Medical Imaging [Unit I] Radiography Systems

MEDICAL IMAGING UNIT I RADIOGRAPHY SYSTEMS CHAPTER I BASIS OF DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY 1.1 GENERAL TYPES OF RADIOLOGY 1.1.1 PROJECTION (PLAIN) RADIOLOGY 1.1.2 FLUOROSCOPY 1.1.3 INTERVENTIONAL RADIOLOGY 1.1.4 CT SCANNING 1.1.5 ULTRASOUND 1.1.6 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 1.1.7 NUCLEAR MEDICINE CHAPTER II X-RAYS 2.1 PROPERTIES OF X RAYS 2.2 UNITS OF RADIATION 2.3 PRODUCTION OF X RAYS 2.4 X RAY TUBES 2.4.1 STATIONARY ANODE TUBES 2.4.1.1 CROOKS TUBE 2.4.1.2 COOLIDGE TUBE 2.4.2 ROTATING ANODE TUBE 2.4.3 MICRO FOCUS X RAY TUBES 2.5 DETECTORS 2.5.1 PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE 2.5.2 PHOTOSTIMULABLE PHOSPHORS (PSPS) 2.5.3 GEIGER COUNTER 2.5.4 SCINTILLATORS 2.5.5 IMAGE INTENSIFICATION 2.5.6 DIRECT SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 2.5.7 SCINTILLATOR PLUS SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS (INDIRECT DETECTION) 2.5.8 VISIBILITY TO THE HUMAN EYE 2.6 USES OF X-RAYS CHAPTER III X RAY MACHINE 3.1 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT OF AN X-RAY UNIT 3.1.1 THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND MAINS SUPPLY TO X-RAY EQUIPMENT 3.1.2 CONTROL OF KV 3.1.3 AN AUTO TRANS FORMER AS CONTROL OF K. V. 3.1.4 MAINS VOLTAGE COMPENSATOR (M.V.C.) 3.1.5 THE COMPONENTS AND CONTROLS IN X -RAY CIRCUIT 3.1.5.1 THE CONTROL UNIT 3.1.5.2 THE HIGH TENSION GENERATOR 3.1.5.3 H.T. CABLES 3.1.5.4 H.T. GENERATOR INTERIOR VIEW 3.1.5.5 H.T.G. CIRCUIT 3.1.5.6 FULL WAVE RECTIFIED AND HALF WAVE RECTIFIED 3.1.5.7 SINGLE PHASE GENERATORS 3.1.5.8 THREE PHASE GENERATORS 3.1.5.9 OTHER X-RAY GENERATORS 3.1.6 THE CONNECTION OF MORE THAN ONE TUBE TO THE GENERATOR OUTPUT 3.1.7 ANODE HEEL EFFECT 3.2 X-RAY TUBE FILAMENT CIRCUIT 3.2.1 VOLTAGE STABILIZER 3.2.2 SPACE CHARGE COMPENSATION 3.2.3 mA SELECTOR 3.2.4 FILAMENT TRANSFORMER 3.3 X RAY TUBE AND ITS ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS 3.3.1 X RAY TUBE 3.3.1.1 DESIGN OF A FIXED ANODE X-RAY TUBE ASSEMBLY 3.3.1.1.1 X RAY TUBE INSERT 01 01 01 01 02 02 03 04 04 06 07 07 08 10 11 11 12 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 23 23 25 25 25 27 29 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 38 43 45 46 47 48 48 49 50 51 51 52 52

Medical Imaging [Unit I] Radiography Systems

3.3.1.1.2 THE GLASS VESSEL (ENVELOPE) 3.3.1.1.3 X RAY TUBE HOUSING 3.3.1.1.4 X-RAY TUBE WINDOW (TUBE PORT) 3.3.1.1.5 USES OF FIXED ANODE X-RAY TUBE 3.3.1.2 ROTATING ANODE TUBE ASSEMBLY 3.3.1.2.1 X-RAY TUBE INSERT 3.3.1.2.2 X-RAY TUBE HOUSING (SHIELD) 3.3.1.2.3 X-RAY TUBE PORT (WINDOW) 3.3.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF X RAY TUBE 3.3.2.1 HIGH SPEED ROTATING ANODE TUBES 3.3.2.2 X RAY TUBES WITH HEAVY DUTY ANODES 3.3.2.3 STEEP ANGLE TARGET TUBES 3.3.2.4 BI-ANGULAR X-RAY TUBES 3.3.2.5 GRID TUBES 3.3.2.6 TUBES DESIGNED FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES 3.3.2.6.1 MAMMOGRAPHY TUBES 3.3.2.6.2 STEREOGRAPHY TUBES 3.3.2.6.3 METAL/ CERAMIC TUBES 3.3.2.6.4 TUBES WITH FORCED COOLING 3.4 EXPOSURE SWITCHING AND CONTROL OF EXPOSURE TIMES 3.4.1 EXPOSURE SWITCHING 3.4.1.1 PRIMARY SWITCHING 3.4.1.1.1 THE ELECTRO- MECHANICAL CONTACTOR 3.4.1.2 SOLID STATE SWITCHING 3.4.1.2.1 OPERATION OF A THYRISTOR AS A SWITCH 3.4.1.3 SECONDARY SWITCHING 3.4.1.3.1 TRIODE VALVE SWITCHING 3.4.2 THE CONTROL OF EXPOSURE TIME 3.4.2.1 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL TIMERS 3.4.2.1.1 SPRING OPERATED CLOCKWORK TIMERS 3.4.2.1.2 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR TIMERS 3.4.2.2 ELECTRONIC TIMERS 3.4.2.2.1 SIMPLE ELECTRONIC TIMER 3.4.2.2.2 mAS IMPULSE TIMER 3.4.2.2.3 AUTO-TIMERS 3.4.2.2.3.1 PHOTOELECTRIC TIMERS 3.4.2.3 PULSE COUNTING TIMERS 3.4.2.3.1 PULSE COUNTING CIRCUITS 3.4.2.3.2 QUARTZ CRYSTAL OSCILLATION 3.5 INTERACTION OF X-RAYS WITH THE BODY 3.5.1 THE EFFECT OF SCATTERED RADIATION ON THE CONTRAST OF THE RADIOGRAPH 3.5.2 THE CONTROL OF SCATTER 3.5.2.1 REDUCTION IN THE AMOUNT OF SCATTERED RADIATION PRODUCED 3.5.2.1.1 CLOSE COLLIMATION TO REDUCE EXTRA-FOCAL RADIATION 3.5.2.1.2 RESTRICTION IN THE AREA OF TISSUE IRRADIATED 3.5.2.1.3 CAREFUL SELECTION OF EXPOSURE FACTORS 3.5.2.2 REDUCING THE AMOUNT OF SCATTER REACHING THE FILM 3.5.2.2.1 BY MEANS OF AN ANTI-SCATTER -X-RAY GRID 3.5.2.2.2 BY MEANS OF AN AIR -GAP 3.5.2.2.3 A LOW ATTENUATING FILTER BETWEEN PATIENT AND FILM 3.5.2.2.4 BACK-SCATTER ABSORPTION 3.5.2.3 REDUCTION IN THE EFFECT OF THE SCATTER 3.6 NATURE OF THE X-RAY BEAM 3.6.1 X RAY INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION 3.6.2 EXTRA FOCAL (OFF-FOCUS) RADIATION 3.7 SAFETY DEVICES 3.7.1 FUSES 56 57 58 58 58 59 63 64 64 64 66 67 67 68 70 70 71 72 73 74 75 75 75 76 76 77 78 79 80 80 80 81 81 83 85 87 91 91 91 91 92 92 92 93 93 103 104 104 117 119 119 120 121 121 122 124 124

Medical Imaging [Unit I] Radiography Systems

SWITCHES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS 3.7.2.1 MAINS SUPPLY SWITCHES 3.7.2.2 MAGNETIC RELAYS 3.7.2.3 REED SWITCH 3.7.2.4 CIRCUIT BREAKERS 3.7.3 INTERLOCKING CIRCUITS: (I.L.C.) 3.7.3.1 INTERLOCK IN THE TUBE STATOR CIRCUIT 3.7.3.2 DELAY CIRCUIT WITH TUBE STATOR 3.7.3.3 OVERLOAD INTERLOCKS 3.8 RADIOGRAPHIC TABLES, CASSETTE/FILM HOLDERS 3.8.1 RADIOGRAPHIC TABLES 3.8.1.1 THE BASIC TABLE 3.8.1.2 THE TILTING TABLE 3.8.2 THE TILTING TABLE AS A FLUOROSCOPY TABLE 3.8.3 UNDER TABLE CASSETTELESS FILM UNITS 3.8.4 AUTOMATED CASSETTELESS CHEST UNIT 3.9 FLUOROSCOPY 3.9.1 X-RAY IMAGE INTENSIFIERS 3.9.2 CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES (CCD) 3.9.2.1 MOS CAPACITOR 3.9.2.2 SINGLE CCD CELL 3.9.2.3 CHARGE TRANSFER PROCESS 3.9.2.4 SCANNING FORMANTS 3.9.2.5 DEVICE ARCHITECTURES 3.9.2.6 SENSITIVITY 3.9.2.7 SPEED 3.9.3 FLAT-PANEL DETECTORS (FPD) 3.9.3.1 FLAT PANEL ARCHITECTURE 3.9.3.2 FLAT PANEL OPERATIONAL ADVANTAGES 3.9.4 PRODUCTION OF THE 'REAL TIME' FLUORESCENT IMAGE 3.9.4.1 THE SIMPLE FLUORESCENT SCREEN 3.9.4.2 THE IMAGE INTENSIFIER AND TV CHAIN 3.9.4.3 IMAGE INTENSIFICATION 3.9.4.4DETAILS OF THE DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF AN IMAGE INTENSIFIER 3.9.4.5 COUPLING OF THE IMAGE INTENSIFIER TO THE TV CAMERA 3.9.4.6 RECORDING OF THE INTENSIFIED FLUOROSCOPIC IMAGE 3.10 PORTABLE AND MOBILE UNITS 3.10.1 PORTABLE X-RAY UNITS 3.10.2 MOBILE X-RAY UNITS 3.10.3 MOBILE IMAGE INTENSIFIER UNITS CHAPTER IV DENTAL RADIOGRAPHY, MAMMOGRAPHY AND X-RAY FILMS 4.1 DENTAL RADIOGRAPHY 4.1.1 TYPES OF DENTAL X-RAYS 4.1.1.1 INTRAORAL RADIOGRAPHS 4.1.1.2 EXTRAORAL RADIOGRAPHS 4.1.2 DENTAL X-RAY COLLIMATION 4.2 MAMMOGRAPHY 4.2.1 DIAGNOSTIC MAMMOGRAPHY 4.2.2 LIMITATIONS OF MAMMOGRAPHY 4.3 X-RAY FILM 4.3.1 FILM PROCESSING 4.3.2 PHOTOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF X -RAY FILM 4.3.3 DRY LASER PRINTING CHAPTER V DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY, COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY AND DETECTOR QUANTUM EFFICIENCY (DQE) 5.1 DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 5.1.1 DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS 5.1.2 DIGITAL SUBTRACTION RADIOGRAPHY (DSA) 5.2 COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS 5.2.1 DIFFERENCES FROM DIRECT RADIOGRAPHY 5.2.2 IMAGING PLATE 3.7.2 125 125 125 126 126 126 126 127 128 128 128 128 130 131 132 133 133 134 135 135 136 136 137 139 139 139 139 141 143 144 145 146 147 147 154 159 165 166 166 167 172 172 173 173 174 175 175 176 178 178 179 180 182 184 184 185 186 187 188 188

Medical Imaging [Unit I] Radiography Systems

5.2.3 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 5.2.4 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS DETECTOR QUANTUM EFFICIENCY (DQE) DOSE OF X RAY AND SAFETY MEASURES X RAY DOSIMETRY ORGAN DOSE WEIGHTING FACTORS RADIATION WEIGHTING FACTORS DOSE VERSUS ACTIVITY MEASURING DOSE DOSE STANDARDS X RAY EXPOSURE LIMITS X RAY PROTECTION X-RAY SAFETY SAFETY PROCEDURES FUNDAMENTALS OF PACS DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY AND PACS PACS COMPONENTS PACS WORKFLOW CURRENT PACS ARCHITECTURES 188 189 190 194 194 194 195 195 195 195 196 198 200 202 204 205 205 209 210

5.3 CHAPTER VI 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 CHAPTER VII 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4