiesversterktwordendooreenresonantievandecontroller metde
afwikkelsnelheid als gevolg van de vertraagde snelheidsinschatting door de onboard
computer. Oplossingen die uit simulaties worden afgeleid moeten nog wel worden
bevestigd in verdere testen. Mogelijke oplossingen zijn een snellere aansturing van het
Samenvatting 423
remmechanisme en het gebruik van een gladdere barberpole, met een lagere
wrijvingscofficint.Alshetsysteemaangepastis,endefeedpackparametersgekozen,ishet
aanteradenomnogeengevoeligheidsanalyseuittevoerendoormiddelvansimulatie,om
de onzekerheden in nauwkeurigheid van de simulatie te dekken en zeker te zijn van de
robuustheidvandeoplossing.
DeYES2missiekangezienwordenalseenonafhankelijkdatapuntdatdeeerdereconclusie
van het SEDSteam ondersteunt dat, tenminste voor de onderhavige toepassing, het
afwikkelgedragvaneentetherzowelvoldoendevoorspelbaaralsookcontroleerbaaris.De
beperkingen van het afwikkelsysteem en van de tethersimulatie zijn nu concreter
gedefinieerd. Een belangrijke beperking vloeit voort uit de nauwkeurigheid waarmee
tetherhardware gemodelleerd kan worden, en die is niet beter dan 1020%.
Onregelmatighedeninhetafwikkelenopeenschaalvansecondeswordenvooralsnogook
nogmaarminimaalgesimuleerd.Zulkeonregelmatighedenzijnindeeersteminuutvanhet
afwikkelenwaargenomen,mogelijkalsgevolgvanoscillatiesvandeeindmassa.Deopde
grond uitgevoerde closedloop afwikkeltesten en simulaties kunnen desondanks goed
gebruikt worden om het afwikkelsysteem en het afwikkelen van een tether in de ruimte
beter te begrijpen. De analyse van de problemen die tijdens YES2 zijn opgetreden
onderstreeptdat,voorzulketestenbetekenisvolkunnenwordenuitgevoerd,detetheraan
een representatieve omgeving moet worden blootgesteld. Simulaties zijn nuttig om een
kwalitatiefinzichttekrijgenindecomplexeredynamiekvantethers,waarondereffectenals
schokken, resonantieenoscillaties. Metdeze inzichten kunnen, binnenvoldoendemarge,
geschiktehardwareencontrollerparameterswordengeselecteerd.
Conclusies,aanbevelingenenvooruitzichten
Ondanksdebeloftedietethersbiedenvoorinessentiestuwstofvrij,duurzaamvervoerinde
ruimte,ishetmoeilijkgeblekenomverdertekomendanlouterconceptdemonstraties.Sinds
demidjaren90zijnerzelfshelemaalgeenexperimentenmeergeweest.
Om beter te begrijpen met welke programmatische en technische uitdagingen nieuwe
tetherinitiatievenwordengeconfronteerd,enomhierbeteroptereagerenis,waarmogelijk,
eenbredebenaderinggevolgd.Dezeaanpakomvatdeontwikkelingvaneengeavanceerde
tethersimulator, de analyse van een aantal tethertoepassingen, voornamelijk geselecteerd
methetoogopeenkleinedemonstratiemissie,debeschikbaretechnologie,endeveiligheid
ervan.HetSpaceMailconceptwordtalscasestudygebruikt,waarvooreenveiligetetheren
afwikkelsysteemisontwikkeld.Hetsysteemisuitgebreidgetestmetbehulpvanzoweleen
wikkelalseenafwikkelmachine.Metbehulpvaneengrootaantalzeergemotiveerdejonge
ingenieurs zijn twee complete vluchtsystemen ontwikkeld en gelanceerd, YES en YES2.
YES2heeftgeresulteerdineendemonstratieenevaluatievaneenafwikkelingvandetether
intweefases,gevolgddooreenimpulsuitwisselingdiedeFotinocapsuledeatmosfeerheeft
ingeslingerd. De resultaten vandeze aanpak kunnenwordensamengevatinde volgende
vierpunten.
Ten eerste is het voor tethers in het bijzonder een uitdaging om een toepassing te
ontwikkelenpuurdoorhunlengtezijnzenieterggeschiktvoorhettestenopdegronden
424
een ormeerdere lanceringenzullendusnodig zijn omhet systeem uitteproberen. Deze
beperkingbrengteenaanzienlijkeprijskaartjemetzichmeevoorelketestcyclus.Eventuele
problemen die zich in een baan om de aarde voordoen beinvloeden de publieke opinie
sterker dan problemen in een testruimte, ookal vormen zulke problemen een normaal
onderdeelvandeontwikkelingscyclusvaneencomplexsysteem.Hetisdaaromvanbelang
omincomputersimulatiestekunnenvertrouwen.DeMTBSimsimulatorendeYES2missie
hebben dit vertrouwen gesterkt, niet alleen door het overeenkomstige gedrag, maar ook
dooreenbeterbegripvandebeperkingen.HetniveauvanrealismekanopAardeverder
worden uitgebreid met behulp van een afwikkeltest inclusief closedloop controller, en
gekoppeldaaneenrealtimetethersimulator,alsgedemonstreerdinditwerk.
In de tweede plaats wordt geconcludeerd dat op de korte termijn tethers toepassingen
slechtseennichevormen,vanwegerisicoverminderingmaarookomprogrammatischeen
technischeredenen.Voorzowelmechanischealselektrodynamischetethersisruwwegeen
algemeenveiligebaanhoogteaantewijzen.SamplereturnuitLowEarthOrbit(SpaceMail),
lanceerassistentie (Tseries) en kleinschalig onderzoek van de lagere thermosfeer zijn
voorbeeldenvanbeperktedochzinvollemechanischetethertoepassingenopkortetermijn.
Metelektrodynamischebare(nietgesoleerde)tetherskunnenuitgewerktesatellietenuit
hunbaanwordengehaald.Omhetrisicovanbotsingenvananderesatellietenmetdetether
tevoorkomenishethierbijaanteradenomdetethervandesatellietlostekoppelenzodra
een baanhoogte, equivalent met een 25jarige levensduur, is bereikt. Een probleem voor
electrodynamische toepassingen is de inherente dynamische instabiliteit. Een aantal
mogelijkheden om hier mee om te gaan is in kaart gebracht, maar dient voor specifieke
gevallenverderuitgewerktteworden.
Voor sommigetether toepassingenisernauwelijkseengeschiktealternatievetechnologie
voorhanden.Kunstmatigezwaartekrachtbijvoorbeeldkanalleencomfortabelzijnalsdeze
metbehulpvaneentetherwordtverkregen,omdatalleentethersdebenodigdekilometer
lange structuur kunnen bieden. Electrodynamische tethers zijn bij uitstek geschikt om
bijvoorbeeldeenruimtestationineenlage,toegankelijke,baanomdeaardetehoudenende
daar ondergane luchtweerstand te compenseren. Dankzij eenzelfde toepassing
(electrodynamischecompensatievanluchtweerstand)kanthermosferischonderzoekookin
een lage baan om de aarde (van 150250 km hoogte) insitu uitgevoerd worden.
Electrodynamischetetherslijkenookookhetenigehaalbareconcepttebiedenomeengroot
deelvanhetbestaanderuimteafvalinLEOteverwijderen.
TenderdehebbendeYES2missieendebijbehorendedataanalyseaannemelijkgemaaktdat
eentoepassingalsSpaceMailvoldoendevoorspelbaarenveiligkanwordenuitgevoerd.De
YES2missieheeftplaatskunnenvindendankzijeenopenendynamischehouding,waarbij
tegemoetgekomenisaandezorgenenwensenvaneenbredegemeenschapvan(potentile)
critici. Het YES2 systeem dankt zijn betrouwbaarheid aan de passieve (stilstaande) spoel
waarvanhettouwafwikkelthetmechanischsimpeleSEDSremsysteem.Eenvoudkomthier
tegendeprijsvannietlineariteitinhetafwikkelenremgedrag.Remenspoelzijndaarom,
ter compensatie, uitgebreid getest en gekarakteriseerd. Belangrijke ingredinten voor een
veiligemissiezijn:eenzorgvuldiggeselecteerdebaanhoogte,optiesomhetafwikkelenafte
Samenvatting 425
breken, automatisch of per telecommando, en een systeemontwerp dat voor elk van de
kritieke missiefasen een passende, veilige, uitweg biedt als er iets misgaat. Zowel het
afwikkelsysteemzelfalsdemethodologietervoorbereidingvandemissiekanmetslechts
kleinewijzigingengebruiktwordenvooranderetethertoepassingenindenabijetoekomst.
Ten slotte kan worden vastgesteld dat het YES2 systeem ontwikkeld en in de ruimte
gekwalificeerdistegenzeerlagekosten.Ditismedemogelijkgemaaktdoordathetsysteem
eenvoudig te bouwen is en (grond)testen kunnen worden uitgevoerd zonder bijzondere
voorzorgsmaatregelen.Lagekostenzijnechternietpersevoldoendeomeentechnologische
doorbraak te forceren. Ruimtevaart is nog niet commerciel beslissingen worden nog
regelmatiggedrevendooranderebelangendantechnischeoffinancile.Wellichtimmuun
voor deze paradoxale situatie is de toepassing voor het verwijderen van reeds bestaand
ruimtepuin. Hiervoor is geen redelijk alternatief beschikbaar, en tethers maken dus een
goedekans.Helaaszaldezetoepassingnietconcretiserenvoordatereengoedeoplossing
beschikbaar is om een tether (of ander soort systeem) in een baan om de aarde aan een
willekeurige stuk afval te koppelen. Tot dan toe, of in elk geval tot het scepticisme is
verdwenen, is het goed mogelijk dat verdere tetherontwikkelingen afhangen van een
educatievecontext,diealseensoortsympathiekedekmantelkanblijvendienenendiehet
enthusiasmevanjongemensenbeschikbaarkanstellen.Hierbijmoetwordenvermelddat
de educatieve benadering niet per definitie gelijk staat aan goedkoop en zeker zijn
onvolkomenhedenheeft.Indezebenaderingishetzeermoeilijkvolledigfoutloostewerkte
gaan. Niettegenstaande heeft het YES2 project aangetoond dat aan de uitdagingen
grotendeels tegemoetgekomen kan worden. De educatieve aanpak heeft wel degelijk
aanzienlijkevooruitgangmogelijkgemaaktvoordetoepassingvantethers
426
ListofAuthorsPublications
Belowalistoftherelevantjournalandconferencepaperspublishedinthecontextofthe
thesis activities. Those papers to which the author contributed as main author or as key
contributorofcontent,presentationand/orresearchworkarespecificallyindicated.Papers
towhichtheauthorhascontributedascoordinatororbyprovidingsupportiveinputhave
been mentioned separately. Key reports with significant author contribution providing
complementarycontent(i.e.notprovidedinthepapersorinthisthesis)arelistedaswell.
JournalPapers(keycontribution)
1. Sabath,D.,Kast,W.,Kowalczyk,M.,Krischke,M.,Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.vander,Resultsoftheparabolicflight
testsoftheRAPUNZELdeployer,IAF1996,ActaAstronauticaVol.41,Issue12,pp.841845,1997.
2. Heide, E.J. van der, Carroll, J., Kruijff, M., Options for coordinated multipoint sensing in the lower
thermosphere,Phys.Chem.Earth,Vol.26,No.4,pp.285291,2001.
3. Heide,E.J.vander,Kruijff,M.,Tethersanddebrismitigation,ActaAstronauticaVol.48/512,pp.503516,2001.
4. Menon, C., Kruijff, M., Vavouliotis, A., Design and Testing of a Space Mechanism for Tether Deployment,
JournalofSpacecraftandRockets,Vol.44,No.4,JulyAugust2007.
5. Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.van der, Qualification andInFlightDemonstrationofaEuropeanTetherDeployment
SystemonYES2,ActaAstronautica64(2009),pp.882905.
6. Kruijff, M., Heide,E.J.van der, QualificationandInFlightDemonstration ofaEuropeanTetherDeployment
System on YES2, Acta Astronautica 64(2009), pp. 882905.Kruijff M., Heide E.J. van der, Ockels W.J., Data
AnalysisofaTetheredSpaceMailExperiment,JournalofSpacecraftandRockets,Vol.46,No.6,pp.12721287,
presentedasAIAA20087385.
7. Fujii,H.A.,Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,Watanabe,T.,Ockels,W.J.,TheSecondYoungEngineersSatellite:
InnovativeTechnologyThroughEducation,2009g29,27thInternationalSymposiumonSpaceTechnologyand
Science,TransactionsofJapanSocietyforAeronauticalandSpaceSciences,SpaceTechnologyJapan,tobepublished
(Vol.8,2010).
FurthercoauthoredJournalPapers
8. H.A.Fujii,T.Watanabe,H.Kojima,KI.Oyama,T.Kusagaya,Y.Yamagiwa,H.Ohtsu,M.Cho,S.Sasaki,K.
Tanaka,J.Williams,B.Rubin,C.L.Johnson,G.Khazanov,J.R.Sanmartin,JP.Lebreton,E.J.vanderHeide,M.
Kruijff,F.DePascale,P.M.Trivailo,Soundingrocketexperimentofbareelectrodynamictethersystem,Acta
Astronautica,JournaloftheInternationalAcademyofAstronautics,Vol.64,No.23,Jan./Feb.2009,313324.
9. Williams, P., Hyslop, A., Stelzer, M., Kruijff, M., YES2 optimal trajectories in presence of eccentricity and
aerodynamic drag, IAC06D2.3.04, Valencia, 2006 and Acta Astronautica Volume 64, Issues 78, AprilMay
2009,Pages745769.
ConferencePapers(keycontribution)
10. AsmaC.,DePascaleF.,KruijffM.,HeatshieldQualificationfortheSpaceMailReEntryCapsuleFotinointhe
VKIPlasmatron,AIAA20086561.
11. Dijk, A. van, Kruijff, M., Heide, E.J. van der, Lebreton, J.P., LeBRETON: a Lightweight Bare Rotating
ElectrodynamicTetherforjOvianeNtry,IAC03S.P.05,Bremen,2003.
ListofAuthorsPublications 427
12. Graczyk,R.,Kruijff,M.,Spiliotopoulos,I.,DesignAndQualificationOfASmallsatStepperMotorDriver,Flight
ResultsOnBoardTheYES2Satellite,SmallSatelliteSystemsandServices(4S)SymposiumRhodes,2008.
13. Hambloch, P., De Pascale, F., Kruijff, M., ALBATROS A Space System Engineering Tool, IAC07D5.1.05,
Hyderabad,2007.
14. Heide Erik J. van der, Michiel Kruijff, Wubbo J. Ockels, The YES2 Experience: Towards Sustainable Space
TransportationusingTethers,IAC08E2.3.6,2008.
15. Heide,E.J.vander,Kruijff,M.,Raitt,D.,Hermanns,F.,SpaceSpininfromTextiles:OpportunitiesforTethers
andInnovativeTechnologies,IAC03U.2.b.09,Bremen,2003.
16. Hyslop,A.,Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,Camps,C.,Timmermans,M.,Spoolwindinganddeploymenttesting
for the YES2 tethered reentry mission, 11th Australian International Aerospace Congress, Melbourne, 2005.
SupersededbyHyslop.A.,Kruijff,M.,Menon,C.,SimulatingSpaceTetherDeploymentonEarthfortheYES2
satellite,IAC05A2.1.09,Fukuoka,2005.
17. Kruijff,M.,Ockels,W.J,Heide,E.J.vander,Tethersassustainablespacetransportation:implicationsfromthe
YES2tetheredSpaceMaildevelopmentandflightresults,IAC2008.
18. Kruijff,M.TheYoungEngineersSatellite,Flightresultsandcriticalanalysisofasuperfasthandsonproject,
IAF99P.1.04,Amsterdam,1999.
19. Kruijff, M., Gijsman, P., Heide, E.J. van der, Opening the Way for Large, Light and NonHazardous Space
Structures:ReportofasearchforaUVdegradablematerial,IAF99I.3.05,Amsterdam,1999.
20. Kruijff, M., Hambloch, P., Heide, E.J. van der, Stelzer, M., The Second Young Engineers Satellite, IAC07
D2.3.04,Hyderabad,2007.
21. Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,Calzada,S.,YES2InherentlysafeTetheredReentryMissionandContingencies,
IAC03IAA.6.2.02,Bremen2003.
22. Kruijff, M., Heide, E.J. vander, Dragoni, E., Ferretti, S., Castagnetti,D., Concept Selectionand Design of the
InherentlySafeReEntryCapsuleforYES2,IAC03V.3.08,Bremen,2003.
23. Kruijff, M., Heide, E.J. van der, Integrated Test Rig For Tether Hardware, RealTime Simulator And Control
Algorithms:RobustMomentumTransferValidated,ProceedingsofSTAIF,Albuquerque,2001.
24. Kruijff, M.,Heide,E.J. vander, Ockels, W.J., Braking of aflexible and deploying tether: the FlexEnd Brake,
Proceedings of Workshop on AdvancedMathematicalMethodsin thedynamics of flexible bodies, WPP113,
ESA,June1996.
25. Kruijff, M., Heide,E.J.van der, QualificationandInFlightDemonstration ofaEuropeanTetherDeployment
SystemandSpaceMailTechnologyonYES2,SmallSatelliteSystemsandServices(4S)SymposiumRhodes,2008.
26. Kruijff,M.,Heide, E.J.van der,Stelzer,M., Applicabilityoftetherdeploymentsimulation andtestsbasedon
YES2flightdata,AIAA20082136.
27. Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,TheYESsatellite:atetheredmomentumtransferintheGTOorbit,Proceedingsof
TetherTechnologyInterchangeMeeting,NASA/CP1998206900,January1998
28. Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,YES2EducationandOutreach,IAC03P.P.01,IAFBremen,2003.
29. Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,YES2,thesecondYoungEngineersSatellite,ATetheredInherentlysafeReentry
Capsule,IAC02P.P.01,Houston,2002.
30. Kruijff, M., Heide, van derE.J., De Venuto, F., Dobrowolny, M., Vannaroni, G., LongTerm Stability Of Bare
ConductiveTethers:CombinedResultsFromPlasmaChamberTestsAndAdvancedSimulations,Presentedat
STAIF,Albuquerque,2001.
31. Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,Stelzer,M.,Ockels,W.J.,Gill,E.,FirstMissionResultsoftheYES2Tethered
SpaceMailExperiment,AIAA20087385.
32. Kruijff, M., E.J. van der Heide, W.J. Ockels, Summary of Data Analysis of the YES2 Tethered SpaceMail
Experiment,ProceedingsoftheSPEXPSymposium,Samara,Russia,25September2008.
428
33. Lansdorp,B.,Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,MARSg:MannedAntecedentforArtificialGravity,IAC03IAA
10.1.05,Bremen,2003.
34. Lansdorp,B.,Kruijff,M.,Spacetethers:Readinstructionsbeforeuse,IAC06D4.3.02,Valencia,2006.
35. Ockels,W.J,Heide,E.J.vander,Kruijff,M.,SpaceMailandtethers,samplereturncapabilityforSpaceStation
Alpha,IAF95T.4.10,Oslo,1995.
36. Spiliotopoulos,I.,Kruijff,M.,Mirmont,M.,DevelopmentandFlightResultsofaPC104/QNXBasedOnBoard
ComputerandSoftwarefortheYES2TetherExperiment,SmallSatelliteSystemsandServices(4S)Symposium
Rhodes,2008.
FurthercoauthoredConferencePapers
37. Drakonakis,V.,Miaris,A.,Vavouliotis,A.,PatricioR.,KruijffM.,Kostopoulos,V.,ThermalModellingofESAs
SecondYoungEngineersSatellite,IAC06C2.2.09,Valencia,2006.
38. Fujii, H.A., e.a., A proposed baretether experiment on board a sounding rocket, 2nd IECEC, Rhode Island,
AIAA20045718.
39. Fujii,H.A.,e.a.,SpaceExperimentofBareTapeTetherTechnologyontheSoundingRocketS520the25th,ISTS
2008. Duplicated by Fujii, H.A.,, Heide, E.J. van der, Kruijff, M., BareElectricTether Experiment on a
Sounding Rocket, Proceedings of Astronautical Conference, 2829July 2008 at
ISAS/JAXA.
40. Hausmann, G., De Pascale, F., Kruijff, M., Mironov, M., Design, development and testing of a compact
lightweightcapsulerecoverysystem,IAC08D2.3.5,2008.
41. Heide, E.J. van der, Kruijff, M., Avanzini A., Liedtke, V., Karlovsky, A., Thermal Protection Testing of the
InflatableCapsuleforYES2,IAC03I.3.05,Bremen2003.
42. Hyslop,A.,e.a..,Designingamicrolauncherwithtetheredupperstage,IAC06D2.3.03,2006.
43. Hyslop,Heide,e.a.,ATetheredUpperStageforSmallLaunchersPreliminaryAnalysis,DesignandTest,2nd
EuropeanConferenceforAerospaceSciences(EUCASS),Brussels2007.
44. Lansdorp,B.,Soemers,H.M.J.R.,Heide,E.J.vander,Kruijff,M.,Designofahightensionelasticallydeforming
spacetetherdeployer,IAC04IAA3.8.2,Vancouver,2004.
45. Morel, Q., Hobbs, S., Kruijff, M.,Cranfields inherently safe reentry capsule design for YES2, IAC03U.1.07,
Bremen,2003.
46. Wijnans,A.S.,Zandbergen,B.T.C.,Kruijff,M.,Heide,E.J.vander,Bareelectrodynamictapetetherexperiment
onboardtheDelfi1universitysatellite,Proceedingsofthe4th International SpacecraftPropulsion Conference
(ESASP555).29June,2004,ChiaLaguna,Italy.
47. WilliamsP.,Stelzer,M.,Hyslop,A.,Kruijff,M.,Evolutionarycomputationoftetherdeploymenttrajectorieswith
applicationtoYES2,AAS07192,SpaceflightMechanicsVolume128,AAS,p.13511372,2007.
48. Williams,P.,Hyslop,A.,Kruijff,M.,DeploymentcontrolfortheYES2tetherassistedreentrymission,AAS05
322,AdvancesintheAstronauticalSciences,2006,Vol.123,Part2,pages11011120,duplicatedbyWilliams,P.,
Hyslop, A.,Kruijff, M., TrajectoryOptimisation and Feedback Control forthe YES2 TetherAssisted ReEntry
Mission,5thAustralianSpaceScienceConference,Melbourne,2005.
KeyPublicationsandTechnicalReports(selection)
49. Heide,E.J.vander,Kruijff,M.,StarTrack,aswingingtetherassistedreentryfortheInternationalSpaceStation,
ESA/ESTEC,WP1883,March1996.
50. Willekens, P., Dijk, A. van, Kruijff, M., Heide, E.J. van der, Young Engineers Satellite, Educational
DemonstrationofSpaceMail,ESAsonStationno.17,Aug.2004.
CurriculumVitae 429
CurriculumVitae
MichielKruijfisborninDenHelder,TheNetherlandson8May1973.Startingfrom1985,he
attendstheMurmelliusGymnasiuminAlkmaarandgraduatesCumLaudein1991.
MichielstartshisstudiesattheFacultyofAerospaceEngineeringattheDelftUniversityof
Technologyin1991.In1994,hejoinstheEuropeanSpaceResearchandTechnologyCentre
(ESTEC) in Noordwijk, The Netherlands for an internship related to lunar landing site
investigation. Here he meets his later colleague Erik Jan van der Heide, who is studying
spacetethers. Initially, Michielfinds tethers mainly appealingbecause thematerials used
areinterestingtoimprovewindsurfequipment.Soonhoweverheisstruckbytheelegance
ofthetetherandtheinterestingpeoplewithinthetethercommunity.HedecidestojoinErik
inhisresearchonaSwingingTetherAssistedReentryThroughRobustActivelyControlled
Kinetics (StarTrack). This becomes their joint Master thesis subject, under supervision of
Prof. Dr. Wubbo J. Ockels. In 1996, Michiel obtains his Masters degree Cum Laude in
AerospaceEngineering.
FollowinggraduationhejoinstheEuropeanSpaceAgencyasYoungGraduateTrainee,and
soonstartsacompanywithErik,DeltaUtecSpaceResearchandConsultancy,withtheaim
todevelopaspacetetherexperiment. InresponsetoachallengesetbyProf.Ockels,they
initiatethe YoungEngineers Satellite(YES)inOctober 1996.Theproject issupportedby
ESTECstaffandalargenumberofyoungengineers,aswellasbytetherpioneerJosephA.
Carroll from Tether Applications in San Diego. YES is launched in 1997 but the tether
experiment is not performed for safety reasons. Finally in 2007, following continued
developmentsinthefieldoftethers,DeltaUtecsucceedstodeploya32kmtetherinorbit,
withtheYES2experimentonboardFotonM3.Sincethen,Michielhasbeendocumenting
theexperimentsandresultsperformedovertheyears,inthecontextofthisPhDworkfor
thechairsofAeroSpaceforSustainableEngineeringandTechnology(ASSET),ledbyProf.
OckelsandSpaceSystemsEngineering(SSE),ledbyProf.Dr.E.K.A.Gill,bothattheFaculty
ofAerospaceEngineeringattheDelftUniversityofTechnology.
Currently, Michiel works as a Feasibility Studies Manager at the Integrated Application
PromotiongroupinESTEC.
430
Acknowledgments
Theworkreportedinthisthesishasbeenperformedbetween1996and2008,sincethenIhavebeen
mostlycompilingandrefreshingthe(nowoftenoutdated)papers.Theresultsincludea32kmtether
deploymentbytheYES2experimentand,indeed,thatdeployedlengthhappenedtoestablishaworld
record.Onceatetherdeployerisinspacehowever,deployingmanykilometersoftetherisnotalarge
achievement.TheYES2butalsomissionssuchasSEDS1andSEDS2couldhavejustaseasilydeployed
132km.Ihopethisthesishasmadeclearwhathasbeentheprimarytechnicalrelevanceandinterestof
theYES2deployment.
Yetforme,themostimportantdiscoveryhasbeensomethingthatishardlysufficientlycreditedinthis
thesis. Tether experiments have been the inspiration but not the heart or soul of the YES and YES2
projects. Ratherthetrueenableroftheprojectshasbeenthecreationofafeelingofbeingpartofan
extraordinary joint effort and progressing towards a common goal with exceptional determination.
After12yearsofworktofinallybringbackandanalyzedatafromatetherdeploymentinspace,whatI
havereallydiscoveredistheblessingoftrueteamspirit.
Over 500people have contributed to the activities and developments that led to the launch and
operationoftheYESandYES2experiments.Someofthemhaveworkedintenselyonthetethersystem
development itself. I hope they are appropriately credited in this work, be it as (co)authors in the
referencesorintheremainderofthissection.
RighthereandnowIneedhowevertomentionErikJanvanderHeide,mycolleagueatDeltaUtec,
who has put his whole self into our shared dream and who handled most of the contractual and
programmaticworkplusasignificantamountoftechnicalwork.IfearErikishalfthereasonthatthe
bookyouhaveinyourhandshasbecomesuchalongread.ThankstoLidy&Jeroen,myfriendMichan
andmywifeMaria,fortheirsupport.
Ithankmysupervisors.Prof.WubboOckelshasbeentheinspiratorbehindmuchofthiswork,hehas
providedthenecessarycontinuityandcontext.Prof.EberhardGillhashostedmeintheSpaceSystems
Engineering chair and provided me with both enthusiastic and constructive commentary and thus
safeguardedquality.NanaSaanehmustbecreditedforherpatienceandforkeepingtheadministrative
machinerolling.
As so many people have been involved in this work it may be necessary to define clearly my
contribution.GenerallyIhavetriedtorefertoexternalactivitiesoutsidethescopeofthisworkinthe
pasttense.TheotheractivitiesIhaveeitherbeenresponsiblefororatleastcontributedtosignificantly.
OverallmyrolehasbeenthatofLeadDesignerandSystemsEngineeroftheYESandYES2satellites,
andPrimeInvestigatoroftheYESandYES2tetherexperiments. IntheserolesroleIhaveinstructed,
guided, supported and supervised the approximately 100students and staff at DeltaUtec over the
years 19962007. I have been responsible for definition and coordination of all tether tests and
performed the full YES2 flight data analysis. Furthermore I performed a significant fraction of
preparatory tether tests and mission and data analyses referred to in this thesis, with the notable
exceptionsasdetailedinbelowacknowledgments.TotheTREXexperiment,aprojectledbyProf.H.A.
Fujii,Ihaveonlyparticipatedassystemengineeringadvisoranddesignreviewer.
Chapter 2. TheMTBSim/ETBSimhasbeendevelopedfromJoeCarrollsBeadSimby Erik and myself. The YESSim
extension includes a lot of contributions from my interns. This work owes to contributions from Marco Stelzer
(attitude,missionanalysistools),SilviaCalzada(reentrysimulator)andDr.AntonLyaskin(heatfluxmodels).
Chapter 3. StarTrack SpaceMail precedes this work, it is a joint effort of Erik and me, under supervision of Prof.
Ockels.TSerieshasbeenperformedforCNESmostlybyAndrewHyslopatDeltaUtec.Mycontributionislimitedto
Acknowledgments 431
taskdefinitionsupportandreviewandintegrationoftheresults.Thedebrismitigationandelectrodynamicdeboost
studieshavebeenperformedbyErikandmyselfjointly.Idevelopedtheriskanalysisapproachandperformedand
analyzedmanyofthesimulations.Thebaretetherasfailsafeconceptismyidea.TheplasmachambertestsatIFSI
CNRwereperformedandanalyzedforusbyF.deVenuto&G.Vannaroni.M.Dobrowolnyprovidedasneakpreview
intohisdynamicmodelsforcomparisonwithoursimulations.ThemultipointsensingoptionsaregeneratedbyJoe
Carroll,Erikandmyself.ThedebooststudywassupportedbyESAARCOPcontract14621/00/NL/MV.BasLansdorp
atDeltaUteccameupwiththerimspeedascriticalparameterfortheartificialgravitycomfortzone(notetherno
comfort). He also made many of the MARSg tradeoffs and designed the HELD deployer. The selfaccelerating
rotatingtetherforstabledeorbit(LeBRETON)ismyidea,AlexandervanDijkatDeltaUtecworkedoutalotthedetails
for the Jupiter case. Overall it has been a joint effort including also Erik and Prof. Juan Sanmartin, funded by
ESA/ESTECcontract17239/03/NL/HB.
Chapter4.ThankstoMartienJacobs,DaanTummers,JoyceKersjens,HansPlugatDSMHighPerformanceFibersand
for their advise on Dyneema and helpful discussions. All at ESTEC/QMC (Marc, Jacco, Andreas, Gerard, ...) &
AntonioAraujoforprovidingandoperatingthetestfacilitiesandalotofsupport.Prof.GuilletfortheE/COandMVK
samples. Pieter Gijsman at DSM research provided chemistry advice and performed the GPC and FTIR tests. The
degradabletetherstudywassupportedbyESAcontract13746/99/NL/MV.Andrew(breakstrength),IgorSheynikovat
DeltaUtec(damping,ripstitch)andCenterofExpertiseinReggioEmilia(stiffness)wereagreathelpwiththematerial
tests.Igoralsohelpedmewiththebarberpoletestinvacuum,performedattheSSAU.TheYES2CenterofExpertisein
SamarawasledbyIgorBelokonov.ChrisBlanksbydidtheFotontetherinteractionsimulations.JoepBreuercameup
withthePrusikknotidea,itprovedtobeColumbusegg.
Chapter5. TheRapunzeldeployerisabrainchildofManfredKrischkeandDieterSabath,builtbyWernerKastand
MarioKowalchykwithwhomErikandItesteditinzerog.TheYES2breadboardbarberpoleisdesignedbyCarlo
Menon at DeltaUtec, he also devised the conceptual tradeoffs. The YES2 flight hardware by the YES2 Center of
ExpertiseinPatrasandourstudentsinDeltaUtec.BradfordEngineeringmanufacturedit.MarcelvanSlogterenand
colleaguesattheESTECworkshophelpedoutalot.ThankstoKayserThredeandChristianKnueppeloftheTSEteam
fortheopportunitytodothedeploymenttestsandfortheTSEbreadboardlongtermloanafterwards.Ioftenthink
backofthe21daystaywithErikinatentinRostock.TSEwasanESAGSTPproject.Prof.FerdiHermannsattheYES2
CenterofExpertiseinRemagen/Krefeldisthesourceofthegreattextileindustryideasinwindingandunwindingrig.
Theserigsaretrulyanextensiveeffort,involvingmanyofHermannsstudents.Iammostindebtedtothebuildersof
thefirstversion:StefanZwick,JoergMalchus,ThomasBetz,DavidSchaefer,thebuildersofthesecondversion:Mario
TimmermannsandChristianCamps.AndrewagainhelpedalotandperformedmanyoftheYES2unwindingtests.
WeevenlivedtogetherinKrefeldforIdonotknowhowmanymonthstogetthesethingsrunningproperly.Iwas
particularlysupported with thelastbutnotleast improvements for thethirdand final version andlong nightsof
tetherwindingbyFlorianHellingandMarcoStelzer(anaceontheWindingmachineDeLuxe),atDeltaUtecand
ESTEC. Thanks to Marco again and Paul Williams for the help with the control algorithms. Mathieu Mirmont
programmedtheflightmodeloftheOBC(Iwasallowedtodoonlythebreadboard).IliasSpiliotopoulosandRafal
Graczyk programmed and built the flight stepper driver. The Chapter 5 early work and YES2 design phase were
mostlyfundedbyDeltaUtec.Thebrainstormphase,theCentersofExpertiseandtheflighthardwaredevelopment
werefundedbytheESAEducationOffice.
Chapter 6. I thank Erik, Prof. Ockels, the DeltaUtec students, the ESA staff, the ESA Young Graduates, Tether
Applications,ArthurC.Clarke,TNOandBradfordEngineeringfortheirhelp.ESA,NIVR&DeltaUtecfundedYES.
Chapter7. TheFLOYD,MASSandFotinohavebeendesigned,builtandtestedundermyleadwiththehelpof100
DeltaUtecinterns,andabout80otherstudentsatthe4YES2CentersofExpertise,inWarsawandscatteredelsewhere
aroundEurope.ThankstoFabioDePascale(theintegrationmanager)andallESAstaffthatsupportedus.Emxysin
Elche,Spainsupportedtheelectronicsdevelopment,aswellasBernardOuwehandandBradfordEngineering.
Chapter8.ThankstotheESAHumanSpaceflightmicrogravitydepartment,theESAEducationOfficeandTsSKBto
maketheYES2missionpossible,inparticularAntonioVergaandRuedegerReinhardfortheirgenuineinterest.Tom
andChristopheatRedShiftforprovidingtheexcellentDIMACdata.
Receivingdatafromyourownspaceexperimentisexhilarating,butthatjoyfulmomentmaynotbyitselfbalancethe
effortsthatneedstobeinvestedtogetitdone.Havingworkedwithsomanydedicatedyoungpeoplesoclosely,and
withasharedgoal,certainlydoes.