DigitalTelephony

WILEY IN SERIES TELECOMMUNICATIONS ANDSIGNAL PROCESSING

JohnG. hoakis. Editor Northeastem University
Introduction to Digital Mobil Communications Yoshihiko Akaiwa Digital Telephony, Sril Etlition John Bellamy E lements of I rfonuttion Theory Thomas M. Cover and Joy A, Thomas Fundame ntals of Telecommunicat ions Roger L. Freeman P ractic al Data Communicat ions Roger L. Freeman Radio SystemDesign for Telecommunications, Znd Edition Roger L. Freeman Telecommunication SystemEngineering, 3rd Edition Roger L. Frceman Telecommunications Transmission Handb ook, 4th Etlition Roger L. Frceman Introduction to Communications Engineering, 2nd Edition Robert M. Gagliardi Optital Communications, Znd Edition Robert M. Gagliardi and Sheman Ksxp Active Noise Control Systemt: Algorithm"s and DSP Implementations Sen M. Kuo and Dennis R. Morgan Mobile Communications Design Fundamentals, 2nd Edition William C, Y, Lee Expen SystemApplications for Telecommunications Jay Liebowitz Digital Signal Esilrndtion Robert J. Mammone, Editor Digital Communication Receivers: Synchronization, Channel Estimation, and Sigtnl Processing Heinrich Meyr, Marc Moeneclaey, afld Stefan A, Fechtel Synchronization in Digital Comntunications, Volume I Heinrich Meyr and Gerd Ascheid Business Earth Stationsfor Telecommunications Walter L. Morgan and Denis Rouffet Wirele ss I nfo rmat ion N etwo tk Kaveh Pahlavan and Allen H. lcvesque Satellite Communicationt: The First Quarter Century of Senice David W. E. Rees Fundamentals of TeIecommunicat fun N etw orks Tarek N. Saadawi, Mos'tafa Ammar, with Ahmed El Hakeem Meteor Burst Communicalions: Theory and Practice Donald L, Schilling, Editor Vector Space Projections: A Numerical Approar:h to Signal and Image Processing, Neural Nets, and, Optict: Henry Stark and Yongyi Yang Signaling in Telecommunitation Networl<s John C. van Bosse TeIecommunication C ircuit D esign Putrick D. van der Puije Worldwide Telecommunications Guide for the BusinessManager Walter H, Vignault Po lynomial Sigrwl P rocessing V. John Mathews and Ciovanni L. Sicuranza ADSL, VDSL, and Multicatier Modulation John A. C. Bineharn

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Telephony Digital
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This book is printed on acid-freepaper, Copyright@2000by JohnWiley & Sons,Inc, All rights reserved. Publishedsimultaneously Canada. in No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, storedin a retrieval systemor transmitted any form or in by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording,scurningor otherwise, exceptaspermit. ted by Sections107or 108of the 1976United States CopyrightAct, without eitherthe prior written permissionof the Publisher,or authorization thmughpaymentof the appropriate per-copylee to the copyrightclearance center,222Rosewood Drive,Donvers, 0t9?3, (s0g)7j0-g400,fax (50g)750_ MA 4?44.Requests the Publisherfor permission to shouldbe addressed the Permissions to Depaxtrnent, John wiley & sons,ftrc.,605Third Avenue, New york, Irry 10158-0012, (212)8s0-601l,fax (zl?) 8506008,E-Mail: PERMREQ@ WILEY.COM. For orderingandcustomer service,call I-800-CALL-WILEY. lihrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Puhlfuation Data: Bellamy, John,l94l* Digital telephony/ JohnBellamy.*3rd ed. p.cm,- (Wiley series t'elecornmunications signalprocessing) in and "A Wiley-Lrterscience publication." Includes index, ISBN0-471-34571-7 l. Digital telephone systems. Title. IL Series, I. TK5103.7.844 2000 6?1.385-dc2l 99-34015 Printedin the United Ststesof America 10987654321

To myfather for passingon the enioymentof being an engineer

CONTENTS
Preface Acknowledgment Acronyms / chapter 1 Background and Terminology
3 StandardOrganizations 1.1 Telecommunications 1.? TheAnalogNetworkHierarchY 5 HierarchY 6 1.2.I Bell SYstem U.S. I.2.2 Postdivestiture Network 10 L23 SwitchingSYstems 12 SYstems l8 I-2.4 Transmission "1.2.5 Pair-Gain SYstems24 1.2.6 FDM MultiplexingandModulation 26 Media 28 Transmission 1.2.7 Wideband Impairments 33 1.2.8 Transmission I'2.9 Powerkvels 4l 1.2.10 Signaling 42 1.2.11 AnalogInterfaces46 Network 49 1'Z.lZ TheIntelligent Routing 51 1.2.13 DynamicNonhierarchical System 52 I.2.14 CellularRadioTelephone DataTransmission 54 1.2.15 Voiceband of 1.3 TheInfioduction Digits 56 1.3.1 VoiceDigitization 56 I.3.2 Time DivisionMultiplexing 58
VII

xvll

xtx xxl

CONTENTS

1.3.3 Dataunder Voice 63 1.3.4 DigiralMicrowaveRadio ffi 1.3.5 FiberOpticTransmission 65 1.3.6 DigitalSwitching 65 1,.3.7 Digital NerworkEvolution 67 References69 Problems 7l Chapter 2 Why Dlgital? . 2.1 Advanrages Digital VoiceNetworks 7j of 2.1.1 Ease Multiplexing 7j of 2.1.2 Ease Signaling i4 of 2.1.3 Useof Modern Technology 75 2.1.4 Inregration Transmission Switching 77 of and 2.1.5 Signal Regenerarion 78 2.1.6 PerformanceMonitorability79 2.1.7 Accommodation OtherServices g0 of 2.1.8 Operability Low Signal-to-Noise/Interference at Ratios 80 2.1.9 Ease Encryption 8l of 2.2 Digital SignalProcessing 8l 2.2.1 DSPApplications Bz 2.3 Disadvantages Digital VoiceNetworks g4 of 2.3.1 Increased Bandwidth 84 2.3.2 Needfor Time Synchronization85 2.3.3 Topologically Resrricred Multiplexing g5 2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension Bridges g6 2.3.5 ftrcompatibilities AnalogFacilities g7 with References88 Chapter 3 Volce Digitizatlon Pulse AmplitudeModulation 93 3.1.1 Nyquist Sampling Rate 94 3.1.2 Foldover Distortion 95 3.2 Pulse CodeModulation 98 3.2.1 Quantization Noise 99 3.2.2 Idle Channel Noise l0Z pCM 103 3.2.3 Uniformly Encoded 3.I 91

73

CONTENTS iX

3.?.4 Companding 106 Coding 108 3.2.5 EasilyDigitally Linearizable 116 Companding 3.2.6 Syllabic 3.2.7 AdaptiveGainEncoding 119 Redundancie$121 3.3 Speech AmplitudeDistributions 122 3.3.1 Nonuniform I22 3.3.2 Sample-to-SampleCorrelation 122 3.3.3 Cycleto-CycleCorrelations Correlations 123 3.3.4 Pitch-Interval-to-Pitch-Interval 3.3.5 InactivityFactors 124 Densities IZ4 Specnal Long-Term 3.3.6 Nonuniform Densities 127 Spectral 3.3.7 Short-Term 3.4 Differential PulseCodeModulation 127 3.4.1 DPCM Implementations 129 3.4.2 HigherOrderPrediction l3l 3.4.3 AdaptiveDifferentialPCM 131 3.5 DeltaModulation 133 Overload 134 3.5.1 Slope Coding 136 3.6 AdaptivePredictive Coding 138 3.7 Subband 3.8 Vocoders 141 Vocoder 142 3.8.1 Channel Vocoder lM 3.8.2 Formant Coding 144 3.8.3 LinearPredictive Coding 147 LinearPredictive 3.8.4 Enhanced-Excitation 151 3.9 Encoder/DecoderSelectionConsiderations 3.9.1 VoiceQuality 151 for 3.9.2 Transparency NonvoiceSignals 152 Enors 153 of 3.9.3 Tolerance Transmission 3.9.4 Delay 154 3.10 ITU-T CodingStandards 154 References 155 Problems 158 Ghapter 4 Dlgital Tranemission and Multlplexing 4.1 Pulse Transmission 162 Intederence 164 4.1.1 Intersymbol 4.1.2 Timins Inaccuracies 164

161

CONTENTS

4.1.3 InsufficientBandwidthl& 4.1.4 AmplitudeDistortion 165 4.1.5 Phase Distortion 165 4.2 Asynchronous versus Synchronous Transmission 165 4.2,.1 AsynchronousTransmission 166 4.2.2 SynchronousTransmission I6i 4.3 Line Coding L7l 4.3.1 LevelEncoding L7I 4.3.2 BipolarCoding 173 4.3.3 Binary N-ZeroSubstirution 176 4.3.4 PairSelected Ternary L19 4.3.5 Ternary Coding 180 4.3.6 DigitalBiphase 181 4.3.7 DifferentialEncoding 183 4.3.8 Coded Mark Inversion 183 4.3.9 Multilevel Signaling 184 4.3.10 Partial-Response Signaling 185 4.4 Eror Performance 189 4.4.1 SignalDetection 190 4.4.2 NoisePower 190 4.4.3 Enor Probabilities191 4.5 PerformanceMonitoring198 4.5.1 Redundancy Checks 198 4.5.2 SignalQualityMeasurements201 4.5.3 FramingChannel Errors 203 4.5.4 Performance Objectives 2O3_ 4.5.5 ForwardErrorCorrection 2O4 4.6 Time DivisionMultiplexing 207 4.6.I Bit Interleaving ver$us Word Interleaving 208 4.6.2 Framing 209 4.6.3 DSI Extended Superframe Zl5 4.7 Time DivisionMultiplex LoopsandRings 216 References 219 Problems 221 Chapter 5 Digltal$witching 5.1 SwitchingFunctions ZZE 5.2 Space DivisionSwitching 227 5.2.1 Multiple-StageSwitching Z3O ZZs

CONTENTS

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

L.ee 5.2.2 BlockingProbabilities: Graphs 234 Jacobaeus238 5.2.3 BlockingProbabilities: 5.2.4 FoldedFour-WireSwitches 242 5.2.5 Pathf,rnding243 5.2.6 SwitchMatrix Control 24 Time Division Switching 246 5.3.1 AnalogTime DivisionSwitching 246 5.3.2 Digital Time Division Switching 247 Switching 251 Two-Dimensional 5.4.1 STSSwitching 255 5.4.2 TST Switching 257 5.4.3 No. 4 ESSToll Switch 262 75 5.4.4 System Digital PBX 264 Systems 265 Digital Cross-Connect and 5.5.1 Consolidation Segregation 267 5.5.2 DCSHierarchy 268 Equipment 269 Cross-Connect 5.5.3 Integrated in Digital Switching an AnalogEnvironment 27O

Switching 270 5.6.1 Zero-Loss 5.6.2 BORSCHT 272 5.6.3 Conferencing 272 References273 Problems 274

Chapter6 Dlgltal Modulatlon and Radlo Sy$tsms

6.1 Digital Modulation 279 6.1.1 AmplitudeModulation 280 Shift KeYing 284 6.1.2 Frequency 6.1.3 Phase ShiftKeying 288 AmplitudeModulation 30I 6.I.4 Quadrature Modulation 309 AmplitudeandPhase . 6.1.5 Carrierless 6.1.6 Partial-Response QAM 310 311 6.1.7 Trellis-CodedModulation 315 6.1.8 MulticarrierModulation 6.2 Filter Partitioning 317 3I7 6.2.1 Adjacent-Channellnterference 318 6.2.2 OptimumPartitioning Specifications 320 6.3 Emission

277

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coNTENTS 6.4 RadioSystern Design 322 6.4.1 Fade Margins jZZ 6.4.2 System Gain 323 6.4.3 Frequency Diversity 3.26 6.4.4 Space Diversity 327 6.4.5 Angle Diversity 327 6.4.6 AdaptiveEqualization 3ZB 6.4.7 RouteDesign 3ZB References 329 Problems 332

,,/ Chapter 7

Network Synchronization Controland Management 7.1 Timing 336 7.1.1 TimingRecovery: Phase-Locked Loop 336 7.1.2 ClockInsrabitity 337 7.I.3 Elastic Stores 339 j4Z 7.1.4 JitterMeasurements 7.2 7.1.5 Systematic Jitter 345 Timing Inaccuracies 346 7.2.1, Slips 346 7.2.2 AsynchronousMultiplexing 351 7.2.3 WaitingTimeJitter 359 NetworkSynchronization361 7.3.I Plesiochronous 362 7.3.2 Networkwide PulseStuffing 363 7.3.3 MutualSynchronization3M 7.3.4 NetworkMaster 364 7.3.5 Master-SlaveSynchronization 365 7.3.6 Packetization 366 7.3.7 NetworkTiming Performance Measurements366 U.S.NetworkSynchronization 370 7.4.1 Synchronization Regions 370 7.4.2 PrimaryReference Sources 372 7.4.3 1996AT&T Synchronization Architecrure j73 NetworkConhol 373 1.5.1 Hierarchical Synchronization Processes374 NetworkManagement 376

335

7.3

7.4

7.5 7.6

coNrENrs xlll Control 376 7.6.1 Routing '7.6.2 Flow Control 377 References380 Problems 382

-6apter I

Systems FiberOptlcTransmisslon
Ll Elements 386 System FiberOpticTransmission 8.1.I OpticalFiberFundamentals387 Transducers390 8.1.? Electrical-to-Optical 393 8.I.3 Optical-to-ElectricalTransducers for Line Codes FiberOpticTransmission 395 mBnBLine Codes 396 8.2.I Codes 399 8.2.2 Bit Insertion DivisionMultiplexing 401 Wavelength FiberSystem Design 403 and 8.4.1 FiberConnectors Splices 404 Switching 404 Protection 8.4.2 Gain 405 8.4.3 System SONET/SDH 406 Overview 408 8.5.1 SONETMultiplexing 409 8.5.2 SONETFrameFormats and Administration, 8.5.3 SONETOperations, Maintenance 4l I Justification 4I4 FramingandFrequency 8.5.4 Payload Virtual Tributaries 417 8.5.5 MaPPing 422 8.5.6 DS3PaYload MaPPing 423 8.5.7 E4 PaYIoad 8.5.8 SONETOPticalStandards 425 8.5.9 SONETNetworks 426 SONETRings 429 Ring 4Zg Path-Switched 8.6.1 Unidirectional Ring 43I Line-Switched 8.6.2 Bidirectional

383

8.2

8.3 8.4

8.5

8.6

References 433 Problems 434 Chapter I Digital Moblle Telephony Digital Cellular 437 9.1 NorthAmerican Format 438 9,1.1 D-AMPSTransmission 437

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coNTENTS 9.1.2 D-AMPSSpeech Coding 43l.9 9.1.3 D-AMPSControlChannel 439 9.1.4 D-AMPSError Conrrol 440 9.2 GlobalSystem Mobile Communications 44I for 9.2.1 GSM Channel Structure Ml 9.2.? GSM Speech Coding M3 ' 9.2.3 GSM Channel CodingandModulation 443 9.2.4 GSM Mobile Station 443 9.2.5 GSM Frequency Hopping 444 9.2.6 GSM ShortMessage Service 444 9.3 CodeDivisionMultiple-Access Cellular 444 9.3.1 CDMA Channel Establishment 445 9.3.2 CDMA MultipathTolerance MB 9.3.3 CDMA powerConhol M9 9.3.4 CDMA SoftHandoff 449 9.4 Personal Communication System 450 9.5 VolcePrivacyandAuthenticarion 450 9.6 Iridium 45I 9.7 TrunkedRadio 45? 9.8 CellularDigiralPacket Dara 453 References453 Problems 454

Chapter 10 Data and Asynchronous Transfer Mode Networks 10.I Message Switching 456 10.2 Packer Switching 458 10.2.1 Packet Formats 460 1O.2.2 StatisticalMultiplexing 461 IO-2.3 RoutingControl 46j 10.2.4 Flow Control 466 10.2.5 X..25 46e 10.2.6 Frame Relay 471 10.2.7 TCP/rP 473 10.3 Asynchronous Transfer ModeNetworks 474 10.3.1 ATM Cells 474 10.3.2 ATM Service Categories474 10.3.3 ATM Connections4i7

455

CONTENTS XV

10.3.4 ATM Switching 477 10.3.5 ATM Applications 484 Protocol Transport 490 10.4 Internet References 492 Problems 494 '/Chapter 11 Dlgital $ubscriber Accese I 1.I Digital Network 496 Integrated Services Architecture 497 11.1.1 ISDN BasicRateAccess 11.1.2 S/Tlnterface 499 I Ll.3 ISDN U Interface 501 Protocol 503 11.1.4 ISDN D Channel loops 503 Digital Subscriber High-Data*Rate Line 503 Digital Subscriber 11.2.1 Asymmetric 495

Il.2

rr.2.2 VDSL 507 11.3 Digital Loop CarrierSystems 507 Digital Inop CarrierSystems 507 I L3.1 Universal Digital Loop Carier Systems 508 11.3.2 lntegrated Digital Loop Carrier 1l .3.3 Next-Generation Systems 509 11.4 Fiberin theLooP 510 I L5 HYbridFiberCoaxSYstems 5l I Modems 512 I 1.6 Voiceband 11.6.1 PCMModems513 Service 515 II.7 Local MicrowaveDistribution Services 516 I1.8 DigitalSatellite 516 References Problems 5I7

/Cnapter tZ Traffic Analysis

12.1 Traffic Characterization520 12.1.1 ArrivalDiskibutions 5M 12.1.2 HoldingTime Distributions 527 12.2 LossSystems 530 12.2.1 LostCallsCleared 531 12.2.2 Lost CallsReturning 536 12.2.3 LostCallsHeld 539 12.2.4 Lost CallsCleared-Finite Sources 54I

519

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CoNTENTS 12.2.5 Lost CallsHeld-Finite Sources 544 12.3 NetworkBlockinghobabilities 547 12.3.I End-to-End Blockingprobabilities 549 I2.3.? Over{towTraffic 551 12.4 DelaySystems 552 12.4.1 Exponential Service Times 555 12,.4.2 Constant Service Times 559 . l?,.4.3 FiniteQueues 561 12.4.4 Tandem eueues 566 References 567 Problems 568

AppendlxA Derlvatlzation Equations of AppendixB Encodlng/Decodlng Algorlthmsfor segmgntedPcM Appendk G AnatyticFundamentals DigitalTransmisslon of AppendixD TrafficTabtes Gloseary Answersto Selected Problem* lndex

573
579

587 607 613 631 635

PREFACE
tefers in As mentioned the prefaceof the first two editions,the termdigffaI telephony netpath of voice communications in to the useof digital technology the message the of to the works.In thiscase tetmdlgital refers a method encoding signal-that is, and impliesvoicetransmission switchdigitaltelephony Hence a form of modulation. Althoughthe primaryfocusof this book not ing applications, datacommunications. of treatment datacoman this is not datacommunicafions, editioncontains expanded as particularly theyrelateto providingvoicecommunications networks, munications in services additionto datacommunications. and technology netof all This bookcovers aspects digitalvoicecommunications of sense communications analytical bookin thetraditional, works.It is not a technical available, theoryarealready communications numerous bookscovering theory.Since system of aspects communications and the this book stresses application operational in design.Somebasictheoryis presented both qualitativeand, when appropriate, terminology, concepts, is however, to introduce terms. mainputpose, The quantitative are the [n implementations. mostcases concepts supinfluence andhow applications exalthough network, in implementations theU.S.telephone ported citingexample by are networks alsoprovided' amples from other(ITU) publictelephone The electricalengineers. electrical for Theprimaryaudience this book aregraduate to references corffnuoccasional ofappreciating is student mostcapable engineering rigor analytical because However, on theoryandits influence the practice. nications should readers oriented less descriptions, analytically is waivedin favorofoperational digitalradioand 6 Chapter (covering the haveno difficulty understanding principles. withoutlosingcontinuityfor but is modulation) the mostanalytical is easilyskipped numerous contains trafficanalysis) 12 Similarly,Chapter (covering theotherchapters. the for that equations areunneces$ary understanding materialin otherchapters. was Whenthe first editionof Digital Telephony written (1980)'public telephone but technology, with analog the networks around world wereprimmily implemented edition was it wasclearthatdigitaltechnology rapidlytakingover'Whenthe second waswritten (1990),the inlemalportionsof the networkhad,for the mostpart,been of to converted an all-digitalnetwork.Thenandtoday(1999)the mainremnants the xvll

xviii

PREFAcE

original analogtelephonenetworks are analog subscriberloops and analog telephones connectedto them. Although Integrated services Digital Nerwork (ISDN) technology was developed as a means of replacing analog loops to complete the transformation of the network to suppofi end-to-end digital connections,ISDN deployment is below expectationsfor severalreasons.One of thesereasonsis a growing needformore bandwidth than what is available from a basic rate IsDN subscriberloop (128 kbps). There is currenrly much activity within the industry to develop new technologiesfor medium- and highbandwidth digital subscriberaccess.A new chapter (chapter l1) has been added to this edition to specifically addressalternative technologiesfor digital subscriberacCESS.

Anotherrelativelyrecentapplicationof digital technology addedto this edition involvesdigital cellulartelephones, which first appeared the marketplace the in in mid-1990s. Digital mobileradio is enabled the emergence low-cost, by of highperformance digitalsignalprocessing (DSp)technology compressing for speech signals to low bit rates and for providing sophisticated coding, modulation,and equalization required digitalradios a bandwidth,constrained for in mobileapplication. A complete of chapter list topicsis; chapterl: overview of analog telephone technology followedby an inhoduction of how digitaltechnology usedro fulfrll the same is functions chapter2; Discussion advantages disadvantages digital technology of and of for voicecommunications chapter3: Descriptions themostcomrnon of voicedigitization algorithms chapter4: Fundamenral$ digiralwire-linerransmission multiplexing of and chapter5: Basicconcepts operations digital switching and of machines Chapter Digital modulation radiofundamentals 6: and chapter 7; Network synchronization, control, andmanagement requirements Chapter Fiberoptictransmission 8: systems SONET and Chapter Digital cellulartelephone 9: systems Chapter Datanetworks l0: Chapter Digital subscriber 1l: access technology Chapter Fundamentals traffic analysis designing 12: of for networks pcM voicecodingrelationships, Theappendices coverthederivation ofequations, fundamentals digitalcommunications of theory,andtraffic tables.
JoruqC. BeLLnr4y

Coppell,Tems October1999 j ohnc eIlamy@ieee.org b

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Once again I am indebted to Wanda Fox and Alcatel USA for allowing me accessto the corporate library for researchmaterials for this edition. I also owe a great deal of gratitude to Gerald Mitchell of the University of Colorado for thoroughly reviewing and enhancing the last chapter on traffic theory'

J.B,

xlx

ACRONYMS
AAL ABR ACD ACK ADM ADPCM AIN AMPS ANI APC APON ARPANET ARQ ATM ATPC BSZS BER BISDN BLSR CAC CAP CAS CBR layer ATM adaptation available rate bit automaticcall distributor (Positive) acknowledgment adaptivedeltamodulation;add-dropmultiplexer adaptivedifferentialPCM network intelligent advanced mobilephonesYstem advanced automaticnumberidentification adaptivepredictivecoding passive opticalnetwork ATM based projectsagencynetwork research advanced repeatrequest automatic mode transfer asynchronous adaptivetransmitpowercontrol binary8 zerosubstitution bit-enor rate digital network integratedservices broadband bidirectionalline switchedring admission control connection modulation amplitude/phase provider;carrierless access competitive signaling channel associated bit constant rate(AfUl capability clearchannel interoffice signaling coilrmoncharurel ConsultativeCommitteefor IntemationalTelephonyand Telegraphy (now tTU) hundred seconds call signaling; channel cornmon codedivisionmultipleaccess communitydial office cellular digital packetdata(for AMPS networks)

ccc

CCIS

ccn"T
CCS CDMA CDO CDPD

xxll

AcHoNyMS

CELP codeexcitedlinearprediction CES circuitemulation (ATM) service CGSA CellularGeographic Service Area CLASS cu$tom local areasignaling services CLEC competitivelocal exchange carrier CLP cell losspriority (ATM) CMI coded markinversion CODEC CODer/DECoder CPFSK continuous phase frequency shift keying CRC cyclicredundancycheck CSMA/CD carriersense multipleaccess/collision detection CSU channelserviceunit CTD cell kansferdelay CTI computertelephonyintegration D-AMPS digitaladvanced mobilephoneservice DAVIC digitalaudiovideocouncil DBS directbroadcast satellite DCM digitalcircuitmultiplication DCME digitalcircuitmultiplicationequipment DECT digitalenhanced cordless telephony DFE decisionfeedback equalization DID direct inward dialing DLC digital loop carrier DM deltamodulation; degraded minute DMT discretemultitone DNIS dialednumber identification service DPCM pulsecodemodulation differential DQDB queue distributed dualbus DSI digital signallevel I at 1.544 Mbps DS3 digitalsignal level3 at,14.736 Mbps DSI digital speech interpolation DSS digital satellite system DTE dataterminalequipment DTMF dualtonemulrifrequency (signaling tones) DVB digital video broadcasting group DVD digitalvideodisc El European digital signallevel I at ?.048Mbps E3 European digital signallevel 3 at 34.368 Mbps ECMA EuropeanComputerManufacturersAssociation EMI elechomagnetic interference ERMES enhanced radiomessage system ESF extended superframe ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute FDDI fiber dishibuteddatainrerchange

ACRONYMS XXIii

FDM FEC FEXT FIFO FRAD FSK FTTC FTTH GPS GSM HDB3 HDLC HIPPI HTTP IDLC IEC IETF ILEC IMT IP ISDN ISI ISO ITU M JPEG LAN LATA LD-CELP LEC LMDS MAN MCM MLCM MMDS MPEG MPLS MSK MTIE MTSO MULDEM NAK NCP NEXT

divisionmultiplexing frequency forward error correction far end crosstalk first in-first out device framerelayaccess shiftkeying frequency fiber to the curb fiber to the home sYstem globalpositioning for globalsystem mobilecommunications high density bipolarof order3 high-leveldatalink control parallelinterface high performance hypertexttransportprotocol integrated digital loop carrier Commission Electrotechnical International taskforce engineering internet carrier incumbentlocal exchange mobiletelecommunications international internetProtocol digitalnetwork integrated services interference intersymbol Organization Standards Intemational Union Telecommunications International voiceresPonse interactive Experts Group JointPhotographic network local area transPoflarea local access CELP low-delay carrier local exchange service distribution local microwave metropolitanareanetwork multicarriermodulation modulation multilevelcoded multichannelmultipointdistributionservice Experts Group Motion Pictures labelswitching multiprotocol minimumshift keYing maximumtime interval enor office switching mobiletelephone multiplexer-demultiplexer (negative) acknowledgment networkcontrolpoint;networkcontrolprotocol(ARPANET) nearendcrosstalk

XXIV

ACRONYMS

NMT NNI NRZ OFDM OSI PABX PAM PBX PCM PCME PCR PCS PDC PDH PHS PLL PON POTS PRC PRK PRS PSK PSTN PVC Qos QPRS QPSK RADSL RCC SDH SDLC SES SF SIM SLIC SMDS SMR SMS SNMP SOHO SONET SRTS S57 STM

Nordicmobiletelephone system network*to-networknterface i nonreturnto zero orthogonal frequency divisionmultiplexing opensystems interconnection privateautomatic branch (alsopBX) exchange pulseamplitude modulation privatebranchexchange pulsecodemodulation packet circuitmultiplication equipment peakcell rate (ATM) personal communication (or system service) personal digitalcellular(Japan) plesiochronous digitalhierarchy personal handyphone sy$tem (Japan) phase lockedloop passive opticalnetwork plainold telephone service primary reference clock phase reversal keying partialresponse primaryreference signaling; source phase shift keying publicswitched telephone network permanent virtual circuit qualityof service quadrature partialresponse signaling quaternary phase shift keying(4-PSK) rateadaptive digital subscriber loop radio commoncarrier synchronous digitalhierarchy synchronous link control data severely errored seconds superframe Subscriber Identification Module(GSM) subscriber interface loop circuit switched multimegabit dataservice specialized mobileradio shortmessage service simplenetworkmanagement protocol small office/homeoffice synchronous opticalnetwork synchronous residual time stamp signaling system version 7 synchronous transfermode

ACRONYMS

XXV

STS STS-n SVC TI T3 TACS TASI TCM TCPAP TDM TDMA TETRA TMN TST UBR UDP UI UMTS UM UPSR URL UTP VBR VCC VCI VPC VPCI WAN WATS

digital switchingstructure space-time-space signal-n transport synchronous virnralcircuit switched Mbps at system 1.544 TDM transmission at system 44'736Mbps TDM hansmission system communications total access interpolation speecb time assignment modulation trelli$coded protocol controlprotocol/internet transmission time divisionmultiPlexing time divisionmultipleaccess trunkedradio Trans-European Network Management Telecommunications digital switching$tructure time-space-time bit unspecified rate Userdatagram Protocol unit interval service mobiletelephone universal interface user-to-network ring pathswitched unidirectional locator resource universal twistedpair unshielded variablebit rate connection virtual channel virtual channelidentifier virtualpathconnection identifier virtual pathconnection network wide area services wide areatelecommunications

1
AND BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY
the and in telecommunicationstheUnitedStates around world in Beginning the1960s, First, the conventional differentareas' in changes several radical Uefanundergoing networkwas being calledupon to provide many new and different *ulog telephone the industry'Second, marfrom thedataprocessing mostof whichemanated services. in competition stimulated in agencies the United States and ketplace the regulatory Third, digitaltechnolservices. monopolistic of both old andnew areas traditionally funcand transmission switching manyof thefundamental to ogyemerged implement networkand othernetworksaroundthe world' The tions wittrin ttreU.S. telephone asand application, operational the of main purpose this book is to describe design, teleof the As background, technology theanalog pects tfis newdigitalequipment. of of phonenetworkis reviewedto provide a frameworkfor the introduction digital equipment. into of that limust beemphasized theintroduction digitaltechnology thetelephone and improvethe quality,addnew features, reto by networkwasmotivated desires Digitizationofthe networkdid notarise services. voice ofconventional ducethecosts services' industryfor betterdatahansmission of from the needs the dataprocessing into introduced thenetworkwasinitially inacmostof thedigitaltechnology Indeed, a channels' course, digitalnetwork Of throughanalog to cessible datafiaffic, except As services. moreof the network for is a naturalenvironment datacommunications for available data for morertupport directuseof thefacilitiesbecame digitized, became busionly for relativelyhigh-end exi$ted Initially, directdigital access applications. Digital Network Services the facilitiesrof Integrated It ness applications. wasnot until by couldbe used digitalchannels (ISDtiibecameavailable end-to-end{switched that otherapnumerous ny tfrelate 1990s for individualsubscribers bothvoiceand'datp,l primarilyfor available, to proaches providingdigitalaccess digitalfacilitiesbecame ro 1l' in are technologies described Chapter various digitalaccess These Intemetaccess. to hasbeen included showthattheidea Figurel. I reference, a .A$ pointof historical inof a voiceanddatais not new.This figuredepicts concept a German of integrated to the prevailingmeans Phillip Reis [1] to addvoicecommunications ventornamed the Reisdeveloped equipat communications the time-the telegraph' of electrical Bell reGraharn yearsbeforeAlexander ment in tfie 1860sanddied in 1874-two

BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

ceived his patentfor the telephone.As indicated,the figure implies altemateuseof the wires for voice or data cornmunications(i.e., integratedtransmission).Reis actually used the telegraphattachmentto signal infbrmation pertaining to voice tests,an indication of inadequatevoice quality. To implement simultaneousvoice and telegraphcommunications,the telephonein Figure 1.1 would have to have been digital. Becauseof technology limitations at the time, such an implementation was impossible and telephone systems necessarily evolved with analog technology. one hundred years later the situation chrurgedsignificantly. Telephoneequipment developersand service providers had an abundance of new technology, and they were challengedwith how to make effective use of it. This book describesdigital telephonetechnology from two perspectives. The first perspectivedescribesindividual equipmentsor subsystems and technical reasonsfor transitions from conventional analog equipment to seemingly less natural digital counterparts. Thus, one purposeofthis book is to describehow digital technology improves and expandsthe capabilitiesof various subsystems within voice telephonenetworks' Another purposeof the book is to describethe ultimate benefits derived when an entire network is implementedwith digital techniques.A greatdegreeof synergism exists when individual systemsare designedinto one cohesivenetwork utilizing aigital implementations throughout. The synergistic effect benefits conventional voice servicesand newer $ervicessuch as ttre in-G:iiiei.

Flgure 1.1 Back to the future: the first integratedvoice/data communication $vstem.

1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONSSTANDAHDORGANIZATIONS3

Most of the equipment descriptions urd design examples presentedin this book come from material authoredby engineersat AT&T Laboratories(now Lucent Technologies) and other suppliersfor the public telephonenetwork. The basic principles, however, are by no meansunique to the public telephonenetwork. The conceptsand implementation examples are applicable to any communications network: public or private, voice or data.An inherent attribute of a digital network is that it can,to a large extent, be designedindependentlyof its application. Terminals, Transmiesion, and Swttchlng The three basic elements of a communications network are terminals, tran$mission systems,and switches.The first part of this chapterprovides an overview of theseelements as implementedin analogtelephonenetworks. Then, the last part of this chapter provides a,lrief overview of digital implementationswithin the analog network. Following a detailed discussionof the motivation for digital implementationsin Chapter 2, the next four chaptersdescribethe operation and design of the basic elementsof a digital voice tetminals and the most comdigital voice network. Chapter 3 discusses mon algorithms used to convert analog voice signals into digital bit streams.Chapter 4 presentsthe basicsof digital transmissionsy$tems.Fundamentalsof digital switching follow in Chapter 5. Basic digital modulation techniquesand their application to point-to-point digital microwave and digital cellular systemsare describedin Chapter 6. A discussionof various synchronizationand control considerationsfor digital networks is provided in Chapter 7. Chapter I describesfiber optic transmissionsystems the and the synchronousmultiplexing stiurdard(SONET)' Chapter 9 discusses basic the United architectureand operation of prevailing digital cellular $ystemsin use in Statesand around the world. The main emphasisof the first nine chaptersinvolves circuit switching astraditionally implementedfor voice telephonenetworks.A circuit-switched network is onp_that to assignsa completeend-to-endconnectionin response eachrequestfor service\Each network facilities, is held for the duration of the'call. ) connection, with its asrrociated Chapter l0 describesa different type ofnetwork, generically referred to as a packetswitched network, that is particularly suitedto servicing datatraffic. Included in Chapter 10 is a discussion of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), a form of a various technologiesand systemsfor packet-switchednetwork. Chapter 1l discusses to achieving direct digital access a digital network (voice or data).The last chapterpresentsthe basicsof Faffic theory: the fundamentalmathematicsfor analyzing and predicting telecommunicationsnetwork performance.

ORGANIZATIONS STANDARD 1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS standl, telecommunications on of Prior thebreakup theBellSystem January 1984, to
ards in North America were essentially establishedby the dominant equipment designer and supplier to the Bell System: Bell Telephone Laboratories and Westem Electric. Independenttelephonecompaniesthat provided local service to the 207oof the country not coveredby the Bell Systemrelied on the U'S. IndependentTelephone

encxcRouNDANDTEHMINoLOGY

Association to [usITA; larerreferred asrheu.s. Telephone (usTA)] to Association formulateand disseminate particularlyfor interconnecting standards, with the Bell System. In anticipationof the divestitureof the RegionalBell operating companies (RBocs) from AT&T, the Exchange carriers standards (ECSA) was Association formedin 1983as a nonprofittradeassociation represent interests all exto the of change carriers(RBocs and independents). Februarylgg4 the ECSA sponsored In the establishment the Tl standards of committee formulatenew interconnection to standards theu.s. national for network. Tl commiftee accredited theAmeriThe is by can NationalStandards Institute(ANSD to ensure that standards approvals follow principles openness. Tl committee of Thus standards designated ANSI Tl.nnnare as date(T I stands Telecommunications for standards entitynumberI ). TableI . I liststhe majorsubcommittees within Tl andtherespective responsibilities. Otherorganizations North Americathat establish in standards related telecomto munications theElecffonic are Industries (EIA), theInstitute Electrical Association of and ElectronicEngineers (IEEE), and Bell communicarion$ (Bellcore). Research Bellcorewasan organization chartered establish to standards qualify equipment and for the RBOCs.Bellcorehassincebeenreorganized Telcordia as Technologies. The IEEE is mostknownfor its datacommunications standards listedin Table1.2but has alsoestablished numerous standards measuring characterizing for and telecommunications eguipment. Most of the world outside North Americarelieson international of telecommunications $tandards committees e$tablished undertheauspices theInternational of Telecommunication union (ITU). In the past,two major entitieswithin the ITu were established: InternationalTelegraphand TelephoneConsultativecommittee the (ccITT) andtheInternarional Radioconsultative committee(ccIR). ccITT establishedrecommendations telephone, for telegraph, datatransmission and circuitsand equipment. ccIR was concerned with coordinating useof the radio specrrum. the CCITT andCCIR activitiesareno longeridentifiedasbeingdistinctfrom the ITU. ccITT hasbecome ITU-T andccIR is now ITU-R. In the united states. of the use radiospectrum controlled theFederal is by communications (FCC). comrnission North Americanstandards ITU standards and haveoften beenincompatiblein the past.Notth Americanstandards established theBell System by weretherefore incorTABLE1.1 T1 StandardsSubcommltteee Committee T1A1 T1E1 T1M1 T1P1 T1S1 T1X1 Responsibility Performance signal processing and powerandprotection networks Interfaces, for Internetwork operations, administration, maintenance, provisioning (IOAM&p) and Wireless/mobile services sy$lems and Services, architeclures, signaling and Digital hierarchy synchronization and

HIERARCHY NETWORK 1.2 THE ANALOG Data Area Nstwork(LAN/MAN) TABLE1.2 IEEELocal Arsa NetworldMetropolltan 'Cbmmun lcstionsStandards 802"1 802.2 802.3 802.4 802.5 802.6 802.7 802.8 802.9 802.10 80e.11 802:12 802.14 LAN(VLAN) Virtual bridged Bridging, and Overview Architecture, (LLC) Logical Control Link (cD) Detection (Ethernet) (csMA)withcollision Access carriersenseMultiple TokenBus(Arcnet) Token Ring(lBMBing) (QPSX) Exchange Synchronous Packet Queued Broadband Technologies Optical Fiber Seryices Integrated Security Wireless Demand Priority Cable TV

Due to the needfor moreinternaas porated into CCITT recommendations a subset. now and the iional compatibility, T1 subcommittees ITU-T committees work closely of joint standards. first major example thejoint effort is the A to establish together refenedto as SONET in the systems fiber transmission for standard synchronous (sDH) in ITU-T standards. Digital Hierarchy united statesandsynchronous with standards (ISO) is an organization Organization Standards The International someof which involvetelecommunicamatters, in activities a wide rangeof subject within ISo work closelywith ITU studygroupsin tions.Technicalsubcommittees that to thoserelated ISDN protocols particularly ITU recommendations, formulating for OpenSysstandald to adhere, muchaspossible, theISO datacommunications as Model. (OSI)Reference Interconnection tems

1.2 THE ANALOG NETWORKHIERARCHY of networlLs theworld evolvedovera periodof almost telephone the Because analog also implementations developed' of a 100years, greatarnount diversityin equipment couldaccomlike that achievement vastnetworks, theU.S' network, It is a remarkable In typesandfunctionproperly. 1980-in theunited modate myriadof equipment the all [2], therewere181million telephones almost of whichcoulddirectly States alone. This achievenumberandhavea goodqualityconnection' dial anypublictelephone hierfunctional and interfaces well-defined by mentwa$madepossible standardized to adhered the installed,it necessarily was archies.As newer digital equipment
*Although 1980 is there is no specific date at which digital technology took over from analog.technology, repfesents the time frame in which fiber optics emerged to begin displacing analog significant in that it portions of the rirlios for intercity transmission, the last stronghold of analog technology in the intemal public network.

BecxcRouNDANDTERMtNoLocy

standardized practicesof the analog network. The fact that the equipment was implemented with digital technology was transparentto the rest of the network.

1.2.1 BellSystemHierarchy
apparent,however, ttrat the telephonewas of little use without some meansof changing connections on an "a$-needed"basis. Thus the flrst switching office was established in New Haven, connecticut, only two years later. This switching office, and othersfollowing, was locatedat a central point in a serviceareaand provided switched connectionsfor all subscribers the area.Becauseof their locations in the servicearin eas,the$eswitching offices are often referred to as cenffal offices. As telephoneusage grew and subscribersdesired longer distance connections,it becamenece$sary interconnectthe individual serviceareaswith trunks betweenthe to central offices. Again, switches were neededto interconnecttheseoffices, and a second level of switching evolved. Continued demandfor even longer distanceconnections, along with improved long-distancetransmissionfacilities, stimulatedevenmore levels of switching. In this manner the analog public telephonenetwork in the United states evolved to a total of five levels. Theselevels are listed in Table I .3. At the lowest level of the network are class5 switching offices, also called central offices (cos) or end offices (Eos). The next level of the network was composedof class4 toll offices. The toll network of the Bell Systemcontainedthree more levels of switching: primary centers,sectionalcenters,and regional centers. To illushate the structure and motivation for hierarchical networks, a symbolic, three*levelexample is shown in Figure 1.2. In contrast,Figure 1.3 depicts a different network structurefor interconnectingall of the firstlevel switches;a fully connected mesh structure. obviously, the hierarchical network requires more switching nodes but achievessignificant savings in the number of trunks; the transmission links between switching offices. Detetmination of the total number of trunk circuits in either network is necessarilya function of the amount of traffic betweeneachpair of switching nodes.(Chapter 12 provides the mathematicsfor determining the number of trunk circuits.) As a first approximation, the trunk costsof a mesh can be determinedas the total number of connections(trunk groups) N" between switching off,rces: TABLE 1.3 PubticNetworkHierarchyot the Bell $ystem (1gSA) tgl
SwitchClass
I

Alexander Graham invented firstpractical Bell the telephone 1876. soon in It became

Functional Designation Regional center Sectional center Primary center Tollcenter Endoffice

No. in Bell System

No. in lndependents

Total 10 67 168 933 18,803

2
Q

10 52 148 508 9803

0 0 20 425 9000

HIERAHCHY 7 NETWORK 1.2 THEANALOG

l) N"=+N(N-

(l'1)

whereN is thenumberof nodes. to aS Thusthe meshnetworkof Figure1.3has36 connections' compared 12conof comparison the of in nections Figure1.2.In the case fiber optictransmission cost

hierarchy. switching Figure 1.2 Three-level

network. Flgure 1.3 Mesh-connected

BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY AND

the trunks is almost exactly 3 ; I becausea single fiber systemcan provide more voice capacity than is neededbetweenany two switches. A lessobvious difference betweenthe networks of Figures 1.2 and 1.3 involves the method of establishingconnectionsbetweentwo offices. In the hierarchical network thereis one and only one route betweenany two switching nodes.[n the meshnetwork most connectionswould be establishedon the direct route between the two offices. However, if the direct route is unavailable (becauseof a traffic overload or an equipment failure) and the first-level switches can provide trunkto-funk connections (called tandemswitching functions), the mesh network provides many altemativesfor establishingconnectionsbetween any two nodes.Hence the reliability of a network architecturemust be consideredin addition to just the costs.In general,neither a pure mesh nor a purely hierarchical network is desirable. Taking these factors into account, Figure 1.4 depicts alternate routing as implemented in the former Bell System.As indicated, the basic backbonehierarchical network was augmentedwith high-usagetrunks. High-usage trunks are used for direct connectionsbetween switching offices with high volumes of interoffice traffic. Normally, traffic betweentwo suchoffices is routed through the direct trunks. If the direct trunks are busy (which may happenfrequently if they are highly utilized), the backbone hierarchical network is still available for alternaterouting. Traffic was always routed through the lowest available level of the network. This procedurenot only usedfewer network facilities but also implied better circuit quality becauseof shorterpaths and fewer switching points. Figure 1.4 showsthe basic order of selection for alternateroutes. The direct interoffice trunks are depicted as dashed lines, while the backbone,hierarchical network is shown with solid lines.

):*;;;
-t-t,F,

\\\\\\\
I

l;:;----

I f

Figure 1.4 Altemate routingin North American network.

1,2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY

In addition to the high-usagetrunks, the backbone network was also augmented with additional switching facilities called tandem switches.These switcheswere employed at the lowest levels of the network and provided switching betweenend offices. Tandem switcheswere not pafr of the toll network, as indicatedin Figure I .5, but were (and are) pafr of what is referred to as an exchangearea.Generally speaking,an exchangeareais an area within which all calls are consideredto be local calls (i.e., toll free). Il generalterms, any switching machine in a path betweentwo end offices provides a tandem switching function. Thus toll switchesalso provide tandem switching functions. Within the public telephonenetwork, however, the term tandem refers specifically to intermediateswitching within the exchangearea' The basic function of a tandem office is to interconnectthose central offices within an exchange area having insufficient interoffice fiaffic volumes to justify direct trunks. Tandem offices also provide alternateroutes fbr exchangeareacalls that get blocked on direct routesbetweenend offices. Although Figure 1.5 depictstandem offices as being physically distinct from end offices and toll offices, tandem switches were often colocatedwith either or both types.Operationally, exchangeareaswitching The primary reaand toll network switching in the Bell systemwere always separated. son for the separationwa$ to simplify tandem switching by avoiding billing and network routing. A toll switch had to measurecall duration for billing purposesbut a tandem switch did not. Prior to the introduction of computer-controlled switching, billing functions were a significant consideration.The operationalseparationalso imfrom tandem trunk groups. The plied that toll-connecting trunk groups were separate has eliminated the need for the separaflexibility of computer-controlled switching tion. The separation of exchange facilities from toll facilities had an important effect on the transmissionand switching equipment utilized in the respectiveapplications.Exchangeareaconnectionswere usually short and only involved a few switching offices. Toll connections,on the other hand, coulcl involve numerous switching offices with
Toll netrrvork

Tandom office Di.ct trunk

area Figure 1.5 Exchange network.

10

BAcKGRoUNDANDTEHMtNoLocy

relatively long ffansmission links between them. Thus, for comparable end-to-end quality, individual analog exchangeareaequipment did not have to provide as much quality as did toll network counterparts.

1.2.2 Postdivestiture U.$. Network In thedecade the1980s structure thepublic of the of telephone network theUnited in
states changed significantly aresultofchanges thetechnology theregulatory as in and environment. maintechnological The changes were(1) extensive deployment very of largedigital switchingmachines, theadaptation computer-controlled (2) of switches to providemultipleswitchingfunctions onemachine in (e.g.,the integration endof office, tandem, toll switchingfunctions), and and (3) the deployment fiber optic of hansmission systems couldcarryvery largecrosssections traffic. Noticethat that of all threeof these technological developments suggest networkwith fewerandlarger a switchingoffices.Thesetechnological influences the networktopologyare dison cussed morefully in Chapters 8-10. The most dramaticand immediateeffect on the network occurredon Januaryl, 1984, whenthebreakup AT&T officially tookeffect.Because breakup of the involved divestiture Bell operatingcompanies of (BoCs) from AT&T, the networkirselfbecamepartitioned a new level.The new partitioning shownin Figure I.6, which at is depicts AT&T asoneof several competing long-distance carriers referred a$interto (IXCs) andlocal access transpoft exchange carriers and (LATAs), which were areas originally the exclusivedomainof local exchange carriers(LECs).In additionto AT&T, the othertwo main IXCs areMCI andu.s. sprint. The LECs originallyincluded Bocs (organized 7 RBocs), formerindependenr 23 into relephone companies like GTE, contel, and united relecommunications, some1500mostly smalland town telephone companies. Mergerswithin the industryhavesubsequently reduced thenumber LECsandRBOCs. of Thenumberof LATAs in theunited stateswasinitially 164,but the number has changed adjustments service as in boundaries sometimes are made. Because LATA a entails area an thatincludes manyexchange areas, LECscomplete callsthatkavtoll ersedifferentexchange areas within oneLATA. TheIXCs werenot allowedto carry intra-LATA traffic. similarly, an LEC wasnot allowedto carrytraffic between two LATAs evenwhenbothLATAs mightbe service areas a singleBoc. only anIxc of wasallowedto carryinter-LATA traffic.To ensure these that service partitions were adhered eachIXC interfaced to, with a LATA at a singlepointin theLATA, referred to asa point of presence (PoP).IXC equipment a Pop couldbe a switching at office or merelyajunctionfor collecting traffic carried elsewhere be switched. to A majoraspect themodifiedfinaljudgment(MFJ)thatspecified divestiture of the wasthecondition equalaccess, of whichmeant anLEC (specifically Boc) was that a to treatall IXCs equallyin regards exchange to access. conditions The ofequalaccess meantthat access all endofficesin a LATA would be equalin type,quality,and to pricefor all IXCs. The LATA nerworkritructure established accomplish to equal [4] access shown Fieure1.7. is in

NETWORK HIERARCHY 1 1 1.2 THEANALOG

Figure 1.6 U.S, network partitioning.

POP: AT: TO: EO: TIC: OIG: TCTC;

Poinl ol Ptesence Accets tandent Tarrdcnt office Entl ollice Tsndetn inter"LATA connecting Direct inter-LATA connecling Tdnderfi connecling

architecture' hnd Figure 1.7 LATA hierarchy access

12

BACKGROUND TEHMINOLOGY AND

The design of the LATA network for intra-LATA traffic was left to the discretion of the LECs. Thus intra-LATA connectionscan involve multiple switching offices between end offices. However, connectionsbetweenan Eo and a PoP could involve at most one intermediateswitching office referredto as an access tandem (AT). with respect to the previous Bell system hierarchy, an AT takes the place of a class 4 toll switch. However, long-distancebilling functions, which were formerly performed in class 4 switches, are now performed within the IXC network. Although Figure l.7 shows accesstandem and basic tandem switching functions as being distinct, access tandem functions can be integratedinto regular tandem switchesif the tandem switch provides AT features.Foremost among thesefeahrresare the ability to forward automatic number identification (ANI) information to an IXC for billing and the ability to route calls to different IXC POPsdependingqn presubscriptionor per-call three-digit carier designations. In 1997 the FCC issued some rulings with the intent of stimulating competition in both the local exchange and long-distance networks. under this ruling, LECs that want to enter the long-distancemarket can do so if they open their local exchangefacilities to long-distancecarriers or other competitive accessproviders. A key aspect of making the local facilities available to competition is the establishmentof unbundled pricing for local seryices;the separationof the cost of the local loop, the local switching equipment, maintenance,and ancillary services such as 9ll emergency calling. Another key requirementis number portability, which allows a subscriberto changelocal service providers without having to changetelephonenumbers.The introduction of competition for local distribution instigated the use of two tennrr:competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) for the competition and incumbent local exchangecarrier (ILEC) for the establi$hed carrier.

1.2.3 SwitchingSystems Manual Swltchboards

The first telephone switching equipment utilized operatorsat manual swirchboards.The operatorsaskeda caller for the number they wanted to call and then establishedthe connection by plugging in a cord between terminal jacks. Although switchboards are no longer used, a legacy of their existencelives on: the use of the terms "tip and ring." As shown in Figure 1.8, one wire of a wire pair was connectedto the tip of a plug comector and the other wire was connectedto the ring. Ever since,one wire of a wire pair is com-

Switdrboard jacf

Switdrboard plug

Flgure 1.8 switchboard jack plug with corresponding (R, s, andr arering, sleeve, tip, and (FromFreeman, respectively). Fundamentals releconzmunications, of wiley, New york.)

NETWORK HIEHARCHY 1.2 THEANALOG

13

to monly referred asthetip andthe otheris referred asthering, evenon digital wire to plugsin a swirchboard. some theoriginalswitchbomds On of pairs,whichhavenever used conductor shownin Figure1.8. wouldbe providedby thesleeve a thirclconnection Automated Switching swirching machine can with In general termstheequipment associated anyparticular as be categorized providingoneof thefollowing functions: 1. Signaling 2. Control 3. Switching equipment to monitortheactivityof theincomis Thebasicfunctionof the signaling to status controlinformation thecontrolelement or ing linesandforwardappropriate placecontrolsignals ontooutgoing is equipment alsousedto of the switch.Signaling linesunderdirectionof theswitchcontrolelement. and up processes signaling information sets connecincoming Thecontrolelement matrix:an by The functionitself is provided a switching tionsaccordingly. switching input linesand comections between used arrayof selectable crosspoints to complete in machine shown Figure1.9. are of outputlines.These basicconstituents a switching Electrcmechanicalswitching. Prior to the introduction of digital electronic switching officesin NorthAmericaandaround switching machines thelate 1970s, in switches; with oneof two basictypesof electromechanical the world wereequipped of As shownin Figure 1.10,crosspoints a step-by-step step-by-step* crossbar. and As of to that switcharewipercontacts movein directresponse dial pulses. thepulses "step"theverticalwiperto a horizontheyimmediately thefirst digit entertheswitch, the to tal row corresponding the first digit. After the properrow is selected, wiper is of until an idle line to the next stage switching across another of contacts set rotated digit,thensteps secthe representing second the The is located. nextsetofdial pulses, are throughhowevermany stages The process continues in ond stage like mannet. particular size. fbr switch needed a directprogressive control:Successwitchuses As thename implies,a step-by-step Wittr aseach digit is dialed. of the sivesegmenrs a paththrough switchareestabli$hed into areintegrated the switchof progressive control,thecontrolelements the switch and a is ing matrix.This feature very usefulfbr implementing varietyof switchsizes progre$sive switch,however,has a A control allowing relativelyeasyexpansion. limitations; number significant of path the though appropriate through switchexists an l. A call maybeblocked even path in an but is not attempted because unfortunate getsselected anearlystage. line Thatis, the outgoing trunksis not possible. 2. Alternate routingfor outgoing be incomingdial pulses cannot substituted' and is directlyselected by
*A in step-by-stepswirch is also referred to as a Strowger switciz, honor of its inventor Almon B. Strowger.

14

BACKGHOUND TEBMINOLOGY AND

Figure 1.9 Switchingsystem components.

3. Signaling schemesother than dial pulses (e.g., tone signaling) are not directly
usable. 4 . Number translation is impossible. In conffast to a step-by-stepswitch, a crossbarswitch is one that used centralized, coillmon control for switch path selection.As digits were dialed, the conhol element of the switch received the entire addressbefore processingit. when an appropriate path through the switch was determined(which may have involved numbertranslation or alternaterouting), the control element transferredthe necessary information in the form of control signals to the switching matrix to establishthe connection. The fundamentalfeature,and advantage, a common control switch is that control function of implementation is separate from the switch implementation. Common control cross-

SLE E BANI( SLE EVE Ii,IPER

LINE WIPE R

V ER T I C A L WIPE H WIPE R CORDS

V EF T I C A L COMMUTATOB I I U S E ON L I N E F I N D ER S I

Figure l.l0 Step-by-stepswitching elemenl (Copyright 1977 by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Reprinted permission.) by

HIERARCHY 15 1,2 THEANALOG NETWOHK

(telephone innumbers) logicaladdresses barsystems introduced ability to assign the line of dependently physical numbers. contacts with switch(Figure Ll l) aremechanical The crosspoints a crossbar of from the useof The magnet$ setup and hold a connection. term crostbdrarises to Onceestablished, the horizontal verlicalbarsto initially select contacts. and crossing energized with directcunentpassare the switching contacts heldby electromagnets the circuit. When the circuit is opened, loss of current ing throughthe established automatically. thecrosspoints be released to causes switches limitations progressivs of control,step-by-step Because theoperational of switches, the on primarily in smallerclass5 switchingoffices.Crossbar were used and within the toll netin areas hand,wereusedpredominantly metropolitan other with wereaugmented coillmoncontrolby cases step-by-step switches work. In $ome the the After processing request, thedigits into special controlequipment. receiving as generated pulses that setup a connection if the switchwasrecontrolequipment directly. ceivingdial pulses

l,lt( '-

.c'*I.

luc,'F-5

cffiEl

ErilI

xfrss

mlt'f,

Figure LlLll Crossbar switching element. (Copyright 1977 by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Reprinted by permission.)

16

BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY AND

Stored Program Control. Step-by-step crossbar and switching sysrems used electromechanical components boththe switching for matrixandthecontrolelements. In somecasett electromechanical the controlelements these in switches represented rudimentaryforms of special-purpose digital computers. The hardwiredelectromdchanicallogic, however,had limited capabilities and was virtually impossible to modify. A majormilestone telephony established 1965whentheBell System for was in installed first computer-controlled its switching system: No. I Electronic the Switching system(Ess).- This switching system uses stored-program a digitalcomputer irs for controlfunctions. stored-program The control(SPC) feature theNo. I ESSallowed of the introduction new features of suchas abbreviated dialing,call forwarding,call waiting,andthree-way calling. Theintroduction SPCnot only providedsignificant of advantages endusers to but alsosimplifiedmanyadministrative maintenance and tasksfor the operating companies.A largeparl of line administration formerlyrequired that manymanual modifrcations(mainframe cross-connects) could instead accomplished changes be with in computer datatables an SPCswitch.Furthermore, of physical line numbers wereindependent thelogical(directory) numbers, makingnumber of line thus changes easy. other benefits enabled sPc areautomated by recordkeeping, lower blockingprobabilities,generation traf-ficstatistics, of automated tracing,andmessage accall unit (per-call counting charges opposed flat-ratebilling for unlimitedlocalcalling). as to The switchingmahix of the No. I ESS(andalsorheNo. 2 ESS,No. 3 ESS,and No. IA ESS)is implemented with electromechanical relays. reed ThusthetermESS refers general computer-controlled in to switching not to thenature theswitchand of ing makix itself.However, AT&T's No. 4 ESS,which wasfirst installed 1976.is in a high-capacity switch using computercontrol and digital electronics its toll for switchingmatrix.Thusthe No. 4 ESSis "electronic" its controlandits switching in matrix.Fufthermore, digital multiplexsystem the (DMS) switches Northern of Telecom,theNo. 5 eleckonicautomatic (EAX) of GTE, andthe No. 5 ESSof exchange AT&T alsoutilize. digital logic circuitsfor thecrosspoint matrix.
("''f't

Private Branch Exchanges. In the united statesthe termprivate branchex(PBX) refersgenerically any switchingsystem change to ownedor leased a busiby nessor organization provideboth internalswitchingfunctionsand access the to to publicnetwork. Thusa PBX in theunited statesmayuseeithermanual automatic or control.The term PABX is alsousedin the united States, particularlyin other and countries, referspecifically automatically to to controlled PBXs. Thehistorical development PBX systems followedcloselythatof switches of has in thepublicnetwork. PBXswith computerized controlbecame available 1963(bein foretheNo. I ESS)whenAT&T's No. l0l ESSwasfirst installed. sincethattime a
*Computer-controlled

PBXs were available befbre 1965. The No. I E$S represents the first instance of computer control in the public network hierarchy,

*rra ?
HIERARCHY 1.2 THEANALOG NETWORK

17

have developed computer-controlled manufacturers large numberof independent businesses has PBXs.In fact,thePBX market long beenoneof themostcompetitive in telecommunications. new for numerous features users. Theuseof computer controlfor PBXsintroduced (e.g.,abbreviated but dialing)provided, nuNot only werecustomized callingfeatures available. Someof themoreusemanagement became also merous facilitiesfor cost features a PBX arethefollowing: in ful, commonplace or by 1. Accounting summaries individualemployee department reshictions areacodes, to with prioritiesandaccess 2. Multiple classes service of WATS lines.andsoon circuits, routingto automatically selecttie lines,foreignexchange 3. Least-cost WATS. DDD, andsoforth 4. Automaticcallback whencircuitsareavailable to the 5. Traffic monitoringandanalysis determine utilizationof existingcircuits and blockingprobabilities networkcosteffectiveness or to a$certain initially provided PBXsarealsoofferedby operby Centr6x. Many of thefeatures Centrex abusiness is As indicated Figure1.12, in as features. atingcompanies Centrex in equipment the centraloffice. by customer serviceoffering supported switching to premises a dedicated has channel or Every telephone datadeviceat the customer pair of implieda dedicated the switchin the centraloffice. Originally,eachchannel (described Section in wires.It is now morecommonto usemultiplexingtechniques from costs. Nevertheless, thecentraloffice point of I.2.5) to reduce hansmission the appearance theCO with a uniquepubat has view eachCentrex extension a dedicated officetreats Centhe partitionin thecentral number. software A lic networktelephone usergroupto providethefollowingbasicfeatures: trex linesasa closed

Locll Common Chantel Slgnaling

Sit6 I

Sit6 2

Site 3

service multiplesites. to Figure 1.12 Centrex

18

BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

l. Directdialingto Centrex extensions from thepublicnetwork. 2. Station-to-station callingusingextension numbers opposed full, 7- (or l0-) as to digit publicnumbers. 3. Common voiceuserfeatures suchascall forwarding, transfer, waiting, call call call pick up, andthree-way calling. 4. Multiple siteswith transparent plansand features. numbering With citywide Centrexthe sitescan be supported from multiple offices interconnected by (CCS)described Section1.2.10. common-channel signaling in 5. Centralizedattendant/message with call origination information for desk informedprocessing forwarded of calls. 6. High availability because equipment directlyconnected CO and phones analog arepowered theCO with backup at powersources. 7. Virtually unlimitedgrowth. 1.2.4 Transmission Systems Functionally, communications the channels between switching systems referred are to astrunks.In thepast,these channels wereimplemented a varietyof facilities, with includingpairsof wires,coaxial cable, point-to-point and microwave radiolinks.Except for special situations, tunk facilitiesnow utilizeopticalfibers. Open Wire pictureofthe telephone A classical networkin the pastconsisted poles oftelephone with crossarms glassinsulators and usedto $upport uninsulated pairs.Exopen-wire ceptin rura]environments, openwire hasbeenreplaced the with multipaircablesystemsor fiber. Themain advantage anopen-wirepair is its relativelylow attenuatiofl of (a few hundredths a decibel mile at voicefrequencies). per of Hence, openwire is particularlyusefulfor long,rural customer loops.Themaindisadvantages havingto are separate wires with crossarms preventshortingandthe needfor largeamounts the to (A of copper. singleopen-wire strand a diameter is five timesthediameter has that of a typical strandin a multipaircable.Thusopenwire usesroughly25 timesasmuch copper does as cable.) a resultof copper As co$ts theemergence low elecffonics and of costs, openwire in rural environments beenmostlyreplaced hari with cablesystems using(digital)amplifiers offsetattenuation long loops. to on Paired Cable In response overcrowded to crossarms high maintenartce and costs,multipaircable sy$tems wereintroduced far backas 1883. as Todaya singlecablemay contain anywherefrom 6 to 2700wire pairs.Figure 1.13showsthe structure a rypicalcable. of polesareused, singlecablecanprovideall thecircuitsrequired Whentelephone a on the route,therebyeliminatingthe needfor crossarms. More recentlythe preferred means cabledistributionis to bury it directlyin the ground(buriedcable)or use of underground conduit(underground cable).

19 NETWoRK HIERARGHY 1.2 THE ANALOG Table 1.4 lists the most conrmon wire sizes to be fbund within paired-cablesystems. The lower gauge(higher diameter) systemsare urtedfor longer distanceswhere signal attenuationand direct-cunent (dc) resisturce can becomelimiting factors. Figure l . I 4 rrhowsattenuationcurves [5] for the common gaugesof pairedcable as a function of frequency. An important point to notice in Figure l.14 is that the cable pairs are capableof canying much higher fiequencies than required by a telephonequality 3.4 voice signal(approximately kHz). In the past, the exchangeareasof the telephonenetwork used paired cable almost exclusively fbr short-haul interoffice transmission.Up until the introduction of mul-

(Copyright1977 Bell Telephone by Laboratorics. Reprinted by Figure 1.13 Multipair cable. permission,)

20

BACKGROUND AND TERMINOLOGY

TABLE1.4 WireGauge and Resletance Common of PalredCable Gauge 30 28 26 24 22 20 19 (in.) Diameter 0.010 0.013 0.016 0.020 0.0?5 0.032 0.036 Direct-Current (fy1000 Resistance ft)a 104
oo 41

26 16 10

eNote that the loop resistanceof a pair is twice the resistancof a single wire given in th table.

# g
g
E

18 17 18 15 14 13 12 1l

r0
I I 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0

t
E

c o tl

1,000 l.lfr Frequercy (Hz)

1,1d

1.100

1.107

Figure 1.14 Attenuation versus frequency of common gaugesof paired cable, (From W. D. Reeve, ,SuDscriDer Loop Signaling Transmission Handbook, IEEE Press, New york, Fig. 7-16a.)

H|FRARCHY 21 1.? THEANALocNETwoHK

with Figure 1.15 Single-wire transmission groundretum,

Figure 1.16 Two-wiretransmission. tiplexing techniques,describedlater in this chapter,eachvoice circuit (trunk) was carpair of wires. Beginning in the early 1960selectronicsbegan to be ried on a separate used for short-haul interoffice transmissionsystemsusing multiplexing techniquesto carry multiple channelson a single pair of wires.

Tw*Wire Versue Four-Wire networkis based transmission through All wire-linetransmission thetelephone in on pairsof wires.As shownin Figure L15, transmission througha singlewire (with a circuit groundreturn)is possible hasbeenused thepast.However, resulting the in and pairsof wiresasshown Figin Instead, balanced is too noisyfor customer acceptance. propagating a voltagedifference between two as the ure 1.16areusedwith signals signalflowing throughthe currentproduced the difference by wires.The electrical currentpropawiresin opposite is In directions calleda "metalliccurrent.'r contrast, gatingin thesame referred ascommon-mode longituto or in direction bothwiresis into a circuit outputunless there dinal current. currents not coupled are Longitudinal or signal(noise inin some thelongitudinal of is animbalance thewiresthatconverts Thustheuseof a pairof wiresfor each into circuitproterference) a difference signal. Someolder vides much better circuit quality than doessingle-wiretransmission. (unbalanced) transmission minimizethenumswitchingsystemrr single-wire to used in Unbalanced wherenoise ber of contacts. circuitswereonly feasible smallswitches couldbe controlled. andcrosstalk networkareimplemented a sinwith Virtually all subscriber loopsin thetelephone If glepairof wires.-Thesinglepairprovides bothdirections ffansmission. users for of their are on both endsof a connection simultaneously, conversations superimtalk posed thewire pairandcanbeheard theopposite on ends. contrast, In at wireJine(and switching fiber) transmission longerdistances, between offices,is bestimpleover as are wire mented the two directions transmission separated of onto $eparate pairs. if
*It is no* commonplace to use fiber for the tbeder portion of a subscdber loop, but the drop to a te sidence is a single pair per telephone.

22

BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY AND

Longer distance transmissionrequires amplification and most often involves multiplexing. These operationsare implemented most easily if the two directions of ffansmission are isolated from each other. Thus interoffice trunks typically use two pairs of wires or two fibers and are referred to as four-wire $ystems.The use of two pairs of wires did not necessarilyimply the use of twice as much copper as a two-wire circuit. After 1960, four-wire systemsincreasingly used some form of multiplexing to provide multiple channelsin one direction on one wire pair. Thus, a net savingsin copper could result. Sometimesthe bandwidth of a single pair of wires was separated into two subbands that were used for the two directions of travel. These systemswere referred to as derivedfour-wire systems.Hence, the term/aur-wire has evolved to imply separate channelsfor eachdirection of transmission,even when wires may not be involved. For example, fiber optic and radio system$that use separatechannelsfor each direction are also referred to asfour-wire systems. The use of four-wire transmissionhad a direct impact on the switching systemsof the toll network. Since toll network circuits were four-wire, the switches were designed to separately connect both directions of hansmission. Hence, two paths through the switch were neededfor each connection. A two*wire switch, as used in older analog end offices, required only one path through the switch for eachconnection.

Two-Wi ra-to-Fou re Conversion r-Wl pointin a long-distance At some connectionis necessaryconvert it to fromtwo-wire
transmissionof local loops to four-wire transmissionon long-distancetrunks. In the past,the conversionusually occurredat the trunk interface of the (two-wire) end office switch. Newer digital end office switchesare inherently "four-wire," which meansthe two-wire-to-four-wire conversion point is on the subscriber(line) side of the switch as opposedto the trunk side.A generalizedinterconnectionof two-wire and four-wire facilities for a connection is shown in Figure I.17. The basic conversion function is provided by hybrid circuits that couple the two directions of transmissionas shown. Hybrid circuits have been traditionally implemented with specially interconnected transformers.More recently, however, electronic hybrids have been developed.Ideally a hybrid should couple all energy on the incoming branch of the four-wire circuit into the two-wire circuit, and none of the incoming four-wire signal should be transferred to the outgoing four-wire branch.

Hybrid

Hybrid

Figure 1.17 Interconnection two-wireandfour-wirecircuits. of

1.2 THEANALocNETWoRKHTERARoHy eg When the impedance matching network Z exactly matches the impedance of the two-wire circuit, near-perfectisolation of the two four-wire branchescan be realized. Impedancematching usedto be a time-consuming,manual proce$$and was therefore not commonly used. Furthermore, the two-wire circuits were usually switched connections so ttre impedance that had to be matched would change with each connection. For thesereasonsthe impedancesof two-wire lines connectedto hybrids were rarely matched.The effect of an impedancemismatch is to causean echo, the power level of which is related to the degreeof mismatch. The effect of echoeson voice quality and the meansof controlling them is discussedlater in this chapter.

Loadlng Coils of that in curves shown FigureI .14indicate thehigherfrequencies the Theattenuation (up than moreattenuation the lower frequenvoicespectrum to 3.4kHz) experience to distorts voicesignalandis referred the attenuation cies.This frequency-dependent most$ignificanton long cable Amplitude distortionbecomes asamplitudedistor"tion. pairs,wherethe attenuation differenceis greatest. (3The usualmethodof combating amplitude distonionon intermediateJength into thelines.Theextrainductance lS-mile)wire pairsis to insertartificialinductance Figure comes from loadingcoilsthatariinsertedat 30fi)-,4500-,or 6000-ftintervals. loop.Noticethatthe voiceband 1.18shows effectof loadingcoils on a 24-gauge the is but response to 3 kHz is greatlyimproved, theeffecton higherfrequencies devup astating. loadingcoils were of Prior to the introduction wire-lineandfiber carriersystems, area on usedextensively exchange interofficetrunks.Loadingcoils arealsousedon havedisplaced loops.Here,too,carriersystem$ thelonger,typicallyrural,subscriber routes. mostof the singlepairsof wiresbeingusedon long

gto
E E, I

Szo
EI E t 0
e E

Frequency (kllzl

cablepair. tr'lgure1.18 Effectof loadingon 24-gauge

24

BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY AND

1.2.5 Pair-GainSystems Providingservice rural subscribers alwaysbeenan expensive to has proposition because thelengthof theroutes of involvedandthesmallnumber households supof to pott thecostof boththeinitial installation themaintenance. thepast,a cornmon and In means reducing co$t$ to usepartylines,whichinvolvedsharing a wire of the was of pair among multiplehouseholds. partyline is particularly A usefulfor satisfying new service requests routes on with no spare pairsbut is obviously objectionable to the due lackof privacyandthelack of availabilityof theline. A pair-gainsy$tem an alternateapproach sharingpairs of wires that is much is to moreacceptable theusers. to This section describes basictypesof pair-gain two sys--;_ * (remote tems;concentrators swirches) multiplexers and (carriersystems). Goncentratlon Thefirst form of a pair-gainsystem FigureL 19depicts basicline concentration in a system. Whenviewedftom the stationsetendof the system, pair-gainsystem proa videsconcentration switching by some number activestations a smaller of to number of shared outputlines.At theotherendof thesystem, (expansion) deconcentration occursby switching fromtheshared linesto individualinputsof theswitching officecorresponding theactivestations. to Expanding traffic backto theoriginalnumber the of stations ensure$ thesystem operationally that is transparent boththeswitchandthe to user. Noticethata definitionof whichendprovides concentration whichendproand videsexpansion dependent thepoint of view. is on
N surrce$

2 3
/l{ chadnels

N $rbchandels

N tource$

Figure 1.19. Pair-gain systems: concentration multiplexing:(a) concentration > M); and (z (b) multiplexing.

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY

25

it connecting stations servall is of Sincea concentrator incapable simultaneously When by introduced concentration. ices,a certainamountof blockingis necessarily amounts concenffation of is significant theactivityof individualstations low enough, stations that For with acceptable blockingprobabilities. example,40 canbe achieved 10lineswithablocking areeachactiveonlyT.SVoofthetimecanbeconcentratedonto sinceanequallyacdegradation service in probability 0.001 Thisis anacceptable .* of tive calledstationis busy75 timesasoften. berequires ffansfer controlinformation the of system Noticethata concentration estabWhenoneendof thesystem switch tweentheconcentrator/expander terminals. lines,theotherendmustbe informedto to lishesa newconnectron oneof the shared comection. reverse setup theappropriate Multlplexing of the bandwidth a typicalwire pairis considerably As shown Figure1.14, inherent in greater needed a singlevoicesignal.Thus,multiplexingcanbe usedto for thanthat imin pairof wires.Theincrease attenuation on carrymultiplevoicechannels a single and in is pliedby thehigherfrequencies offsetby amplifiers themultiplexequipment lines.The particularmultiplexingtechnique at periodicpoints in the ffansmission form of mul* Another frequency divisionmultiplexsystem. in shown Figure1.I9b is a multiis of digital voicesignals, the preferred tiplexing,time divisionmultiplexing later' discussed plexingapproach digitalpair-gainsystems for the relationship between customer As shown FigureI . l9b, thereis a one-to-one in system, Thus,unlikethe concentration of linesandthe subchannels the multiplexer. Also, type of pair-gainsystem. thereis no possibilityof blockingin a multiplexing one-to-one relationsincethe same switching information thereis no needto transfer oflinesat oneendandswitching between customer the shipdefines conespondence pair-gain systems that is multiplexing of f,rce linesat theotherend.A majordrawback inactive. these In are if are thesubchannels highlyunderutilized thesources relatively multiplexing normallyjustified. is and a of situations combination concentfation Time Asslgnment Speech lnterpolation (TASI) is a pair-gain that system dynamically interpolation Time assignment speech a to assigns channel a circuit only whenthereis actualvoiceactivity.Thus,a TASI to of N; activesources one senses voiceactivityfrom a number sources assigns sy$tem the whereM is typicallyabouthalf aslargeasN; andsignals far end of M channels, is participant a conversation activefor only in Normally,each abouttheconnections. that 407o thetime,whichindicates if M = j N,thereissomeamountofsparecapacof to If begins talk whenall excess activityin onedirection. a source ity to accommodate until a channel ofthat speech segment clipped channels utilized,thebeginning are Sets the formulations determine to mathematical Chapter12provides becomes available. probabilityof clippingasa functionof N, M, andthe voiceactivityfactor' cable involved improving the utilization of undersea Initial TASI applications complicated warranted useof arather the of channels pairs. Theobvious expense these
*A discussionof traffic analysis is provided in Chapter 12, from which this result can be obtained.

(') 26

BACKGHOUND TERMINOLOGY AND

multiplexing technique thetime.Thesame for basictechnique sincebeen has usedin numerous applications with digital speech satelliteand landline applications. for These systems generally are calleddigital speech (DSI) systems inrerpolation [6]. 1.2.6 FDM Multlplexingand Modutation The introduction cablesystems the transmission of into plant to increase circuit the packing density openwire is oneinstance multiplexing thetelephone of of in network. Thisform of multiplexing, referred asspace to divisionmultiplexing, involves nothing morethanbundling morethanonepairof wiresinto a singlecable. telephone The network uses otherformsof multiplexing, two bothof whichuseelectronics packmore to thanonevoicecircuitinto thebandwidth a single of transmission medium. Analogfrequency divisionmultiplexing(FDM) hasbeenusedextensively point-to-point in microwaveradiosand to a much lesserdegreeon $omeobsolete coaxial cableand wire-line$ystems. FDM is alsoutilizedin fiber optic transmission systems, whereit is referred aswavelength to (wDM).- Digitaltimedivisionmuldivisionmultiplexing tiplexing(TDM) is thedominant form of multiplexing used thetelephone in nerworks worldwide.(Eventhe fiber optic system$ utilize wDM commonlyusedigital that TDM within the signals a particular of wavelength.) Frequency Division Multlplexing As indicated FigureI.l9b, an FDM system in dividesthe available bandwidth the of transmission mediuminto a numberof narower bandsor subchannels. Individual voicesignals inserted thesubchannels amplitude are into by modulating appropriately selected carrierfrequencies. a compromise As between realizingthe largest number of voicechannels a multiplexsystem maintaining in and acceptable voicefidelity,the telephone companies established kHz asthe standard 4 bandwidth a voicecircuit.t of If both sidebands produced amplitude by modulation used(asin obsolete or are NI N2 carriersystems pairedcable), subchannel on the bandwidth 8 kHz, andthecoris responding carrierfrequencies in the middle of eachsubchannel. lie Sincedoublesideband modulationis wastefulof bandwidth,single-sideband (ssB) modulation wasused whenever extraterminalcosts the werejustified.Thecarrierfrequencies for single-sideband systems at eithertheupperor loweredge thecorresponding lie of subchannel, depending whether loweror uppersideband selected. A5 chanon the is The nel bankmultiplexer AT&T usedlower sideband of modulation.
r...

FDM Htetrarcny
In order to standardizethe equipment in the various broadbandtransmissionsystems of the original analog network, the Bell system establishedan FDM hierarchy as provided in Table 1.5. ccITT recommendationsspecify the samehierarchy at the lower
*Optical technology is customarily defined in terms of the wavelength of the optical signal as opposed to the corresponding frequency. 'Actually' the usable bandwidth ofan FDM voice channel was closer to 3 kFIz due to suard bandsneeded by the FDM separation filters.

27 1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY TABLE1.5 FDMHierarchyof the Bell Nstwork Level Multiplex Voice channel Group Supergroup Mastergroup Mastergroup Mux Jumbogroup Mux Jumbogroup Number Voice of Circuits
1

Formation 12voice circuits 5 groups 10 supergroups Various groups 6 master groups 3 jumbo

Frequency Band(kHz) H 60*1 0B 312-552 56rt--3,084 7,548 31?,564-1 56,t-17,548 3,00160,000

12 60 600 1,200-3,600 3,600 10.800

FDM modis usinga setof standard levels.Eachlevel of thehierarchy implemented broadband transmission is of The multiplexequipment independent particular ules. media. Thus,every used SSBmodulation' in All multiplexequipment theFDM hierarchy The lowestlevel building 4 approximately kHz of bandwidth. voicecircuit required A groupconsisting 12voicechannels. channel of is block in thehierarchy a channel a of groupmultiplexuses totalbandwidth 48 kHz. FigureI.20 shows blockdiagram a for A-typechannel bankused groupmultiplexer, mostcommon the of an A5 channel l2 carriersgenerate using 12 $eparate first'level multiplexing.Twelve modulators is filteredto select Eachchannel thenbandpass signals indicated. as double-sideband The multiplexsigsignal. composite of double-sideband only thelowersideband each equipinent a receivin Demultiplex produced superposing filter outputs. by the nal is processing reverse in order. the basic ing terminaluses same but the filter not only removes uppersideband separation Noticethat a sideband filters These sigrpl: the lower sideband. the of alsorestricts bandwidth the retained networkthat definedthe a thereforerepresented basicpoint in the analogtelephone on of bandwidth a voicecircuit. SinceFDM was u$ed all long-haulanalogcircuits,
lndividualvoice channelinputs I

EL

0 4

l(x

rt-r 1 2 1

104 108

FI

l2 Chennel multiplex output

60

Fl-r68

60 64
BdndpEEE fitter$

Figure 1.20 A5 channelbank multiplexer.

28

BACKGROUND AND TERMINOLOGY

long-distance connectionsprovided somewhat less than 4 kHz of bandwidth. (The loading coils discussedpreviously also produce similar bandwidth limitations into a voice circuit.) As indicated in Table 1. 5, the secondlevel of the FDM hierarchy is a 60-channel multiplex refened to as a supergroup.Figure I.2l shows the basic implementation of an LMX group bank that multiplexes five flust-levelchannelgroups.The resulting 60channelmultiplex output is identical to that obtained when the channelsare individually translatedinto 4-kHz bands from 312 to 552 kHz. Direct translation requires 60 separate SSB systemswith 60 distinct cariers. The LMX group bank, however, uses only five SSB systemsplus five lower level modules. Thus two-stage multiplexing, as implied by the LMX group bank, requiresmore total equipmentbut achieveseconomy through the use of common building blocks. (Engineersat AT&T Laboratories also developeda multiplexer that generateda supergroupdirectly [7].) Because a second-level multiplexer packs individual first-level signals together without guard bands,the carier frequenciesand bandpassfilters in the LMX group bank must be maintained with high accurqpy.Higher level multiplexers do not pack the lower level signalsas close together.Notice that a ma$tergroup, for example,does not provide one voice channelfor every 4 kHz of bandwidth. It is not practical to maintain the tight spacingbetweenthe wider bandwidth signalsat higher frequencies.Furthermore, higher level multiplex signals include pilot tone$ to monitor transmission link quality and aid in carder recovery.

',.2.7 Wideband Tranemission Medla

Wire pairs within multipair cableshave usablebandwidths that rangefrom a little under I MHz up to about 4 MHz dependingon the length, the wire gauge,and the type of insulation u$edon the pairs. Multiplexed transmissionson thesewire pairs consequently have capacitiesthat rangefrom ?4 channels(on analogN3 or digital Tl carrier systems)up to 96 channels(on obsoletedigital T2 carrier systems).In contrast,an ana12 Channel group inputB

60

t-]
380 408

n l r

s28

504 552
Bandpeac fltterE

r-1

50* s52

t-]

Figure 1.21 LMX groupbankmultiplexer.

NETWORK HIERARCHY 29 1.2 THEANALOG

Optical was voicechannels. log L5E coaxialcable$ystem developed carry 13,200 to of on voicechannels fiber systems that havebeendeveloped carryin excess 100,000 diodes(LEDs) and Because opticaltransmitters a singlewavelength. flight-emitting modeof operation, are functionbestin a pulsed fiber systems primarilydigital lasersl in 8. Digital fiber optictransmission systems described Chapter Thissecare in nature. radio systems. microwave coaxialcableandpoint-to-point tion discusses Coaxial Cable of requirements to wereusedpredominantly $atisfy long-haul Coaxialcablesystems was The first commercial the toll network. $y$tem installedin l94l for hansmission Minnesota, Minneapolis, and of 480 voicecircuitsover a 200-milestretchbetween repeater amplifierswere inStevens Points,Wisconsin[7]. To combatattenuation, of the Considering maximumcapacity l2 voicecircuits stalledat 5.5-mileintervals. develof on openwire or cableat thetime,theintroduction "coax" wasa significant increased (l) by was After thefirst installation coaxial cablecapacity steadily opment. (2) (0.375in.) to r"educe the attenuation, decreasing discables usinglargerdiameter repeaters, (3) improvingthenoisefigure,linearity,andbandwidth and tancebetween amplifiers. of the repeater is used theBell System provided in coaxial A sumnrary theanalog cablesystems of in as 1.6.Noticethateachsystem reserved pair of tubes spares theevent one in Table each tubecanieda high volume consideration since important of failure,a particularly lower lower attenuation, Because optical fibers havewider bandwidths, of traffic. are andlowercost,coaxialsystems obsolete. maintenance, Mlcrowave Radlo for carnefrom the needto Much of the impetu.s terreshialmicrowaveradio systems traffic inAs distributetelevisionsignalsnationwide. the volumeof long-distance also means diskibutingvoice of radiosystems became mosteconomical the creased, was network.Beginningin 1948,whenthe first system circuitsin the long-distance radio sy$tems installedbetween New York and Boston,the numberof microwave grewto supply607o the voicecircuitmilesin theU.S.toll networkin 1980[71.It of to wasjust a few yearsafterthat that opticalfibersbegan takeoverfor high-density interoffice for routesandeventually thenetworkasa whole. Systeme thBellNetwork TABLE 1.6 Coaxlal ln Cable
per Pairs System Designation Systeme SignalDesignation L1 L3 L4 L5
the

FleDeater per Spacing Capacity (miles) Pair I 4 2 1 600 1,860 3,600 10,800

Total Capacity 1,800 9,300 32,400 108,000

3/6 5/6 0 9/1 10/11

Ma$iergroup Mux Mastergroup Jumbogroup Mux Jumbogroup

numberof pairs are shown a$ working^otal.

30

BACKGROUND TEHMINOLOGY AND

Microwave radiosystems require line-of-sight nansmission repeater with spacings typically 26 miles apart.The majoradvantage radio systems that a continuous of is right-of-wayis not required-only smallplotsof land spaced 20-30 milesapartfor towers equipment and shelters. majorcostof guided A transmission, example, for wire pairs,coax,or fiber,is theright-of-way costs. manymetropolitan In areas, microwave routes became heavilycongested couldnot be expanded allocated and with commoncarrierfrequency bands. these In situations, findinga right-of-way a coaxor evenfor tually an optical fiber systemwas sometime$ only choice for high-capacity the transmission.The frequency bands allocated the FCC for common-carrier in the united by use states listedin TableL7. of these are bands, and6 GHzhave 4 been mostpopular. the The2-GHzbandhasnotbeen used extensively because relatively the narrowallocated channel bandwidths not permitimplementation economical do of numbers voice of circuits.The basicdrawback the lI-GHz bandis its vulnerabilityto rain attenuof ation.However,ll-GHz radioshavebeenusedin some applications,, $fiort-haul The microwave radio systems the analogBelt netwoik arelistedin tabte L8. of Noticethateach radiosystem designed carryoneof themultiplexhierarchies is to depreviously. of these scribed All radiosexcepr AR-6A usedlow-indexfrequency rhe (FM) of the signalgenerated the FDM multiplexer modulation by equipment. Thus, theFM radios hansmitthessB FDM signalasa baseband signalwith a bandwidth as indicatedin Table 1.5. FM modulation was chosen permit the use of nonlinear to poweramplifiers thetransmitters to takeadvantage FM signal-to-noise in and of ratio perforrnance. Examination Tables1.7and1.8indicates 13.3kHz of bandwidth utilized of that is pervoicecircuitin TD-2 radiosand 14.3kHz in TH-3 radios. Thus.theuseof FM introduced significant a increase the4 kHz bandwidth theindividualSSBvoicecirin of cuit. In conrrast, ssB AR-6A radio introduced lggl provided6000 voice the in circuitsin the 30-MHzchannels 6 GHz. at Since largenumber voicecircuitsarecarried each a of by radiochannel, microwave system$ usuallyincludeextraequipment extrachannels maintainservice and to despiteoutages mayresultfrom anyof thefollowing: that 1. Atmospheric-induced multipathfading 2. Equipment failures 3. Maintenance
On someroutes,the most frequentsourceof outagein a microwave radio systemarises from multipath fading. Figure 1.22depicts a simple model of a multipath environment arising as a result of atmospheric refraction. As indicated, the model involves two ray$: a primary ray and a delayed secondaryray. Ifthe secondaryray anives out of phasewith-respectto the primary ray, the primary signal is effectively canceled.The
*Micruwave bands with wide-bandwidth allocations at high camer frequencies are available for some I ocal distribution services and are discussedin Chapter I l.

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY

31

Allocatedfor TAELE1.7 MlcrowaveFrequenciee Common-Carrler in the UnltedStates Uss Band(MHz) 2110-2130 2160-21 80 3700+200 5925-64?5 1 10,700-1,700
TotalBandwidth ChannelBandwidths (MHz) (MHz)

20 20 500 500 1000

3.5 3.5 20 30 40,20

amount of cancelation is dependent on both the magnitude and the phase of the secondary ray. Quite often only nominal amountsof fading occur and can be accommodated by excess signal power in the transmitter, called a fade margin. In some instances,however, the received signal is effectively reduced to zero, which implies that the channel is temporarily out of service.

Frequency Diverelty
Fortunately,exceptionallydeepfadesnormally affect only one channel(carrier freand transmitter a spare includinga spare quency)at a time. Thus,a backupchannel of Selection and traffic of a fadedprimarychannel. receiver be usedto carrythe can without a lossof service. performed automatically channel is switchingto the spare This remedyfor multipathfading is referredto asfrequencydiversity.Notice thatfrefailures' backup equipment for quency hardware diversityalsoprovides and 2 10 main channels A fully loadedTD-3 radio systemused 12 channels: or as2-for-10,1.Q--by12' This is Lefe-rred variously to for backupchannels protection. switchl-for-l protection systems used switching. Someshort-haul 10X 2 protection bandHowever, since only half of therequired it t-d ingbecause i$ $implef implement. protection wereonly allowed with l-for-l width is actuallycarryingtraffic, systems environments. in uncongested
TABLE1.8 Bell SystemAnalogMicrowaveFsdios System TD.2 TD-3 TH.1 TH.3 TM.1 TJ TL.1 TL-2 AR-6A Band(GHz)
4 4
o

VoiceCircuits Application 600-1500 1200 1800 2100 600-900 600 240 600-900 6000 Longhaul Long haul haul ShorVlong haul ShorUlong haul ShorUlong Short haul Shorthaul Shorthaul Longhaul(SSB)

6 6
11 11 11

32

BAcKcHoUNDANDTERMtNoLoGy

Figure1.22 Two-ray propagation. model multipath of Except maintenance in protection situations, switching mustbe automatic order in to maintainservice continuity.A typical objectivewasto restore service within 30 msecto minimizenoticeable effectsin the message haffic. A morecritical requirementis to re$tore service beforethe lossof signalis interpreted somesignaling by ( schemes a circuit disconnect. as Inadvertent disconnects occurif an outage lastsfor morethan 1-2 sec. ( Space Diversity since deepfadesonly occurwhena secondary arrivesexactlyout of phase ray with respect a primaryray, it is unlikelythat two pathsof differentlengthsexperience to fadingsimultaneously. Figure 1.23depicts technique, a calledspace diversity,using differentpathlengths provideprorecrion to against multipathfading.As indicated, a singletransmitter irradiates receiveantennas two separated somedistance the by on tower. Althoughthepathlengthdifferencemay be lessthana meter,this differenceis adequate microwave at frequencies, whichhavewavelengths theorderof tenths on of meters. Rain is anotheratmospherically basedsourceof microwavefading.As already mentioned, attenuation a concemmosflyin higherfrequency rain is radios(l I GHz and above). unfortunatelyneitherfrequency diversity(at the high frequencies) nor space diversityprovides protection any against fades. rain Satellitee FollowingtheApril 1965launchof the sovietunion's Molniya domestic communi* cation$ satellite thefirst international and communications satellite, INTELSATI, the useof satellites international for telephone traffic grewphenomenally. 1g70s The and early 1980s alsoproduced significant of satellites theUnitedStates televiuse in for sionprogram distribution for corporate and voiceanddatanetworks. first domesThe

==:::::::::::--;h =:: ;: ::: H(-.-=

Figure 1.23 Space diversity.

1,2 THEANALOG NETWOHK HIEHAFCHY

33

Arik A in 1972followedby Westem tic system North AmericawastheCanadian in for in system U.S.service 1974[8]. Union'sWestar with only onerepeater: is radiosystem In onesense satellite a system a microwave 4systems the same and6use In thetransponder outerspace. fact,somesatellite in In sense, however, microwave radios. another bands used tenestrial by GHzfrequency opportunities new services for nature thedownlink offersadditional of thebroadcast systems. Distributionof networkteleviterrestrial not available from point-to-point nature satof particularly suited thebroadcast to is sionprogramming oneapplication homereceivers to satellite(DBS) transmission receive-only etlites.Directbroadcast DVB-T of are Two primaryexamples DBS systems theEuropean is a primeexample.* (DSS)system developed $ystem systemt9l andthe North Americandigital satellite (HES). Elechonics Systems by Hughes with is thatis well suitedto satellites communications mobile Anotherapplication (INMARSAT) system, example, befor maritimesatellite stations. international The with digital 1982 and was augmented gan $upporring maritime industry in the service 1989. in telephone Skyphone for aeronautical [10] propagation delayof the is to communications theinherent Onedrawback satellite (not includingground this delay path.For a stationary $atellite, long transmission links for bothdireccircuitwith satellite links) is 250msecup anddown.A complete propagation round-trip thana one-half-second impliesgreater tionsof traveltherefore but in are time.Delaysof this magnitude noticeable a voiceconversation not prohibisomewhat pairingeach by delays bealleviated can of tive.Theeffects thepropagation Thus,therounddirection. circuitin theopposite circuitwith a ground-based satellite link. trip delayinvolvesonly onesatellite has radio,fiber optic transmission microwave with point-to-point As is the case telephone domestic international and for high-density, the displaced useof satellites at is Hencethe useof satellites primarily directed thin-routetelecommunications. andbroadcast applications. some mobilesy$tems, phoneanddataapplication$, 1.2.8 Tranemissionlmpairments networkis deteran telephone aspects designing analog of Oneof the mostdiff,rcult within the individualsubsystems impairments to transmission mininghow to allocate for end-to-end certainobjectives evaluations listeners, by network.Using subjective manner in qualitywereestablished a relativelystraightforward fransmission [11].Afwereesobjectives feasibility,theend-to-end the ter tempering goalswith economic the tablished.However,considering myriad of equipmenttypes and connection the network, designing individualnetworkelements in combinations theolderanalog problem. greatdealof creditis A in wa$ objectives all cases a complex to meetthese analog networkwith thelevel a for duetheBell System havingclevelopednationwide it performance had. of consistent
*A DBS system is designed to use rcceiver antenflas that are about I rn in diameter. The older home satellite receiver systems that wefe common in the United States used f- to 5-m anteflnasto rcceive (intercept) commercial program distribution.

34

BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY AND

The major factors to be consideredin establishing transmissionobjectives for an analog network are signal attenuation,noise, interference,crosstalk, distortion, echoes, singing, and various modulation- and carrier-relatedimperfections.

Signal Attenuatlon
Subjectivelistening testshave shown that the prefened acoustic-to-acoustic loss [12] in a telephoneconnectionshouldbe in the neighborhoodof I dB. A study oflocal telephone connections[l3] demonsftates that the typical local call had only 0.6 dB more loss than ideal. Surveys of the toll network [4] indicated that the averageanalog toll connection had an additional 6.7 dB of loss. This same survey also showed that the standarddeviation of loss in toll connectionswas 4 dB (most of which was attributable to the local loops). Since trunks within the toll network used amplifiers to offset transmissionlosses, it would have been straightfbrward to design thesetrunks with zero-decibelnominal insertion loss. However, as discusrted later, echo and singing considerationsdictated a need for ceftain minimum levels of net loss in most analog trunk circuits.

hterterence
Noise and interferenceare both characterizedas unwanted electrical energy fluctuating in an unpredictable manner. Interference is usually more structured than noise since it arisesas unwanted coupling from just a few signals in the network. If the interf'erence intelligible, or nearly so, it is referred to as crosstalk.*some of the major is sourcesofcrosstalk are coupling betweenwire pairs in a cable,inadequatefiltering or carrier offsets in older FDM equipment, and the effects of nonlinear componentson FDM signals. Crosstalk,particularly if intelligible, is one of the most disturbing and undesirable imperfections that can occur in a telephonenetwork. Crosstalk in analog systemsis particularly difficult to control sincevoice signal power levels vary considerably(i.e., acro$sa dynamic range of40 dB). The absolutelevel ofcrosstalk energy from a highlevel signalmustbe small compared a desiredlowJevel signal.In fact,crosstalk most to is noticeable during speech pauses, when the power level ofthe desiredsignalis zero. Two basic forms of crosstalkof concernto telecommunicationsengineersare nearend crosstalk(NEXT) andlitr-end crosstalfr(FEXT). Near-endcrosstalkrefersto coupling from a transmitter into a receiver at a common location. often this form of crosstalk is most troublesomebecauseof a large difference in power levels between the ffansmitted and received signals. Far-end crosstalk refers to unwanted coupling into a received signal from a transmitter at a dirrtantlocation. Both forms of crosstalk are illustrated in Figure 1.24.

Nolse
The most common form of noise iuralyzedin communicationssystemsis white noise with a caussian (normal) di$tribution of amplitude values. This type of noise is both
-Crosstalk is also used to characterizesignallike interferencesin nonvoice networks. For cxample, crosstalk in a data circuit would refcr to an interfering signal being coupled in from another similar data circuit.

NETWOFK HIEHAHCHY I.2 THEANALOG

35

crosstalk, and Flgure I.24 Near-end far-end easy to analyze and easy to find since it arisesas thermal noise in all electrical components.Battery systemsused to power customerloops are also a sourceof this type of noise. White noise is truly random in the sensethat a sample at any in$tflntin time is completely unconelated to a sample taken at any other instant in time. The other most cornmon forms of noise in the telephonenetwork are impulse noise and quantization noise in digital voice terminals (Chapter 3). Impulse noise can occur from switching transientsin older electromechanicalswitching offices or ftom rotary dial telephones.Step-by-stepswitcheswere the most frequent culprits. More modern elecreed relays for crosspointsprotromechanical switches that use glass-encapsulated duce much less noise. Whereaswhite noise is usually quantified in terms of average power, impulse noise is usually measuredin tems of so many impulses per second. Impulse noise is usually of less concernto voice quality than backgroundwhite noise. However, impulse noise tendsto be the greatestconcernin a datacommunicationscircuit. is The power level of any disturbing signal, noise or interf'erence, easily measured (rms) voltmeter. However, disturbancesat some frequencies with a root-mean-square within the passbandof a voice signal are subjectively more annoying than others. of Thus. more useful measurements noise or interferencepower in a speechnetwork subjectiveeffects of the noise as well as the power level. The two take into accountthe weighting curve and in morttcornmon such measurements telephony use a C-message as shown in Figure 1.25. These curves essentially a psophometric weighting curve, representfilters that weight the frequency spectrum of noise according to its annoythe weighting represent$ responseof the 500-type anceeff'ectto a listener. C-message quality is concerned,only the noise that gets telephoneset. As f'ar as perceived voice between I and 2 kHz passed the telephonesetis imporlant. Notice that disturbances by are most. perceptible. C-message weighting is used in North America while psophometricweighting is the European (ITU-T) standard. A standardnoise referenceusedby telephoneengineersis I pW, which is l0-12 W, or -90 dBm (dBm is power in decibelsrelative to a milliwatt). Noise measuredrelative to this reference is expressedas so many decibels above the reference (dBrn). W Thus, a noise level of 30 dBrn correspondsto -60 dBm, or 10=e of power' If the by weighting, the power level is expressed the abreadingsare made using C-message breviation dBrnC. Similarly, psophometrically weighted picowatts are expressedby

36

BACKGROUND TEBMINOLOGY AND

c !

-10

tl fl
d

CE

-20

250

500

1000

zilro

40(n

(Hz) Frequency Figure 1.25 C-messageand psophometic weighting.

the abbreviation pWp. The relationshipsbetween various noise power measurements are given in Table L9. The quality of an analog voice circuit is usually not specified in terms of the classical signal-to-noiseratio. The reasonis that relatively low levels of noise or interference are noticeable during pau$e$in speech,when there is no signal. on the other hand, high levels of noise can occur during speechand be unnoticeable.Thus, absolute levels of noise are more relevant than signal-to-noiseratios for speciffing voice quality.- The objectives for maximum noise levels in the analog AT&T network were 2g dBrnC for connectionsup to 60 miles in length and 34 dBrnC for 1000-mile circuits.t

Die|p.rtlon In a previous section signal attenuations considered thetacitassumption were with

that a received waveform was identical in shape to a source waveform but merely scaleddown in amplitude. Actually, a received waveform generally contains certain distortions not attributable to external disturbancessuch as noise and interferencebut that can be attributed to internal characteristics of the channel itself. In contrast to noise and interference,distortion is deterministic; it is repeatedevery time the same signal is sentthrough the samepath in the network. Thus distortions can be controlled or compensated once the nature of the distortion is understood. for There are many different type$ and sources of distortion within the telephone network. The telephonecompaniesminimized thosetypesof distortion that most affected the subjectivequality of speech.Later on they also becameconcemedwith distortion effects on data transmission. Some distortions arise from nonlinearities in the network, such as carbon microphones, saturating voice-frequency amplifiers, and unis a "orn rron pracrice in the industry to specify the quality of a voice circuit in terms of a test-tone-to-noise ratio. However, the test tone must be at a specific power level so the ratio, in fact, power. *specifies absolutenoise 'These noise power values iue related to a particular point in a circuit, called ^ zero-transmission-Ievel paizt, discussedlater, *It

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY

37

between VariousNoise TABLE1.9 Relatlonships Measurement8 To Convert From dBm dBm dBm dBrn dBc pW 3 kHzllat 3 kHzflat 3 kHz flat 3 kHzflat To dBrn dBrnC dBp dBrnC dBp pwp Add90 dB AddBBdB Add87.5dB 2 Subtract dB Subtract dB 0.5 Multiply 0.562 by

(Chapter Otherdistottionsarelinearin natureandareusually 3). matched compandors in characterized the frequencydomainaseither amplitudedistortionor phasedistortion. in somefrequencies thevoicespectrum refersto attenuating Amplitudedistortion of one earlierrepresent means eliminatcoilsdiscussed The morethanothers. Ioading wire pairs.Amplitudedistortion ing amplitudedistoltionon long voice-frequency Ideallythese filtersin FDM equipment. by couldalsobeintroduced spectrum-limiting up frequencies to 4 kHz andrejectall othall uniformlypass voiceband filters should "roll-offs" beattenuation imply theneedfor gradual designs, however, ers.Practical respon$e the ginningat about3 kHz. Figure1.26shows attenuation-versus-frequency of toll of a typicalanalog connection thepast. medium' of is to Phase distortion related thedelaycharacteristics thetransmission in components a signalunishoulddelayall frequency sy$tem Ideallya transmission

c
E

a 3
c

* E

FreguencylkHzf

frequency oftypical toll connection. lossversus Figure 1.26 Insertion

38

BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLoGy

formly so the proper phaserelationshipsexist at the receiving terminal. If individuat frequency component$experiencediffering delays,the time-domain representation at the output becomesdistorted becausesuperpositionof the frequency terms is altered at the output. For reasonsnot discussed herethe delay of an individual frequencycomponent is usually referredto as its envelopedelay. For a good explanationofenvelope delay seereference[5]. Uniform envelopedelay relatesto a phasere$ponse ttrat is directly proportional to frequency. Thus systemswith uniform envelope delay are also referred to as linear phasesystems.Any deviation from a linear phasecharacteristicis referred to as phase distortion. The perceptualeffects ofphase distortion to a voice signal are small. Thus only minimal attention need be given to the phaserespon$eof a voice network. The phaserespon$eand correspondingenvelope delay providecl by a typical analog toll connection is shown in Figure 1.27. In addition to the distortionsjust mentioned, analog carrier systemssometimesintroduced other frequency-relateddistortions such as frequency offsets, jitter, phase hits, and signal dropouts.The effects ofthese imperfections and phasedistortion were adequately controlled for voice traffic but presented difficulties for high-rate voiceband data traffic.

Echoee and Slnging Echoes singingbothoccurasa resultof transmitted and signals beingcoupled into a returnpathandfedbackto therespective sources. mostcommon The cause thecouof pling is an impedance mismatch a four-wire-to-two-wire at hybrid.As shownin Figure 1.28, mismatches cause signals theincoming in branch a four-wirecircuitto get of coupledinto the outgoingbranchand retum to the source.In the older networkwith two-wireanalogendoffice switches, wasimpractical providegoodimpedance it to matches thispointfor all possible at connections sincethetwo-wiresideof thehvbrid

(kHrl Frquency Figure 1.27 Envelope delay and phaseresponseof typical toll connection.

HIERARCHY 39 NETWOFK 1.2 THEANALOG

interface. at of Figure 1.28 Generation echos two-wire-to-four-wire could be connectedto many different local loops, eachwith its own characteristicimpedance. "talker echo." [f a second If only one reflection occurs,the situation is refened to as "listener echo" results.When the returning signal is repeatedlycoureflection occurs. pled back into the tbrward path to produce oscillations, singing occurs' Basically, singing resultsifthe loop gain at somefrequency is greaterthan unity' Ifthe loop gain is only slightly less than unity, a near-singing condition causesdamped oscillations. Singing and near-singingconditions have a disturbing effect on both the talker and the listener. Talker echo is usually the most noticeable and ffoublesome. experiencedby a talker is dependenton both the The degree of echo annoyiunce ' magnitudeof the returning signal and the amount of delay involved U 6' 171 On short connections the delay is small enough that the echo merely appears to the talker as natural coupling into his ear. In fact, a telephoneis purposely designedto couple some speech energy (called sidetone) into the earpiece. Otherwise, the telephone seems echoesmerely add to the sidetoneand go unnodead to a talker. Near-instantaneous to however, it becomesnecessary increasingly As the roundtrip delay increases, ticed. echoesto eliminate the annoyanceto a talker' Hence, long-distancecirattenuatethe cuits require significant attenuationto minimize echo annoyance'Fortunately, an echo twice as much attenuationas doesthe forward-propagatingsignal sinceit experiences traversestwice the distance.Intermediate-lengthconnections are typically designed with 2-6 dB of path attenuationdependingon the delay. All transmissionlinks within the Bell System were designedwith specific amounts of net loss called via net loss (VNL) that dependedon the length of the link and the position in the hierarchy [17]. In general,the VNL network design establishedend-to-endattenuationin proportion to the length of the circuit Connectionsthat producemore than 45 msecof roundtrip delay (representing1800 miles of wire) require more attenuation for echo control than can be tolerated in the forward path. In thesecasesone of two types of deviceswas used to control the echo: or an echo suppressor an echo canceller. As shown in Figure 1.29, an echo suppressoroperateson four-wire circuits by measuringthe speechpower in each leg and inserting a large amount of loss (35 dB typically) in the oppositeleg when the power level exceedsa threshold.Thus, a returning echo is essentially blocked by the high level of attenuation.Notice that an echo convertsa full-duplex circuit into a half-duplex circuit with energy sensing riuppressor being the meansof turning the Iine around. for One drawback of echo suPPressors voice circuits,was that they might clip beIf portions of speechsegments. a party at one end of a connectionbegins talkginning

40

BACKGROUND TEBMINOLOGY AND

Figure 1.29 Echosuppressor. ing at the tail end of the other parfy's speech,the echo suppres$or does not have time to reversedirections. Echo suppressors with good performanceare able to reversedirections in 2-5 msec [16]. For the fastest possible releaseof backward attenuation, split-echo suppressors necessary. split-echo suppressor one that separates are A is the echo control of each direction so the loss insertion of each direction is closest to the point of echo occurrence. A second,and much preferred,form of echo contror is echo cancellation [lg, I ga]. As shown in Figure 1.30, an echo canceller operatesby simulating the echo path to subtract a properly delayed and attenuated copy of a transmined signal from the receive signal to remove (cancel) echo components.Thus echo cancellation requires training to determine how much delay and attenuation are neededto simulate the echo characteristicsof the circuit. Notice in Figure 1.30 that echoesare canceledclose to the source so that delays in the echo canceller are minimized. The important feature of an echo cancelleris that it maintains a full-duplex circuit so clipping doesnot occur. Satellite circuits with greaterthan 500 msec of roundtrip delay required echo cancellers for acceptableperformance.Becausethe cost of digital signal processing(DSp) technology has dropped so dramatically, echo cancellersare now usedin any situation requiring echo control. Full-duplex voiceband modems (v.32 and rater) incorporate echo cancellers directly in their receive circuitry. Thus, network-basedecho cancellers are unnecessary*-and sometimes undesirablebecausetandem echo cancelling may not work properly if two echo cancellers do not cooperatein the haining process. Networkbasedecho cancellerscan therefore be disabled by a modulated 2lfi)-Hz tone (echo suppressor$ were also disabled with a 2100-Hz tone) transmitted at the start of a connection[19]. Another method of echo control involves impedancematching of the hybrids to reduce the magnitude of the echo. some electronic hybrids provide dynamic balancing to automatically eliminate or reduceechoes.In fact, a coflrmon way of implementing the impedancematching is to build an echo cancellerwith near-zerodelay. Thesecircuits eliminate, or greatly reduce,echoesoccurring at the associated hybrid but do not eliminate echoesthat may occur elsewherein the network. For a detailed discussion
"If ttre terminal (e.g., modem) echo canceller has insufhcient delay buffering for very long echoes, the network echo canceller at the far end of a corurection may be necessary.

-Tl I L F 1

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIEFARCHY

41

Figure 1.30 Echocanceller' of all types of echo control, seereference[20]. In general,the proceduresusedto control echoesalso control singing. On some fairly short connections,however, no echo and singing may becomea problem' conffol is necessary,

1.2.9 PowerLevels
voice signal power in a long-distanceconnection As indicated in previous paragraphs, needsto be rigidly controlled. The tlelivereclsignal power must be high enough to be clearly perceivedbut, at the sametime, not be so strong that circuit instabilities such as echo and singing result' To maintain rigid control on the end-to-endpower level of a circuit involving a variety of transmissionsy$tems,telephonecompaniesnecessarilycontrolled the net attenuation and amplification of each analog transmissionsystem.These systemswere designedfor a certain amount of net loss (VFil-) as describedpreviously. To administer the net loss of transmissionlinks, the fransmissionlevels of various points in a transmissionsyrttemare specifiedin terms of a referencepoint- ITU-T recommendations call this point the zero-relative-level point and the North American point (0-TLP). The referencepoint may not exist as term is a zero-transmission-level point but has long been consideredto be at the sendingend terminal of an accessible a two-wire switch. In North America the sendingend of a four-wire switch is defined to be a *z-dB TLP. Hence, a 0-dB TLP is only a hypothetical point on a four*wire circuit. Nevertheless,it is useful in relating the signal level at one point in the circuit to the signal level at anotherpoint in the circuit. If a O-dBm (l-mW) test tone is applied at a O-TLP, the power level at any other directly (in decibels referred to I mW) as the TLP point in the circuit is <letermined however, that TLP values do not specify value at that point. It should be emphasized, power levels; they specify only the gain or loss at a point relative to the referencepoint. Signal power levels or noi$e power levels are not normally expressedin terms of in local measuredvalues.Instead,powers are expressed tetms of their value at the 0if an absolute noise power of 100 pw (20 dBrn or -70 dBm) is TLP. For example, "0" indicates that the measuredat a -6-dB TLP, it is expressedas 26 dBrnQ. (The specification is relative to the O-TLP.) If noise power is measuredwith C-message weighting, it is designatedas so many dBmC0. Similarly, psophometric weighted

42

BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINOLoGY

-zdB TLP

_l3dB TLP Figure1.31 TLp values Example for l.l.

_4d8 TLP

noise is commonly expressed units of picowattspsophometrically in weighted (dBm0por pWpO). Example1.1. using Figure1.31for reference, determine each thefollowing:(a) of the signalpowerto be appliedat point B ro determine pointsA and c are at the if properlevels;(b) the amountof gain (loss)a signalexperiences whenpropagating from A to c; and(c) theamount noisethatwouldbe measured c if zj dbrnc of of at absolute noiseis measured B andno additionat at noiseoccurs theB-to-c link. on solution. (a) Because pointB is a -l3dB TLp, theproper tonelevelis -13 dBm test (0.05mw). (b) Because TLP values the dropby 2 dBm,thereis 2 dB netlossfrom A to c. (c) An absolute measuremenr 27 dBmc at B is 40 dBmc0. This is also40 dBmc0 of at C. Theabsolute powermeasured C wouldbe40 - 4 =36dBmC. noise at To put signalandnoisepowers perspective, survey voicesignals theBell in a of in system[21] indicated average rhe speech signalhas-16 dBm0of power.hr comparison,the noisepowerobjectivefor a 1000-mile analogcircuit was 34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBmCO). Thus,thenoiseis 40 dB belowthe signalpower. 1.2.10 $ignallng The signalingfunctionsof a telephone networkrefer to the means transferring for network-related controlinformation between variousterminals, the switching noaes, andusers the network.Therearetwo basicaspects any signaling of of system: specially encoded electrical (signals) how these waveforms and waveforms should inbe terpreted. mostcommon The controlsignals a useraredial tone,ringback, busy to and tone.These signals refered to ascall progres$ are tonesandmay neverchange. The signaling procedures usedinternallyto the networkarenot constrained userconby ventionandwereoftenchanged suit particular to characteristics transmission of and switchingsystems. a result,the analognetworkuseda wide varietyof signaling As schemes transfer to controlinformation between switching offices. Signallng Functlone signalingfunctions be broadlycategorized belonging oneof two rype$: can as to supervisory information or bearing. Supervisory signals conveystatu$ conffolofnetor work elements. mostobviousexamples reque$t service The are (off-hook),ready for

43 NETWORKHIERARCHY 1.2 THEANALOG to receive address(dial tone), call alerting (ringing), call termination (on-hook), request for an operator or feature invocation (hook flash), called party ringing (ringback), and network or called party busy tones. Information bearing signals include calling party address,and toll charges.In addition to call-related called pafiy address, signaling functions, switching nodescommunicatebetween themselvesand network control centersto provide certain functions relatedto network management'Networkrelated signals may convey statussuch as maintenancetest signals, all trunks, busy, or equipmentfailures or they may contain information relatedto routing and flow confor someof the basic considerationsof network management trol. Chapter7 discusses routing and flow control.

or signaling in-channel with oneof two basictechniques: are Signals tran;mitted "per-trunk (sometimes to referred as signaling In-channel signaling. common-channel as for facilitiesor channel signaling for voice' transmission uses same the signaling") for uses channel all one in as signaling, discussed thenextsection, Common-channel systems In functionsof a groupof voicechannels. the pastmostsignaling signaling variety. networkwerethein-channel in thetelephone into in-bandand out-ofcan systems be further subdivided signaling In-channel band in information thesame the systems transmit signaling In-band bandtechniques. is of signal.The main advantage in-bandsignaling usedby the voice of frequencies from a arises Themaindisadvantage medium. thatit canbe usedon anytransmission and waveforms a user's the between signaling mutualinterference needto eliminate (SF) wassingle-frequency of example in-bandsignaling The speech. mostprevalent trunks'Alfor interoffice toneasanon-hooksignal whichuseda 2600-Hz signaling, disconnects inadvertent a rarelyproduces pure26ff)-Hzsignal, though normalspeech of examples Two othercommon signals. as haveoccurred a resultof user-generated (DTMF) signals from multifrequency by are in-bandsignaling addressing dual-tone offices' switching (MF) signaling between or push-button telephones multifrequency facilitiesasthe voicechannel the signaling uses same but out-of-band ln-channel a represents signaling band'Thusout-of-band but a differentportionofthe frequency of a singlevoicecircuit.Themostcoilmon instance out-of-band form of FDM within loops.With thisform of signaling, as is signaling dc signaling usedon mostcustomer in by off-hookcondition theflow ofdirect current the the officerecognizes thecentral generated a rotarydial at a by aredial pulses usedloop signals line. Othercommonly per and rateof 10 pulses second a 20-Hzringingvoltagefrom the centraloffice' All Thusthereis no generated speech' in than use of these signals lowerfrequencies those of Themajordisadvantage out-of-band for possibilityofonebeingmistaken theother. SSBcarriersysFor system' example, on is signaling its dependence thetransmission Thus,the with associated eachvoicechannel. temsfiher out the verylow frequencies for like to signalmustbe converted something SF signaling FDM on-hooVoff-hook the above with frequencies is signaling alsoimplemented Out-of-band transmission. filters but belowthe 4-kHz limit of a channel' of voiceseparation cut-off frequency the CCITT recommends useof 3825Hz for this purpose.

In-Ghannel Slgnaling

44

BACKGEoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

link between the stored-programcontrol elements(computers)of switching systems. Figure 1.32depicts sucha datalink betweentwo switching offices. Notice that the pertrunk signaling equipment associatedwith the trunks has been eliminated. The data link sendsmessage$ identify specific trunks and eventsrelated to the trunks. Thus that the type of ccs shown in Figure I.32 is refened to as "channel-associated" commonchannel signaling. The main advantages CCS arel of 1. only one set of signaling facilities is neededfor each associatedtrunk group insteadof separate facilities for each individual circuit. 2. A single dedicated confrol channel allows transfer of information such as addressdigits directly between the control elements (computers) of switching offices. In-channel system$, on the other hand, must have the control information switched from the common control equipment of the originating office onto the outgoing channel, and then the receiving office must switch the incoming control information from the voice channel into its common control equipment' The simpler procedurefor transferringinformation directly between switch processorsis one of the main motivations for CCS. 3. since separatechannels are used for voice and control, there is no chance of mutual interference. 4. Since the control channelof a common-channelsystemis inaccessibleto users, a major meansfor fraudulent use of the network is eliminated. 5. connections involving multiple switching offices can be set up more rapidly since forwarding of control information from one office can overlap a circuit set up through the node. With in-channel systemsthe associated circuit must first be establishedbefore the control information can be transferredacrossit. The ccs data link can al$o operateat a much higher data rate than common analog network signaling schemes,implying even faster connection setup. 6. The channel used for ccs does not have to be associatedwith any particular trunk group. In fact, the control information can be routed to a centralieed conhol facility where requestsare processedand from which switching offices
PerChanrrel Signeling

Common-Channel Signaltng Instead sending of signaling information thesame over facilities carry mesthat the sage haffic(voice signals), common-channel (ccs) uses dedicated signaling a data

Flgure 1.32 Trunk-group-associated common-channel signaling.

45 HIERAHCHY NETWORK 1.2 THE ANALOG receive their connection control information. Figure 1.33 depicts a CCS network that is disassociated from the mes$age network structure. One with knowledge ofcentralized control is its ability to processrequests advantage of networkwide traffic conditions. Centralized control is also atffactive for . managing multiple switching offices that are too small to warrant call processingfacilities of their own. The transition from in-channel signaling to CCS at the network level is analogousto the lower level transition disassociated from direct progressive control switches ($tep-by-step) to common control switches. of The major disadvantages CCS are: 1. Control information pertaining to an establishedcircuit, such as a disconnect, must be relayed from one node to the next in a store-and-forwardfashion' An in-channel disconnect signal, on the other hand, automatically propagates through the network, enabling all nodes involved in the connection to facilities. simultaneouslyprocessthe disconnectand releasethe associated 2. If one node in a common-channel system fails to relay the disconnect information properly, facilities downstream from the disconnect will not be released. Thus, a high degree of reliability is required for the common channel-both in term$ of physical facilities (duplication) and in terms of error control for the data link. 3. Since the control information ftaver$esa separatepath from the voice signal, there is no automatic test of the voice circuit as when the voice channel is used to transfer control information. Initial usageof CCS sy$temsincluded special provisions for testing a voice circuit when it was set up' 4. In some instancesall trunks in a group do not logically terminate at the same switch. Figure 1.34 depicts a multiplexed transmissionlink from a PBX to the

gNetwork

_-t

control c6nter

/'

r/ Control circult

Figure 1.33 Dissociatedcommon-channel signaling network'

46

BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

(D Channel)

ccs

DigitEl Cros*Connect Systom

*""S9#
Local Serving Office

Tie Line FBX PBX

Figure 1.34 TDM Iink with multiple destinationsfor the channels.

public network.As indicated, someof the channels compose trunk groupto a the local CO but otherchannels may represent lines to otherPBXs or foreign tie exchange circuitsro othercos. The digital cross-connect system(DCs) is a specialized switchingsystem(described Chapter5) that routesindividual in circuitswithin a trunk groupto individuallocations. CCSis implemented If on thetrunkgroup(asin anISDN primaryrateinterface, described chapterl1), in the signaling information the laffertwo trunk groups for terminates the co. at The CO must then forward the informationto the respective destinations (assuming those destinations equipped are with CCS).All-in-all rhese lanertwo cases easier handle thesignaling are to if information accompanies message the channels it doesautomatically as with in-channel signaling. As a final note,it shouldbe pointedout thatsomesignaling functions originating or terminating with an end userinherently requirein-channel implementations. For example, terminals data wishingto disable echosuppressors echocancellers dialor in up connections to send need special tones getrecognized echocontrolelements that by in the circuit. In similarfashionautomatic originatingfacsimileequipment generate I 100-Hz tones allowautomatic to recognition theoriginating of equipment at the type destination.

1.2.11 Analog Intedaces The design, implementation, maintenance any largeandcomplexsystem and of requirepaditioningof the system into subsystems. Associated with eachsubsystem is an interfacethat definesthe inputs and ouSuts independent internal implementaof tions'Well-established interfaces a fundamental are requirement maintain to compatibility between old and new equipment.within the u.s. telephonenetwork

HIERAR0HY47 NETWoRK 1.2 rHEANALoc standardized interfaces are particularly necertsaryto support competition among equipment suppliers and service providers in almost all facets of the network' The ptiniiput analog interfaces used in the periphery of the network are subscriber loops, ioop-start trunks, ground-starttrunks, direct-inward-dial trunks, and E&M trunks.

$ubscriher LooP lntartace of connection indithe involves two-wire in interface thenetwork common Themost Because loop the lines vidual telephone to endofficeswitches: subscriber intedace.
(2500stationsets)andthe electrometelephones of the natureof industrystandard has this to chanical switches whichtheywereoriginallyconnected, interface a number circuittechnology. integrated with modem that of characteristics aredifficult to satisfy of characteristics this interfaceare; The fundamental l. Battery:Applicationof dc power to the loop (48 V normally)to enabledc microphones' for and signaling providebiascurrent carbon from lightning and of Protection equipment personnel Protection: 2. Overvoltage strikes powerline inductionor shorts. and 3. Ringing:Applicationofa20-HzsignalatS6Vrmsforringerexcitation.Typical is cadence 2 secon and4 secoff. by of Detection off-hoolq/on-hook flow/no-flowof dc current' 4. Supervision: or to 5. Test:Access thelineto testin eitherdirection-toward thesubscriber back into the switch. required; twoare In the caseof a digital endoffice,two morefunctions necessarily (and digital-tocoding (hybrtil and analog-to-digital conversion wire-to-four-wire to are functions referred asBORSCHT'The these Takentogether, decoding). analog in is of basicimplementation a BORSCHTinterface described the contextof digital 5. in switching Chapter LooP-Start Trunks (usuallybetween switches between (LS) h'unkis a two-wireconnection A loop-start pointof view,anLS trunkis identical officeanda PBX).Fromanoperational a central by a in loop.Thusan LS interface a PBX emulates telephone closing to a subscriber for ringingvoltages inand the loop to drawcurrentfor call origination by detecting generally waitsfor a few the information, PBX interface address To comingcatls. send DTMF tonesor generbeforesending that seconds assumes a dial toneis present and providedial tonedetection PBXs loop cunent)tsome by atingdial pulses interrupting can and recognized addressing be are or sofaulty equipment connections mordAasily sentassoonasthe otherendis ready. | 1 of whenbothends theline difficulty with two-#ayLS trunksarises Onesignificant endsof theline both time)'Because time (or nearlythesame seize line at thesame the is hung.This situation commonly think they areoriginatinga call, the line becomes digits,it will recog* a referred asglare.Ifthe PBX detects dial tonebeforesending io nize the glareconditionby timing out on the wait for dial tone andcanthengenerate

48

BAcKGRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

a disconnect to releasethe glare condition but drop the incoming call. More commonly, the PBX blindly sendsthe addressdigits and connectsthe originating pBX station to the line. Generally, this meansthe incoming call gets connectedto the wrong station. For this reason,LS trunks are normally used only as one-way trunks: either one-way incoming or one-way outgoing.

Ground-StartTrunks
The aforementionedproblem with glare on two-way LS trunks can be largely resolved by augmenting the call origination proces$to use ground-start(GS) procedures [22]. When originating a call, the end office applies a ground potential to the tip lead of the tip and ring pair and waits for the pBX to acknowledgethe seizure by drawing loop current. when the PBX originates a call, it first applies ground to the ring teao ana closesthe loop waiting for loop current. (The co doesnot apply battery during an idle stateas it does in ar Ls interface.) The co acknowledgesthe connect r.quest by upplying battery to the tip/ring pair and momentarily applying ground to the tip. (Mai;taining low-noise circuits requiresremoval of all pathsto ground during the connected $tate.) A GS protocol prevents simultaneousseizuresunless the originations occur within a few hundred milliseconds of each other. In contrast, an LS protocol allows multiple seizuresto occur with windows up to 4 sec (the silent interval betweenring bursts).Moreover, a glare condition on GS trunks can be recognizedby the interface equipment so it can be resolved by redirecting the calls to different trunk circuits. Another advantageof GS trunks is the ability of the CO to signal network disconnectsto the PBX (the co remove$battery). witir I-s trunks the network doesnor generally provide disconnectsignaling so the pBX must rely on the end user to hang up. (A situation that often produces hung trunks with data connections.) Furthermore. when the co placesan incoming call that eventually gets abandoned, becauseno one answers,a co immediately signals the abandonmentby removing ground from the tip lead. with LS trunks, abandonecl calls can be recognized only by the absenceof ring voltage, which can take 6 sec.

incoming callssoa PBX canimmediately routethecall to a destination withoutgoing throughan attendant. contrast LS andCS trunks,the pBX endof a DID trunk In to provides batteryvoltagesothe co cansignalanincomingcall by merelyclosingthe loop to draw current. After the PBX reverse$ batterymomentarily (winks)to signify it is readyto receive digits,theco eithergenerates pulses DTMF tones send dial or to theextension number (two,three, four digits).Ai'terthedesignated or station answer$, thePBX reverses batteryagainto signifythe connected stateandhotdsthat statefor theduration ofthe call.DID trunksarealsoreferred as..loopreverse-battery to $upervision" trunkswith variations the signaling in protocoldepending the typeof co on

Di rect4nward-Dial Trunke Direct-inward-dial trunks particularly (DID) are simple two-wire trunkinterfaces because arealways they one-way trunts:incoming withrespect a pBX.As imonly to pliedby thename, theyallowa serving to forward extension co the number of

122t.

HIERARGHY 49 1.2 THEANALocNETwoRK

to as an in As indicated Figure1.35, E&M trunkis defrned anintetface a transmission in itself.The interface Figure1.35hasa foursystem not a kansmission and sy$tem renrmlead(SG),andanM leadwith an wire voicepath,anE leadwith an associated to (SB).Thusthereareeightwiresin this interface(referred asa type return associaled types of E&M interfacesare defined with as few as four II E&M interface).Other returns). wires[23] (atwo-wirevoicepath,anE lead,andanM leadwith earthground on is signaling alwaysconveyed theE supervision of E&M interface, In anytype off-hookby closing The noton thevoicepair(orpairs). PBX signifies and andM leads off-hook indicates equipment the M-SB loop to draw currentwhile the transmission conveys equipment How thetransmission E-SGloop to drawcurrent. by closingthe are link. is a functionof thetransmission A varietyof timingprotocols thesupervision or DTMF tones dial whichcanbein-channel signaling, of addless for defined the$tart E on opens therespective andM leads' generated momentary by pulses signalingis formally definedasjust an interface,they are often Althbugh E&M of between PBXs.Because used(withup to four pairsof wires)asdirectconnections usuallyoccurwhenthePBXsare pairs,suchapplications for therequirement multiple conThe complex. availabilityof extemal located within a singlebuildingor campus such applications aspagingsysfor of E&M interfaces special allowstheuse trol leads tems.wheretheM leadcanbe usedto tum on the loudspeaker' 1.2.12 The IntelligentNetwork in facilitiesof AT&T wereinstalled thetoll netsignaling channel Thefirst common and wiSCOnsin, a No. 4 ESs switchin Madison, a work between No. 4A crossbar sPc ccs datalinks between switchin chicago,Illinois, in 1976[24].The2400-bps costsand facilitiesto reduce SFA4Fsignaling in-channel switchingofficesreplaced times.As moreandmoreof thetoll connect speed long-distance-call up significantly a with CCScapabilities, CCSnetworkevolvedthat not wereimplemented switches a networkbut alsoestablished platform of only improvedtheperformance theexisting the in Figure1.36, CCSnetworkbeAs of for theintroduction newfeatures. indicated

E&MTrunks

Figure 1.35 TyPelI E&M interface.

50

BAcKcRouNoANDTERMtNoLocy

Figure 1.36 CCSnetworMntelligent networkplatform. came a disassociated packet-switching network that separated control of the network from the swirching machinesthemselves. The packet-switching nodes of the CCS network are referred to as signal transfer points (srPs). The network control points (NCps) of Figure 1.36 initially represented network database serversthat defined how to route calls, verify credit cards,or process specialservicessuch as 800 numbers.The samebasic structureis also installed within the LATAs to extend ccs featuresall the way to the end offices. The original communicationsprotocol used betweenccs entities was ccITT signaling system No. 6 (ccs6). In the early 1980sthis protocol was replaced by ccITT signaling system No. 7 (SS7). Seereference[25] for a good overview of SS7. As the capabilitiesof the NCps are expandedfrom being databaseserversro processingservicerequests,the concept of an intelligent network (IN) 126l begins to take shape.In its ultimate form advancedservicesof the network are executedin the NCps. or service control points (sCPs), as they are called in the IN, and not in the switching machinesthemselves. The switching machinesprovide only the switching fabric; connection commandscome from an SCp. The fundamentalmotivations behind developing the IN are: I ' To enable the deployment of network-basedfeatures such as citywide centrex mentionedpreviously 2. To allow the introduction of new features without having to change the hardware or software of switching vendors

To speed thedesign/deployment ofnew features up cycle because thescp onlv softwareneeds upgrading 4. To allow customizing services theoperating of by companies according the to needs theircustomers of
The obvious disadvantageof such centralized control is the vulnerability of the network to a failure in the SS7 network or the SCP. For this reasonbasic serviceis likely to remain with the switching machines.In this case, softwarc in the switching machines recognizes special service situations as software triggers to involve an scp.

51 1.2 THEANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY Leaving basic service processingin the switching machinesalso reducesthe load on the SS7 links and the processingspeedin the SCPs.

1.2.13 Dynamic NonhierarchlcalRoutlng shownin Figure 1.4for the hierarchicalnetworkof routing procedures The alternate of because the original simpleand straightforward the Bell Systemwerenecessarily leadsto the Suchsimplicity,however, switchingmachines. relianceon mechanical following limitations: of of the l. Eventhough topology thenetworkwouldallowa largenumber routing limited the actual were selected on consfiaints how the routes altematives, choicesto a relatively small number. according the time of day or to could not be changed 2. The routing patterns c Patterns. networktraffi setupprecludedretracinga path to a previous of 3. The proce$s progressive choiceled to a node'and trying a new,untriedroutewhena previous switching nodethatwasblocked' may haveinvolveda large numberof intermediate connection 4. A completed for facilitiesusinga lot ofnetwork resources oneconnection' logic in each from usingrelativelysimpledecision resulted deficiencies All of these of as the networkstatus a whole.The introduction SPC of nodewith no knowledge sothatmoreefficientroutineprothe machines CCSchanged situation and switching of the Along theselines,AT&T completed deployment dywerepossible. cedures of features DNHR Specific routing(DNHR) in 1987127,281. namicnonhierarchical are: in twolink routes the orderof cost in Routingtables theNCPslist all possible are so useof networkresources minimized. ) Routingis dynamicto take advantage traffic noncoincidence' of "crankback," whichallowsselection node Blockingat anintermediate produces of untriedroutesfrom the originatingnode. in too 4. Routesthat produce muchdelayfor the echocancellers the circuit are
l.

excluded. Day blockingon Thanksgiving fuom34flo that Reference reports DNHR reduced [28] Day traffic sawthreeto of in in 1986toSVo 1987.After installation DNHR Mother's of as completions before.Theimplementation DNHR four fimesasmanyflir$t-attempt is that demonsffates a network architecture asmucha function of the softwarein the controlof a that It topology. alsodemonstrates centralized networkasof thephysical bug to networkis morevulnerable failures.On January15, 1990,an obscure in the

52

BA0KGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

CCS software of the No. 4 ESS switchesin AT&T's long-distancenetwork prevented completion of many calls during a 9-hour period [291.Ironically, the bug occurred in software intended to isolate the network from a node failure. The combination of large digital switches,large-bandwidth (fiber optic) rran$mission links, and developmentof the SS7 network has stimulateda transition from hierarchical networks to "flat" networks wherein switching nodesare interconnectedin a functional mesh-switches are either connected directly to each other or through cross-connectfacilities (DCSs and SONET rings describedlater).

1.2.14 Cellular RadioTelephone System

Prior to 1983 mobile telephoneusersin the United Stateswere restricted to using the servicesof radio common carriers (RCCs) that had limited bandwidth and limited resourcesavailablefor services.The serviceenvironment was necessarilyone of limited availability and extremecongestion.October 1983 marks a significant datefor mobile telephony as the time when commercial cellular mobile telephone service started in chicago, Illinois. As indicated in Figure 1.37, acellular system consistsof a number of radio basestationsconnectedto a (digital) switching office refened to as the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). As a mobile subscribermove$ from one cell to another, the MTSO automatically switches connectionswith the respectivebase stations to maintain a continuousconnectionwith the public switchednetwork. The basic advantages the cellular architectureare: of l. The ability to reuse allocatedchannel frequencieswithin a serving area.Using a combination of antennadirectivity in the basestationsand signal attenuation

Figure 1.37 Cellularmobiletelephone topology.

53 1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIEHARCHY from distant cells, the same channel can be reu$edin one of every sevencells

for 2. Reduced transmitpower requirements the mobiles.The power savings is primarily one of reducing the cost of the for advantage automobiles for is unitsthepowersavings important batterysize For transmitter. hand-held acceptance useofpersonal and In fact,widespread recharges. andtimebetween requiremuch lower transmitpower levels and consequently radio systems smaller cells[31]. imply less Shorterdistances of occlrrences multipathpropagation. 3. Reduced multipathsignaldegradation. causing chance signalreflections of large cells to A 4. Expandability. systemcan be installedwith comparatively is grow andrevenue being requirements costs. After service minimizestart-up by received,the capacityof the systemcan be expanded subdividingthe cells. congested if coverage, overlapping havesignificant the 5. Reliability.Because cellsactually are until repairs made. cellscanprovideservice onecell fails, neighboring
The FCC in the United Stateshas defined 728 mobile service areasreferred to as cellular geographicservice areas(CGSAs). Each CGSA is allocated 832 radio channels, which are equally divided between two competing service providers; one a wireline carrier and the other a nonwireline carier. The wireline carrier provides local telephone servicein the areabut competeswith the nonwireline canier (RCC) for cellular service. To ensure effective competition, the wireline carrier must not use facilities that are sharedwith local telephoneservice.Specifically, the MTSOs must be separate from the local switching offices. Thus, both types of carriers must backhaul all traffic to their respectiveMTSOs. The service providers can have more than one MTSO in an areabut cannot interconnectthem by the switched public network. They are typically interconnectedby leasedprivate lines (fiber) or digital microwave. Cellular networks have grown to cover large areas interconnectedby dedicated long-distance facilities that allow $omecafriers to offer free long-distancecalling when using a cellular phone. When a mobile unit first activatesitself, it scansthe channelsto determine which idle channelofapredefined setofcontrol channelshasthe strongestsignal. Using that channel the unit registers with the system to identify itself and place calls- After the initialization proce$$,the network continually monitors signals from the mobile and To conffols it to switch channelswhen necessary. complete calls to a mobile, the celsubscriberbeginning with its home cell (unless lular network pagesfor the clesignated the cellular control centeralreadyknows where the subscriberis located).When a subscriber crossesan MTSO boundary, in addition to a cell boundary, a common-channel signaling network is used to transfer the call to the new cell and the new MTSO. The connection to the public network is unchanged.Thus, the original MTSO then becomes a tandem node to the public network' Examples of analog cellular system$are Advanced Mobile Phone service (AMPS) Total Access [30, 32], developedin the United Statesand deployedin North America;

t301.

54

BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

communications system (TAcs), developedin the united Kingdom and deployed in several European countries; and the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) sy$tem, deployed in Scandinavia.As discussedin Chapter 9, digital cellular systemshave been developedto either replace the analog sy$temsor provide service altematives. 1.2.15 Voiceband DataTransmisslon

The primary concern of telephonecompanies,voice service,is sometimesreferred to as Pors: plain old telephoneservice.In addition to pors, the telephonecompanies also provide a number of special servicessuch as program distribution of radio and television, telephoto, teletype, facsimile, and data transmission.In most cases,these servicesare supportedby adaptingthe sourcesto use the ubiquitous voice-gradetelephone channel. An exception is television distribution, which was an initial stimulus for the nationwide microwave radio network. To a certain extent, wideband FDM voice signals were designedto conform to the network TV distribution facilities. Nationwide TV distriburion is now primarily by sarellitesand fiber. one significant aspectofa voicebandtelephonechannelin regardsto nonvoice applications is the absence dc and low-frequency transmission.Although the metallic of circuit provided in customerloops passes frequenciesdown to and including dc, most of the rest of the network does not. The equipmentsthat are primarily responsiblefor blocking the low frequenciesare ffansformers in two-wire to four-wire hybrids, old FDM separationfilters, and digital voice encodersthat purposely block low frequencies to avoid 60-Hz hum (that arisesfrom power line interference).Becausebaseband signalsfrom facsimile and most data applicationshave frequency content down to dc, thesesignals must be modulated for voicebandfransmission. A second consideration when using the telephone network for data is the bandwidth restriction of approximarely 3 kHz originally imposed by FDM separarionfilters, loading coils, and more recently band{imiting filters in digital voice terminals (Chapter3). The main implication of a resfficted bandwidth is a limitation on the signaling rate, or baud rate, which in turn directly relatesto the datarate. A common signaling rate is 2400 symbols per second using carriers between 1700 and 1g00 Hz. symbol ratesof 4800 symbols per secondhave arsobern usedin lower sidebandmodems with a carrier at 2850 Hz. As mentioned, user acceptance voice quality does not require stringent conhol of of the phaseresponse(envelopedelay) of the channel.High-speed data transmission, however, requires comparatively tight toleranceon the phaseresponseto prevent intersymbol interference.Thus analog voice channelsused for high-speeddata transmission sometimesrequired special treatrnent.The special treatunentwas originally provided at additional monthly rates from the telephonecompaniesin the form of ctype conditioning for leased lines. C-type conditioning was available in several different gradesthat provided various amounts of control of both phase and amplitude distortion. As digital signal processingtechnology becamecommercially viable, the needfor signal conditioning becamelessnecessary because modem equalizersaccomplished the samefunction.

55 HIEHARCHY ANALOG NETWORK 1.2 THE Most medium-rate (synchronous)modems include fixed equalizationcircuitry designed to compensate the phasedistortion in a typical connection.For higher data for rates,automatically adjustableequalizationis needed.An automaticequalizerfust undergoesa training sequencein which the characteristicsof the transmissionchannel to are determinedby measuringthe response known test signals.Then, equalizing cirin the receiver of each modem is adjusted (and continually readjustedduring cuitry hansmission) to provide compensationfor the amplitude and phasedistottions in the channel. High-speed transmissionover dial-up lines requires automatic equalization changewith each connection. in the modems since the channel characterjstics Another form of conditioning, referredto as a D-type conditioning, provided lower levels of noise and harmonic distortion than normally provided in leasedlines, even with C-type conditioning. D-type conditioning usually did not involve special treatment of any particular line. Instead, the telephone company tested a number of different circuits until one with suitablequality was found. Sometimesthis meant avoiding a cable that included pairs from a noisy switching office, Unlike voice, which is reasonably tolerant of impulse noise, a data circuit is more susceptibleto impulse noise than to the normal background (white) noise. The elimination of older equipment (e.g., step-by-stepswitches)has eliminated much of the impulse noi$e in the network. As more and more of the public network becamedigitized, fewer and fewer facilities were analog and, hence,fewer analog impairments were likely to occur in a connecrion.By the early 1990svirtually all of the internal portions of the public telephone of network had been digitized. The only remaining $egments a connection that were end offices. The were the subscriberloops and the interfacesin the associated analog principal source of impairment for voiceband modems then became the analog-todigiral (A/D) conversionequipmentin the line interfaces.Recognition of this situation completely eliminated the need for any type of conditioning on leasedlines (which were often digital and not analog) and allowed for the developmentof V.90 modems describedin Chapter I l. An important considerationfor data transmissionover long-distancecircuits in the As analog network was the effect of echo suppressors. mentioned in Section 1.2'8' an blocked the signal in a return path when the correspondingforward echo suppressor effectively path of a four-wire circuit was active. Thus, operative echo suppressors precluded a full-duplex operation. Even in a half-duplex mode of operation the echo might require 100 msec of deactivation time to reverse the direction of suppressor$ the propagation.For theserea$ons common carriersprovided a meansof disabling the by echo suppressors using an in-channel control signal from the data terminals. Echo were disabledby tran$mitting a pure tone between 2010 and 2240Hzfor suppressors remained disabled as long as there was continuous 400 msec. The echo suppressors energy in the channel. Thus, the modems could switch to signaling frequenciesand were first disabled.If the enbegin full-duplex datatransmissionafter the suppres$ors were reactivated. in the channel was removed for 100 msec,the echo suppressor$ ergy was required for half-duplex modemsutilizing the entire Hence, rapid line turnaround bandwidth for each direction of transmission. Contemporary modems have echo can*

56

BACKGRoUNDANDTEHMINoLoGY

cellers for full-duplex transmissionand thereforeautomatically disable echo suppressors (which are probably nonexistent).

1.3 THEINTRODUCTION DIGITS OF Voice digitization transmission became and first feasible thelate1950s in when solidstate electronics became available. 1962 System In Bell personnel established first the

commercial of digitaltransmission use whentheybegan operating T1 carriersystem a for useasa trunkgroupin a chicagoarea exchange After theTl system family a t331. of r-carrier systems (Tl, Tlc, TlD, Tz, T3, T4) weredeveloped, of which inall volvedtime divisionmultiplexing digitizedvoicesignals. of The world's first commercially designed digital microwave radio system wasestablished Japan Nippon ElecrricCompany(NEC) in 196g t341.In the earty in by 1970s digitalmicrowave systems began appear theUnitedStates specialized to in for datatransmission services. first digital microwavelink in the U.S. public teleThe phonenetworkwas supplied NEC of Japan a New york Telephone beby for link tweenBrooklyn and North statenIslandin lgTz 1341. DigitI microwavesystems weresubsequently developed installed several and by U.S.manufacturers usein for intermediate-length andexchange circuits. toll area Bell System's f,rrst commercial of digital fiber optic transmission use occurred in september 1980on a short-haul of routebetween Atlantaandsmyrna,Georgia[35]. Threeyears laterthefirst long-haul system between New york andwashington, D.c., wasput into service. In additionto ffansmission sy$tems, digital technology provento be equally has usefulfor implementing swirching functions. first country usedigitalswitching The to in thepublictelephone networkwasFrance 1970t361. firsr application digiin The of tal switchingin thepublicnetworkof theUnitedStates occurred early lg76 when in Bell systembegan operaring No. 4ESSt37l in a class toll officein chicago.Two its 3 months laterContinental Telephone companybegan operation Ridgecrest, in California,of a digitaltoll switch[38].Thefirst digitalendoffice switchin theUnitedStates becameoperationalinJuly of rgii inthesmalrtownof RichmondHill,Georgia[39]. 1.3.1 VolceDigitizatlon The basicvoice-coding algorithmusedin T-carriersystems most otherdigital and voiceequipment telephone in networks around worldis shown Figure1.3g. the in The first stepin the digitizationprocess to periodicallysample waveform. disis the As cussed lengthin Chapter all of theinformation at 3, needed reconstruct original to the waveform contained the samples thesamples is in if occurat an g-kHzrate.The second stepin the digitizationprocess involvesquantization; identifyingwhich amplitudeintervalof a groupof adjacent intervals sample a valuefalls into. In essence the quantization process replaces each continuously variable amplitude sample with a dis-

OF I.3 THEINTRoDUCTION DIGITS 57

tl -l -t -t
- l - 5 - 6 - l

Outntiz8tion

ttn

ul|l

Coding

Figure 1.38 Voice digitization Process'

crete value located at the middle of the appropriate quantization interval. Since the quantized sampleshave discretelevels, they representa multipleJevel digital signal. For transmission purposes the discrete amplitude samples are converted to a binary codeword. (For illustrative purposesonly, Figure 1.38 shows 4-bit codewords.) The binary codes ale then transmitted as binary pulses. At the receiving end of a digital transmissionline the binary data stream is recovered,and the discrete sample values "intelpolate" between SamplevalThen a low-pass filter is used to are reconstructed. ues and re-createthe original waveform. If no transmissionerrors have occurred,the output waveform is identical to the input waveform except for quantization distortion: the difference between a sample value and its discrete representation.By having a large number of quantizationintervals (andhenceenoughbits in a codeword to encode them), the quantization intervals can be small enough to effectively eliminate perceptible quantization effects. It is worth noting that the bandwidth requirementsof the digital signal increaseas a result of the binary encodingprocess.If ttre discrete,multiple-amplitude samplesare transmitted directly, the bandwidth reguirements are theoretically identical to the

58

BACKGRoUNDANDTEHMINoLoGY

bandwidth of the original signal. when eachdiscretesampleis represented a numby ber of individual binary pulses,the signal bandwidth increasesaccordingly. The twolevel pulses,however, are much less vulnerable to transmissionimpairments than are the multiple-amplitude pulses (or the underlying analog signal).

1.8.2 TlmeDivisionMultlplexing
Basically, time division multiplexing (TDM) involves nothing more than sharing a transmissionmedium by establishinga sequence time slots during which individual of sourcescan transmit signals.Thus the entire bandwidth of the facility is periodically available to eachsourcefor a restrictedtime interval. In contrast,FDM systemsassign a restrictedbandwidth to each sourcefor all time. Normally, all time slot$ of a TDM sy$temare of equal length. Also, each subchannelis usually assigneda time slot with a common repetition period called a frame interval. This form of TDM (as shown in Figure 1.39) is sometimesreferuedto as synchronoustime division multiplexing to specifically imply that each subchannelis assigneda certain amount of transmission capacity determinedby the time slot duration and the repetition rate. In contra$t,another form of TDM (refened to as sfatlstical, or asynchronousrtime division multiplexing) is described in chapter 10. with this second form of multiplexing, subchannelrates are allowed to vary according to the individual needsof the sources. The backbonedigital links of the public telephonenetwork (T-carrier, digital microwave, and fiber optics) use a synchronousvariety of TDM. Time division multiplexing is normally associatedonly with digital transmission links. Although analog TDM transmissioncan be implemented by interleaving samples from each signal, the individual samplesare usually too sensitiveto all varieties of transmissionimpairments. In contrast,time division switching of analog signals is more feasible than analog TDM transmissionbecausenoise and distortion within the switching equipment are more controllable. As discussedin chapter 5, aralog TDM techniqueshave been used in some PBXs befbre rtigital electronics becameso inexpensive that the digitization penalty disappeared.

T-CarrierSystems The volume interoffice of telephone trafficin the UnitedStates traditionally has grown more rapidly localtraffic. than growth severe Thisrapid put strain theolder on

Figure 1.39 Time divisionmultiplexing.

tNTRoDUcTroN oF Dlclrs 1,s THE

59

interoffice transmission facilities that are designed for lower traffic volumes. Telephone companieswere often faced with the necessarytask of expanding the number of interoffice circuits. T-carrier systemswere initially developed as a cost-effective means for interoffice transmission: both for initial inslallations and for relief of crowded interoffice cable pairs. Despite the need to convert the voice signalsto a digital format at one end of a Tl line and back to analog at the other, the combined conversion and multiplexing cost of a digital TDM terminal was lower than the cost of a comparableanalog FDM terfor minal. The first T-carrier systemswere designedspecif,rcally exchangeareaffunks at distancesbetween l0 and 50 miles. A T-carder systemconsistsof terminal equipment at eachend of a line and a number of regenerativerepeatersat intermediatepoints in the line. The function of each regenerative repeater is to restore the digital bit stream to its original form before transmission impairmentsobliteratethe identity of the digital pulses.The line itself, including the regenerative repeaters,is referred to as a span line. The original terminal equipmentwas referred to as D-type (digital) channelbanks,which camein numerous versions.The transmissionlines were wire pairs using 16- to 26-gaugecable' A block diagram of a T-carrier systemis shown in Figure 1.40. The first T1 systemsusedDlA channelbanksfor interfacing, converting, and multiplexing ?4 analog circuits. A channelbank at eachend of a spanline provided interfacing for both directions of transmission.Incoming analogsignalswere time division multiplexed and digitized for transmission.When received at the other end of the line, the incoming bit streamwas decodedinto analog samples,demultiplexed, and filtered to reconsfuct the original signals.Each individual TDM channel was assignedI bits per time slot. Thus, there were (24X8) = 192 bits of information in a frame' One additional bit was addedto each frame to identify the frame boundaries,therebyproducing a total of 193 bits in a frame. Since the frame interval is 125 psec, the basic Tl line rate became L544 Mbps. This line rate has been establishedas the fundamental standardfor digital transmissionin North America and Japan.The standardis referred to as a DSI signal(for digital signal 1). A similar standardof 2.048 Mbps has been establishedby mJ-T for most of the rest of the world. This standardevolved from a Tl-like $y$temthat provides 32 channels at the samerate as the North American channels.Only 30 of the channelsin the El standard,however, are used for voice. The other two Areused for frame synchronization and signaling. Signaling and control information for Tl systemsare inserted lnto each voice channel (or transmitted separatelyby CCIS facilities). Digital signalinto ing and conffol techniquesfor both systemsare discussedin Chapter 7'

Figure 1.40 Tl-carrier system,

60

BACKGHOUND TERMINOLOGY AND

The greatlyincreased attenuation a wire pair at thefrequencies a DSI signal of of (772kHz cbnter frequency) mandates useof amplification intermediate the points at of a Tl span line.In contrast ananalog to signal, however, digitalsignalcannotonly a be amplifiedbut al$obe detected regenerated. is, aslong asa pulsecanbe and That detected, canbe restored its originalform andrelayed the next line segment. it to to For this reason repeaters referred asregenerative Tl are to repeaters. basicfuncThe tionsof these repeaters are: l. 2. 3. 4. Equalization Clockrecovery Pulsedetection Transmission

Equalization required is because wire pairsintroduce the certainamounts bothphase of andamplitudedistoltion that cause intersymbolintederence uncompensated. if Clock recovery required two basicpur?o$es; to establish timing signal sample is for first, a to pulses; theincoming second, transmit to outgoing pulses thesame asattheinput at rate to theline. Regenerative repeaters normally spaced are every 6000 ft in a T1 spanline. This distance was chosen a matterof convenience converting as for existingvoice frequencycablesto T-carrierlines. Interofficevoice frequency cablestypically used loadingcoils that werespaced 6fi)0-ft intervals. at Sincethese coils werelocatedat convenient points(manholes) hadto be removed high-frequency access and for transmission, wasonly nafural the6000-ftintervalbechosen. general it that One exception is that the first regenerative repeater typically spaced is 3000ft from a centraloffice. The shorterspacing this line segment needed maintaina relativelystrong of was to signalin the presence impulse of noisegenerated olderswitchingmachines. by Theoperating experience Tl systems so favorable theywerecontinuof was that ally upgraded expanded. of theinitial improvements and one produced Tlc systems that providehighertransmission ratesover Z?-galgecable.A Tlc line operates at 3.152Mbpsfor 48 voicechannels, twice asmanyasa Tl system. Another levelof digitaltransmission became available 1972 in whentheT2 system wasintroduced. This system wasdesigned toll networkconnections. contrast. for In T I systems wereoriginallydesigned for exchange transmi only area ssion. TZ sysThe tem providedfor 96 voice channels distances to 500 miles.The line rate was at up 6.312Mbps,whichis referred asa DSZstandard. transmission to The mediawasspecial low-capacitance 2?-gauge cable.By usingseparate cables eachdirectionof for transmission thespecially and developed cables, systems T? courduserepeater spacings up to 14,800 in low-noise ft environments. emergence opticalfiber sysThe of temsmadecopper-based transmission T2 systems obsolete. TDM Hierarchy In a manner analogous theFDM hierarchy, to AT&T established digitalTDM hiera archyttrathasbecome standard North America.Stafiingwith a DSI signalas the for

OF I.3 THEINTBODUCTION DIGITS 61 TAELE 1.10 Dlgltal TDM Signale ol North America and Japan DigitalSignal Numberof VoiceCircuits Number

Bit Rate
Designation (Mbps) Multiplexer

Media Transmission T1 paired cable T1Cpaired cable T2 paired cable Radio, Fiber T4Mcoax,WT4 waveguide, radio

DS1 DSlC DS2 DS3 D54 48 96 672

D channel bank (24analog inputs) M1C (2 DSI inputs) M12 (4 DS1inputs) M13 (28DS1inputs) M34 (6 DSginputs)

1.544 3.152 6,312 44.736 274.176

of as building block, all otherlevelsareimplemented a combination a fundamental of Thedesignation the higherlevel digital mulsomenumberof lower level signals. an input andoutputlevels.For example, M12 multireflectsthe respective tiplexers DSZsignal.. TableI.10 liststhe plexercombines DSl signals form a single four to for Nomediaused each. and multiplexlevels, theirbit rates, thetransmission variou$ tice that thebit rateof a high-levelmultiplexsignalis slightly higherthanthe combits binedratesof the lower level inputs.Theexcess areincludedfor certaincontrol has 7. discussed Chapter A similardigitalhierarchy in functions andsynchronization As standard. shownin Tablel. I I' by alsobeenestablished ITU-T asan international but is this hierarchy similarto the North Americanstandard involvesdifferentnumbersof voicecircuitsat all levels. Dig itaI Pal nGal n Syefems mostmajor for trunks, of introduction Tl systems interoffice Followingthesuccessful for developed digitalTDM system$ local disof equipment manufacturers telephone to are tribution.These systems mostapplicable long ruralloopswherethecostof the is, in is electronics offsetby the savings wire pairs.No matterwhatthe distance uninelectronics, by growthcanbe mosteconomically accommodated adding expected apartment of system. possibility trailerparks, The a stead wire,to produce pair-gain of causes nightmares providers up overnight houses, Internet springing almost or service providea networking alterplantforecasters. Pair-gain system$ in themindsof cable nativeto dispelthosenightmares. to are Digital pair-gain$ystems also usefulas alternatives switchingoffices in switchsmallautomatic are Smallcommunities oftenservicedby smallcommunities. controlled from a largerswitchingofing systems and normallyunattended remotely dial are to fice nearby. switches refened ascommunity offices These smallcommunity
*Because T2 transmissionsystemshave becomeobsolete,the Ml2 function exists only in a functional sense within Ml3 multiplexers, which multiplex 28 DSI signals into I DS3 signal.

62

BACKGHoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

TABLE 1.11 ITU Digital Hierarchy

Level Number El E2 E3 E4 E5

Numberof Voice Circuits

Multiplexer Designation
M1? M?3 M34 M45

Bit Rate(Mbps) 2.048 8,448 34,368 139.264 565.1 48

30 120 480 1920 7680

(CDOs). CDO typicallyprovides A only limitedservice features thecustomers to and often requiresconsiderable maintenance. Because digital pair-gainsystems lower transmission groups subscribers, area viablealternaco$t$ moderate-sized for of they tive to a CDO: Stations the smallcommunity serviced in are from the centraloffice by way of pair-gain systems. fundamental A consideration choosing in pairbetween gain systems remoteswitching and involvesthe haffic volumes callingpatterns and within thesmallcommunity. basictechniques analyzing The of trafficpaftems deand terminingtrunk groupsizes providedin Chapter12. are Thefirst two digitalpair-gain sy$tems usedin theBell System werethesubscriber loop multiplex(sLM) system[40, 4l] and,its successor, subscriber the loop carrier (slc-40) system Althoughthesesysrems useda form of voicedigitization 140,421. (deltamodulation) differentfrom thatusedin T-carriersystem$ (pulse codemodulation), they both usedstandard repeaters digital transmission 1.544Mbps. rl for at Both systems converted digitizedvoicesignals also the backinto individualanalog intetfaces theendofficeswirchto achieve at system tran$parency. FiguresL4l and1.42 showblock diagrams thesesysrem$. of Noticethat the sLM system providedboth concentration multiplexing(80 subscribers 24 channels) and for while the SLC-40 wasstrictlya multiplexer subscribers (40 assigned a one-to-one in manner 40 chanto nels). The sLM andsLC-,{O systems useddeltamodulation voicecodingbecause was it simplerthan pulsecodemodulationas usedin Tl systems was therefore and less costlyto implement a per-channel on basis-a desirable feature modularsystem for implementations. originalTl systems, the otherhand,minimizedelectronics The on costsby usingcommon encoders decoders, and which precluded implementation of

Crofibdr witch

Figure l.4l

Subscriber multiplexer. loop

oF 1.3 THEINTHODUCTIoN DIGITS 63

'.*Jill"i,**'
(SLC-40), loop Figure1.42 Subscriber carrier (an By in application). thelate lessthan24 channels unnecessary feature aninteroffice pulsecodemodulation 1970s of low-cost, integrated circuitimplementations standard of that became available led theway to thefirst (1979)installation theSLC-96,a suband with T1 systems the usingvoicecodingthatwascompatible scriber carrierrty$tem machines digitalendoffice switching emerging [43]. (whichis functionallyequivalent four Tl lines)caninterto The SLC-96system into facedirectlywith a digitalendoffice andnot bedemultiplexed 24 distinctanalog to digitalloop carrier interfaces. which is referred asintegrated Thusthis capability, less (IDLC), greaflyreduces prove-indistance wherethe digital carrierbecomes the of pairs.Subsequent enhancements the SLC-96 subscriber expensive than separate in for support local switchingfunctions the includeuseof fiber transmission, $y$tem from the centraloffice [44, of remotemodule,andconfigurability analoginterfaces havebeendedigital loop carriersystems andfiber-based 45.1. Many newercopperof 11 morethoroughly Chapter in thecontext in are veloped. These systems discussed digital subscriber access. 1.3.3 Data under Voice offering AT&T began After thetechnology T-carrier systems beenestablished, had of knownas This for services datacommunications. service, leased digitaltransmission (DDS),usesTl transmission links with special terminals Digital Service Dataphone of (channel to banks)thatprovidedirectaccess the digital line. An initial drawback only for exchange and area wereoriginallyused T-carrier systems DDS arose because digital transmission, shorrtoll networktrunks.Without someform of long-distance AT&T's areas could not be interconnected. exchange the digital circuitsin separate of was digitaltransmission thedevelopment a speto originalresponse long-distance cial radioterminalcalledthe 1A radiodigitalterminal(IA-RDT) [46].This terminal As encoded DSI signal(1.544 Mbps)into lessthan500kHz of bandwidth. shown one of was belowthelowest'frequency in Figure1.43,a signalof thisbandwidth inserted bandis normallyunused groupmultiplex(Table1.5).Sincethis frequency a master to the radio systems, DSI signalcouldbe added existinganalog in TD or TH analog used belowthose The withoutdisplacing voicechannels. useoffrequencies any routes "dataundervoice"(DUV). leadsto the designation for voicesignals development specifically a to It is important pointoutthatDUV representedspecial In and intended datatransmission not for voiceservices. fact,DUV wasusedonly for of facilitiesfor DDS. The emergence digital transmission to providelong-distance

64

BAcKeRouNDANDrERMrNolocy
E

E 8.9

Ee
I
cr
6

*E

3084 (kHzl Frequency Figure 1.43 Data under voice.

long-distance fiber sy$tem'r obviouslyeliminated needfor DUV equipment the (and eventhe analog radiosthemselves). 1.3.4 Digital Mlcrowave Radio In contrast DUV systems, to which piggyback1.544Mbpsonto an analog radiofor dataservices, common-carrier a digitalmicrowave system uses digitalmodulation exclusivelyto transmit receive and higherleveldigitalmultiplexsignals voicetraffic. for Digital radios thesame use frequency bands allocated analog for radios listedin Taas ble 1.7.Thusa primarydesign requirement a digitalradiowasthatit mustconfine of powerto preventexcessive its radiated interference adjacent, into possiblyanalog, chamels. Moreover, FCCstipulated thedigitalradios to becapable prothe that had of vidingroughlythesame number voicecircuitsasexisting of analog radios. TableI .12 liststheminimumnumber voicecircuitsandtheresulting ratethatmustbe proof bit videdby digitalradiosin eachof thecommon-canier microwave bands[47]. Despite design the constraints imposed compatibility by requirements analog with radios, digital radiosprovedto be moreeconomical thananalog radiosin several applications. Because lowerterminal of (multiplexing demultiplexing), cosrs and digiral radio$ystems weregenerally expensive less thananalog radio systems distances for TABLE 1.12 Minimum Volce Clrcuit Requirements ot Digitat Radlos the ln
United States

Equivalent Frequency Band Minimum Number Number DS1 of (MHz) of Circuits Signals 2110-2130 2160-2180 370H200 5925-6425 10,700-11,700 96 96 1152 1152 1152 4 4 48 48 48

Resultant Bit Channel Rate(Mbps)a Bandwidth (MHz) 6,144 6.144 73.7 73.7 73.7 3.5 3,5 20 30 40

alhe actualbit rate is usuallyslightlygreater owingto xtraframingand synchronization bits. Furthermore, mosl radio systemBprovidesignificantlymor6 voice circuitsthan the minimum.

r.g rHErNTRoDUcrroN oFDrclrs 65 (drop-and-insen) access requiringchannel up to about300milesandon longerroutes pointsin the route [a8]. The major impetusfor digital radio in the at intermediate like of UnitedStates theemergence digitaltoll switches theNo.4ESS.Theinterwas avoided costlylowerlevel mulconnection digitalradiosignals digitalswitches to of tiplex equipment. 1.3.5 Fiber Optic Transmiesion network,fiber hascertainly into the telephone inhoduced Of all the new technology would engineers transmission had the mo$tprofoundeffect.Prior to its emergence, low widebandwidth, of extremely attenuthe haveconsidered combination exffemely motion.Low atakin as ation,andimmunityfrom interference something to perpetual costs-the to whichequates low maintenance spacings, tenuation allowslongrepeater 5, On analog radiosystems. December replacement long-haul reason wholesale for of fiber AT&T completed lastsection a transcontinental system of the 1986, [49].By the to routes wereconverted fiber.Ravirtuallyall of thehigh-density endof thatdecade traffic where to dio systems and will continue be usedfor carryinglow-density are these routesare However, because consideration. right-of-waycostsarea dominant intetface costsimply digital implerelatively$hortspursoff of digital fiber arteries, foundation theall-digitalnetwork. for the thus mentations, completing economic digitaltransmission 8, As discussed Chapter anopticalfiber is not aninherently in (drivers receivers) theapplication and and electronics However, interface the system. their useof digital kansmission.* havestimulated to of connecting digital switches available thereis little incentive considering amountof bandwidth the Furthermore, with as bandwidth, wasthe originalsituation to to useanalogtransmission conserve microwave radios. 1.3.6 DigitalSwltching by was at into Theoriginalresearch digitalswitching Bell Laboratories repofted Earle the to models weredeveloped demonstrate concept Laboratory Vaughan 1959[501. in with time division systems digitaltime divisionmultiplextransmission of integrating elechonics not mahad solid-state the Unfortunately necessary switchingsystems. wa$ development digitalswitching not of at turedsufficiently thattime socommercial division alongthelinesof space pursued, development theNo. I ESScontinued of and Bell LabsbegandeAlmost l0 yearslater,however, technology. electromechanical of velopment a digitaltoll switch,theNo. 4 ESS. new cathe in Whenplacedin service January1976, No. 4 ESSprovidedseveral for pabilitiesfor the toll network.First, it was the first toll switch to be designed its wasthreetimesthatof the Second, capacity controlat the outset.t stored-program bar.The largercaprevailingelectromechanical switchat the time: theNo. 44 cross
*Analog segments of signals feedets in havebeenwidely usedto carrytelevision opticalfiber systems .CATV systems. lstored-program in confrol was first implemented the toll networkbeginningin 1969by retrofitting switches 1]. crossbar [5

66

BACKGROUND AND TERMINOLOGY

pacityof theNo.4 ESSmeant manymetropolitan that areas couldconsolidate haftoll f,rc into oneswitchinstead several. of Third,thedigitaltime divisiondesign theNo. of 4 ESSalloweddirectconnection digitalT-carrierlines.This lastfeature to illu$trate$ theoriginalattraction digital switching toll andtandem of for officesof thenetwork. By 1976, whenthefirst No. 4 ESSwasinstalled, wasclearthatdigitaltransmission it wasdominating exchange andshorter the area inteftolltrunks. Thussignificant economiesandimprovements transmission qualityresulted eliminating in by channel banks at theinterface between digitalkunks anda switchingsystem. The earlydevelopment digitalendoffice switches theUnitedStares unof in was dertaken independent by equipment manufacturers theflustsystem with beingplaced in service 1977.Thesesystems in wereprimarilydesigned the smallerswitching for officesof theindependent telephone companies. Digital switches wereparticularly attractiveto rural telephone companies because they couldprovidesignificant copper savings whendirectlyconnected digital pair-gaintransmission to systems. flust The large digital end office switching sy$temto be introducedinto the North American networkwasthe DMs-100 providedby NorthernTelecom. Table Ll3 lists digital switchingmachines developed the North Americanpublic telephone for network. The functional essence a digital time divisionswitchingmatrixis illustrated of in Figure1.44. indicated, inputsaretimedivisionmultiplexlinks.These As all linksmay represent digitalpair-gain system$, T-carrier interoffice trunks,or theoutputs coloof catedchannelbanksusedto interfaceanaloglines to the digital switch. In any event the switchingmahix itself is designed service ro only TDM input links. Basically,the switchingmatrix is requiredto transferinformationarriving in a specified time slot (channel) an incomingTDM link to a specified on time sloton an

TABLE 1.13 Dlgltal Central Oflice Swltchlng Systems of North America

Manufacturer

Designation

Dateof lntroduction 1S76 1S83 1982 1S7B 1982 1978 1979 1978 1977 197S 1978 1981 1977 1977 1978

Application
Toll Local Local Toll/tandem Local Local/toll Local/toll Local/toll Local Local Toll Local Local Toll/tandem Local/toll

LineSize 107,000 100,000 100,000 60,b00 145,000 200,000 80,000 26,000 7,000 100,000 60,000 200,000 32,000 7,000 12,768

AT&T 4 ESS AT&T 5 ESS C|T-Alcatel E 10-five GTE 3 EAX GTE 5 EAX LM Ericsson AXE10 NEC NEAX.61 ITT System 1210 NorthernTelecom DMS-10 NorthernTelecom DMS-100 NorthernTelecom DMS-200 Siemens EWSD Stromberg Carlson DCO Vidar lTS4 Vidar lTS4/5

1,3 THEINTRODUCTION DIGIT$ OF

I FRAME

67

operation. Figure 1.44 Digital time divisionswitching outgoing TDM link. Since an arbitrary connection involves two different physical links and two different time slots, the switching processrequires spatial translation (space switching) and time translation (time switching). Thus the basic operation is sometimes referred to as two-dimensional switching. Space switching is achieved with conventional digital logic selector circuits, and time switching is achieved by temporarily storing information in a digital memory or register circuit. For convenience,the inputs to the switching matrix of Figure 7.44 arc all shown on the left, and the outputs are on the right. Since the links are inherently four-wire, each input time slot is paired with the sametime slot on a correspondingoutput link. Hence, a full-duplex circuit also requires a "connection" in the reversedirection that is achievedby transferring information from time slot 17 of link N to time slot 3 of link I in the example shown. Operational and implementationdetails of a large range of digital time division switches are provided in Chapter 5.

1.3.7 DigltalNetworkEvolutlon
The evolution of the analog telephone network into one that is all digital except for lines is summarizedin Figure 1.45.The processbeganin the 1960s(a) with the access T1 systemsbeing installed on relatively short haul interoffice trunks within the exchangeareas.Next, in the early 1970s(b), digital transmissionwas introducedinto the toll network with T2 systemsfor relatively short routesbetweentoll offices. It was in the late 1970s (c) that digitization really began to take over. Tl coverageexpanded greatly, digital loop carier (DLC) systemscame into use,* and digital switches be* came available at all levels of the network: PBXs (DPBXs), end offices (DEOs), tandem offices, and toll offices (DTOs). Moreover, microwave digital radios (MDRs) proved to be advantageous use in both the exchangeareasand the shorter toll netto work routes due to low interface costs to digital switches. Thus, the late 1970sproduced a number of integrated islands where digital switches within a region were interconnected digital transmissionlinks but therewas little digital connectivity beby tween the islands. (Data under voice was installed as an overbuild to analogroutes for
*Digital subscribet caffier systemswere actually introduccd in the early 1970s,but these systems utilized a voice digitization technology (delta modulation) that was incompatible with the rest ofthe network and therefore did not figure into the integrated network. These early digital loop carrier systems atE now obsolete.

68

BACKGHOUND TEHMINOLOGY AND

Exchangn arta

tO r 't}..r-*{",7'g z - - - - - - - - . o Q o

Toll mtwuk

/ -\

'

1\n/'1" ,i \
T_1 i
t-/ \----

Excharqe arot

--"----*l-/
(dl

o )\ (- c -

,\r

.Tr\

trz j
I

(1

(Dl

l,

tt*--

\ord
DPEX

DTO
MDR

oTo

\ - J

(d)

.-**:/\.
I

,) .'i
Fibrt

::-*-]./
(d) Fibrr 7

'\-----

DLC /

'r) ,'I
\--'
\*----t6t

I r '

I ISDil P B I

oiix

Figure 1.45 Digital networkevolution.

REFERENoES 6S

digitalnetwork and A data limited-capacity services.) fully integrated interconnected (d) emerged the as became realityin the early 1980s whenfiber optictransmission a to Digital connectivity busilong-haul routes. technology choicefor high-density of the premises in ness equipment occurred this time frameasTl became also customer preferredvoice trunk interfacefor largePBXs. a for became reality in the End-to-end digital connectivity voiceor dataservices (e) late 1980s wittr theintroduction ISDN basicrate(ISDN BR, 28 + D) andISDN of In to fiprimaryrate(ISDN PR,238 + D) digitalconnection$ thecustomer. addition, T2 eliminated sysas bertechnology muchmoreubiquitous DS3ratesystems became for technology became preferred the systems temsin thetoll networkandfiber-based loop carrierandfeedersystems-evenat relativelyshortdistances.

REFERENCES
I S. P, Thompson, Phillip Reis: Inventor of the Telephone, Sylvanus P. Thompson, London. New York. 1883.

"Record'81TelcoConstruction at $23.5Billion, Up Set R. SmithandW. Sonnerryille, p. Jan. Engineer Management, 15, 1981, 55. and 5.6Vo,* Telephone in Engineering, Operations theBelI System,Znd and Technical Staff,Bell Laboratories,
4 5 6 ed., Bell Telephone Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1983. "Plan for Access*Tandem and Trunking," Telephone Engineer & D. M. Mardon, Nov. 15, 1983,pp. l4O-142. Management, W, D. Reeve, Subscriber Inop Signaling and Transmission Handbook, IEEE Press, New York. 1995, "Digital Speech Interpolation Systems," in Advanced DiSital S, J. Campanella, Communication,r; Systerzs and Signal Processing Tethniques, K. Fehrer, Ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1985. Technical Staff, Bell Laboratori es,Engineering and Operations in the Bell System,Bell Telephone Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1977. "The History and Future of Commercial Satellite Communications," W. L. Pritchard, IEEE Communitations M agaarne,May 1984, pp. 22-37 . Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), Framing structure,channel coding and modulation for digital tenestrial television, EN 300 744, (ETSI TM 1545), 1999, "Spech Codec for the I. Boyd, C. B. Southcott, D. P. Crowe, and P. J. Bolingbroke, Skyphone Aeronautical Telephone Service,"BritishTelecommunications Engineering, July 1986,pp. 83-91. "Evaluation of MessageCircuit Noise," Bell System A. J. Aikens and D. A. Lewinski, Technical Jountal, July 1970, pp. 879-909. J. L. Sullivan, t'A Laboratory System for Measuring Loudness Loss of Telephone Techniml Joumal, Oct. 1971, pp. 2663-2739. Connections," Bell System "A Basis for Transmission Performance Objective in a Telephone W. K. Macadam, Communications System," AIEE Transactions on Comntunications and Electronics, May 1978,pp. 205-209.

ll

t2
l3

70

BACKGROUND TERMINOLOGY AND

performance the 14 F. P. Duffy and T. W. Thatcher,Jr,, "Analog Transmission on Switched Telecommunications Network,"BelI SystemTechnical Journal,Apr. 1971, p p .l 3 l t - 1 3 4 7 . l5 W. R. Bennett J. R. Davey, and Data Transmission, McGraw-Hill,New york, 1965, 16 Membersof Technicalstaff, Bell Telephone Laboratories,Transmissionsystems for Communitatiorrs, ed,,Westem 4th ElectricCompany, Winston-Salem, NorthCarolina, 1971. 1l H. R. Huntley, "Transmission Designof Intertoll Telephone Trunks,',BeII System Tethnical Joumal,Sept.1953, l0l9-1036, pp. l8 K. Murano,S. Unagami, F. Amano,"EchoCancellation Applications,,' and and IEEE Communictttions Magazine, Jan.1990,pp. 49-55. 18a E, A, Lee and D. G. Messerschmin, Digital communication, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Norwell,MA, 1993. 19 "A TechnicalReporton Echo Cancelling," ReportNo, ?7, ANSI T14,l.6 Working Groupon Specialized SignalProcessing, Nov. 1993. "Echo Connol in Telephone 20 H. G. Suyderhoud, Onufry, and S. J. Campanella, M. Communications," National Telecomtnunications ConferenceRecord, 1976, pp. 8 . 1 - l - 8I - 5 . . 21 F. T. Andrews,Jr. and R. w. Hatch, "Nationa]Telephone Network rransmission Planningin the AmericanTelephone Telegraph and company," IEEE Transactions on Communitations Technology, pp. June1971, 302-314. cornpatibility Information for Telephone Exchange service, Bellcore Technical Advisory TA-NPL-000:9/2, Communications Bell Research. Issuel. Feb.1989. Notes THE NETWORK, on AmericanTelephone Telegraph and Company, Network Planning Division,AT&T, New York, 1980, 44-58. pp. "specialIssue: storedhogram conftol Network,"Bell systemTechnical Joumal,sept. 1982. "CommonChannel past, P. J. Kuhn,C, D. Pack,andR. A. Skoog, Signaling Networks: Present, Ftfitre," IEEEEJoumalon selededAreas communications, in Apr.1994, pp. 383-393, J. S. Doyle and C. S. McMahon, '-The Intelligent Network Concept," IEEE Transactions Communicafdons, I988,pp. 1296-130L on Dec. J. M. Alcinpelu, "The overload Performance of Engineered Networks with Nonhierarchical Hierarchical and Routing,"Bell systemTechnical rountal, sept.1984, p p .l 2 6 l - 1 2 8 1 . G. R. AshandE. oberer,"DynamicRouting theAT&T Network-tmproved service in at IEEEGlobecom Proceedings,lgSg, g.l.l-9.1.6, pp. Quality LowerCost,* C. Mason,"SoftwareProblem CripplesAT&T Long-Distance Network,',Telephony, Ian.22, 1990, l0-l l. pp. "specialIssueon Advanced Mobile Phoneservice(AMPS),"Beil system Technical Joumal,Jan. 1979. D. c. cox, '?ortable Digital Radio communications-An Approachto Tetherless Access," IEEE Communications Magaaine, pp. July 1989, 30-40. "Mobile stationLand stationcompatibility specificarion," ANsI/EIA./TIA standard 553,Electronic Industries Association, 989, I

22 23 M 25

26 27

28 29 30 3l 32

PHOBLEMS71 "TheTl CarrierSystem," TethnicalJoumal, BelI Systern 33 K. E. FultzandD. B, Penick, pp. Sept. 1965, 1405-1451. Nippon ElectricCompany, 34 ..SupplyRecordon NEC PCM MicrowaveEquipment," Tokyo,May 1974. "Optical Fiber Transmission-FromConception Prominence 20 in to 35 M. Schwartz, Magazine,May1984'pp. 38-48' Years,"IEEE Communications "The New Approaches solutionsoffered by the Digital ESS.El0 to and 36 J. B. Jacob, Deal with Switching, Operation, and Maintenance'Functions," International g e ationsConferencProceedin s, I 979' pp. 46.6-I -46.6-5. Communic "specialIssue: 4 ESS,"Bell System Technical Journal,JulylAng'l98l ' No, 3'l "A New Integrated Digital switching system," 38 J. C. McDonaldand J. R. Baichtal, renc c at communit ionsConfe e Re ord, 1976' pp. 3.2-| -3'2-5. NationalTele Aug. I ' Telephony, in into Service Georgia," OfficeGoes 5 39 "FirstClass Digital Central 1977,pp.M-25. Feb.1972,pp. Bell LabsRecord, LinesGo Electronic," Jr,, "Customer 40 F. T. Andrews, 59*64. "Digital Loopcarriersystems," Bell and G. 4l M, T. Manfred, A. Nelson, c. H. sharpless, pp. Joumal,Apr. 1978, I 129-1142. Technical System "Thesubscriber Loopcarier system and 42 S.J. Brolin,G. E. Harrington, G. R. t eopold, , GetsEvenBetter,"BeIl labs Record,May1977 pp. ll9-122. "Insidethe New Digital 43 S. Brolin, Y. s. cho, w. P. Michaud,andD. H. williamson, Belt l-absRecord,Apr' 1980'pp. I 10- I I 6. Loop System," Subscriber "A 'smart' slc carrier Meetsthe changing 44 G. E. HarringtonandR. w, wyndrum, Natureof servicesin the EvolvingDigital Loop," Bell l-absRecord,sept. 1985,pp. l3-17. "Digital Interface and System a LocalDigital DigitalLoopCarrier the Between SLC-96 45 Aug' 1987' Bellcore, TR-TSY-000008, Requirement$, Switch,"BellcoreTeohnical "lA RadioDigital Terminals 'DataUnderVoice,"' Put 46 R. R. GradyandJ. w. tuupT, 16l-166. 1974,pp. Bell LabsRecord,May January29' 1975,modifyingFCC Opinionand Order,released 4'7 FCC Memorandum 27,1974. September l93l l, released and Report OrderofDocket "Digital Transmission Digital MicrowaveTransmission Economics," 48 W. S. Chaskin, Sept.I 978. s e Engine ring Sympoium,RockwellInternational, "AT&T's Digital NetworkEvolution,"IEEE International Conference 49 R. C. Hansen, 1987, on Communications, pp. 198'l'l -1. 1.5. "Research Communication," Integrated Model for Time-Separation 50 H. E. Vaughan, pp. Joumal,July 1959' 909-932' BelISystemTechnical 'ElectronicTranslator IEEE for System Toll Switching," 5l B. T. FoughtandC. J. Funk, June on Transactions Communications, 1970'p. 168.

PROBLEMS l.l of and of in 33 Express dBmCof noise terms picowatts milliwatts absolute power.

72

BACKGROUND TEHMINOLOGY AND

1.2 Twenty-seven picowatts noisewith a flat spectrum of between and3 kHz is 0 how manydBmC? 1.3 A valueof 30dBrnc0 is howmanypicowarts absolute of powerat a -3-dB noise TLP? t.4 An idle-channel noisepowermeasurement 2l dBrnc occurs a -7-dB TLp. of at Express noisepowerof this measurement dBrnc0 and determine the in what powermeasurement noisewouldproduce another this pointin thecircuitthat at is designated a -2-dB TLP. as 1.5 A transmission has14dBrn of absolute link noisepowerat a -13-dB TLp input testpointand27 dBmof absolute noi$e powerat a -3-dB TLp outputte$tpoint. How muchabsolute noiseis added thetransmission on link? r.6 A transmission with a -Z-dB TLp at the rransmit anda -4-dB-TLp at link end thereceive is partof a voicecircuitthatproduces followingidle-channel end the noisemeasurements: dBrnc0 at the transmitend and20 dBrnc0 at the re18 ceiveend.what is the conrribution pwp0) of the transmission toward (in link thetotal absolute powerat thereceive end? 1.7 why is echocontrolunnece$sary short-delay on voiceconnections? what about singing?

WHYDIGITAL?
The first chapterprovides an overview of an analog telephonenetwork and a brief introduction to digital ffansmission and switching technology introduced to replace of the older analog equipment.This chapterdiscusses basic technical advantages digi' tal implementationsthat stimulated the replacementof the analog systems.

VOICENETWORKS OF 2.1 ADVANTAGES DIGITAL

A list of technical featuresof digital communicationsnetworks is provided in Table 2. L Thesefeaturesare listed in the order that the author considersto be their relative importancefor generaltelephony.In particular applications,however, certain considerationsmay be more or lesssignificant. For instance,the last item, easeof encryption, is a dominant feature favoring digital networks for the military. Most of the featuresof digital voice networks listed in Table 2.1 and discussedin the following paragraphspertain to advantagesof digital hansmission or switching relative to analog counteryarts.In some instances,however, the featurespertain only to all-digital networks. Encryption, for example,is practical and generallyuseful only is if the secureform of the message establishedat the sourceand translatedback into only at the destination.Thus an end-to-enddigital systemthat operates the clear form with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic (i.e., provides transparenttransmission) is a requirement for digital encryption applications. For similar reasonsend-to-end digital transmissionis neededfor direct transmissionof data (no modem)-When a network consistsof a mixture of analog and digital equipment, universal use of the network for servicessuch as datatransmissiondictatesconformanceto the leastcommon denominator of the network: the analog channel.

2.1.1 Ease of Multiplexing telephony to werefirst applied general l, in As mentioned Chapter digitaltechniques thesesystems In in interofficeT-carrier(time divisionmultiplex)systems. essence, path of costs theends a transmission for thecostof multiplepairs at electionics traded 73

74

WHYDIGITAL? TABLE 2.1 Technical Advantages ot Dlgltar communlcations Networks

1. Ease0l multiplexing 2. Ease signaling of 3. U$eof modern technology 4. lntegration kansmission switching of and 5. Signal regeneration 6. Performance monitorability 7. Accommodation of other services 8. Operability lowsignal-to-noi$e/intederence at ratios L Easeof encryption'

of wires between them.(A hade that is morecost effectiveeveryyear.)Although FDM of analogsignals alsobeenusedto reduce had cablecosts, FDM equipment is muchmoreexpensive TDM equipment, than evenwhenthecostof digitization inis cluded. After voicesignals havebeendigitized, TDM equipment costsarequitesmall by comparison. Sincedigitization occurs only at thefirst levelof theTDM hierarchy, high-leveldigitalTDM is evenmoreeconomical thanhigh-level FDM counrerpans. It shouldbe pointedout thatTDM of analogsignals alsovery simpleanddoes is not require digitization rhesample of values. drawback analog The of TDM lies in the vulnerabilityof nanow analog pulses noise,distortion, to crosstalk, intersymbol and interference. Thesedegradations cannotbe removed regeneration in a digital by as system. Hence, analog TDM is not feasible except noiseless, for distortion-free environments.* essence ability to regeneratesignal, In the a evenat theexpense ofgreater bandwidth, almosta requirement TDM fransmission. is for 2.1.2 Eaeeof Slgnating control information(e.g.,on-hook/off-hook, address digits,coin deposits) inheris entlydigital and,hence, readilyincorporated a digitalFansmission into system. one means incorporating of controlinformationinto a digital transmission involves link time division multiplexingthe control as a separate easilyidentifiablecontrol but channel' Anotherapproach involvesinserting special controlcodes into themessage channel havingdigital logic in thereceiving and terminals decode controlinforthat mation'In eithercase, far asthe transmission as sy$tem concerned, is controlinformationis indistinguishable message from haffic. In contrast, analog transmission sy$tems required special attention controlsigfor naling.Many analogtransmission presented systems uniqueandsometimes difficult environments inserting for controlinformation. unfortunate An resultwasthatmany varieties controlsignalformats procedures of and evolved theanalog for network. The controlformats depend thenature boththetransmission on of system it, terminal und
.Aoulog TDM has been used in a fbw telephone applications. Farinon's SubscriberRadio System [l ], for example, used'pulse-width-modulated TDM. As discussedin Chapter 5 some older PBXs also used analog TDM.

VOICE NETWORKS 75 OF 2.1 ADVANTAGES DIGITAL

had controlinformation networksubsystems between In equipment. someinterfaces to be convertedfrom one format to another.Signalingon analoglinks thereforereptelephone and resented significantadministrative financialburdento the operating a companies. costsa$removed mostof the signaling signaling The moveto common-channel change situationfor individualsubthe with interofficetrunksbut did not sociated channel. facility asthemessage on scriber lines,which mustcarrysignaling the same relative analog to (DSLs)reduces signaling costs the lines Theuseof digitalsubscriber lines,which helpsoffsetthehighercostof a DSL anda digitaltelephone' subscriber in of aspect ISDN, asdescribed ChapterI l. DSLsarea fundamental into andexto allow controlinformation be inserted digital systems In summary, medium of of stream independently thenature thetransmission from a message ffacted (e.g., cable,fiber, microwave,satellite).Thus the signalingequipmentcan (and It system. thenfollowsthatconfrom thetransmission separately be should) designed subsysof can and trol functions formats bemodifiedindependently thetransmission without impacting can systems be upgraded digital transmission Conversely, tem. at controlfunctions eitherendofthe link.
2.1.3 Use of Modern TechnologY

A multiplexer or switching matrix for time division digital signals is implemented with the samebasic circuits used to build digital computers:logic gatesand memory. The basic crosspoint of a digital switch is nothing more than an AND gate with one signal and other inputs usedfor control (crosspoint logic input assignedto the mes$age selection).Thus the dramatic developmentsof digital integratedcircuit technology for computer logic circuits and memory are applicable directly to digital transmissionand switching fiystems.In fact, many standardcircuits developedfor use in computersare directly usable in a switching matrix or multiplexer. Figure 2.1 shows the basic implementation of a l6-channel, bit-interleaved, digital time division multiplexer using common digital logic circuits. As indicated, the multiplexing function involves nothing more than cyclically sampling the 16 input data streams.Such an operation assumesall of the data streamsare synchronizedto eachother. As discussedin Chapter 7, the processof synchronizing the data sffeamsrequires logic circuitry that is much the more complicatedthan that shown. Nevertheless, implementationof TDM is much less expensivethan analog FDM. of Even greateradvantages modern technology have been achievedby using large(LSD circuits designedspecifically for telecommunicationsfunctions scaleintegrated such as voice encoding/decoding,multiplexing/demultiplexing, switching matrices, digital signal processing(DSP). Digital sigand general-purpose and special-purpose nal processingfunctions are describedin Section 2'2. The relative low cost and high performanceof digital circuits allows digital implementationsto be used in some applicationsthat are prohibitively expensivewhen implemented with comparableanalog components.Completely nonblocking switches, for example, are not practical with conventional analog implementations, except in

76

WHYDIGITAL?

f;TATA*l
.rr BA F
a t t

BA

4 Bit Gounter

Figure 2.1 Sixteen-to-one TDM multiplexer. small sizes.In a modern digital switch the cost of the switching matrix itself is relatively insignificant. Thus, for medium-size applications,the size of the switch matrix can be increasedto provide nonblocking operations,if desired.The automaticcall distributor developedby collins-Rockwell [2] is an early exampleof a digital switch operating in an analog environment. A digital implementation was chosen largely becauseit could economically provide a nonblocking operation. The benefits ofmodern device technology arenot confined to digital circuits alone. Analog integrated circuits have also progressed significantly, allowing traditional analog implementationsto improve appreciably.one of the primary requirementsof an analog component, however, is that it be linear. It appears,if only becauseof researchand developmentemphasis,that fast digital componentsare ea$ierto manufacture than linear analog counterparts.In addition, digital implementations appear to have an inherent functional advantageover analog implementations.This advantage is derived from the relative easewith which digital signals can be multiplexed. A major limitation with the full use of LSI componentsresults from limited availability of external connectionsto the device. with time division multiplex techniques,a single physical pin can be used for multiple-channel accessinto the device. Thus the same technique usedto reducecostsin transmissionsystemscan also be usedwithin a local module to minimize the interconnectionsand maximize the utilization of very large scaleintegration. In the end, a "switch on a chip" is possibleonly if a great number of channelscan be multiplexed onto a relatively small number of external connections. The technological development to have the most significant impact on the telephonenetwork is certainly fiber optic transmission.Although fibers themselvesdo not favor digital transmissionover analogtransmission,the interface electronicsto a fiber

VOICE NETWORKS 77 OF 2.1 ADVANTAGES DIGITAL

systemfunction primarily in an on-off (nonlinear)modeof operation.Thus digital is analog opticaltechnology comalthough fiberapplications, dominates transmission videodistribution. monlyusedin analog 2.1.4 Integratlon of Transmis$lon and $wltching networks of and Traditionallythe analogtransmission switchingsystems telephone In organizations. theopby functionallyindependent and weredesigned administered to are classes referred as outside thesetwo equipment companies, eratingtelephone provide standnecessarily Theseequipments plant and inside plant, respectively. indewas equipment functionally intdrfaces, otherthanthat,transmission but, ardized pendent switchingequipment. of areaand into the exchange When TDM of digital voice signalswas introduced apparent digital switching,it became beganconsidering engineers communications In werevery similarto time divisionswitchingfunctions. fact, thatTDM operations generate first-level of the laterchapters, first stages digital switches in as described links.Thusthe transmission to evenwheninterfaced analog by TDM signals nature, into the can be easilyintegrated system of multiplexingoperations a transmission equipment. switching in is the of Thebasicadvantage integrating two systems shown Figure2.2.Thedeand (channel officesis unnecessary, banks)at the swirching multiplexingequipment If is switchingequipment eliminated. bothendsof thedigitalTDM trunks first-stage are integratedinto a digital switch, the channelbanksat both endsof the trunk are are networkvoice signals digitizedat or nearthe In eliminated. a totally integrated all Furthermore, interuntil deliveredto their destination. sourceandremaindigitized carryTDM signals exclusively' system a switching office trunksandintemallinks of exceptat theperiphThusfirst-level multiplexinganddemultiplexingarenonexistent is machines into $witching of ery of the nerwork.Althoughintegration DSI signals

Figure 2.2 Integration of transmission and switching: (a) nonintegrated nansmission and swirching, (b) integrated time time division switching and transmission.

78

WHYDIGITAL?

commonplace, integration higherlevel signals complicated higherlevelmulof is by tiplexingformats(pulsestuffing)described chapter7. A newermultiplexingforin mat (soNET) described chapter 8 has someoperational in modesthar are more amenable directinterconnection a switching to into sy$tem. Integrationof transmission switchingfunctionsnot only eliminates and much equipment alsogreatlyimproves but end-to-end voicequality.By eliminating multiple analog-to-digital digital-to-analog and conversions by using low-error-rate and transmission links, voicequaliryis determined by theencoding/decoding only pnxesses. In summary, implementation the benefits a fully integrated of digitalnetworkare: I' Long-distance voicequalityis identicalto local voicequality in all aspects of noise,signallevel,anddistortion. 2. since digital circuits are inherentlyfour-wire,network-generated echoes are eliminated, truefull-duplex,four-wiredigitalcircuitsareavailable. and 3. Cableentrance requirement$ mainframe and distribution wire pairsis greafly of reduced because trunksareimplemented subchannels a TDM signal. all as of 2.1.5 Signal Regeneration As described morefully in thenextchapter, representation voice(or anyanalog the of signal)in a digitalformatinvolvesconvefting continuous the analog waveform a into sequence discrete of sample values. Eachdiscrete sample valueis represented some by number binarydigitsof information. of when transmitted, eachbinarydigit is represented only oneof two possible by (e.g., pulseversus pulse aposisignalvalues a no or tive pulseversusa negative pulse).The receiver's is to decidewhich discrete job valueswereffansmitted represent message a sequence binary-encoded and the as of discrete message samples. only smallamounts noise,interference. distortion If of or areimpressed uponthesignalduringtansmission, binarydatain thereceiver the are identical thebinarysequence to generated duringthedigitization encoding or process. As shownin Figure2.3,thetransmission process, despite existence certain the of imperfections, not altertheessential does nature theinformation. course, theimof Of if perfections cause sufficient changes thesignal, in detection errors occurandthebinary datain thereceiver doesnot represent originaldataexactly. the A fundamental attribute a digital system that theprobabilityof transmission of is errors bemade can arbitrarilysmallby inserting regenerative repeaters intermediate at pointsin the transmission link. If spaced closeenoughtogether, theseintermediate nodes detectandregenerate digital signals the beforechannel-induced degradations

H:gmretiw rGgdtr

Ftfttratiw rlPcrtcr

Figure 2.3

Signal regenerationin a digital repeaterline.

VOICE NETWORKS79 OFDIGITAL 2.1 ADVANTAGES becomelarge enoughto causedecision effors. As demonshatedin Chapter4, the endto-end error rate can be made arbitrarily small by inserting a sufficient number of regenerationnodesin the transmissionlink. The most direct benefit of the regenerationprocessis the ability to localize the efon As fects of signal degradations. long as the degradations any particular regenerated segmentof a transmissionlink do not causeerrors, their effects areeliminated. In contrast, signal impairments in analog transmissionaccumulatefrom one segmentto the next. Individual subsystemsof a large analog network must be designed with tight controls on the transmissionperformance to provide acceptableend-to-end quality. An individual subsystemof a digital network, on the other hand, need only be designed to ensurea certain minimum error rate-usually a readily realizable goal. When an all-digital network is designedwith enough regenerationpoints to effectively eliminate channel errors, the overall ffansmissionquality of the network is determined by the digitization process and not by the transmission systems' The analog-to-digital conversion process inherently introduces a loss of signal fidelity by sincethe continuousanalogsourcewaveform can only be represented discretesample values.By establishingenoughdiscretelevels, however, the analog waveform can with as little conversion error as desired.The increasedresolution rebe represented quire$ more bits and consequentlymore bandwidth for transmission.Hence, a digital transmission sy$tem readily provides a trade-off between transmission quality and bandwidth. (A similar trade-off exists for frequency-modulatedanalog signals.)

Monitorability 2.1.6 Performance

signal structurein a digital transmisAn additional benefit of the source-independent with no knowlis that the quality of the received signal can be ascertained sion system of the traffic. The transmission link is designed to produce edge of the nature well-defined pulseswith discretelevels. Any deviation in the receive signal, other than nominal amount$planned for in the design,representsa degradationin transmission quality. In general,analog systemscannot be monitored or testedfor quality while in service since the transmitted signal sfucture is unknown. FDM signals typically include pilot signals to measurechannel continuity and power levels. The power level of a pilot is an effective meansof estimatingthe signal-to-noiseratio-only in a fixednoise environment.Hence, noise and distortion are sometimesdeterminedby measuring the energy level in an unusedmessageslot or at the edge of the signal passband' In neither case,however, is the quality of an in-service channel being measureddirectly. One common method of measuring the quality of a digital transmissionlink is to add parity, or cyclic redundancycheck (CRC), bits to the messagestream.The redundancy introduced to the data streamenablesdigital logic circuits in a receiver to readily ascertainchannel error rates. If the error rate exceedssome nominal value, the transmissionlink is degraded. Another technique for measuring in-service transmission qualiry is used in T-cartier in lines. This techniqueinvolves monitoring certainredundancies the signal waveform

80

WHYDIGITAL?

itself' Whentheredundancy pattern thereceiver at deviates from normal.decision errorshaveoccurred. complete A description theline codingformatused T-carrier of in $ystems provided Chapter Othermethods measuring is in 4. of transmission qualityin digital systems discussed Chapters and6. are in 4 2.1.7 Accommodatlon of Other Services It waspreviously pointed thata digitaltransmission out system readilyaccommodates conffol(signaling) information. This factis representative a fundamental of aspect of digital transmission: digitally encoded any message (whetherinherentlydigital or convefted from analog) presents coillmonsignalformatto thetransmission a system. Thusthetransmission system need provideno special attention individualservices to andcan,in fact, be totally indifferent to the natureof the traffic it carries. In an analog networkthetransmission standard the4-kHzvoicecircuit.All speis cial services suchasdataor facsimile mustbetransformed ,,looklike voice."In parto ticular,datasignals mustbeconverted ananalog to formatthrough useof modems. the Thestandard analog channel necessarily wa$ optimized voicequality.In sodofor ing, certaintransmission characteristics (suchas the phaseresponse impulse and noise)received attention less thanmorenoticeable voicequalityimpairments. Some lessemphasized considerations, phase distortion particular, criticalfor high-rate in are dataservices. of an analognetworkfor nonvoice Use services oftenrequires special compensation variousanalog for transmission impairments. the analogchannel If is toopoor,it maybe unusable a particular for application. contrast, mainparameIn the ter ofquality in a digital system theerrorrate.Low-error-rate is channels readily are obtainable. Whendesired, effectsof channel the errorscanbe effectivelyeliminated with errorcontrolprocedures implemented theuser. by An additional benefitof the common transmission formatis ttrattraffic from differenttypes sources beintermixed a single of can in transmission medium withoutmutual interference. useof a commonffansmission The mediumfor analogsignalsis sometimes complicated because individualservices require differinglevelsof quality. For example, television signals, whichrequire greater transmission qualitythanvoice signals, werenot usuallycombined with FDM voicechannels a wideband in analos transmission system [3]. 2.1.8 Operabillty at Low Slgnal-to-Noiee/tnteileronceRailos Noise and inted'erence an analogvoice networkbecomemost apparent in during pauses speech whenthesignalamplitude low. Relatively is smallamounts noise of occuring duringa speech pause be quiteannoying a listener. can to The same levelsof noiseor interference virtuallyunnoticeable are whenspeech present. is Hence is the it absolute noiselevelof anidle channel determines that analog speech quality.Subjective evaluations voice quality t4, 5l led to maximumnoiselevel standards 2g of of dBmcO(-62 dBm0)for short-haul systems 34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBm0)for long-haul and systems. comparison, powerlevel of an activetalkeris typically -16 dBm0. For the

2.2 DIGITALSIGNALPBOCESSING

81

are ratiosin analognetworks 46 and signal-to-noise end-to-end Thusrepresentative ratioson indiSignal-to-noise respectively. 40 dB for short-andlong-haulsystems, higherare systems necessarily vidualhansmission with a particulardatapatternand pause$ encoded are In a digital systemspeech virsignalregeneration Because powerlevelasactivespeech. at transmitted thesame is noise demedium, channel idle in all tuallyeliminates noisearising thetransmission pauses link. Thusspeech process not thetransmission and by termined the encoding As system. discussed noiselevelsastheydo in an analog maximum do not determine performance signalat links providevirtuallyerror-free 4, in Chapter digitalfansmission used' on ratiosof 15-25 dB, depending thetypeof line codingor modulation to-noise more is system rejectcrosstalk sometimes to The ability of a digital transmission in rhanits ability to operate relativelyhigh levelsofrandomnoise.Oneof significant netof and in considerations thedesign maintenance theanalog themosttroublesome The conversations. problemwas between eliminatecrosstalk work was the needto was at maxiwhile an interferingchannel on mostacuteduringpauses onechannel The would be noticeable. crosstalk mum power.At thesetimesrelativelylow level and thereforeviolated if crosstalkwas particularlyundesirable it was intelligible on signals low-amplitude pau$es not produce do privacy.Again, speech someone's digia links maintain constant-amplitude links.Thetransmission digitaltransmission process in by are tal signal.Thus,low levelsof crosstalk eliminated theregeneration to is Evenif thecrosstalk of sufficientamplitude cau$e or a digital repeater receiver. are noiseand,as$uch, unintelligibleas the errors, effectsappear random detection a bandwidththan typically needs greater the Considering fact that a digital system and crosstalk imply greater andttratwider bandwidths analogsystem a comparable of the ability to operate lower SNRsis pafily a requirement a digital at noiselevels, system partlyan advantage. and 2.1.9 Ease of Encryptlon with the usershavelittle needfor voice encryption, ease Althoughmost telephone that and scrambled unscrambled means a digital can [6] which a digitalbit $tream be with sensitive for an provides extrabonus users network(or a digitalcellularsystem) difficult to encryptandis genvoiceis muchmore analog In conversations. contrast, of voice.For a discussion common a$ erally not nearlyassecure digitally encrypted preAs mentioned see techniques, references [8], and[9]. voiceencryption [7], analog by earlyuseof digital voicesystems themilistimulated of viously,ease encryption tary.

2.2 DIGITALSIGNAL PROCESSING of the emphasize advantages digital technologyin impleThe precedingparagraphs apAnothersignificant of $ystems a network. and the menting tansmission switching Basically,signal plication of digital technologyis the areaof signalprocessing.

82

WHY DIGITAL?

processingrefers to an operationon a signal to enhanceor transform its characteristics. Signal processingcan be applied to either analogor digital waveforms. Amplif,rcation, equalization, modulation, and filtering are cofilmon examples of signal processing functions. Digital signal processing(DSP) refers to the use of digital logic and arithmetic circuits to implement signal processingfunctions on digitized signal waveforms. sometimes analog signals are converted to digital representations the expresspurpose for ofprocessing them digitally. Then the digital representations ofthe processedsignals are converted back to analog. These operationsare illustrated in Figure 2.4, where a sine wave comrpted by noise is digitally filtered to remove the noise. The main advantagesof digitally processingsignal waveforms are listed in Table 2.2. It is important to point out that DSP in this context refers to the technology usedto condition, manipulate, or otherwise transform a signal waveform (a digitizert representationthereof). In another context signal processingrefers to the interpretation of conffol signalsin a network by the control processorsof switching $ystems. the latIn ter casethe logical interpretationofa control code is processedand not an underlying signal waveform

2.2.1 DSPApplications
The following four sectionsidentify applications of DSP that either representlower cost solutions to functions that have beentraditionally implementedwith analogtechnology or are functions that have no practical implementationcounterpartwith analog technology.

Echo Cancellers
The cost and pedormanceof DSP echo cancellershave improved to the point that they can be justified for any long-distancecircuit, thereby providing full-duplex circuits (no echo suppression)and no artificial attenuation (no via net loss). A particularly critical needfor echo cancellationoccur$in high-speed,full-duplex data modemsthat incorporate near-end echo cancellation-an unnece$sary requirement for voice circuits. Furthermore, low-cost echo canceling enablespacket-switchedvoice applications that inffoduce artificial delays that are not accommodatedin normal analoe

Anrlog input

Anelog to digitrl

Dieitd dFrl procarEof

Digit l to
fido0

Anrlog ouFut

Figure 2.4

Digital signal processingof an analog signal.

srcNAL PHocE$slNG 83 a.a DrcrrAL Features TABLE2.2 DigltalSlgnalProceeslng elements and circuit$ smallimperfections parasitic to The of Reproducibilitltr immunity digital line without characteri$tics operational with can imiliesthatcircuits be pioducdd consistent or tolerances. adjustments aging and type.s of can A -changing Programmability singlebasicstructure be usedfor a variety signal memory. in specificationa digital or an algorithmic parameilic by'merely applications by signals processing can circuit be usedfor multiple digital signal A Timesharing'.single each memory processing and in retuftsbf eachprocess random-access temforary storing lashion. (time-divided) signal a cyclic in circuit digital. are of signalprocessing andoutputs a digital Sincethe inputs Automatic fesfi in stored to test routinely comparing responses datapatterns by data, testscanbe perlormed memory. logic, digital.signal of capahilities digital Because thedecision-making of versatititr. with or functions areimpossible impractical analog that processing porform many can implementations.

logic and delay requirementsof a switched network echo intedaces. The aclaptation canceller virfually preclude any type of analog implementation.

Tone Receivers realized tones easilyandeconomically is of Detection DTMF, MF, SF,or otheranalog of for signals digitalrepresentations the explicitpurpose to the by converting analog when is a detecting tone.Of course, DSPimplementation evenmoreeconomical the within a digitalswitch.Theprogramwhichis thecase digitized, are thetones already one because usefulfor tonereceivers of mability feature a DSPcircuit is particularly differentfilby for can hardware implementation beused multiplefunctions selecting on depending the application ter options(programs) [10]. Hlgh-Spead Modems mo(e.g.,?8.8-kbps) voiceband (low bit errorrates) high-speed of Reliable operation modulation networkrequiressophisticated dems[tI] over the switchedtelephone referred to signalconditioning (described Chapter anttsophisticated 6) in techniques is functions with these way to implement The equalization. only practical asadaptive of an DSPcircuitry.Reference describes earlyapplication DSPto a 14,400-bps il21 of equalization a 400the Reference describes useof DSPfor adaptive modem. [13] because equalizers digital radiosusedanalogadaptive Mbps digital radio.Previous equalizdigital radiosrequiremoresophisticated Very-high-rate they werecheaper. possible) DSP. (perhaps with only to ers,whichareeasier implement Low-Bit-Rate Voice E ncodi n g 3 in described Chapter inalgorithms voiceencoding of The realization low-bit-rate in processing removeredundancy the digitizedvoice to numerical volve$extensive algothese means implementing of is DSPtechnology the only economical samples. DSPimplemenand[16] describe References real-time basis. rithmson a [14], [15], Reference describes respectively. voicecoders, [17] tations for32-,16-,and4.8-kbps of general theoryandapplication DSPto voicecompression' moreof the

84

WHYDIGITAL?

2.3 DISADVANTAGES DIGITAL OF VOICENETWORKS

The first pafr of this chapter discussed basictechnical the advantages digital netof works.To balance discussion, section the this reviewsthe basictechnical disadvantages digitalimplemenrarions listedin Table2.3. of as 2.3.1 IncreaeedBandwidth In thebrief introduction voicedigitization to presented Chapter mention made in 1, is thattransmission samples ananalog of of waveform requires morebandwidth no than theunderlyingwaveform(at leastin theory).Thebandwidth expansion comes when thesamples encoded binarycodes ffansmitted anindividualpulsefor are into and with eachbit in the code.Thus a Tl system requires approximately eight timesas much bandwidth do 24 analog as voicechannels since each sample represented an8-bit is by codeword eachbit is transmitted a separate and as discrete pulse.Althoughmoresophisticated digitization algorithms be used encode can to voiceat a lowerbit ratethan thatusedon Tl systems kbps),eventhemostsophisticated (64 algorithms (described in chapter3) cannot providecomparable voicequalitywithoutat leasta rwo-to-one bandwidth penalty. In some portions theanalog of network,suchasthelocalloops,thebandwidth increase not represent did muchof a penaltysincethe inherent bandwidth was(andis) underutilized. long-haul In radiosystems, however, bandwidth at apremium, was and digital systems wererelativelyinefficientin termsof the numberof voicechannels provided.one mitigatingaspect a digital radio system its ability to overcome of is higherlevelsof noiseandinterference, which sometimes provides compensation for the bandwidthrequirements, particularlyin congested transmission environments wheremutualinterference become limiting consideration The inherent can a ro[3]. bustness a digital system of with respect interference oneimportant to is attribute of digitalcellularsy$tems described Chapter in 9. Thebandwidth penaltyimposed voicedigitizationis directlydependenr the by on form of transmission codingor modulation used.With greater sophistication the in modulation/demodulation equipment, greater efficiencyin termsof the bit ratein a givenbandwidth achievable. is Basically, greater transmission efficiencyis achieved by increasing number levels theline code. the of in power. With limitedtransmit however,thedistances between discrete signallevelsin thereceiver reduced are dramatiTABLE2.3 Dlsadvantages Digitallmplementatlona of 1. Increased bandwidth 2. Need timesynchronization for 3. Topologically restricted muttiplexing 4. Need conference/extension for bridges 5. Incompatibilities analog with lacitities

VOICE NETWORKS85 OFDIGITAL 2.3 DISADVANTAGES cally. Thus, the transmitted signal is no longer as immune to noise And other imperfections as it is with lower information densities Using a combination of advanceddigital modulation, lower rate digitization, and error-correcting codes,point-to-point digital radios could provide voice channel efficiencies comparableto or even better than analog microwave systems.Full development along these Iines never occuffed, however, becausethe emergenceof optical fiber transmission eliminated the incentive to do so.

2,3.2 Needfor TimeSynchronlzation

a from oneplaceto another, timing refis digitalinformation transmitted Whenever "clock," is needed controlthehansfer. clock specifies whento samThe to or erence, The ple the incomingsignalto decidewhich datavaluewas transmitted. optimum pulses. Thus,for opto themiddleof thetransmitted iampletimesusuallycorrespond to clockmustbe synchronized thepulsearrivaltimes'In the timumdetection, sample the for ofa general, generation localtimingreference detecting digitalsignalis not the to needed establish someof the designconsiderations 4 aimcutt. Chapter discusses linft' receiver a digital transmission of propersample clockingin the links of whena number digitaltransmission however, problems anse, More subtle Not only musttheindividualeleto are andswitches interconnected form a network. but mentsof thenetworkmaintaininternalsynchronization, alsocertainnetworkwide can theindividualsubsystems before procedures be established must synchronization rebasicnetworksynchronization these 7 properly.Chapter discusses interoperate quirements implementations. and Single' is form of synchronization not uniqueto digital nefivorks' Theneedfor some for carriersynchropresent similarrequirements systems FDM transmission sideband however,the synchronization nization in analog networks.In analog sy$tems, of I are requirements lesscriticalby abouttwo orders magnitudeI 8]' 2.3.3 Topologically Restricted Multlplexing for services is use public,themostapparent of multiplexing broadcast To the general FDM of individby is the systems airspace shared using In radioandtelevision. these With this systemthereare no operationalrestrictionsto the channels. ual broadcast confine As and geographic locationof transmitters receivers. long asthetransmitters a sufficientlyseuses and bandwidth eachreceiver to theii emissions their assigned without mutualinthe lective filter to passonly the desiredchannel, networkoperates terference.On the other hand, TDM is not nearly as amenableto applications Sincethe time of ardvalof datain a and source$ destinations. involvingdistributed requirea TDM systems of on time slot is dependent the distance havel, distributed the between alsorequireguardbands time slots.FDM systems guardtime between guardbands, The separation. width ofthe FDM channel adequate channels achieve to In locationof the transmitters. a TDM on is however, not dependent the geographic transbetween separation as timesmustbe increased thegeographic the $ystem guard

86

WHY DIGITAL?

mitters increases. Furthermore,eachtime division sourcemust duplicate the synchronization and time slot recognition logic neededto operatea TDM $ystem.For these reason$, TDM has been usedprimarily in applications(e.g., interoffice trunks) where all of the information source$are centrally located and a single multiplexer controls the occurrenceand assignmentof time slots. Time division multiple access(TDMA) satellites and cellular systemsare examples of applicationsof TDM for distributed sources.These systemsuse sophisticated synchronizationtechniquesso that each ground station or mobile unit times its hansmission to arrive at the satelliteor basestation at precisely defined times, allowing the use of small guard times between time slots. Notice that these applications involve only one destination; a satellite or a base station. If an application involves multiple, distributed solurcesand destinatians (with transmissionin more than one direction), larger guard times are unavoidable. Figure 2.5 shows such an application but uses FDM insteadof TDM. The main engineeringconsiderationfor this systemis to ensure that the FDM channelshave sufficient isolation to allow a high-powered sourceto be adjacentto a receiverwith the worst-casereceivelevel. obviously, adequate FDM isolation require$a certain amount of bandwidth overhead,but it is usually fairly easyto design filters with adequate isolation for a large rangeofsignal levels so distanceconsiderationsare minimized.

2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension Brldges

The processof combining multiple analog signals to form a conferencecaII or function as multiple extensionson a single telephoneline can be accomplishedby merely bridging the wire pairs togetherto superimpose signals.Nowhere is this more conall venient than when multiple extensions share a single two-wire line, as indicated in Figure 2.6. When digitized voice signalsare combined to form a conference.either the signals must be converted to analog so they can be combined on two-wire analog bridges or the digital signals must be routed to a digital conferencebridge, as shown in Figure 2.l.The digital bridge selectively adds the (four-wire) signals together (using digital signal processing)and routes separate sumsback to the confereesas shown.
FDM srbchrnnels

Multipoint trmcni$ion line

Figure 2.5 Frequency divisionmultiplexing distributed on multipointline,

VOICE NETWORKS 87 OF E.3 DISADVANTAGESDIGITAL

to connected two-wireline' Figure 2.6 Analogtelephones When conferencing is implemented in associationwith a switching system, the and in fact can signeedfor a digital conferencebridge is not much of a disadvantage nificantly improve the quality of a conferenceby eliminating echoesand signal loss causedby power division. However, when digital extensionsneedto have their signals combined so multiple extensionscan be active in a conversation,the need for a centralized bridge can be an onerousproblem. Residentialtelephonewiring typically follows a daisy-chain pattern, as indicated in Figure 2.6. Thus the need to rewire all outlets and install a centralizedconferencebox is a significant impediment to the deployment of digital station equipment in residential applications'

with Analog Faclllties 2.3.5 Incompatiblllties it networks, was first usedin privateandpublic telephone Whendigital equipment Sometimes restof thenetwork. to interfaces the analog providedstandard necessarily exThe a representedmajorcostof the digitat subsystem. foremost theseinterfaces loop subscriber analog Thestandard in arose digitalendoffices. ample thissituation of switching with incompatible electronic 1 in described Chapter is particularly interface its thatcomplicates of (analog digital).Anotheraspect digital switching or machines by is the aftificial delayinserted a typicaldigital mahix' environments usein analog 5' in are of aspects digital switching discussed Chapter Both of these is interface to usedigital subproblems with the analog the Oneway to eliminate in investment the Unfortunately, overwhelming loopsanddigital telephones. scriber of deployment digital a widespread complicates telephones the loop plantfor analog that of Most notable thelong-established Practices complicate equipment. subscriLer

Digital Conference Bridge bridgefor digitaltelephones. Figure 2.7 Useof conference

88

WHYDIGITAL?

a transitionto digital loopsaresinglewire pairs,loadingcoils,bridgedtaps,-highresistance intermittent or splices, and wiring gaugechanges. digital subscriber The loop systems described ChapterI I accommodate of the aboveimpediments in most but do sowith very sophisticated circuip. DSp

REFERENCES I sft-15-76 subscriber Radio, Technical Description, Farinon systems, sR euebec,

2 Canada,1977. R. J. Hirvela,"The Applicationof computerconkolled pcM swirchingto Automatic call Disfibution," IEEE communicafions ,sysferns and Technology conference, Dallas,TX, May 1974. M. R. Aaron, "Digital communicarions-The silent (R)evorution?"IEEE Communications Magafine,Jan.197g, 16_26. pp. I. Nasell,"The lg62 survey of Noise and Loss on Toll connections."Bel/,svsrern Technical Joumal,Mar. 1964, 697-718. pp. Technical staff, Bell relephone L,aboratories, Transmission systems for communications, westem Electriccompany,winston-salem, North carolina. Feb. 1970. H. J. Hindin, "LSI-Based DataEncryptionDiscourages Data Thief,,,Electronics. the June 1979, 107-120. 21, pp. N. S.Jayant, J. McDermott, w. chrisrensen, A. M. Quinn,.-AComparison B. s. and of Four Methods for Analog speech Encryption," Intemational communication, Conference Record, 1980, 16.6, pp. l-16.6.5. A. Gersho R. steele,Ed., "specialIssue Encryption Analogsignals,"rEEE and on of fournal on Selected Areasin Communicariorrs, 19g4. May H. J. Bekerand F. Piper,"speechscrambring," speechTechnology,Mar,/Apr. r9g7, pp.40-45. "A A. Fukui andY. Fujihashi, single-chip,4-channel MFATFC/PB Receiver,"IEEE Globe comConfe e Re renc mrd, 1987, I 2.6.I - I 2.6.4. pp. "A Modem operatingat DatasignalingRates to 2g,gfi)bpsfor use on rheGeneral Up point-to-point2-wire Telephone_Type switchedTelephone Network and on Leased Circuits,"ITU-T Rec.V.34, Geneva, Switzerland, Sept.1994. "rrellis coding T. Kamitake, uehara,M. Abe, and s. Kawamura, K. 14.4kb/s Dara ModemImplemented with a single-chip High-speed Digital signatilocessor,"rEEE Globecom Confe renceRecord,I 987,pp. I 2.9.I - I 2.9.6. H. Matsue,T. shirato, and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio system with DSP Fading countermeasures," IEEE International conferenceon Communications, pp.41.5. I 988, l-41.5.6. J' L. so' "Implementarion an NIC (Nearly Insrantaneous on companding)32 kbps Transcoderusing the TMS320cz5 Digital signal hocessor," IEEE Globecom Confe rence Record,1988, 43.4.1-43.4.5. pp.

3 4 5

6 7

I 9 l0 II

12

13

14

A bridg+'d tap is an unused pair of wires connected at some point to an in-use pair as alother extension or for possible future reassignment of a cable pair.

89 REFEHENCES "softwareConsiderations theDesignof a 16 in l 5 J. L. Dixon. V. Varma,andD. W. Lin, Remrd, Coderfor a TDMA PortablePhone,"IEEE GlobecomConference kbps Speed '5. pp. 1988, 26.7.1-26.7 ,.4.8kbit/s speech Digital signalhocessors codecusing Advanced l 6 K. Irie ands. Iai, pp' Record,1987, 20'4't-20'4'5' ConJbrente (DSSP),'IEEE Globecom van systerns, Nostrand in t7 M. E. Frerking,Digital signal Processing communitations New York, 1994' Reinhold, C' A' P' R. E. l 8 J.E. Abate, W. Butterline, A. Carley, Greendyk, M. Montenegro, D' Near' '?T&T's New Approach thesynchronization of to and s. H. Richman, G. P. Zampetti, Magazine,Apr. 1989' pp. Networks,"IEEE Comruunications Telecommunication 35-45.

DIGITIZATION VOICE
in and natureof the subject its usefulness a varietyof apBecause the interesting of of to andcontinues beanarea intense has the plications, field of voicedigitization been algotypesof voicedigitization manydifferent has This research produced iesearch. on primarilydependent theimplementation rithms.Thechoiceof a particular Upe is choThe impliedby theapplication. algorithm requirements costandtheperformance qualityfor all typesof input excellent provides PcM) senfor T1 ,yst*rn, (companded data (e.g.,voiceor data)at a moderate rate(64 kbps)at whatwasoriginallya signals digital PBXs usedlower usedin the first-generation *ia"tutt iost. The algorithms at because, thetime,a modulation) (higherratePCM or delta costcodingtechniques costandlesssensitive to was application moresensitive digitalconversion switching introthe to qualityorhatu rate.For example, first digitalPBX in the UnitedStates, PCM at a datarateof 144 in Uy auceO Rolm Corporation 1975,useduncompanded adYanPCM atthetime [1]. Subsequent it kbpsbecause wasiheaperthancompanded anda dramaticdrop in the and tagesderivedfrom integratingtransmission switching "switchingthe havemadeobsolete useof "o*t of Tl-.ompatibledigitalvoicecoders Tl-compatible of Because high-volumeproduction, algorithms. only" voicedigitization applications (ICs)(codecs) beusedin switching can circuits integrated coder/decoder today,a more to bedesigned In withouta costpenalty. fact,if thedigitalnetworkwere viablecodecwith a dalarate significanflybelow 64 but complicated economically be kbpswouldprobably utilized. with strict bandwidthlimits suchas high frequency applications Transmissions algovoicedigitization muchmoresophisticated (HF) or digitalcellularradiorequire the a help in reducing data on datarates theorderof 8-16 kbps'As rithmsto achieve are of requirements theseapplications alsorelaxedasmuch as rate,the performance allows. the application systems-eitherfor refor enotttet application digitizedvoice is voice storage apProis Digital storage particularly or cordedannouncements for voicemessaging' not deteriorate the because playbackquality does priatefor recordedInnouncements disc(CD) or in stored memory on a compact *ittt ti*" andindividualannouncements of an example an with Storage limited memoryis Speech canbe randomlyaccessed. quality with significant that application canu$every low ratedigitizationalgorithms

sl

92

votcEDtctlzATtoN

reductions. The original speak-and-spell learning machine developed by Texas In_ struments,for example, stored words with a few hundred bits per word, representing a datarate of about 850 bps [z]. In a similar example requiring better quality rhe same encoding algorithm (LPC) was used in the voice Aleft sysrem of chrysler automobiles to store 20 secof speech(40 words) in 32,000 bits of read*only memory-a data rate of 1600bps [3]. The main reasonvoice messagingsystemsusedigital storageis to have random ac_ cessto the individual messages. minimize $toragespace,these systemstypically To use 8*32-kbps data rates. At the upper end of digital storageapplicationsarehigh-fidelity recordingsof voice and music. Many of the sameadvantages digital transmission,as opposedto analog of transmission,also apply to digital recordings.Foremostamong theseadvantages is the abiliry of defining the fideliry at the rime of recording and maintaining the quality in_ definitely by periodically copying (regenerating)the digitally stored Informarion before inevitable deterioration produces bit errors. Thus a high-quality (high-bit_rate) digital recording of Bing crosby, Ervis presley, or Luciano pavarotti (depending on your taste in music) can be savedfor posterity. This feat could not be accomplished with analog recordings no matter how well cared for or preserved.As an example of high-fidelity audio recording, compact disc players [4] record two channelsof audio at 705 kbps each. Speechanalysisand synthesismake up anotherareaofwidespread researchclosely relatedto voice digitization. [n fact, some of the lowest bit rate voice encoders and decoders use certain amounts of analysis and synthesisto digitatly representspeech. In its ultimate form, however, analysisand synthesishave unique goals ana applications fundamentally different from those of general voice digitization. Basically, goals of analysis and synthesis are to recognize words [5] or produce machine-generated (e.g.,text-to-speech) speech [6]. one approachto analyzing speechis to processwaveforms with the intent of recognizing speechphonemes-the basic units of speechfrom which spokenwords are constructed.once the phonemeshave been identified, they are assignedindividual codewordsfor storageor transmission.A synthesizercan then genera:te speechby recreating the combinations of phonemes.Analysis of this techniqueindicates that the information contentof speechcan be transmittedwith a datarate of 50 bps It must [7]. be emphasized, however, flrat what is hansmiftedis the information contenta$sociated with the words themselves,not the more subjective qualities of speechsuch as naturalness,voice inflections, accents,and speakerrecognizability. Thus suchtechniques, by themselves,are not applicable to general telephony, which customarily includes qualities other than the message content of spokenwords. Efficient encoding of facsimile images presentssimilar opportunities and limitations. Facsimile machinestypically scanat 200 dots per inch, which implies there are 3.T4millionbitsofrawinformationonaB.5x ll-in.pieceof paper. thepaperconIf tains only recognizabletext charactersat l0 charactersand 6 lines per inch, the same information can be encodedas 5610 ASCII characters,ot 3g,27obits, a savings of almost 100 to I. Besidesbeing restricted to text-oriented messages, character-oriented

93 MODULATIOru AMPLITUDE 3.1 PULSE encoding and decoding produces the same output character font independent of the $ource (which could conceivably be hand written). Facsimile machines achieve one significant level of coding efficiency without sacrificing tfansparencyby encoding rhit" ,pu*" into run length codes. Although this does not reduce the number of bits in a worst-case(random-dot) image, it greatly reducesthe number of bits in the average image of interesr. similar processing is possible in voice applications by efficiently encoding silence. However, the voice problem is more complicated because reat-time voice requires reconstructingthe temporal aspectsof the source,restricting silence encoding to relatively large intervals' Another level of speechanalysis involves the actual recognition of spokenwords. have been achieved,with the two main restrictionsthat the sysHigh levels of success tem is trained on the speakers and the speakers are trained to speak with isolated goal words. As an example of one implementation [8] that tries to achievethe ultimate recogcontinuous speech,and large vocabularies,7l-96$o of speakerindependence, nition accuracyis possibledependingon the level of the grammar specified.(A gramof mar defines allowed $equences words.) Voice digitization techniquescan be broadly categorizedinto two classeslthose digitally *n*ding analog waveforms as faithfully as possible and those processing waveforms to encode only the perceptually signihcant aspectsof speech and hearing The first category is representativeof the general problem of analog-toprocesses. iigitut *O digital-to-analog conversionsand is not restricted to speechdigitization. The three most common techniquesused to encodea voice waveform are pulse code modulation (PCM), differential PcM (DPCM), and delta modulation (DM)' Except in special cases,telephoneequipment designedto transparenflyreproducean analog waveform used one of thesetechniques.Thus, when studying these common waveform encoding techniques,we are, in fact, sfudying the more generalrealm of analogto-digital conversion [9]. The secondcategory of speechdigitization is concernedprimarily with producing very low datarate speechencodersand decodersfor narrowbandtransmissionsystems o. digitul storagedivices with limited capacity. A device from this special class of rate is techrr:iques commonly referred to as a'*vocoder" (voice coder)' Very low data or synthetic soundvocoder techniquesgenerally produce unnatural 1e.g.,t-ZOO-Ups) gening speech.As such, low-data-ratevocodersdo not provide adequatequality for eral telephony. A great deal of effort has been expendedto develop medium-rate (e.g.' 8-kbps) voice coders with natural speechqualities, primarily for digital cellular applications' These coders are implemented as a combination or hybrid of the low-bit-rate techniques and the waveform coders. Thus, these techniquesrepresenta third class of voice digitization algorithm.

MODULATION AMPLITUDE 3.1 PULSE at times a of is waveform to establishset discrete an in Thefirst$tep digitizing analog
which the input signal waveform is sampled. hevalent digitization techniques are

94

votcE DtetTtzATtoN

based theuseof periodic, on regularly spaced sample times.If thesamples occuroften enough, original waveformcan be completelyrecovered the from the samplesequence usinga low-pass filter to interpolate, "smooth or out,"between sample the values. Thesebasic concepts illustratedin Figure 3.1. A representative are analog waveform sampled a constant is at sampling frequency/,= IIT andreconstructed us_ ing a low-pass filter. Notice that the samplingprocess equivalent amplitude is to modulation a constant-amplitude train.Hencethe techniqu"represented of pulse in Figure3.1 is usuallyreferred asa pulseamplitude to qr,lvlr. modulation 3.1.1 Nyqulst Sampting Rate A classical resulr sampling in sysrems established 1933 HarryNyquistwhen was in by he derivedthe minimumsampling frequency required extractall information a to in continuous, time-varying waveform. This result-the Nyquistcriterion-is defined by therelation

l, > (2xBw)
wheref = sampling frequency BW = bandwidth inpursignal of Thederivation this resultis indicated Figure3.2,whichportrays $pectrum of in the of theinputsignalandtheresulting spectrum thepAM pulsetrain.ThepAM spectrum of canbe derived observing a continuous by that trainofimpulseshasa frequency specffum consisting discrete of term$at multiplesof the sampling frequency. input The signalamplitude modulates these termsindividually.Thusa double-sideband spectrum is producedabouteachof the discretefrequencytermsin the spectrumof the pulsetrain. The originalsignalwaveform recovered a low-pass is by filter designed to remove but theoriginalsignalspectrum. shown Figure3.2,thereconstruc_ all As in tive low-pass filter musthavea cutoff frequency lies between that BW andf, - Bw. Hence, separation only possible - Bw is grearer is iff, thanBW (i.e.,iffr > zBw).

PAM samplet

Irtllt,,,,,
Lour-Fa$ filter

Figure 3.1 Pulseamplitude modulation.

MODULATIOI'I 95 AMPLITUDE 3.1 PULSE

Inpultpectrum

Output filter

B w \ t , /.-sw of Figure3.2 Spectrum PAM signal.

3.1.2 FoldoverDietortion (f, If the input wavefonnof a PAM systemis undersampled < zBw), the original in As withoutdistortion. indicated Figure3.3,thisoutbe waveform cannot recovered aboutthe samplingfrecentered the put distortionarisesbecause frequencyspectrum from the original qo"o"y overlapsthe original spectrumand cannot be separated "folded" backon of by spectrum filtering. Sinceit is a duplicate the input specffum impairment the top of thedesiredspecrumthatcauses distortion,this typeof $ampling to "foldoverdistortion'" is oftenreferred as frein component$ the desired frequency foldoverdistortionproduces In essence, termfor thisimThusanother quency bandthatdid notexistin theoriginalwaveform. digitization prrrn""t is "aliasing."Aliasing problemsare not confinedto speech Motionpicdatasystem. in is for pr*rrr"r. Thepotential aliasing present anysample A aliasing. comthat system canproduce sampling is iuretaking,for example, another Oftenthe in occurswhenfilming movingstagecoaches old Westemsmon example and wheelmovements, process too slow to keepup with the stagecoach is sampling

Distortionenergy

-BW
Input tpeclrum

BW

-3f"

-2f

an by produced undersampling input, Figure 3.3 Foldoverspectrum

96

VOICEDIGITIZATION

2 . 5k H z

Figure 3.4 Aliasingof 5.5-kHzsignalinto a 2.5-kHzsignal. spuriousrotation ratesareproduced.If the wheel rotates355" betweenframes,it looks to the eye as if it has moved backward 5". Figure 3.4 demonstrates aliasing processoccurring in speechif a 5.5-kHz signal an is sampled at an 8-kHe rate. Notice that the sample values are identical to those obtained from a 2.5-kHz input signal. Thus after the sampled signal passes through the 4-kHz output filter, a 2.5-wlz signal arisesthat did not come from the source.This exampleillustratesthat the input must be bandlimited, hefore sampling, to remove fre_ quency terms greater than j,[, even if thesefrequency terms are ignored (i.e., are inaudible) at the destination.Thus, a complete pAM system,shown in Figure 3.5, must include a bandlimiting filter before sampling to ensurethat no spuriousor source-related signals get folded back into the desired signal bandwidth. The input filter of a voice codec may also be designedto cut off very low frequenciesto remove 60-cycle hum from power lines. Figure 3.5 shows the signal being recoveredby a sample-and-holdcircuit that produces a staircaseapproximation to the sampled waveform. With use of the staircase approximation, the power level of the signal coming out of the reconstructivefilter is nearly the same as the level of the sampled input signal. The respon$eof the reconstructive filter, in this case,must be modified somewhatto account for the spectrum of the wider "staircase" samples.(The modification amountsto dividing the..flat" filter spectrumby the spectrumof the finite width pulse. SeeAppendix C.) The bandlimiting and reconstructivefilters shown in Figure 3.5 are implied to have ideal characteristics.* Since ideal filters are physically unrealizable,a practical implementation must consider the effects of nonideal implementations.Filters with realizable attenuation slopes at the band edge can be used if the input signal is slightty oversampled. As indicated in Figure 3.2, when the sampring frequencyf is somewhargreater than twice the bandwidth, the spectralbandsare sufficiently separated from eachother
-An id-ul filter is one with a frequency-independent time delay (linear phase), no attenuation in the passband(except as might be desired for pulse shaping),an arbitrarily steepcutoff, and infinrte attenuation everywhere in the stopband.

g.t puLSE AMPLITUDE MoDULATtotrt 97

,++

, r l l r , ,,,\

A=

SEmFle cl(sk

PAM 3.5 End-to-end sYstem. Figure sampled can roll-off characteristics be used.As an example, thatfilters with gradual 3.4kHz and filterswith a 3-dBcutoffaround typicallyusebandlimiting voicesystems at attenuated theoversignalis sufficiently rate a sampling of 8 kHz.Thusthesampled the reduce energylevel of thefoldoverspectrum. of lap frequency 4 kFIzto adequately for to designed meetITU-T recommendations outFigure3.6 showsa filter template is Noticethat 14dB of attenuation proin of-bandsignalrejection PCM voicecoders. videdat 4kllz.

'/L

6'

-r0

.= -tl t'

-t0

''ff.t::.:!:i
-tl -lo

.10 r1.00

{000 rnqurrrcy (Hz)

for to Figure 3.6 Bandlimiting filter templatedesigned meetITU-T recommendations PCM coders. voice

98

VOICE DIGITIZATION

As mentioned in chapter l, the perceived quality of a voice signal is not greatly dependentupon the phaseresponseof the channel(the relative delay of individual frequency components).For this reason the phaseresponsesof the bandlimiting filters in the encodersand the smoothing filters in the decodersare not critical. Nonlinear phaseresponses thesefilters, however, do impact high-rate voiceband data signals in when digitized. Hence a somewhatparadoxical situation ariseswhen voicebanddata are transmittedover a T-carrier line: the processof converting the voicebanddata signal (28,8ffi bps typical maximum) to a virtually error free 64-kbps digital signal causesdistortion in the lower rate data signal. However, becauseofregeneration the transmissionprocessitself does not add to the signal degradation. By interleaving the samplesfrom multiple sources,pAM systemscan be used to sharea transmissionfacility in a time division multiplex manner.As previously mentioned, PAM systemsare not generally useful over long distancesowing to the vulnerability of the individual pulses to noise, distortion, intersymbol interference,and crosstalk.* Instead, for long-distance transmission the pAM samples are converted into a digital format, thereby allowing the use of regenerative repeaters to remove transmissionimperfections before errors result.

3.2 PULSE CODEMODULATION

The preceding section describespulse amplitude modulation, which uses discrete sample times with analog sample amptitudesto extract the information in a continuously varying analog signal. Pulse code modulation (pcM) is an extension of pAM wherein eachanalog samplevalue is quantizedinto a discretevalue for representation as a digital codeword. Thus, as shown in Figure 3.7, a pAM systemcan be convefied into a PCM system by adding an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter at the source and a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter at the destination. Figure 3.9 depicts a typical quantizationprocessin which a set ofquantization intervals is associated a one-toin one fashion with a binary codeword. All sample values falling in a particular quantization interval are representedby a single discrete value located at the center of the quantization interval. In this manner the quantization process introduces a certain amount of error or distortion into the signal samples.This error, known as quantizaPAM rampler Digitally encoded

Sdmple clock

to digital

Figure 3.7 Pulse codemodulation.

'As discussed in Chapter I 1 the emergence of sophisticated DSP equalization algorithms in V,90 modems enablesPAM ransmission on analog subscriberloops.

MODULATION 99 3.2 PULSE CODE

samples' of Figure 3.8 Quantization analog tion noise,isminimized by establishinga large number of small quantizationintervals. Of course, as the number of quantization intervals increases,so mu$t the number of bits increaseto uniquely identify the quantization intervals.

3.2.1 QuantizationNoise
A fundamental aspectof the design and developmentof an engineeringproject is the of need for analytical measures systemsperformance.Only then can a systembe obcomparedto alternatedesigns.One of the jectively measuredand its cost effectiveness communicationengineeris the quality of speechdelivered measures neededby a voice to the listener. Measurementsof speechquality are complicated by subjective aftributes of speechas perceivedby a typical listener. One subjectiveaspectofnoise or distortion on a speech signal involves the frequency content, or spectrum, of the disturbancein conjunction with the power level. Theseeffects of noise as a function of frequency are discussedin Chapter I with the introduction of C-messageand psophometricweighting. quantizationerrors of a PCM encoderare generally assumedto be disSuccessive tributed randomly and uncolrelated to each other. Thus the commutative effect of quantizationerrors in a PCM systemcan be treatedas additive noise with a subjective effect that is similar to bandlimited white noise. Figure 3.9 shows the quantization noi$e as a function of signal amplitude for a coder with uniform quantizationintervals' Notice that if the signal has enough time to change in amplitude by several quantization intervals, the quantization errors are independent.If the signal is oversampled samplesare likely to fall (i.e., sampledmuch higher than the Nyquist rate), successive in the quantizationerrors' in the sarneinterval, causing a loss of independence The quantization elror or distor"tioncreatedby digitizing an analog signal is customarily expresseda$ an averagenoise power relative to the averagesignal power. ratio (SQR, also called a signal-to-distortionratio Thus the signal-to-quantizing-noise or a signal-to-noiseratio) can be determinedas

100

votcEDtctlzAloN

lnput amplitude

Ouantization error

Figure 3.9 Quantizationelror as a function of amplitude over a range of quantization intervals.

sQR= -r(r)12} E{Ly(r)

whereE{.} = expectation averaging or x(t) = srulo* input signal y(t) = decoded outputsignal

Etfu)l

(3.1)

In determining expected the valueofthe quantization noise, threeobservations are necessary: l. The errory(r) - x(r) is limited in amplitude 4/?, whereq is theheightof the to quantization interval.(Decoded output samples ideally positioned the are at middleof a quantization interval.) 2' A sample valueis equallylikely to fall anywhere within a quantization interva1, implyinga uniformprobabilitydensityof amplitude l/q. 3. signal amplitudes assumed be confinedto the maximumrangeof the are to coder.If a sample valueexceeds range the highest the of quantization interval, overload distortion(alsocalledpeaklimiting) occurs. If we assume convenience) resistance (for a level of I o, the average quantization noisepoweris determined AppendixA as in

noir" Quantization po*er=fr d

(3.2)

MODULATIOT'|101 CODE 3.2 PULSE

(uniformquantization), quantithe haveequallengths intervals If all quantization as* values the SQRis determined and of noiseis independent thesample zation

lorogrot-+) sQR(db)= =10.8 +201"s,. FqJ

(3.3)

for of v where is therms amplitude theinput.In particular, a sinewaveinputtheSQR is produced uniformquantization by

(dB) sQR =rorogl,1w#)

=7.78"*,. +ro [+J

whereA is the peakamplitudeof the sinewave'

(3.4)

is Exampte3.1. A sinewavewith a l-V manimumamplitr'rde to be digitizedwith quantization intervalsare manyuniformly spaced a minimumSQR of 30 dB. How eachsample? to encode and needed, how manybits areneeded interval is Solution. Using Equation3.4, the maximum size of a quantization as determined q = (l)10{3F7'78)/20 = 0,078V for Thus 13 quantizationintervalsareneeded eachpolarity for a iotal of 26 intervals as is eachsample determined to of in atl. Thenumber bitsrequired encode trl = lo9r(26)= 4.7 = 5 bits per sample is content oftenweighted quantization noisepower,the spechal Whenmeasuring weighted spectrally circuit.Unforhrnately, as manner noisein an analog in the same perceptualquality of a voice endo noise measurements not alwaysreflect the h.ue
.The SeRs commonly compaxe unfiltered decoder outputs to unfiltered quantization errors. In actual practice, the decoder output filterreduces the power level ofboth the signal and the noise. The noise power ixperiences a greater feduction than the signal power, since the uncorrelated noise samples have a wider spectrum than the corelated voice samples. Thus filtered signal-to-noise ratios are usually higher thal the values calculated here by l-2 dB'

102

votcEDlctlzATtoN

coder/decoder.If the spectraldistribution of the quantization noise more or less follows the $pectralcontent of the speechwaveform, the noise is masked by the speech and is much less noticeable than noise uncorrelatedto the speech[l0l. on the other hand, ifthe quantizationprocessproducesenergy at voicebandfrequenciesother than those contained in particular sounds,they are more noticeable. High-quality PCM encodersproduce quantization noise that is evenly distributed acrossvoice frequenciesand independentof the encodedwaveforms. Thus quantization noise ratios defined in Equation 3.4 are good measuresof pcM performance.In some of the encoders discussed later (vocoders in particular), quantization noise power is not very useful. Referencestgl, I I I l, and I I z] describeother measures enof coder speechquality providing bettercorrelationsto quality asperceivedby a listener.

3-2.2 ldle ChannelNoise

Examination of Equations 3.3 and 3.4 reveals that the SeR is small for small sample values.In fact, as shown in Figure 3.10, the noise may actually be greaterthrurthe signal when samplevaluesare in the first quantizationinterval. This effect is particularly bothersomeduring speechpausesand is known as idle channelnoise. Figure 3.I t depicts one method of minimizing idle channel noise in pCM systemsby establishinga quantizationinterval that straddlesthe origin. In this caseall samplevaluesin the central quantization interval are decodedas a constantzero output. pCM systemsofthis type usean odd number of quantizationintervals sincethe encodingrangesof positive and negative signals are usually equal. The quantization characteristicsrequired to produce the output waveforms shown in Figures3.10 and 3.ll are shown in Figures3.12 and 3.13, respectively. The first characteristic(midriser) cannot produce a zero output level. The secondcharacteristic (midtread) decodesvery low signalsinto constant,zero-level outputs. However, if the signal amplitude is comparableto the size of the quantization interval or if a dc bias exists in the encoder,midtread quantization will produce about as much idle channel noise as midriser quantization. As mentioned in chapter l, noise occurring during speechpausesis more objectionable than noise with equivalent power levels during speech.Thus idle channel

2.0

r.0

-1.0 -2.O

Figure 3.10 Idle channel noiseproduced midriserquantization. by

MODULATION 103 3.2 PULSE CODE

Figure 3.ll

Elimination of idle channel noise by midtread quantization.

noise,whichis specifrom quantization in termsseparate noiseis specified absolute D3 bankspecificaBell system channel fied relativeto the signallevel.For example, noiseas23 dBmCO[13]. tionslist themaximumidle channel 3.2.3 Uniformly Encoded PCM produces codefor quantization intervals all samples usingequal-length An encoder numerical equivalent Thatis, the values. to wordslinearlyrelated the analogsample In sample valueit represents. this to is of eachcodeword proportional the quantized to converter genanalog-to-digital uses mamera uniformPCM sy$tem a conventional is for The numberof bits required eachsample detercodes. eratethe binarysample noisepower.Minimum digitizedvoice quality minedby the maximumacceptable to of ratio requires signal-to-noise in excess 26 dB [ 14].For a uniformPCM system a that 3'4 of 26 dB, Equation indicates 4*o = 0' l23A' For equalpositive achieve sQR a that (encoding from -A to A), this resultindicates just signalexcursions andnegative per sample, required.* are intervals, 4 bits or over l6 quantization

characteristic. Flgure 3.12 Midriserquantizer

.This SeR objective is for minimum acceptable perform$nce and assumesall degadations occur in a sin gle encoder, If additional sigrral impairments occur (such as multiple A/D conversions), the encoder must use more bits to ptovide noise margin for other elements in the network.

104

votcEDtctTtzATtoN

Figure3.13 Midtread quantizer characteristic. In addition providingadequate to qualityfor smallsignals, telephone a system musr be capableof transmittinga largerangeof signalampritudes, referredto asdynamic range. Dynamicrange(DR) is usuallyexpressed decibels theratio of themaxiin as mum amplitudesignalto the minimum amplitudesignal:

DR= to**,.fts]
ffirn \_ /

=zorog,oti"_il

(3.s)

A typicalminimumdynamicrangeis 30 dB tt4l. Thussignalvaluesas largeas 3l timesA mustbe encoded withoutexceeding rangeof quantization the intervals. Assumingequallyspaced quantization intervals uniformcoding,thetotalnumber for of intervals determined 496,whichrequires is as 9-bit codewords.* Theperformance ann-bit uniformPCM system determined observing of is by that

q =-T -

M*^*

(3.6)

whereA.u* is the manimum(nonoverloaded) amplitude. substituting Equation into E4uation produces pcM performance 3.6 3.4 the equa. tion for uniformcoding:

= + seR 116 6.ozn+log,o 2o t^*l

(3.7)

This rcsult is derived with the assumption of minimum performance requirements. Higher performance objectives (less quantization noise and grcater dynamic range) require as many as I 3 bits per sample for uniform PCM systems. This coding performance was established when it was likely that multiple conversions would occur in an end-to-end connection. Now that the possibility of multiple ArD and D/A conversionshas been eliminated, end-to-endvoice quality is much better than it was in the analog network,

105 3.2 PULSE MODULATIoN CODE sine a 3.7 Thefirst two termsof Equation providetheSQRwhenencoding full-range These a a wave.Thelasttermindicates lossin SQRwhenencoding lowerlevelsignal. in relationships presented Figure3.14,which showsthe SQRof a uniformPCM are of and as sy$tem a functionof thenumberof bits per sample the magnitude an input sinewave. must Example3.2. What is the minimumbit rate that a uniform PCM encoder range 40 dB?Assume of provideto encode high-fidelityaudiosignalwith a dynamic a of dictatepassage a 20-kHz bandwidthwith a minimum the fidelity requirements input signals' sinusoidal ratio signal-to-noise of 50 dB. For simplicity,as$ume rate the foldoverdistortion, sampling mustbeat least40 kHz. Solutinn. To prevent banks to sampling factorcomparable thatusedin D-typechannel Assuming excess an for rateof 48 kHz as a compromise a practical (4000/3400), choose sampling a we with an SQR signalis encoded that filter. By observing a full-amplitude bandlimiting of the 3.7 of 40 + 50 = 90 dB, we canuseEquation to determine number bitsn required to encode eachsample: '" 90 - 1.76 6.02

n - G

= 15 bits bit Thustherequired rateis = (15 bits/sampleX48,O00 samples/sec)720kbps

e
[ *

s o
t EI
F

.E 40
E

Teo
o c

a
- 40 -30
A/A6.\

-20
(dB)

- l0

Figure 3.14 SQRof uniformPCM coding.

106

vorcEDlcrrzATroN

3.2.4 Companding
In a uniform PCM systemthe size of every quantization interval is determinedby the SQR requirement of the lowest signal level to be encoded.Larger signals are also encoded with the same quantization interval. As indicated in Equation 3.7 and Figure 3.14, the SQR increaseswith the signal amplitudeA. For example, a Z6-dB SeR for small signals and a 30-dB dynamic range producesa 56-dB SQR for a maximumamplitude signal. In this manner a uniform PCM system provides unneededquality for large signals.Moreover, the large signalsarethe leastlikely to occur. For thesereasonsthe code spacein a uniform PCM systemis very inefficiently utilized. A more efficient coding procedureis achievedif the quantization intervals are not uniform but allowed to increasewith the sample value. When quantization intervals are directly proportional to the sample value, the SQR is constantfor all signal levels. with this technique fewer bits per sample provide a specified seR for small signals and an adequatedynamic rangefor large signals.When the quantizationintervals are not uniform, a nonlinear relationship exists between the codewords and the samples they represent. Historically, the nonlinear function was first implemented on analog signalsusing nonlinear devices such as specially designeddiodes [15]. The basic processis shown in Figure 3.15, where the analog input sample is f,rrstcompressedand then quantized with uniform quantizationintervals.The effect of the compressionoperationis shown in Figure 3.16. Notice that successivelylarger input signal intervals are compressed into constant-lengthquantizationintervals. Thus the larger the samplevalue, the more it is compressedbefore encoding. As shown in Figure 3.15, a nonuniform PCM decoder expandsthe compressed value using an inversecompressioncharacteristicto recover the original samplevalue. The processof first compressingand then expanding a signal is referred to as compandlng. when digitizing, companding amounts to as* signing small quantization intervals to small samplesand large quantization intervals to large samples. various compression-expansion characteristics can be chosen to implement a compandor.By increasingthe amount of compression,we increasethe dynamic range at the expenseof the signal-to-noiseratio for large-amplitude signals. one family of compression characteristicsused in North America and Japan is the p-law characteristic, defined as

Compressed digital codewords Compre$ion Lin6ar PCM encoder Linear PCM decoder Expansion

Figure 3.15 Companded PCM with analog compression expansion. and

g,E PULSE coDEMoouLATtoN 107

rot t
E

E",,'8
oro $

E t*rt 9 E

Input sfirple vrlus

Figure 3.16 Typicalcompression characteristic.

= ..ln(l Fr(r) sen(x)+ U L t l ) ffi[y

wherex = input signalamplitude( -1 {x { 1) sgn(x) = polarity ofx F = pllrameter used to defirneamount of compression

(3.8)

Becauseof the mathematicalnatureof the compressioncurve, compandedPCM is sometimes referred to as log-PCM. A logarithm compression curve is ideal in the sensethat quantizationintervals and, hence,quantizationnoise are proportional to the sample amplitude. The inverse or expansioncharacteristicfor a p-law compandor is defined as

1, F'r(v):'s"0) +p;rrr[iJr(1
where ) = thecompressed value,=Fp(x)(-l < y < l) - polarityofy $gn(y) parameter F =' companding

(3.e)

banks[16], which used channel in Dl Thefirst T-carrjersystems theUnitedStates = 100.The compression expansion functions approximated and Bquation3.8 for F previously. mentioned Figure3.17 wereimplemented thespecially with biased diodes depicts blockdiagram a Dl channel a bank.Noticethatthetimedivisionmultiplexof on Thusthe ing anddemultiplexing functions implemented analog are PAM samples. wereshared all 24 voicechannels. companding encoding/decoding by and functions

108

vorcE DtetT|zATtoN

-+E
Tl transmirsion line Analog Inpuli
I a t

Bandlimiting filterB

Figure 3.17 Functional block diagram Dl channel of bank. The ability to sharethis relatively expensive equipment was one of the reasonsthat PCM was originally chosenas the meansof digitally encoding speech.subsequentdevelopment of integratedcircuit PCM codecsdiminished the need to sharethis equipment, Thus later generation$ystemscould use per-channelcodecsand provide more flexibility in implementing various $ystemsizes.when most of the cost of a channel bank is in the common equipment,as in the original channelbanks,lessthan fully provisioned sy$temsare overly expensive. Each sample produced by a Dl channel bank was encodedinto 7 bits; I polarity bit and 6 compressedmagnitude bits. In addirion, I signaling bit was added to each channel to produce an 8-bit codeword for eachtime slot. since the sampling rate was I kHz, a 64-kbps channelresulted. Even though the Dl channel banks have been su* percededby newer channel banks utilizing a different coding format, the 64-kbps channel rate has persistedas a standard.

3.2.5 Eaeily Dlgltally LinearlzabteGoding The success the flrst Tl sy$tems interofficeexchange transndssion of for paved area thewayfor fuftheruseof digitaltimedivisionmultiplexsystems. it became As apparent that digital transmission usefulwithin the toll network,it alsobecame was clear thattheform of PCM encoding used theDl channel in bankswasinadequate. conIn trastto the exchange area,an end-to-end connection throughthe toll networkcould haveconceivably involvedasmmy asninetandem connections. Sincedigitalswitching wasnot in existence the time that T-carier systems the toll networkwere at for beingdeveloped, eachof thesetandemconnection$ implied an extraDiA and A/D

109 3,2 PULSE CODE MODULATION conversion. Thus the quality of each conversion had to be improved to maintain the desired end-to-endquality" The D2 channel bank [ 7] was therefore developedwith improved digitized voice quality. When the D2 channelbank was being developed,digital switching was recognized as a coming technology, implying that channel banks would be paired on a dynamic basis, as opposedto the one-to-onebasis in T-carrier systems.Thus a greater degree of uniformity in companding characteristicswould be required to allow pairing of channelbankson a nationwide basis.The main featuresincotporatedinto the D2 channel bank (and ensuingchannelbanks suchas D3, D4, and D5) to achievethe improved quality and standardization are: L Eight bits per PCM codeword 2. Incorporation of the companding functions directly into the encoder and decoder 3. A new companding characteristic(p255)

and TheDl channel banks I bit pertimeslotfor signaling 7 bitsfor voice.Thus use for which wasmorethannecessary basic rateof 8 kbpswasestablished, a signaling D2 between andall voiceservice. providea higherdataratefor voice,signaling To subsequent channelbanksis insertedinto the leastsignificantbit positionof 8-bit contains only in code-words everysixthframe.Thuseverysixthp255PCM codeword is numberof bits per sample implying that the effective 7 bits of voiceinformation, is sixthframefor signaling often actually7f bits instead 8. Theuseof 1 bit in every of is signaling utilized,the bit Whencommon-channel referred as"robbed signaling." to information a peron no T-carriersystems longerneedto carrysignaling associated in channel basisanda full I bits of voicecanbe transmitted everytime slot of every foame. bankswereimof and characteristics theDl channel The compression expansion The bankincorpoplemented and separately from theencoders decoders. D2 charurel In and themselves. these operations theencoders decoders into ratesthe companding a ofnonuniformlyspaced channel banksa resistor arrayis usedto establish sequence the comparing input valueis encoded successively by thresholds. sample A decision quantization interval ofdecisionthresholds theappropriate until valueto thesequence to the whatever codeis used represent particular is located. digitaloutputbecomes The ofthe directencoddescription quantization interval.(See AppendixB for a detailed functhe banks.) incotporating companding By usedin theD? channel ing procedure D2 and decoders, channelbanks avoid certain tions directly into the encoders sensitivity comof problems variabilityand temperature associated parameter with Dl channel panding banks. diodes in in improvedperformance termsof theeffect The D2 channel banksalsointroduced paramount is concern a PCM system in outputs. Of of channel errorson thedecoded positionof a codeword. erBit bit theeffectof a channel enor in themostsignificant A to are rorsin otherpositions a codeword muchlessnoticeable a listener. channel of produced a Dl channel bankcauses by bit errorin themostsignificant of a codeword of equalto one-half theentirecodingrange thecoder' of anoutputerrorthatis always

11O

Vo|cEDIGITIZATIoN

The D2 channel bank, on the other hand, usesa sign-magnitudecoding format. With this format, a channel error in the polarity bit causesan output error that is equal to twice the samplemagnitude (i.e., the polarity is inverted). In the worst casethis enor may correspondto the entire encoding range.Maximum-amplitude samplesare relatively rare, however, so most channel error$ in a D2 coding format produce outputs with error magnitudeslessthan one-half the coding range.Thus, on average,the signmagnitude coding format of the D2 and ensuingchannelbanks provide superior performance in the presenceof channel enors I I 7]. In addition to a need for improved voice quality, it also became apparentthat as more of the network beganusing digital techniques,it would be necessary, at least or desirable,to implement many signal processingfunctions directly on digital signals and not convert them to an analogformat for processing.Most signal processingfunctions (such as attenuating a signal or adding signals together) involve linear operations. Thus before processinga log-PCM voice signal, it i$ necessaryto convert the compressedtransmissionformat into a linear (uniform) format. To simplify the conversion process,the particular companding characteristicwith =255 was chosen.This compandingcharacteristichas the property of being closely F approximatedby a set of eight straightJine segmentsalso refened to as chords. Furthermore,the slopeof eachsucces$ive segmentis exactly one-half the slopeof the previous segment.The flust four segmentsof a p255 approximation are shown in Figure 3.I8. The overall result is that the larger quantization intervals have lengths that are binary multiples of all smaller quantizationintervals.Becauseof this properly, a compressedcodeword is easily expandedinto a uniform representation. Similarly, the uniform representationis easily converted into a compressedrepresentation.*In fact, commercially availablePCM codecsdigitally compressuniform codewordsinsteadof using direct compressedencoding, as in the D2 channel banks. These techniquesuse a uniform encoderwith a relatively large number of bits to cover the entire dynamic rangeof the signal. As describedin Appendix B, the leastsignifrcantbits of large sample values are discardedwhen compressingthe code. The number of insignificant bits deletedis encodedinto a specialfield included in the compressed-code format. In this mannerdigital compandingis analogousto expressinga number in scientific notation. As shown in Figure 3.18, each major segmentof the piecewise linear approximation is divided into equally sizedquantizationintervals. For 8-bit codewordsthe number of quantization intervals per segment is 16. Thus an 8-bit p255 codeword is composedof I polarity bit, 3 bits to identify a major segment,and 4 bits for identifying a quantizing interval within a segment.Table 3.1 lists the major segmentendpoints, the quantization intervals, and tlre corresponding segment and quantization interval codes. The quantization intervals and decodedsample values in Table 3. I have been expressedin terms of a maximum-amplitude signal of 8159 so that all segmentendpoints and decoderoutput$are integers.Notice that the quantizing stepis doubled in eachof
'The inexorable advance of semiconductor technology has obviated much of the ingenuity that weflt into selecting EDL coding fbrmats. Brute-force table look-up conversion between codes using read-only memories (ROMs) is now the most cost-effective approach,

3.2 PULSE coDEMoDULAToN 111

.9
ll

$ E
E

ET

31

95

223 Linear tignal

478

Flgure 3.18 First four segmentsof straight-line approximation to p255 compressioncurve.

to the linearsegments. is this propertythat facilitates conversion It eight successive encoding tableis providedin AppendixB and from a uniform format.A complete process andfrom uniformcodes. ofthe conversion to description alongwith a detailed reof curvei$ sometimes The straight-line approximation the p255 companding although approximation. 15 segments arisebecause, ferredto as a lS-segment The nearest orisegments, 2 segments the the and thereare8 positive$egments 8 negative gin arecolinearandtherefore be considered l. Whenviewedin this manner, as can the straddling intervalswith I segment contains quantization 3l the middlesegment (from -1 to +1 in Table3.1).Codewords this middlequantization for interval origin valuegreater than-1. Thereare,in ariseasa positivevaluelessthan+1 or a negative Table3.1,these values in effect,a positivezeroanda negative eero.As represented as respectively. and However,p255 PCM codecs areencoded 00000000 1ffi00000, signals, with mostly0 The for invert all codewords transmission. smalleramplitude cause than50% les$ and code,aremostprobable wouldtherefore bits in the segment is of pulses thetransmission Thedensityof pulses increased inversion the line. by on of transmitteddata,which improvesthe timing and clock recoveryperformance the Thus the actual transmittedcodereceiving circuitry in the regenerative repeaters. 111111I1 wordscorrespondingtoapositivezeroandanegativezeroarerespectively for strongtiming content theline signalof an idle channel. and01111II 1, indicating p255 PCM in clock synchronization the Tl repeaters, ln the interest ensuring of in data codecs tlrc ffansmitted in oneotherway.As indicated Table3.1,a maximumalter to negative signalis all I ' s, whichwouldnormallybe converted all 0's for amplitude

I 12

vorcE DrcrrzATtoN

TABLE 3.1 Encodlng/Decoding Table for p2SSPCMd

Input Amplitude Range 0-1 1-3 3-5 ; 29-31 31-35 ; 91-95 95-103 21F.223 2?3-239

Step Size

Segment Code S

Quantization Code Q Code Varue

Decoder Amplitude 2
4

000

0000 0001 001 0 1111 0000

30 33 9; 99 219 231 471 495 975 1023 1983 2079

111 112

001 1111 0000 : 1111 0000

010

16

011

463479 479-51 1 32
oEo-ool 991-1 055

rrir
0000 1111 000

100

64 r ss1-ZOr S 201ts2143

101

1111 0000 110 1111 0000 256 1111

3935-4063 4063-431 I 7903-81 59

3999 4191 8031

127

this table displays magnitud Bncoding Polarity er6a8signed "0"forpositive a ,'1" negatlve. only. bits a end for h transmission bitsareinverted. ell

transmission. Instead, for the all-0 codeword only, the second least significant bit is

setto I sothat00000010 transmitted. effect,anencoding is In erroris produced preto cludeanall-Ocodeword. Fortunately, maximum-amplitude samples exffemely are unlikely sothatno significant (If degradation occurs. theleastsignificant wereforced bit to a 1,a smaller decoding errorwouldresult.However, everysixthframethisbit is in "stolen"for signaling pu{poses therefore occasionally to 0 independently and is set of thecodeword. ensure "all-zero"codewords nevertransmitted. second To that are the leastsignificant is forcedto a I whennecessary.) bit Example3.3. Determine sequence codewords a p255 PCM encoded the of for channel bankformatrepresentinghalf-maximum-power a l-kHz digital signal.

113 3,2 PULSE CODE MODULATION Solution. Since the samplingrate of the standardp255 PCM channelbankis 8 kHz, a sequenceof eight samplescan be repeatedin cyclic fashion to generatethe l-kHz . waveform. For convenience,the phasesof the samplesare chosento begin at 22.5o Thus the eight samplescorrespond to 22.5", 67 .5", II2.5o , l5'l .5", 202.5", 247.5", 292,.5",and 337.5o.With thesephases,only two different magnitudescoresponding to 22.5oand 67.5' are required. The maximum amplitude of a half-maximum-power sine wave is 0.707 x 8159 = 5768. Thus the two amplinrdescontained in the sample sequences are

(5768)sin(22 = 2207 .5")

= 5329 (5768)sin(67.5o)

the Using the encoding tablein AppendixB, we determine codesfor thesesample The of respectively. sequence eightsamples magnitudes be 1100001 1110100, to and as cannow be established follows:
SamplePhase (deS) Polarity Segment Quantization

2 2 . 5 0 6 7 . 5 0 1 112.5 0 1 157.5 0 1 2 0 2 .1 51 247.5 1 1 2 9 2 .1 51 1 3 3 7 .1 51 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1
1

0 0
U

0 0
1 1

0
1 1

0 0 0 0 0

0 0
1

Note: This sequence defines a 1-kHz test signal at a power lv6l of 1 mW at the transmissionlevel point (0 dBmo). However,the actualtransmltteddata patternis the complementof lhat provid6dabove. because only two amplitudesamples are requiredto produce the test ton6, this tono does not test all encoding/docoding circuitry. In general, a 1004-Hztone is a better t6st tone since it is not harmonically relatedto an 8000-Hzsamplingrate and will thereforeexerciseall encoder and decoder levels.

Pertormance ap255 PGM Encoder of

As mentioned, the main motivation for changing the encoding algorithm of the Dl channelbank was to provide better speechquality for digital toll network transmission links. The SQR for a maximum-amplitude $ine wave in the first segmentof a p255 codec is determinedeasily from Equation 3.4 as

: SQR(A 31)= 7.78+ 20t"*r. [*l \.- / = 31.6dB sincethe are The SQRsfor largeramplitudesinusoids not as easyto calculate size.Thusa general calcuvary with the sample lengths the quantization of intervals valueof thepower lationof thequantizing noisepowerinvolvesfindingtheexpected errors; of the quantization

114

VotcE DtctlzATtoN

. =;lW? power l _ noise

r'4

(3.10)

p; where = probabilityof a sample ith segment in p255coding size i, 4; - quantization for segment =!i+t for segmented UsingEquation 3.10,we determine SQRpowerfor a full-rangesinusoid the as = = SQR(A 8159) 39.3dB For comparison, all quantization if intervals themaximumlengthof 256asin had trquation provides SQRof 37.8dB. Thedifference only theuppersegment, 3.4 an of 1.5dB reflects factthata full-scale the sinewavespends 67Vo thetime in theupper of segment wherethequantization intervals maximum(i-e.,pt = 0.67).A voicesigare nal,on theotherhand,hasa higherpeak-to-average thana sinewave.Theaverratio agequantization erroris smaller, sois the average but signalpower.Hence SQR the is approximately same. the Thedynamic range a segmented of PCM encoder determined thesignalpower is as difference between low-levelsignaloccupying entirerange the first segment a the of anda high-levelsignalextending thelimits of thecode.Thusthedynamic to range of a segmented coderis determined 255 as = = 48.4dB DR(A= 3I toA = 8159) 20log,o(8159/31) In summary, 8-bitp255PCM codec provides an atheoretical SQRgreaterthan dB 30 across dynamic a range 48 dB. For comparison, of Equation or Figure3.14reveals 3.4 that a uniform PCM encoder/decoder requires13 bits for equivalent performance. (Theextraqualityof uniformencoding high signallevelsis unneeded.) at Thetheoretical performance an 8-bit segmented of F255coderis shownin Figure 3.19asa functionof theamplitude a sinewaveinput.Also shownis thetheoretical of performance an unsegmented p255 coderand a 7-bit plfi) coderusedin the Dl of channel bank.Noticethatthe 8-bit coders provideabout5 dB improvement overthe 7-bit coderfor high-levelsignals evenmoreimprovement low-levelsignals. and for Theperformance shownfor the 8-bit coders does includetheeffectofusing only not 7 bits for voice codingin everysixth frame.Whenthis effectis included, B-bit the coders lose I.76 dB in performance. Thescalloped effectofthe segmented coderoccurs because quantization the intervals change abruptlyat the segment endpoints instead continuously in analog of as companding. AIso as shownin Figure3.19,notethe required performance a D3 of channel bankandcodecs designed meetthis specification to [13]. This specification assumes noisemeasurements madeusing C-message all are weighting.C-message weighting reduces effectivenoiselevelby 2 dB andtherefore the improves SQR. the Thusan ideal 8-bit p255 coderactuallyexceeds specif,rcation morethanthat the by

3.2 PULSE coDE MoDULATIoN 115

Full load rignal = +3d8m0

g
o ,t E o

: .E

'n E 3

Unfiltered pieccYviBe linEdrI-258

Unfiltered

il c .gl th

6 -!

B-bir#-?55

-50

-40

-30

-20

(dBm0l porrnr rinewave of Signal Figure 3.19 SQR of pJaw coding with sine wave inputs.

bit shownin Figure3.19.rilhen the leastsignificant of everysixth frameis usedfor 1.76 however, SQRis reduced a comparable dB. by signaling, the A-Law Compandlng recommended ITU-T for Europeandmost of the characteristic by The companding has This restof the world is referred asanA-law characteristic. characteristic the to as features implementation advantages doesthe p-law characteristic. same and basic by In particular, A-law characteristic alsobe well approximated shaight-line the can and segments facilitatedirect or digital companding canbe easilyconveltedto and to characteristic definedas A-law compression is from a uniform format.Thenormalized

a f . . |f-------u I| lSsn(Jl

0<rxr<f
( 3 . 1) l

l" [1+ln(A)l Fa(x)= i | . It+tntt.ll i s- n'( x ) - - + l n ( A ) _ J s -[1 l | f*r*r<r l.

is characteristic definedas Theinverse expansion or

116

votcEDtctlzAlor\

*entrluT@ o<ryr<*fu
F;t(v) =

(3.12)

'*olT

pFl(1+|fl(A)l-l

*fustvt(l

where y = F.A($ and A = 87.6. Notice that the first portion of the A-law characteristicis linear by def,rnition.The remaining portion of the characteristic(l/A < lxl < I) can be closely approximatedby linear segmentsin a fashion similar to the trr-lawapproximation. In all, there are eight positive and eight negative segments. The first two segment$ eachpolarity (four in of all) are colinear and thereforeare sometimesconsideredas one straight-line segment. Thus the segmentedapproximation of the A-law characteristicis sometimesrefened to as a "13-segment approximation." For easein describing the coding algorithms of the segmentedcompanding characteristic,however, a ld-segment representationis used,just as in the caseofthe segmentedp-law characteristic. The segmentendpoints,quantization intervals, and correspondingcodesfor an 8bit segmentedAlaw characteristicare shown in Table 3.2. The values are scaled/o a maximum value of 4096 for integral representations. Figure 3.?0 displays the theoretical performance of the Alaw approximation and compares it to the performance of a p-law approximation presentedin Figure 3.19. Notice that the A-law characteristic provides a slightly larger dynamic range.However, theAJaw characteristicis inferior to the p-law characteristicin terms of small-signal quality (idle channel noise). The difference in small-signal performanceoccurs becausethe minimum step size of the A-law standardis 2/4096 whereasthe minimum step size of the p-law is 2/8159. Furthermore, notice that the A-law approximation does not define a zero-level output for the first quantizationinterval (i.e., usesa midriser quantizer).However, the difference between midriser and midtread performanceat 64 kbps is imperceptible tl8l.

3.2.6 SyllabicCompandlng
A significant attribute of the companding techniquesdescribed for pcM systems is that they instantaneou$lyencompassthe entire dynamic range of the coder on a sampleto-sample basis. Thus p-law and A-law companding is sometimesreferred to as instantaneouscompanding. However, because the power level of a speech signal remains fairly constantfor 100 or more 8-kHz samples,it is wasteful of code spaceto be able to encode very low level signals adjacentto very high level signals.In other words, it is unnecessary allow for instantaneous to changesin the dynamic rangeof a signal. One techniqueof reducing the amount of transmissionbandwidth allocatedto dynamic range is to reduce the dynamic range of the signal at the source before encoding and then restorethe original dynamic range of the signal at the receiver while decoding. when the adjustmentsto the dynamic range occur on a periodic basisthat more or lesscorrespondsto the rate of syllable generation,the techniqueis referred to as syllabic companding.Becausethe dynamic range adjustmentsoccur only every 30 msec or so, there is very little bandwidth neededto communicatethe adjustments.

3.2 PULSE CODE MODULATION 117 TABLE 3.2 $egmented A-Law Encodlng/Decoding Tablea

Input Amplitude Range

StepSize

Segment CodeS 000

Ouantization CodeQ Code Value 0000 0001 1111 0000

Dcoder Amplitude
1

r2
24 3G-32 32-34 : 62-64 64-8 i 124-128 12B-136 : 248-256 25tsl272 : 2 496-51 512-544 i 024 992*1 1024-1088 : 1984-2048 ?048-2176 i 3968*4096 2 001

3 3; 33 63 66 126 132 252 264 504 528 95 96 ; 111 112 127 1008 1056 201 6 2112 4032

1111 0000 4 010 1111 0000 I 0 11 1111 0000 16 100 1111 0000 : 1111 0000 1111 0000 128 111 1111

3e

101

64

110

alntransmission, oth6rbitis invened. every

Syllabic companding was first developed for use on noisy analog circuits to improve the i<lle channel noise. As shown in Figure 3.21, the power level of low-level syllables is increased(compressingthe dynamic range) for transmissionbut attenuatedupon reception (expandingthe dynamic range).The processofattenuating the received signal restoresthe low-power syllable to its original level but attenuatesany noise arising on the transmissionlink. Thus the receiver signal-to-noiseratio (SNR) is improved for low-level signals.The amount of amplification applied at the source is dependenton the short-term (syllabic) power level of the transmitted signal. Similarly, the compensatingattenuation applied at the receiving terminal is determined from the short-term power level of the received signal. Syllabic companding on digital systemsprovides the samebasic improvement in SQRs as it doeson noisy analog transmissionlinks. When the digital encodersand de-

1 18

VOICE DIGITIZATIoN

6 E

a 30 q
fl .E
.E c A I
g E o

: .E

.F
6

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

_lo

powr of rinswrve (dBm0l Siqnel

Ftgure 3.20 SQR of A-law PCM coding with sine wave inputs.

Input porvr level(dBm)

Output povt/t level(dBm)

*to[-'"
TrEnsrfiittd l6vBl {dBm}

*7.5-.r0

* ' J * f f i u u,rr\s-a,
(//w^c.*oi*'
Variable Expanrion --sH \\ Varieble\ --59 attenuetion Ponnr ftreasuromnt Figure 3.21 Power meesuteftent Syllabic companding of an analog signal.

MODULATION 1 19 3.2 PULSE CODE

coders are consideredas part of the transmissionlink, the processof amplifying lowlevel signalsbefore encoding and attenuatingthem after decoding effectively reduces the quantization noise with no net changein signal level. In practice, syllabic companding as implementedin digitized voice terminals doesnot amplify the signal at the sourceand attenuateit at the destination.Instead,an equivalentprocessof controlling the step sizesin the encoderand decoderis used. As far as the transmitted bit stream is concerned,it makes no difference if the signal is amplified and encodedwith fixed quantization or if the signal is unmodified but encodedwith smaller quantization intervals.Thus syllabic compandorsin digital voice terminalstypically reducethe quantization intervals when encoding and decoding low-power syllables but increasethe quantization intervals for high-power syllables' Although syllabic companding can be used in conjunction with any type of voice coding, the techniquehasbeen applied most often to differential sy$temsdescribedin the following sections.In many of the applications,the adaptationtime has been reduced to 5 or I0 msec,which is somewhatshorterthan the duration of a typical syllable (approximately 30 msec). The technique is still generally referred to as syllabic variety. companding, however, to distinguish it from the instantaneous To adjust the step sizes in the decoder in synchronism with adjustmentsmade in the encoder.some mean$must be establishedto communicatethe step size information from the sourceto the destination.One method explicitly transmits the step size information as auxiliary information. A generally more usefirl approach is to derive of the step sizeinformation from the transmittedbit stream.Thus, in the ab$ence chanoperateon the sameinformation. This procenel erTors,the decoderand the encoder dure is analogousto syllabic compandedanalog systemsin which the receiver determines its attenuation requirementsfrom the short-term power level of the received signal. In a digital system the bit streamis monitored for certain datapattems that indicate the power level of the signal being encoded.Indications of high power level initiate an increasein the step size, whereasindications oflow levels causea decrea$e. Determining the step size information from the transmittedbit streamis generally better than explicitly transmitting the step sizes for the following reasons.Because there is no explicit transmissionof step size, the transmissionof sampled speechinformation is never intemrpted, and the speechsamplerate is equal to the transmission rate. Also. the bit sheam does not have to be framed to identify step size infbrmation separatelyfrom the waveform coding. Furthermore, if the step size adjustmentsare made on a more gradual basis,the individual incrementsare small enough that occasional incorrect adjustmentsin the receiver causedby channel errors are not critical' However, on transmissionlinks with very high error rates (one error in a hundred bits or so), better decodedvoice quality can be obtained ifthe step size is transmitted explicitly and redundantly encodedfor error correction [19].

3.2.7 AdaptiveGain Encoding is range a signal of 3.21 dynamic the example Figure of companding In thesyllabic has signal 36dB of dyThus, anuncompanded if reduced a factor 2 (in dBm). by of

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votcEDtctIzATtoN

namic range, the encoder seesonly 18 dB. The 18-dB reduction implies three fewer bits are neededfor dynamic rangeencoding.In the limit, if the power level of alt input signals is adjustedto a single value, no bits ofthe encoderneed to be allocatedto dynamic rangeencoding.A processthat adjustsall signalsto a standardvalue is referred to as automatic gain control (AGC). AGC is traditionally usedon carrier transmission systemsto adjust all received signalsto a standardvalue, thereby removing variations in propagation attentuation.AGC cannot be applied to a sourcevoice signal without allowancesfor speechpauseswhen there is no signal present.Otherwise, idle channel noise would be amplified to the averagelevel of active voice. Notice that with AGC there is no residual information in the power level of the encodedsignal as there is in syllabic companding.To ascertainthe original power level, AGC must be augmented with adaptive gain encoding (AGE), as indicated in Figure 3.22. There are two basic modes of operation for gain encoding dependingon how gain factors are measuredand to which speechsegments factors are applied. one mode the of operation,as implied in Fi gureS.ZL,involvesmeasuringthe power level of one segment of speechand using that information to establisha gain factor for ensuingspeech segments. obviously, this mode of operationrelies on gradually changing power lev* els. This mode of operation is sometimesreferred to a$ "backward estimation." Another mode of operation involves measuring the power lever of a speechsegment and using the gain factor thus derived to adapt the encoderto the samesegment. This approach,referredto as "forward estimation," hasthe obvious advantage,Ihat the encoderand decoderuse gain factors specifically related to the speechsegments from which they are derived.The disadvantage that eachspeechsegmentmustbe delayed is while the gain factor is being determined.Although the availability of digital memory has made the cost of implementing the delay insignificant, the impact of the delay on echoesand singing in a partially analog network must be considered.(As long as the subscriberloops are analog, the network is partially analog.) Adaptive gain control with explicit kansmission of gain factors is not without shortcomings.First, when the periodic gain information is inserted into the transmitted bit stream,some meansof framing the bit streaminto blocks is neededso gain in* formation can be distinguished from waveform coding. second, periodic insertion of gain information disrupts information flow, causinghigher transmitterclock ratesthat might be inconveniently related to the waveform sample clock. Third, correct recep-

adiustment

Flgure 3.22 Adaptive gain encoding.

12I 3.3 SPEECH HEDUNDANcIES tion of gain factors is usually critical to voice quality, indicating a needto redundantly encodegain information. Reference[20] describesa modified form of PCM using forward estimationof gain factors that is referred !o as nearly instantaneously companded PCM' The need for transmitting speechsegmentsin blocks is not a disadvantagein the application mentioned (mobile telephone)becauserepetitive bursts with ertor checking are used as a meansof overcoming shortJived multipath fading. This systemprovides a bit rate reduction of 30Vowith respect to conventional PCM. Another example of the use of AGE is the subscriberloop multiplexer (SLM) system developedby Bell Labs [21]. The SLM systembecameobsoletewhen low-cost PCM codecsbecameavailable and the subscribercarrier systemscould be integrated into digital end offices (with SLC 96 and later DLC systems).All of the encoding algorithms describedin the following sectionsuse syllabic companding or AGE in some form to reduce the bit rate'

REDUNDANCIES 3.3 SPEECH

Conventional PCM systemsencodeeach sampleof an input waveform independently from all other samples.Thus a PCM system is inherently capableof encoding an arbitrarily random waveform whose maximum-frequency component does not exceed one-half the sampling rate. Analyses of speechwaveforms, however, indicate there is considerableredundancyfrom one sampleto the next. In fact, as repofted in reference t101,the correlation coefficient (a measureof predictability) between adjacent$-kHz samples is generally 0.85 or higher. Hence the redundancy in conventional PCM codes suggestssignificant savings in transmissionbandwidths are possible through more efficient coding techniques.All of the digitization techniquesdescribedin the rest of this chapter are tailored, in one degree or another, to the characteristics of speechsignals with the intent of reducing the bit rate. In addition to the correlation existing between adjacent samples of a speechwaveform, severalother levels ofredundancy can be exploited to reduceencodedbit rates. related Not included are higher level redundancies Table 3.3 lists theseredundancies. (phonemes),words, and seninterpretationsof speechsounds to context-dependent

Hedundancles TABLE3.3 Speech redundancies Time-domain amplitudedi$tributions 1, Nonuniform 2, Sample-to-samplecorrelations (periodicity) correlatians 3. Cycle-to-cycle conelations 4. Pitch-intervalpitch-interval to pauses) (speech factors 5. lnactivity Frequency-domain redundancies spectral densities long-term 6. Nonuniform spectral densities 7. Sound-specific shorl-term

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vorcE DrcrrzATroN

tence$. Thesetopicsarenot covered because techniques analyze that speech waveforms to extractonly informationcontenteliminatesubjective qualitiesessential to generaltelephony. 3.3.1 Nonuniform Amplltude Dietrlbutlons As mentioned theintroduction companding, in to lower amplitude sample values are morecommon thanhigheramplitude sample values. Most low-levelsamples occuras a resultof speech pau$e$ a conversation. in Beyondthis,however, powerlevelsof the activespeech signals alsotendto occurat the lower endof the encoding range. The companding procedures described the previoussectionprovideslightly inferior in quality(i.e.,lower signal-to-noise ratios)for smallsignals compared largesignals. to qualif of PCM speech Thusthe average could be improvedby furthershortening lower level quantization intervalsand increasing upperlevel quantization intervals. The amountof improvement realized sucha technique minimal andprobably by is would notjustify the additional complexities. mosrbeneficial The approach procto essing signalamplitudes orderto reduce in encoder rate$ bit involvessomeform of adaptive gaincontrol,asdiscussed earlier. 3.3.2 Sample-to-SampleCorrelatlon Thehighcorrelation factorof 0.85mentioned Section indicates anysignifiin 3.3 that cantattempt reduce to transmission ratesmustexploitthe correlation between adjacentsamples. fact, at 8-kHz sampling In rates,significant correlations exist for also samples to threesamples two apafr. Naturally,samples become evenmorecorrelated if the sampling is increased. rate Thesimplest way to exploitsample-to-sample redundancies speech to encode in is only thedifferences between adjacent samples. difference The measurements then are accumulated a decoder recover signal.In essence in to the these systems encode the slope derivative signalat thesource recover signalby integrating the or ofa and the at destination. Digitizationalgorithms this type arediscussed lengthin later secof at tions. 3.3.3 Cycle-to-Cycle Correlatlons Althougha speech signalrequires enrire300-3400-Hz the bandwidth providedby a telephone channel, anyparticular at instant time certainsounds in may be composed of only a few frequencies within the band.when only a few underlying frequencies exist in a sound,the waveformexhibitsstrongcorrelations over numerous samples corresponding several to cyclesofan oscillation. cyclic nature The ofa voicedsound is evidentin thetime waveform shownin Figure3.23.Encoders exploitingthecycleto-cycle redundancies speech markedly in are morecomplicated those than concerned only with removingtheredundancy adjacent in samples. fact,these In encoders more

123 REDUNDANCIES 3.3 SPEECH

of Flgure 3.?3 Time wavefbrm voicedsound. or lessrepresenta transition from the relatively high rate, natural-soundingwaveform encodersto the relatively low rate, synthetic-soundingvocoders.

Gorrelations 3.3.4 Pitch-lnterval-to-Pitch.lnterval

Human speechsounds are often categorized as being generatedin one of two basic "voiced" soundsthat arise as a result ways. The first category of soundsencompasses of vibrations in the vocal cords. Each vibration allows a puff of air to flow from the lungs into the vocal hact. The interval between puffs of air exciting the vocal tract is referred to as the pitch interval or, more simply, the rate of excitation is the pitch. Generally speaking,voiced soundsarise in the generationof vowels and the latter portions of some consonants.An example of a time waveform for a voiced sound is shown in Figure 3.23. "unvoiced" sounds.FricaThe secondcategoryof soundsincludes the fricatives, or tives occur as a result of continuous air flowing fiom the lungs and passingthrough a vocal tract constricted at some point to generateair turbulence (friction). Unvoiced soundscorrespondto certain consonant$such asf j, s, and x' An example of a time waveform of an unvoiced sound is shown in Figure 3.?4. Notice that an unvoiced sound has a much more random waveform than a voiced sound. As indicated in Figure 3.23, not only doesa voiced soundexhibit the cycle-to-cycle redundanciesmentioned in Section 3.3.3, but also the waveform displays a longer qtre of lgtn rEpetitive pattern poffesponding to the duration of a pitch interval. $11p the glo$t Afficient ways of encoding the voiced portions 9f speechis to encode one pitch that p,te4+Jp*41--1vpv9{pyr+ an"d.use encoding,asa templatefor each successive typ,i[a]ly-last gom 5 to 20 mpes f,or men and i[GwU"in th.eqamesound,-fi!9,!r in1-elvals flrqp 2.5 to 10 msegfor.yomen*"Sincea.typica] voiced.sogndf4ptsfo,rapprq4i5nately 100msec, there may be as many as 20-40 pitch intervals in a single sound. Although iitdh inierval encoding Can provide significant reductions in bit rates, the pitch is sometimesvery difficult to detect. (Not all voiced soundsproduce a readily identifi-

Figure 3.24 Time waveform of unvoiced sound.

124

VOICEDIGITIZATION

able pitch interval as in Figure 3.23.) rf the pitch gets encodecl erroneously, straxge soundsresult. An interestingaspectof pitch interval encodingis that it provides a meansof speeding up speechwhile maintaining intelligibility. By deleting some percentageof pitch intervals from each sound (phoneme),the rate of sound generationis effectively increasedin a manner analogousto more rapid word formation. The pitch of the sounds remains unchanged.In conffast, if the rate of reconstruction is merely increased,all frequenciesincluding the pitch increaseproportionately. Moderate speedups produce obvious distortion while greaterspeedups becomeunintelligible. Devices designedto simulate faster word formation have demonstrated that we are capableof assimilating spokeninformation much faster than we can generateit.

3.3.5 InactivityFactor$
Analyses of telephone conversationshave indicated that a pafiy is typically active about4OVa a call duration. Most inactivity occurs as a result of one personlistening of while the other is talking. Thus a conventional (circuit-switched) full-duplex connection is significantly underutilized. Time assignmentspeechinterpolation (TASD describedin Chapter I is a techniqueto improve channelutilization on expensiveanalog links. Digital speechinterpolation (DSI) is a term usedto refer to a digital circuit counterpart of rASI. DSI involves sensingspeechactivity, seizing a channel,digitally encoding and transmitting the utterances, and releasingthe channel at the completion of each speechsegment. Digital speechinterpolation is obviously applicable ro digital speechsrorage$ystems where the duration of a pausecan be encodedmore efficiently than the pauseitself. In recorded me$sage$,however, the pauses are normally short since a "half-duplex" conversationis not taking place. DSI techniqueshave been used to expand the voice channel capacity of digital TDM links. The inputs are standardPCM signalsthat are digitally processed detectspeechactivity. The DSI operationis often to combined with speechcompressionalgorithms to implement digital circuit multiplication (DCM) equipment.when a 2 : I voice compressionalgorithm is combined with a2.5 : I DSI concentrationfactor, an overall 5 : I circuit expansionis achieved.Depending on the quality of speechdesired,even greater concentrationfactors are possible. The use of such equipment in a network must be carefully managedto ensure that voiceband data and digital data channelsbypassthe DCM operations.

3.3.6 NonunlformLong-Term SpectralDenslties

The time-domain redundanciesdescribed in the preceding sections exhibit characteristics in the frequency domain that can be judiciously processedto reduce the encoded bit rate. Frequency-domain redundancies are not independent of the redundancies the time domain. Frequency-domaintechniquesmerely offer an alterin nate approachto analyzing and processingthe redundancies.

REDUNDANCIES 125 3.3 SPEECH

a
I

E -ro t

T
.H -20
o -6

o EL

-30
Ftequeilcy (Hrl

powerspectral densityof speech. Flgure 3.25 Long-term A totally random or unpredictablesignal in the time domain producesa frequency speckum that is flat acrossthe bandwidth of interest.Thus a signal that producesuncorrelatedtime-domain samplesmakes maximum use of its bandwidth' On the other inefficient use of the bandwidth and is hand, a nonuniform spectraldensity repre$ent$ the waveform' indicative of redundancyin Figure 3.25 showsthe long-term spectraldensity of speechsignalsaveragedacross two populations: men and women [22]. Notice that the upper portions of the 3-kHz bandwidth passedby the telephonenetwork have significantly reducedpower levels. The lower power levels at higher frequencies are a direct consequenceof the timepreviously. Large-amplitude signals correlationsdiscussed domain sample-to-sample cannot change rapidly because,on average,they are predominantly made up of lower frequency components. A frequency-domain approach to more efficient coding involves flattening the spectrumbefore encoding the signal. The flattening processcan be accomplishedby passingthe signal through a high-passfilter to emphasizethe higher frequenciesbefore sampling.The original waveform is recovered by passing the decoded signal through a filter with a complementary, low-pass characteristic.An important aspect of this processis that a high-passfilter exhibits time-domain characteristicsof a differentiator and a low-pass filter has time-domain characteristicsanalogousto an integrator. Thus the spectrum-flatteningprocessessentiallymeansthe slope of the signal is encodedat the $ource,and the signal is recoveredby integrating at the destinationredundancyremoval the basic procedure describedpreviously for sample-to-sample in the time domain. In studying Figure 3.25 it is natural to think that the remarkably low levels of signal energy at the higher frequencies(2-3.4 kHz) meansthat more bandwidth is being alThe error in such a conclusion,howlocated to a voice signal than is really necessary. ever. lies in the distinction between energy content and information content of the voice frequency speckum. As any beginning computer prograflrmer soon leams,- the
*I am assuming that beginning prograflmers seven-character name limitations. still encounter older languages or file systems with

'

lrHtl rPUq lrllsds

126

MODULATION 127 PULSE CODE 3.4 DIFFERENTIAL

by meaningof a programvariablecan often be retainedeventhoughit is shortened the deletingall of the vowels.In speech vowelsrequiremostof the energyandprion band.Theconsonants, theother marily occupythe lowerportionof the frequency higher but hand,containmostof theinformation usemuchlesspowerandgenerally enof a Hencemerelyreproducing high percentage the originalspeech frequencies. or system. goal transmission storage ergyis an inadequate for a digital speech 3.3.7 Short-Term Spectral Densitiee of long-term averages thespecshown Figure3.25represent in Thespeech spectrums and vary periods timethespectral densities considerably of Overshorter hal densities. (resonances) some peaks frequencies at with structureri energy exhibitsound-specific occurarecalled at The valleysat others. frequencies whichtheresonances andenergy sounds typically contain formants.Voiced speech or formantfrequencies, simply densityare spectral These features theshort-term of threeto four identifiableformant$. specis ofFigure3.26.A spectogram a displayofspeech illustrated thespectogram in time, The horizontalaxis represents tral energyas a function of time and frequency. levels.Thus represent energy frequency, the shadings and the verticalaxisrepresents levels(formants) at relativelyhigh energy thedarkerportionsin Figure3.26indicate in particular instants time. by provideimproved codingefficiencies encoding voice Frequency-domain coders on of the mostimportantcomponents the spectrum a dynamicbasis.As the sounds The bandareencoded. period ofthe frequency differentportions(formants) change, Instead usingperiodicspectrum of is between formantupdates typically 10-20 msec. in trackgradual changes continuously some measufements, higherquality vocoders vocoders oftenprovidelower higherrate.Frequency-domain densityat a thespectral codersbut typically producelessnaturalsounding bit ratesthan the time-domain speech.

PULSECODE MODULATION 3.4 DIFFERENTIAL (DPCM)is designed to specifically takeadvantage pulsecodemodulation Differential waveform. Sincetherange in redundancies a typicalspeech of the sample-to-sample fewer bits are of sampledffirences is lessthan the rangeof individual samples, as rate The samples. sampling is oftenthesame for a comto difference needed encode and Thusthe bandlimitingfilter in the encoder the smoothing parable PCM system. FCM system$. in to used conventional identical those are filter in thedecoder basically samples a DPCM coderis to for the of means generating difference A conceptual circuitanduseananalog inputsample directlyin a sample-and-hold store previous the and in The to the subtracter measure change. change the signalis thenquantized enshownin Figure3.27is morecompliThe codedfor transmission. DPCM structure loop by inputvalueis reconstructed a feedback because previous the cated, however, signalis an the In essence, feedback sample differences. the that integrates encoded

128

vorcE DtctrtzAnoN
gandlimiting filter

Prsvioiti input

CBtimate Aftumulrtor Flgure 3.27 F\rnctional block diagram of differential pCM.

estimate theinputsignalasobtained integrating encoded of by the sample differences. Thusthefeedback signalis obtained thesame in manner used reconstruct waveto the form in thedecoder. Theadvantage thefeedback of implementation thatquantization i$ errorsdo not accumulate indefinitely. thefeedback If signaldrifts from theinputsignal,asa resultof an accumulation quantization of errors,the next encodingof the difference signal automatically compensate$ thedrift. In a system for withoutfeedback outputprothe duced a decoder theotherendof theconnection by at mightaccumulate quantization errorswithoutbound. As in PCM sy$tems, analog-to-digital the process be uniform or conversion can companded. someDPCM systems useadaptive also techniques (syllabiccompanding) to adjustthequantization sizein accordance theaverage step with powerlevelof the signal.(See reference for an overviewof varioustechniques.) [9] Example3.4. speechdigitizationtechniques sometimes are measured quality for by useof an 800-Hzsinewavea$a representative signal.Assuming uniform test a PCM systemis availableto encode sine wave across given dynamicrange, the a determine manybitsper sample be saved usinga uniformDpcM system. how can by solution. A basicsolutioncanbe obtained determining by how muchsmallerthe dynamicrangeof the differencesignal is in comparison the dynamicrangeof the to signalamplitude. Assume maximumamplitude the sinewaveis A, sothat the of =A "r(f) sin(2n'800t) Themaximumamplitudeof thedifferencesignalcanbeobtained differentiating by andmultiplyingby thetime intervalbetween samples:

= e?n)(A0o) '8oor) cos(2n

MODULATIOru 129 PULSE CODE 3.4 DIFFERENTIAL

A(2nX800) lAx(t)l*u*= [,#l

\

= 0'628A
/

as can in The savings bits per sample be determined

t r \ tits loc,| 0628l=0.62

\ / less can that Example demonstratetl a DPCM sy$tem useJ bit per sample than 3.4 providea full l-bit quality.Typically DPCM systems with the same a PCM system because, average' on reductionin codewordsize.The larger savingsis achieved havea lower slopethanan 800-Hztone(seeFigure3.25). speech waveforms

3.4.1 DPCM lmplementatlons in can and DifferentialPCM enCoders decoders beimplemented a varietyof waysdebetween analogand functionsarepartitioned pendingon how the signalprocessing f'unctions be imcan and the digitalcircuitry.At oneextreme differencing integration can all circuitry,while at the otherextreme signalprocessing plemented with analog as PCM samples input. Figure 3.28 digitally using conventional be implemented of with of showsblock diagrams tfueedifferentimplementations differing amounts digital signalprocessing. Analogand usinganalogdifferencing integration. a Figure3.28adepicts sy$tem fot and signal, D/A conversion the on is to-digitalconversion performed thedifference code. Analog difference performed thelimited-range on loopis immediately feedback (S/H)circuitis usedto provideintegration. in and $ummation storage a sample-anrl-hold functiondigitally. Inthe that perfbrms integration Figure3.28bshowsa system for the codebackto analog feedback, converting difference the of immediately stead a and codeis summed storedin a dataregisterto generate digital repredifference to is D/A converter thenused proA inputsample. full-scale sentation theprevious of in Noticethat the D/A converters feedback signalfor differencing. ducethe analog in range whereas D/A converters Figthe mustconvert full amplitude the Figure3.28b signal. ure 3.28aconvertthemorelimited difference is by whereall signalprocessing performed digital Figure3.28cshowsa sy$tem which sample codes, full-amplitude-range produces TheA/D converter logic circuits. of generated approximations the previousamplitudecode. to are compared digitally the Noticethat theA./Dconvefterin this casemustencode entiredynamicrangeof the on operate only the differin the othertwo versions input whereas A/D convefters the encesignals. of processing components, some whichconof Dueto theavailability digitalsignal (as the processing in Figure3.28c)is generally digital tain intemalA./Dconverters, In fact, mostDPCM apa of mosteffectivemean$ implementing DPCM algorithm. speech signalsthat have alreadybeendigitizedinto plicationsinvolve processing no usuallyrequires ThustheDPCM implementation PCM formats. standard 64-kbps

130

votcE DtGtlzATtoN

processing. an aid in processing analog As log-PCMsignals, someDSp components provideinternalp-law andA-law conversion functions. Thedecoders all threeimplementations in shown Figure3.28areexactlylike the in feedback implementations theconesponding in encoder. This reinforces fact that the thefeedback generates approximation theinputsignal(delayed onesamloop an of by ple).Ifno channel elrorsoccur,thedecoder output(before filtering)is identical the to feedback signal. Thusthecloserthefeedback signalmatches input,thecloserthe the decoder outputmatches encoder the input.

Decoder

Encoder

Oecoder

Encoder

(t)

Figure 3.2t DPCM implementations:(a) analog integrarion; (b) digital integration; (c) digital differencing.

pulsE s.4 DTFFERENTTAL coDEMoDULATIoN 131

3.4.2 HlgherOrder Prediction

case a linear of it considers asa special viewpointof a DPCM encoder A moregeneral signal error.Thefeedback of predictor and with encoding transmission theprediction prediction thenext sample value,andthe of first-order represents of a DPCM sy$tem can is elror.Underthis viewpointtheDPCM concept difference a prediction sample cirvalueinto the prediction morethanonepastsample to be extended incolporate can from all previoussamples be available cuitry. Thus the additionalredundancy With a of a andsummed produce betterestimate the next input sample. weighted to with to the betterestimate, rangeof the predictionerror decreases allow encoding haveshownthat predictorcoefficients, results fewerbits. For systems with constant valwhenusingonly thelastthreesample occurs mostof therealizable improvement values usingthe lastthreesample of ues.Thebasicimplementation linearprediction showsanalog purposes implementation this is shownin Figure3.29.For conceptual as and differencing integration in Figure3.28a.The mosteffectiveimplementations in and usedigital memory,multiplication, additionin a DSP component lieu of the diginvolvealready particularly because mostapplications processing shown, analog itized (PCM) signals. with first-order PCM systems of 3.4, in As mentioned Section analysis differential reduction codelengthrelativeto in a predication typicallyprovides 1-bit-per-sample utilizingthirdDPCM sy$tems performance. Extended with equivalent PCM systems of can orderprecliction providereductions f -2 bitsper sample [23]. Thusa standard linear can DPCM system provide64-kbpsPCM quality at 56 kbps,andthird-order quality at 48 kbps. However,somesubjective predictioncan provide comparable 64-kbps to are higherbit rates needed match that have evaluations indicated somewhat PCM quality. 3.4.3 Adaptive Differential PGM of of implementations DFCM canprovidesavings I -2 bits straightforward Relatively Even greatersavingscan be PCM encoding. to per samplewith respect standard

Decoder

Encoder

prediction. Figure 3.29 Extension DPCM to third-order of

132

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achievedby adding adaptationlogic to the basic DPCM algorithm to create what is refened to as adaptive differential PcM (ADpcM). Many forms of ADpcM have been investigatedand used in various applications.Two of the most prevalent applications are voice messagingand DCM equipment for increasingthe number of voice channelson a Tl line. with respectto the latter application, ITU-T has establisheda 32-kbps ADPCM standard(RecommendationG.721) [24]. This algorithm has been extensively testedand characterized not significantly degradetoll quality voice cirto cuits when insertedinto the internal portions of the network. Design considerationsof the standard are: 1. Multiple tandem encodings and decodings berween both pcM and analog interfaces 2. End-to-end signal quality for voice, voicebanddata, and facsimile 3. Effects ofrandom and bursty channel errors 4. Performanceon analog signals degradedby loss, noise, amplitude distortion, phasedistortion, and harmonic di$tortion 5. Easy transcodingwith p-law and Alaw pCM The 32-kbps rate implies a 2 : I savingsin channelbandwidth with respectto standard PCM. A significant impairment inffoduced by implemenrarionsof the ADpcM standard is the comrption of modem signalscarrying data ratesgreaterthan 49fi) bps [24]. Voiceband data at rates of 4800 bps and below are adequatelysupported. The G.721 ADPCM algorithm is conceptually similar to rhat shown in Figure 3.29 but more sophisticatedin that it usesan eighth-orderpredictor, adaptivequantization, and adaptive prediction. Furthermore, the algorithm is designedto recognize the difference between voice or data signals and use a fast quantizer adaptationmode for voice and a slow adaptationmode for data.

4 v,

*q
-*o*****__=# ---* PCM ADPCM

3 3
2
1

$r
2 t
2

3 4 5 I 7 I Numbsr Encodlner of (el

3 4 E g 7 I Numbsr Encodl4r of

tbl

Figure 3.30 AverageMOS versusnumberof encodings PCM and ADPCM: (a) linear for microphone; carbon (b) microphone.

g.s DELrA 133 MoDULATtoN subjectiveevaluation [25] of the G.721algorithmusingthe meanopinionscore quality is shownin Figure 3.30. The MOS (MOS) methodof evaluatingspeech of qualityon a scale I : 5. Figure evaluate speech the listeners to uses trained method PCM asa functionof ADPCM and64-kbps 32-kbps scores of the 3.30shows average with qualityassociated multiple The encodings. speech tandem of thenumber analog beyond first transcoding the (to andfrom PCM)does degrade not digitaltranscodings errors slips or suchaschannel impairments aslong asthereareno digitaltransmission of ADPCM (or anyothercoder)usedto be animportant (Chapter Theperformance 7). and of of whenthepublicnetworkwascomposed mixtures analog digiconsideration porxions thenetworkareall digital, performance of Because internal the tal equipment. (Multiple PCM-tois with multiple analogconversions no longera consideration. are multiple DCM systems encountered can ADPCM conversions still occurwhen within a network.) cost goodqualityat a moderate andpower ADFCM at 32 kbpsprovides Because or low-tier-digitalcellularsystelephone cordless it consumption, is usedin several tems: (PACS)(NorthAmerica) System Communications Personal Access (CT2) (Europe) Telephones Generation Cordless Second (DECT)(Europe) Telephones Cordless Digital European (PHS)(Japan) System Handyphone Personal

3.5 DELTA MODULATION exploitsthe that (DM) is another technique specifically digitization Deltamodulation In waveform. fact,DM canbe considered in redundancy a speech sample-to-sample signal.The of caseof DPCM usingonly I bit per sample the difference asa special singlebit specifiesmerelythe polarity of the differencesampleandtherebyindicates An since or whither thesignalhasincreased decreased thelastsample. approximation up pathby stepping onequantiin to the input waveformis constructed the feedback downwhenthedifis zationlevel whenthedifference positive("one")andstepping of'trps" a$ ("zero").In this way the input is encoded a sequence is ference negative aDM approximaFigure3.31shows a and"downs"in amannerresemblingstaircase. to signalcontinues stepin one tion of a typical wavefonn.Noticethat the feedback direction step the directionuntil it crosses input,at whichtime thefeedback reverses Thus,whentrackingtheinput signal,theDM output again. until the input is crossed "bounces" allowingthe input to be accuthe backandforth across input waveform, filter' by ratelyreconstructed a smoothing a sample contains relativelysmallamountof information(1 Sinceeachencoded rate a require highersampling thanPCMor multibitDPCM systems. bit), DM $ystems muchhigherthantheminimum(Nyquist)samrateis necessarily In fact,thesampling
*A low-tier cellular system utilizes simple, Iow-power mobile units, and small cells and only suppofts pedesfrian speeds,

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VoIcE DIGITIZATIoN

Figure 3.31 Waveform encoding deltamodularion, by pling rate of twice the bandwidth. From anotherviewpoint, "oversampling" is needecl to achieve better prediction from one sample to the next. The main attraction of DM is its simplicity. Figure 3.32 shows a basic implementation of a DM encoderand decoder.Notice that the A/D conversion function is provided by a simple comparator. A positive-difference voltage produces a l, and a negative-differencevoltage produces a 0. Correspondingly, the D/A function in the feedback path, and in the decoder,is provided by a two-polarity pulse generator.In the simplest form the integrator can consist of nothing more than a capacitorto accumulate the charge from the pulse generator. In addition to theseobvious implementation simplicities, a delta modulator also allows the use of relatively simple filters for bandlimiting the input and smoothing the output [26]. As discussed section 3.1, rhe speckum producedby a samplingprocess in consist$of replicasof the sampledspectrumcenteredat multiples of the sampling frequency. The relatively high sampling rate of a delta modulator producesa wider separation of these spectrums, and, hence, foldover distortion is prevented with less stringent roll-off requirementsfor the input filter.

3.5.1 SlopeOverload
The conceptualoperationof a delta modulator shown in Figure 3.3 I indicatesthat the encoded waveform is never much more than a step size away from the input signal. sometimes a delta modulator, or any differential system such as DpcM, may not be able to keep up with rapid changes in the input signal and thus fall more than a step

Pul* gf,ndtbr

Eruodr Figure 3.32 Delta modulation encoder and decoder.

3.5 DELTAMODULATION

135

"slope size behind. When this happens,the delta modulator is said to be experiencing overload." A slope overload condition is shown in Figure 3'33. Basically, slope overload occurs when the rate of changeof the input exceedsthe by maximum rate of changethat can be generated the feedbackloop' Since the maximum rate of change in the feedback loop is merely the step size times the sampling rate, a slope overload condition occurs if

l#l'*
wherex(t) = input signal q = steP size f; = samplingfrequencY

(3.13)

two between types a involves trade-off of Thedesign a DM (or DPCM)necessarily referredto as noise,sometimes of distortion:the moreor lessrandomquantization in noise.As indicated Figure3-33,granular granularnoise,and the slopeoverload slope overwhereas signals, for consideration slowlychanging noiseis a predominant noiseis small granular Obviously, signals. duringrapidlychanging loadis dominant the increase likelihoodof slopeoverload' are if stepsizes small,but smallstepsizes overand thetotalof granular slope of DM stepsizein terms minimizing Theoptimum Uy loadnoisehasbeenconsidered Abate[271. signalare sigeffectsof slopeoverloadon the quality of a speech The perceptual noise'As indiby granular effectsproduced nificanitydifierentfrom the perceptual the its noise reaches peaksjustbefore encoded overload in cated iigure 3.33,theslope identical components has noise sfiong slopeoverload Hence, its signalreaches peaks. of the input' Diswith a majorcomponent in irifrequencyandapproximately phase "masked'by signalis effectively to in tortionthatis correlated thismanner thespeech "uncorrelated" In distortion. than is energyandtherefore lessnoticeable the speech thanrandomor granular to noiseis muchlessobjectionable a listener fact, overload from the point of view of perceived powerlevel [28]. Hence, noiseat an equivalent noiseis difficult to andslopeoverload quality,the optimummix of granular speech determine.

Figure 3.33 Slope overload and granular noise of delta modulation system.

136

vorcEDtcllzAloN

slope overload is not a limitation of just a DM system, but an inherent problem with any system, such as DPCM in general, that encodesthe difference in a signal fiom one sampleto the next. A difference systemencodesthe slope of the input with a finite number ofbits and hencea finite range. Ifthe slope exceedsthat range, slope overload occurs. In contrast, a conventional pcM systemis not limited by the rate of changeof the input, only by the maximum encodableamplitude. Notice that a differential systemcan encodesignalswith arbitrarjly large amplitudes,as long as the large amplitudes are attainedgradually. Many versionsof DM for voice encoding were investigatedin the 1960sand 1970s [29, 30]. All of theseefforts focused on ways of implementing adaptive delta modulation (ADM) to improve the performance at a given bit rate. The intense interest at that time was relatedto the simplicity, good toleranceof channelerrors,and relatively low cost implementation.The cost factor is no longer relevantbecause even relatively complicatedcoding algorithms now have insignificant costscomparedto mosr system costs.ADM is still used in some old pBXs, in some military securevoice radio systems, and as a mealls of encoding the residual error signal of some predictive coders describedin the following sections.

3.6 ADAPTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING

operate with lowerdatarates thanpcM systems because encode difference they a signal thathasloweraverage powerthantheraw inputsignal. ratioof theinputsignal The powerto thepowerof thedifference signalis referred astheprediction to gain.Simple DPCM system$(firsr-orderpredictors)provide about 5 dB of prediction ga1n. ADPCM provides greater levelsof prediction gaindepending thesophistication on of the adaptation logic andthe number pastsamples of usedto predictthe nextsample. Theprediction gainof ADpcM is ultimatelylimited by thefact thatonly a few fast samples usedto predictthe input andthe adaptation are logic only adapts quanthe tizer,not theprediction weightingcoefficients c's in Figure3.zg). (the Adaptivepredictivecoding(Apc) t3l, 3zl provides greater levelsof prediction gain by adapting predictioncoefficients individual speech the to segments and,in mostcases, usinghigherorders prediction of (e.g., to 12).If thecoefficients de_ up are termined from pasthistoryandused predictsubsequent to speech (backward segments estimation), dB of prediction l3 gainis possible segments delayed [10]. If speectr are so predictorcoefficients be usedon the samespeech can segments from which they werederived(forwardesrimation), dB of prediction 20 gainis possible [33]. A blockdiagram a basicApc encoder/decodershownin Figure3.34.Theinof is put to the encoder the outputfrom the decoder assumed be uniformpcM, and are to most likely representing conver$ions from and to log pcM. The transmitted data $tream necessarily is composed blockscontaining of threetypesof information:(l) the encoded difference signal(residual), a gainfactor,and(3) rhepredicror (z) coefficients.Themostsignificant difference between coderanda'DpcM or ADpcM this coderinvolvesthe periodicdetermination transmission the predictorcoeffiand of

Thedifferential sysrems described theprevious in (DpcM,ADpcM,ADM) sections

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cients' Notice that the integratedresidual signal at point A is identical to the input signal delayed by one sample (except for residual quantization error). Thus the corresponding point in the decoderis the reconstructedpCM output. Explicit transmissionof a gain factor, as opposedto deriving a gain factor from the transmitted residual, is useful in this application becausea block-structuredtransmission format is required for transmitting the predictor coefficients anyway. Residual encoding may use any of the waveform algorithms describedpreviously. Arbiharily accuratereconstructionof the input can be achievedif enoughbits are usedin encoding the residual. of course,the purpose of the adaptiveprediction is to achievea low data rate. single-bit PcM thar conveys only the polarity ofthe residual provides adequatepedormancefbr low-data-rateapplications of [33]. Notice that because the feedback path, single-bit encoding ofthe residual essentiallyproducesa delta modulator with very sophisticatedfeedbacklogic that is periodically changedto match the shape and energy level of corresponding(forward-estimated)speechsegments. A large variety of algorithms have been investigatedfor calculating the predictor coefficients, most of which involve extensive computation. If the apflication is for voice responsesystems,the computations do not have to occur in rial time and are therefore sometimes done on a large mainframe computer. Real-time encoding restricts the algorithm to one that can be realized with a DSp or special-purpose de_ IC signed to implement a specific coefficient determining algorithm. A linear predictive coding (LPC) algorithm as describedin Section 3.8.3 is a common algorithm because it provides good performance and is available in custom parts. The u.s. defense deparHnentadoptedan APC algorithm using a fourth-order LPC coefficient analysis as a government standardfor secure voice transmission at 9.6 kbps [34]. This system transmitsblocks of 240 bits containing I 80 one-bit samplesof the residual, 54 bits for parameters and gain factors,5 bits for error correctionsof critical most significant bits, and I framing bit.

3.7 SUBBAND CODING

A subbandcoder is one form of coder using a frequency-domainanalysisof the input signal insteadof a time-domain analysisas in previously described.od"r*. As shown in Figure 3.35, the coder first divides the input spectrum into separatebandsusing a bank ofbandpassfilters. The signal passingthrough eachofthe rilatively nanow subbands is individually encoded wirh separateadaprive ApcM, pcu, or enpcM encoders.After each subbandis encoded,the individual bit streamsare multiplexed for transmissionto the decoder,where they are demultiplexed, decoded,and combined to recon$tructthe input. separatelyencodingeachsubbandis advantageous severalreasons. for First, by using separate adaptationfor each band, the quantization step sizescan be adjustedaccording to the energy level in each band. Those bands with relatively high energy levels can be encodedwith relatively coarsequantization.In this mannei the spectrum of the quantization noise is matched to the short-term $pectrum of the signal. This propefly is very desirablein a perceptualsensebecauseit allows the speechsignal to

CODING 3.7 SUBBAND

BandpErB filters AdaPtive PCM

139

coder. Figure 3.35 Subband

mask the quantization noise. (The human ear perceives speechby measuring the shortterm energy level of individual frequency bands.Hence,relatively low noise in a band with no speechenergy is perceptually more significant than greater noise in a band with significant speechenergY.) A secondadvantageof subbandcoding is that the bit rate (quality) assignedto each individual band can be optimized according to the Perceptualimportance of each per sample can be used for low band. In particular, a relatively large number of bits frequencies where it is important to preserve the pitch and formant Structureof voiced ,ound*. At higher frequencies,however, fewer bits per sample can be used because noiselike fricatives do not require comparablequality in reproduction' As reported in reference [10], subbandcoders provide significant bit rate reductions compared to the more coilrmon and simpler coding algorithms: adaptive delta modulation and adaptive differential PCM. Specifically, subbandcoders at 16 kbps are reported to be perceptually equivalent to ADFCM coders at ?2 kbps. A subband coder at 9.6 kbps is reportedto be eguivalentto an ADM coder at 19.5kpbs. Extensive in reference description and performance analysis of subband coding are available

t351.

codingis the ITU-T recommendaof example subband significant A particularly for provides encoding This standard codingt36, 371. speech nonl.7}Zfbr wideband imof a with 64 kbps.Thusit provides means significantly bandwidth 7-kHz speech Applications are digital channels available. proving voice fidelity whenend-to-end and from thehigherfidelity areteleconferencing speakerphones' thatcanbenefitmost of Because is not intendedfor internalequipment the network,it doesnot have it Transupporttandemanalogconversions. voicebanddata signalsor to proces$ bridge in supportof conference to scodings and from uniform PCM are required affangements. banddividestheinput speech As shownin Figure3.36[36], theG.722algorithm Both subsubbands' equal-sized width from 50 to 7000Hz into two approximately at with ADPCM:theIowersubband 48 kbpsandtheuppersubband bands encoded are

140

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l4 blt| l6kHr I

04 kbps oulput

Lowr ilbbEnd ADPCM dftoder (3 vrrirntl

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Figure3.36 G.7227-kIIz (From audio codec, reference p. 10.) t361, at 16kbps.Theupperbanddoes require high a dataratebecause is not asimnot as it portantperceptually and has significantlyless energy.The algorithmpermitsthe lowerbandto be encoded 40 or 32 kbps,whichallowsg or 16kbpsfor anauxiliary at datachannel teleconferencing in applications for theuseof56-kbpschannels or when 64 kbpsis not available. Figure3.37shows Mos performance the olthe G.222atgorithm for speech musicat threebasicrates[3g]. and

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Figure3.37 AverageMosversusbitrateotG.lzzk-kHzaudiocodec.(Fromreference[3g], p. 15.)

3.8 vocoDEHS 141

3.8 VOCODERS
algorithms describedpreviously have been For the most part, the encocling/decoding possible' concernedprimarily with reproducing the input waveform as accuratelyas of the nature of the signal they processand Thus they u**u-* little or no knowledge are basically applicable to any signal occurring in a voice channel.Exceptions occur when subbandcoding and adaptivepredictive coding are designedfor particularly low to bit rates (20 kbps or iess). At thesebit ratesthe encodershave been closely tailored provide comparablequality for other sigthe statisiics of a speechsignal and cannot nals. Differential systems,such as DPCM and DM, also exhibit a certain amount of deficiencies speech-specificproperties by virtue of their high-frequency encoding (slope overload). The digitization procedures described in this section very specifically encode speechsignatsand speechsignals only. For this reasonthese techniquesare referred "vocOders,"an acronym for vOiCe are coderS.Since theseteChniques to collectively as to pottions ofthe public designedspecificatly for voice signals,they are not applicable be actelephonenetwork in which other analog signals (such as modem signals)must commodated.The basic goal of a vocoder is to encodeonly the perceptuallyimportant aspectsof can be speechwith fewer bits than the more general waveform encoders.Thus they cannot. used in limited-bandwidth applicationswhere the other techniques"wrong number") Some of the main applications for vocoders are recorded (e.g., digital cellular teencryptedvoice transmissionover niuT0wbandHF radio, message$, Iephony, digital circuit multiplication, computer output, games,and telephony over provided multiple tnl fnternet. A particularly interesting,early use of an LPC vocoder voice channels over a single voice frequency leasedline' Using a well-conditioned circuit, four 2400-bpsvoice signalswere time division leasedline to obtain a 9600--bps (early 1980) where multiplexed into a single line [39]. This is one of the first cases the digitization was usedto actually decrease bandwidth of a voice signal' This system pr*ovidedintelligible voice, but the overall quality was below telephone standards' This particular systembecameobsoletewhen long-distanceleased-linecosts dropped to the point that the sacrifice in voice quality was unjustified' voThis sectiondescribesthree of the most basic vocoding techniques:the channel and varicoder, the formant vocoder, and the aforementioned LPC. Many other forms some of the ations of vocoders have been proposed and studied. For a discussionof other techniques and an extensive bibliography on the subject, see reference [10]' the Most commercial applications for vocoders have concentratedon adaptationsof LPC algorithm, particularly for digital cellular and voice over data networks'

preserving A fundamental requirementfor maintaining good speechquality involves phaserelationship between individpower specffum of the signal. The the shot"t-term
*Vocoders to detect the can be insefted into internal portions of a network if the interfaces are equipped process them accordingly' presencc of voiceband modem or fax signals and

lnsensitlvltq Phtase

142

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Figure3.38 Effect phase in thesuperposition tones. of shift of two ual frequency components perceptually is muchlessimportant. one of thebestexamplesof theear'sinsensitivity phase demonstrated to is whentwo notesareplayedsimultaneously, nearly simultaneously, a piano. The compositeJound, as or on perceived a listener, seemingly different onenoteis struct< by is no if stightlylaterthan theother.In essence, earsenses muchenergy present various the how is at frequencies in the speech spectrum doesnot sen$e phase but the relationship between individual frequency components. Theeffectof a phase shiftin onecomponent a composite of signalis shown Figin ure 3.38.The first composite waveformis produced whentwo individualfrequenry component$ haveidenticalstarting phases. second The composite waveformoccurs whenthetwo frequency termshavestarting phases shiftedby-90o with respect each to other.Noticethat the composite waveforms markedlydifferenteventhough are the differenceis imperceptible the ear.For thesereasons time waveformproduced to the by a vocodergenerally bearslittle resemblance the originalinput waveform.In_ to stead, emphasis a vocoder in reproducing short-term the of is the fower specrumof theinput. 3.8.1 ChannelVocoder channel vocoders were firsr developed l92g by Homer Dudley [40]. Dudley's in originalimplementation compressed speech waveforms into an *utog signalwith a total bandwidth about300 Hz. Based the originalconcept, of on digital channel vo_ coders havebeendeveloped operating therangeof l_? kbps. in A majorpart of the encoding process a channel of vocoder involvesdetermining the short-term signalspectrum a functionof time. As indicated Figure3.3g,; as in bankofbandpass filters is usedto separate speech the energy into subbands are that full wave rectifiedand filtered to determine relativepower levels.The individual powerlevelsareencoded transmitted thedestination. and to Noticethatthis muchof a channel vocoder very similarto the subband is coderdiscussed previously. sub_ A bandcoder,however,typically useswider bandpass filters, whicir necessitate sampling the subband waveforms moreoften (determining waveforminstead just a a of powerlevel)' Sincea subband coderencodes waveforms, alsoincludes it phase informationthatis ignoredby a channel vocoder. In addition measuring signar to the spectrum, modemchannel vocoders deteralso mine the natureof speech excitation(voiceor unvoiced) the pirch frequency and of

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voiced sounds.The excitation measurements used to synthesizethe speechsignal are in the decoderby passingan appropriatelyselectedsourcesignal through a frequencydomain model of the vocal tract transfer function. Voiced excitation is simulatedby a pulse generatorusing a repetition rate equal to the measuredpitch period. unvoiced excitation is simulated by a noise generator.Owing to the synthesizednature of the excitation, this form of a vocoder is sometimesreferred to as a pitch-excited vocoder. As indicated in Figure 3.39, a decoder implements a vocal tract transfer function as a bank of bandpassfilters whose input power levels are determined by respective subbandpower levels in the encoder.Thus outputs of each bandpassfilter in the clecoder conespond to outputs ofrespective bandpass filters in the encoder.superposing the individual bands re-creates, a spectral sense,the original signal. in Maly variations in the basic channel vocoder have been developed involving the nature of the excitation and the meansof encoding the power levels. Recentadvances in digital technology have introduced the useof digita-lsignal processingto determine the input spectrumby way of Fourier transform algorithms in lieu of the bank of analog filters. All forms of vocoders that measurethe power spectraldensity are sometimes referred to collectively as spectrum channel vocodersto distinguish them from time-domain vocoderssuch as the LpC describedlater. The most difficult aspect of most vocoder realizations involves determining the pitch of voiced sounds. Futthermore, certain sounclsare not clearly classifiable as purely voiced or purely unvoiced. Thus a desirableextensionofthe basic vocoder involves more accuratecharacterizationof the excitation. Without accurateexcitation information, vocoder output quality is quite poor and often dependenton both the speakerand the particular soundsbeing spoken.Some of the more advancedchannel vocodershave produced highly intelligible, although somewhat synthetic sounding, speechat 2400 bps [231.

3.8.2 FormantVocoder
As indicated in the spectogram of Figure 3.26, the short-term spectral density of speech is rarely distributed across rhe entire voice band (200-3400 Hz). Insread, speechenergy tends to be concentratedat three or four peakscalled formants. A formant vocoder determinesthe location and amplitude of thesespectralpeaksand transmits this information insteadof the entire $pectrumenvelope.Thus a formant vocoder produceslower bit ratesby encoding only,the most significant short-termcomponenrs in the speechspectrum. The most important requirement for achieving useful speechfrom a formant vocoder involves accurately tracking changes in the formants. once this is accomplished, a formant vocoder car provide intelligible speechar less than 1000 bps tl0l.

3.8.3 LinsarPredlctive Codlng predictive A linear coder a popular is vocoder extracts that perceptually significant
featuresof speechdirectly from a time waveform rather than from frequency specrra, as does a channel vocoder and formant vocoder. Fundamentally, Lpc analyzes a

3.8 vocoDFRS 145

Analvsis

Synthesis

relationship' and of model LPCanalysis synthesis Figure3.40 Basic

modelof the vocaltractexcitationand a speech waveformto produce time-varying by the re-creates speech passterminal in A transfer function. synthesizer thereceiving of the vocalhact' By perimodel excitation througha mathematical ing the specified of of the odicallyupdating parameters themodelandthe specification theexcitation, interval, howin Duringanyonespecification to adapts changes either. thesynthesizer process. a to ever,thevocaltractis assumed represent lineartime-invariant is between encoder/decodershownin Figthe relationship The analysis-synthesis theA(z) matrixto miniof the process determines coefficients ure 3.40.Theanalysis knowsboth x(n)' If thedecoder samples mizetheerrore(n)with a givensetof speech x(n). In the mostbasic (synthesize) input samples the A(z) and e(n),it canre-create Instead, is indirectlyspecifled e(rr) to form of LPC e(n)is not transmitted thedecoder. of of asthe excitation a vocalhact model.Noticethat e(n)is the excitation the synin thesizer Figure3.40. in generation shown Figure3.41' is of A blockdiagram thebasicmodelfor speech The which is alsoa modelof the mostbasicfbrm of LPC decoder/synthesizer' equation of thevocaltractmodelshownin Figure3'44 is definedas:

Pirch period

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Excitationmodel

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Figure 3.41 Speechgenerationmodel of linear predictive coding.

146

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y(n)=Eooy@*k)+Gx(n)
FI

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where)(n)= zth outputsample predictorcoefficient er = lcth fi = gain factor x(n) * input at sample time n p = orderof the model Noticethatthespeech outputin Equation 3.14is represented thepresent as inputvalue plus a linearcombination the previous outputs the vocaltract.The modelis of p of adaptive thattheencoder in periodically determinesnewsetof predictor a coefficients corresponding successive to speech segments. BasicLpC doesnot measure enand codedifference waveforms errorsignals. or Instead, errorsignals minimized the are in a mean-squated sense whenthe predictorcoefficients determined. ability are The to avoid encodingthe predictorerrorscomesfrom the fact that LPC usesprediction parameters basedon the actualinput segments which the parameters applied to are (forwardestimation). confiast, In mostof thepredictive coders mentioned previously base their prediction on past measurements only (backwardestimation).Rapid changes the vocaltractor excitation in cause modelsbased pastmea$urements on to be lessaccurate. negative The aspect forwardestimation thedelayit inserts of is into theencoding process, which,depending theapplication, or maynotbe a conon may sideration. The information that a LPC encoder/analyzer determines tran$mitsto the deand coder/synthesizer consists of
l. Natureofexcitation (voicedorunvoiced) 2. Pitch period (for voiced excitation) 3. Gain factor 4. Predictor coefficients (parametersof vocal tract model)

The natureof the excitationis determined, in other vocoders, determining as by whetherstrongperiodiccomponents exist in the waveform.pitch is determined by measuring periodicitywhenit exists.In additionto measuring pitch with techniques similarto thoseused othervocoders, Lpc encoder/analyzer particular by an has propertiesthataid in pitch determination [41]. Thepredictor coefficients be determined can usingoneof several differentcomputationalprocedures. procedures actualwaveformsamples the desired All use as outputs of the synthesizer. using thesesamplevalues, setof p linearequations p a in unknowncoefficients produced. is Thusthecoefficients determined inverting are by a p-by-pmatrix.sincetheorderof p may varyfrom 6 to rz, depending the *peecir on quality desired, straightforward matrix inversionrepresents significantamountof a computation. Depending specificassumptions on madein the model,however,the

3.8 vocoDEHS 147 that greatlysimpliff the solutionof the equations matrices have specialpropelties of representations speech, process time-domain coders Althoughlinearpredictive of they providegoodestimates the peaksof the speech is their operation suchthat in an spectrum. Furthermore, LPC is capableof effectively trackinggradualchanges providemorenaturalsounding envelope. overallresultis thatLPCs The thespectrum vocoders thanthe purely frequency-domain-based [23]. Most LPC research speech in speech therangeof 1.2-2.4kbps' on hasconcentrated encoding I0th-orderLPC (LPCa of established 2400-bps, The u.s. Departrnent Defense lines [42' 431. over communications dial-uptelephone for secure l0) as a standald as The 54 bits areallocated of 54 bits every22.5msec. transmits blocks This system (voiced (gainfactor),41bitsfor 10coefficients level 7 bitsfor pitch,5 bitsfor energy and excitation), I bit for framing. is to of The performance the coderwith respect naturalspeech providedin Table the of rhymetest(DRT) tul4lis a means determining intelligibility 3.4.A diagnostic from a standardized of system a percentage correctword recognitions as of a speech list of pairsof rhymingwords(e.g.,goatvs. coator thick vs. tick). The DRT-withnoiseappropercentage whenbackground the noisetestmeasures word recognition The diagnostic the testwordsbeforeencoding. is to priateto the application added usacceptability (DAM) [45] rates intelligibilityandsubjective measure acceptabiliry ofthe preferences personal on muchofthe dependence that ing procedures eliminate from 0 to 100' The are listeners. scores normalized 3.8.4 Enhanced-Excitation Llnear Predlctive Codlng in speech the synthesizes section in described theprevious The basicLPC afgorithm of only aboutlOTo that usinga very simplemodelfor theexcitation requires decoder by are voicedsignals modeled a simplepulsegenerdata the aggregate rate.Because linear prediction referredto as a pulse-excited an LPC coder is sometimes ator. sounding synthetic (PELP)coder.The simplicityof the modelinevitablyproduces to have techniques beendeveloped numerous this To speech. overcome shottcoming, algorithmsare multipulseLPC enhance excitation.Threeenhanced-excitation the linearpredic(RELP),mixed-excitation (MPLPC),residual excitedlinearprediction (CELP).Because prediction linear of versions code-excited tion (MELP),andvarious prediction error a involveencoding residual LPC the enhanced-excitation algorithms and SPeech LPC'10 of Comparlson Natural TABLE Performance 3,4
(3.6 Natural Speech kHz) DHT DRTwithnoise DAM 95o/" 92"/" 65 LPC-10
90o/o

t4lI.

82"/" 48

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VoIcE DIGITIZATIoN

in some form or another, these algorithms are often referred to as hybrid codecs; a combination of vocoding and waveform coding.

uses residual determine pitchperiodof voicedsignals, the to the MpLpC uses rethe sidual determine sequence pulses morecloselymatch residual. thesimto a of to the In plestcase MPLPCuses fixed number pulses a pulsekain anddetermines a of in only phase the train andthe amplitudes polarities eachpulsewithin the starting of and of the train. A significanr side benefitof MPLPC is that it doesnot havero identify whether speech a segment voicedor not andconsequently is determine pitchpethe riod of voiced signals.Instead, multipulsedetermination eachanalysis the in segment automatically adapts thenature theactualexcitation. to of MPLPCat 96fi) bpsis usedin AT&T's l4A Arurouncement systemfor reco'rded messages telephone to usen [46]. MPLPC is also the algorithmchosen the skyphoneAeronautical for Telephone service using9.6-kbps channels the INMARSAT maritime$atellite on [47]. Another application an MPLPC algorithmis the panEuropean of digital mobileradio system (GsM) [48] thatallocates l3-kbpsdatarareto voiceencoding. speech a The codec thar hasbeenstandardized CEPTfor this application referred asregular*pulse by is to excitationLPC with long-term (RpE-LTp) [4g]. This sysrem prediction transmits 260 bit blocksconsisting 72 bits of prediction of parameters 188bitsof excitation and encoding.Because codecdoesnot $upport the voiceband dataratesat 1200bps and above, system provisions databypass the has for ofthe codec.

Multlpulse LPC As shown Figure in 3.42, where canbecompared aconventional system, it with Lpc MPLPC[46]is a conceptually simple exrension conventional whereLpc of Lpc.

Mlxed-Excltation LPC As the nameimplies,mixed-excitation Lpc (MELP) [50] uses moresophisticated a model for the excitationthan either LPC or Mpl-pc. An MELp algorithmhasbeen

ENCODER Volcsd/unvolced

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3.8 vocoDEFs

149

voice applicationsat 2.4 kbps [51]. Develselectedby the U.S. govemment for $ecure opmsnt of this algorithm has paid particular attention to background noise (as might arise in a tank). Enhancedexcitation featuresof this version of LPC are;

1. Mixed pulseandnoiseexcitation pulsegeneration 2. Periodic nonperiodic or (to enhancement improveformantreproduction) 3. Adaptivespectral (spreading impulses across moreof a pirchinterval) the 4. Pulsedispersion (to of 5. Fourieranalysis residual improvepitchdetermination)

ResidualExclhd LPC
The APC algorithm describedin Section 3.6 transmits the encodeddifference signal (prediction error or residual) determinedin the encoderso the decodercan integrateit to recover the original input. Notice that the decodedresidual waveform in the APC decoderof Figure3.34actsasthe excitationof the predictionloop.If thepredictionloopuses an LPC formulation, APC essentiallybecomesresidual-waveform excited LPC. The formal term residual excited IIC (RELP) refers to a structure that is identical to the APC block diagram shown in Figure 3.34 but differs in the mannerin which the residual is encoded.An RELP encoderdoes not encodethe residual directly but preprocesses to allow transmissionat a lower datarate.The fundamentalpremiseof the it preprocessingis that the residual consistsof a fundamental frequency and multiples (harmonics)of the fundamental.Thus, an RELP encoderencodesonly the fundamental. The decoderreconstructsthe residual (in a frequency-domainsense)by decoding the fundamental and adding in the harmonics.In the sensethat the processof extract* "residual encoding" and that of decoding and ing and encoding the fundamental is "residual decoding," the diagram in Figure 3.34 servesas a basic adding harmonicsis diagram of RELP. As commonly implemented, an RELP encoder [5?] extracts the fundamental by low-pass filtering the residual and down sampling to reduce the sampling frequency to the Nyquist rate. As an example,if a (DSP-based)low-passfilter has a cutoff of 8ff) Hz, only every fifth sample of the filtered residual is neededto meet the 1600-Hz Nyquist rate. In this manner, an RELP decoder is excited by samplesoccurring at a 1600-Hz rate-approximately the samerate as in MPLPC. Thus the residual decoder In in an RELP receiveris similar to the pulse generatorof an MPLPC synthesizer. fact, systemdeterminesits the regular pulse excitation LPC of the Europeandigital mobile obtained by taking every fourth pulse excitation by testing each of four sequences with maximum correlation to sample of a filtered residual and selectingthe sequence Thus even the encoding algorithms of MPLPC and RELP are the residual sequence. sometimessimilar. In a comparison of three specific coders (subband,MPLPC, and RELP), MPLPC codersprovided the best performance [53]. RELP encoding has been used in various mobile radio and satellite applications. An example of the latter is a 9.6-kbps RELP codec designedto supportconversion of analog FM voice channelsto digital voice channels[54]'

150

vorcEDrGtTtzATtoN

Mux

Figure 3.43 CELp encoder blockdiagram.

Code-ExcitedLPC code-excited (CELP) is yetanother LPc example enhanced-excitation of [55] Lpc

whosebasic block diagram can be loosely represented Figure 3.34. As indicated in by the GELP specific block diagram of Figure 3.43, cELp usesa codebookfor encoding residuals.Instead of encoding a residue waveform on a sample-by-samplebasis and using that as excitation in the decoder,CELP a$$umes residualsare not random waveforms with independentsamplesbut rather that a block of residuesamplescan be represented by one of a manageable number of waveform templates. ,,Excitation encoding" in this caseinvolves selectinga codeword in a codebookthat minimizes the overall error in the reconstructed(synthe$ized)signal. "Residual decoding" in this context implies using the received codeword as an index into the table of codewords to obtain the residual sequence chosenin the encoder.Becausea block ofresidue samples can be consideredas a residue vector, this form of coding is also referred to as vector quantization (VQ) excited LPC t561. Maximum coding efficiency is achievedby encoding long sequences (i.e., vectors with many dimensions),which, of course,implies large codebooks.Thus, much of the researcheffort of this class of codecsinvolves establishinga large enough set of vectors in the codebook that all residue vectors can be adequatelymatched.Next, an efficient procedure for searching the codebook is determined to find the vector with the best match. Because the number of vectors is necessarily large, tree-structured searches required, which implies the enhies in the codebook are grouped into hiare erarchical families of vectors. BecauseGELP coders provide good quality at low bit rates, an extensive amount ofresearch has been undertakento produce a variety ofCELp algorithms. A parlicularly efficient implementationdeterminesthe excitation codeword as a sum of sequentially determined codewords called vectors. Thus, this technique is referred to as vector sum excited LPC (VSELP) [56]. The following list identifies prominent ver-

151 3.9 ENCODER/DECODERSELECTIONCONSIDERATIONS of Otherver$ions CELP sionsof VSELP andCELPin North Americanapplications. in 3.10. codingalgorithms Section coders includedin thelist of ITU standard are digitalcellularsystems in LPC);used NorthAmerican VSELP(vectorsumexcited (IS-54/IS-136) 7.95kbps[57] at (Qualcommvector $um excitedLPc): usedin CDMA digital cellular QSELP (IS-95) l3 kbPs at systems (FS-1016) 4.8 kbps[58] at standard DoD-CELPFederal

CONSIDERATIONS SELECTION 3.9 ENCODEH|/DECODER and for several techniques digitizingvoicesignals hasinhas This chapter described compa.res variousalthe This section are dicated manyothervariations possible. that for gorithmsin termsof (l) voice quality, (2) transparency nonvoicesignals,(3) transmission effors,and(4) delay. tolerance of 3.9.1 Volce Quality quality levelshavebeentraditionally and Voice codingapplications corresponding quality, and synthetic quality, toll quality, communications classifiedas broadcast ranges dataratesare qualitatively of and quality. Thesecategories their respective of Therelativelynewcategory from reference 11. shownin Figure3.44asobtained tl from refTable3.5,obtained (e.g.,MPLPCor cELP) hasbeenadded. hybrid coding DRT in various coders termsof thequalitymeasures: erences and[59],compares [38] coders reasonably do Noticethatthe low-rate DAM [45], andMos t9, 11, 181. t441, measure$. in well on intelligibility(DRT) but fall off significantly termsof subjective is qualityof variouscoders shownin Figure3'45' obof Anotherpresentation speech coding a tainedfrom reference t60l (whichcontains goodoverviewofITU standard coders.' of MOS ratings specific contains specific This figureessentially algorithms). in (APC,RELP,LPC) areavailable referof Additionalcomparisons low-ratecoders and[62]. ences [61] netusedfor public telephone The caregory toll quality,which is traditionally of Toll category. qualityin the a well-defined is work voicequalityobjectives, no longer like analognetwork could be quantifiedin terms of parameters frequencyresponse wave(e.g.,CELPs)do not reproduce new,low-ratecoders andnoiselevel.Because of highly Suppliers of analytical measure qualityis notpossible. forms,a quantitative like compressed voicefor applications digitalcellularandvoiceovertheIntemetcom"toll quality"underidealhansthe to monlyuseDRT or MOS scores support claimof has loss).This practice contributed (e.g., bit errors packet or no mission environments a "toll quality" standard' to a relaxation of
*MOS sco.e* pay vary by 5% ot so from one study to another'

152

vorcEDtetlzATtoN

Waveform coding ) MOS 4 Broadcast quality Toll quality

yntheticquhlity

6 3 2 (kbps) Data rare

Figure 3.44 Generalspeech quality versusffansmission rate.

3.9.2 Transparency for Nonvoice Slgnals Theseparation between communications qualityandtoll qualitycoders Figure3.44 in also separates thosealgorithmsthat do not perform well on nonvoicesignalsfrom those thatdo. Thelowerdatarates communications of qualirycoders achieved are by tailoringthe algorithms the specifics voicesignals, to of therebysacrificing modem and facsimile performance. a comprehensive For theoreticaltreatmentof voiceband

TABLE 3.5 Speech Ouality Comparleons Common of Goders

64-kbps PCM 14.4-kbps OCELPls (c.721) 3Z-kbps ADPCM (c.728) 16-kbps LD-CELP (c.723.1) 6.4kbps MP-MLO 13-kbps (GSM) RPE-LTP 9.6-kbps (Skyphone) MPLPC 9.6-kbps OCELP 8-kbp$ CELP 4,8-kbps DoD-CELP Z.4-kbps LPC

95 94 94 68 70

93 99 90

68 67 54

4.3 4.2 4.'l 4.0 3.9/3.44 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.7 3,0 2.5

performance the lower packet corrosponds 3qlo to loss.

CONSIDERATIONS153 3.9 ENCODERiDECODERSELECTION

S.6cft AJdly

lxrcfn$ffi

(FromR. V. Cox, "ThreeNew encoding algorithms. qualityof standard Figure 3.45 Speech SpeechCodersfrom the ITU Cover a Range of Applications,"IEEE Communications 1997.) Magazine, September data signal digitization, see reference [63]. As end-to-end digital channels become more available, there will be less need to suppolt nonvoice applications as analog voiceband signals. (Seethe discussionof V.90 PCM modems in Chapter I I ') In addition to end user applications, coders installed in the intemal portions of a network must provide acceptablequality for network-related signaling tones such as DTMF, MF, and SF. DTMF tones,in particular, must be accuratelyreconstructedbecausethey are used for end-to-endcontrol by users.G.729 at I kbps has special provisions for carrying DTMF tones. Support for MF and SF signaling is less of a problem becausetheir use is confined to specific transmission links that have been mostly replaced by newer transmission Systemsusing common-channel signaling. An additional considerationfor voice quality is the performanceof fiomevery low bit rate vocoders in the presenceof audio background noise. If a coder is tuned too tightly to processvoice signals and voice signals only, it can go off into left field when speech is superimposedon background sounds such as loud music. The low-bit-rate codersusedin digital cellular applicationshave to be pafticularly sensitiveto this sinaation.

Errors of 3.9.3 Tolerance Transmlssion

Of the waveform coders,the differential systems(DPCM, ADPCM, DM) are the most tolerant of transmissionelror$ and PCM the least. The threshold of perceptibility of random error$ on delta modulation is 10-3. For PCM the threshold is 104. Delta modulation i$ intelligible at random error rates as high as lOVo,but PCM is unintelli-

154

vorcE DrcrrzATtoN

gibleat l7d elror rates. bursterrorenvironments tolerances PCM anddifferIn the of entialsystems morenearlythesame. the most significantbit of a pcM code(If are word is in error,it doesnot matterif the leastsignificant bits arealsoin error.) parameters synthetic Those qualitycoders arecriticalfor voicereconstrucof that tion areusuallyredundantly encoded. Errorcorrection ofcritical parameters digital in mobilesystems allowsintelligiblevoiceat errorratesashigh as l Zo. 3.9.4 Delay The effectof encoding decoding and delayof a voicedigitization/compression algorithm mustbeconsidered thecontext theparticular in of application. theapplication If involvesinsertingartificial delayof morethan 10 msecinto local (analogr connections,echo/singing controlwill haveto beadded. Furthermore, a significant if amount of delayis added into a long-distance circuit,existingechocancelers may not have enough delaycapacity accommodate delayinsertion. to the Experience satellite-ba.sed connections wittr voice indicates thatroundtrip delays the on orderof 2ff) mseccanbe tolerated witlroutsifficant userdissatisfaction. indicated As in the following, coding/compression algorithms,in themselves, not approach do this limit. ADPCM (G.726) LD-CELP(G.728) (c.729)t64l CS-CELP ACELP(G.723.1) 0.125 msec 2.5msec l0 msec
30 msec (plus 7.5 msec of look-ahead)

Although the roundtrip encoding/decodingdelays (which are double rhe above numbers) do not approachthe 200-msecthreshold, they can add to oflrer systemdelays to exceed the maximum desirable delay. System factors such as interleaving for error correction and packet delay on TDMA mobile systemscan add another30 msec or so in eachdirection. If individual compressed voice packetsare carried through an ATM or packet-switchednetwork, delays in excessor 200 msec are easily produced. (see Chapter I 0 for a discussionof theseapplications.)

3.10 ITU.TCODINGSTANDARDS Thefollowing list identifies variousdigital voicecodingstandards theITU: of o.7ll standardfor speech codecsthat providestoll quality audio at 64 kbps usingeitherA-law p-lawPCM. or G-721 standardfor speech codecsthat providestoll quality audio at 32 kbps usingADPCM. G'722 standard speech for codecs provides thar (program) high-quality audioat 64 kbpsusingsubband ADPCM (SB-ADPCM). Thealgorithm uses l6a kHz sample rateto capture audiofrequencies between and 7000Hz. 50 Two ADPCM subbandsare used by this srandardto give audio performance superiorto a single-band ADPCM algorithmoperatingat the samebit rate.

REFERENcES 155

quality audio at20or40kbps thatprovidestoll Standardforspeechcodecs usingADPCM. It toll optimized modems. provides quality for G.723.1 Standard speech for codecs audioat 6.4kbps(MP-MLQ) or 5.3kbps(ACELP). or40kbps(using ?-,3-,4-,ot5at G.726 Adaptive differentialPCM 16,24,32, bit samples). speech G.726 for use in packetized of G.727 An extension Recommendation The are $ystems. ADPCM samples dividedinto 2, 3, or 4 corebits and0, bits. l, 2, or 3 enhancement Thecorebitsprovidefor thebasicfunctioning bits of the algorithmwhile the enhancement addqualityto thatprovided the bits by the core bits. In overloadsituations, enhancement can be discarded while thecorebits providebasicquality. neartoll qualityaudioat 16kbps for codecs provides that G.7ZB Standard speech (LD-CELP).G.728encodes p-law or A-law five usinglow-delayCELP codewords predictive codewords 1600 at into PCM samples 10-bit,linear per second. toll for codecs provides qualityaudioat 8 kbpsusing that G.729 Standard speech CELP. G.723

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VOIGE DIGITIZATION B. J. McDermott, C. Scagliola, and D. J. Goodman, "Perceptual and Objective Evaluation of Speechhocessed by Adaptive Differential PCM," Bell SystemTechnical Journal, May/June 1978,pp. 1597-1618. "The D3 Channel Bank Compatibility Specifrcarion-Issue 3," Technical Advisory No. 32, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Basking Ridge, NJ, Oct. lgi7. M. B, Akgun, "Transmission Objectives for a Subscriber Loop System Digital Voice Codec," paper presented at the International Symposium-Subscriber Loops and '7.L1-7.1.7. Services, Ottawa, 1974,pp. H. Nann, H. M. Straube, and C. P. Villars; "A CompandedCoder for an Experimental PCM Terminal," BeIl SystentTechnicalJoumal, Jan. 1962, pp. 173-226. K. E. Fultz and D. B. Penick, '"The Tl Carrier System," BelI System Technical foumal, Sept. 1965,pp. 1405-1451. H, H. Henning and J. W. Pan, "D2 Channel Bank: System Aspects," Bell System TechnicalJournal, Oct. 1972,pp. 1641-1657. W. R. Daumer, "Subjective Evaluation of Several Efficient Speech Coders," IEEE Transactions on Communicarrions, Apr. 1982,pp. 655*662. "Step-Size N. S. Jayant, Transmitting Differential Coders for Mobile Telephony," Bell SystemTechnical Joumal, Nov. 1975,pp, 1557-1581. D. L. Duttweiler and D. G. Messerschmitt, "Nearly InstantaneousCompanding and Time Diversity as Applied t0 Mobile Radio Transmission," IEEE International Communications Conference, I 975, pp. 4*12-40-15. I. M. McNair, Jr., -'Digital Multiplexer for ExpandedRural Sewice,,,Eelt l_absRecord, Mar. 1972,pp. 80-86. H. K. Dunn and S. D. White, "Statistical Measurementson Conversational Speech," Joumal of Acoustic Societyof America, Jan. 1940,pp. 278-288. J. W. Bayless, S. J. Campanella,and A. J, Goldberg, "Voice Signals: Bit by Bir," IEEE Spectrurn, Oct. 1973,pp.28-34. M. Decina and G. Modena, "CCITT Srandardson Digital Speech hocessing," IEEE Journal on SelectedAreas in Communicarions,Feb. 1988, pp. 227-234. G. Williams and H. Suyderhoud, "subjective PerformanceEvaluation of the 32 kbit/s ADPCM Algorithm," I EEE Globecom P roceedings, I 984, pp. 23.2.1-23.2.1.8. J, A, Greefkes and K. Riemens, 'Code Modulation with Digitally Controlled Companding for SpeechTransmission," Phillips Technical Review,Vol. 31, 1970, pp. 335-353. J. E. Abate, "Linear and Adaptive Delta Modulation," Pro ceedingsof IEEE, Mar, I 967, pp. 298-308. N. S. Jayant and A. E. Rosenberg,"The heference of Slope Overload to Granularity in the Delta Modulation of Speech," Bell SystemTechnical Journal, Dec. l97l, pp.

tz
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l5 l6

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21 22

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27 ?8

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1$7 REFEHENCES "AdaptivePredictive Bell Codingof Speech Signals," B. S. AtaI andM. R. Schroeder, pp. chnic Joumal, Oct. 1970, I 973- I 986. dI Sy stemTe BelI SystemTechnicalJoumal, 32 P. Noll, "On Predictive Quantizing Schemes," pp. May/June 1978, 1499-1532. 33 M. R. Schroeder,"Linear Predictive Coding of Speech:Review and Current pp. Attg.1985, 54-61. Mag,azine, Directions," IEEE Communications 'The GovemmentStandardAdaptive hedictive Coding Algorithm; 34 T. Tremain, 3l pp, Feb./IVIar. 1985, 52-62. APC-04,"SpeechTechnology, "An Analysisof 16 kb/s Sub-Band Dynamic CoderPerformance, R. E. Crochiere, 35 Errors," Bell SystemTechnical Journal'Qct, Tandem Connections, Channel and Range, pp. 1978, 2927-2951. "G.722A New CCITT CodingStandard Digital Transmission of for 36 P. Mermelstein, p' Magazine, Jan' 1988, 815. IEEE Communications Wideband Audio Signals," Areasin 3'7 X. Maine,"7 kHz Audio Codingwithin 64 kbit/s,"IEEEJoumal on Selected pp. Feb. Communications, 1988, 283-298. "High-Quality Audio"'IEEE Speech Wideband and Codingof Telephone 38 N. S,Jayant, pp. Magazine, Jan.1990, 10-20. Communications 39 L. Radin, "Low-Bit-RarcVoice Digitizer Hits the Market at 2,400 bls," Speech gy,Sept./Oct. pp. 1983, 92-95. Technolo "Remaking Oct. 1939' Society Amerfua, of Speech," "Ioanral the Acoustic of 40 H. Dudley, pp. 169-177. Prentice-Hall, of Signals, and Digital Processing Speech 4l L. R. Rabiner R. W. Schafer, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978. 42 T. E. Tremain, "The Govemment StandardLinear Predictive Coding Algorithm: pp. Apr. 1982, a0-49. LPC-10,"Speech Technolagy, "Voiced/Unvoiced of with Classification Speech 43 J. P. Campbelland T. E. Tremain, Applicationsto the U.S. GovemmentLPC-I0E Algorithm," IEEE Intemational pp. 1986, 473476. and on Speech, SignalProcessing, Conference Acoustics, "EvaluatinghocessedSpeech Using the DiagnosticRhyme Test," 44 W, D. Voiers, pp. 1983, 30-39. SpeechTechnolagy, Jan./Feb. 45 W. D. Voiers, "Diagnostic Acceptability Measurefor SpeechCommunication and Signal on Speech Intemational Conference Acoustics, Systems," Proceedings . Processing, 1977,pp.204*207 May "TheTelephone Voiceof theFunre," Bell l-absRecord, B. S.Atal andR. Q. Hofacker, pp. 1985, 4-10. July "Speech Codecfor the D. I. Boyd,C. B. Southcoft, P, Crowe,andP. J. Bolingbroke, Engineering, BritishTelecommunications Aeronautical Telephone Service," Skyphone pp. July 1986, 83-91. "speechhocessingin thePanEuropean Digital and J. E. Natig,S. Hansen, J. deBrito, Proceedings,1989, (GSM)-system Overview,"IEEE Globecom MobileRadioSystem pp.29B. l-298.1.1.5. l. "Speech Codec and J. K. Hellwig,P.Vary,D. Massaloux, P.Petit,C. Galand, M' Russo, Proceedings, 1989' pp' Radio System,*IEEE Globecom for the European.Mobile 298.2.1-298.2.r.s.

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A. V. McCree and T. P. Bamwell. "A Mixed Excitation LPC Vocoder Model for Low Bit Rate SpeechCoding," IEEE Transactions on Speechand Audio Processing,July

1995, 242-250. pp. 51 "Specifications the Analog to Digital Conversion Voice by 2,400Bir/Second for of Mixed ExcitationLinear Prediction,"Deparffnent Defense of Draft, May 28, lggS (www.plh.af.miUddvpc/melp.hnn). 52 C. K, Un and D. T. Magill, "The Residual-Excited Linear Prediction Vocoderwith Transmission RateBelow 9.6 kbot/s,"IEEE Transactions Communications, on Dec. 1975, 1466-1474. pp, "A 53 K. K. PaliwalandT. Svendsen, Studyof ThreeCoders (Sub-band, RELP,andMpE) fbr Speech with Additive White Noise,"Proceedings IEEE IntemationalConference -43.5.1.4. on Acoustics, Speech Signal and Processing, pp. 1985, 43.5,I proceedings, 54 A. J. Morris and S. Kay, -'Telephony Enth Station,"IEEE Globecom pp, 1989, 48.I. I -48.1.1.4. 55 M, R. Schroederand B. S. Aral, "Code-ExcitedLinear prediction (CELP): High-QualitySpeechat Very Low Bit Rates,"IEEE InternationalConferenteon Acoustics, Speech SignalProcessing, and 1985, 25.1.1-?5.1.1.4. pp, "Gain-Adaptive J. H. ChenandA. Gersho, Vector Quantization with Applicationto Speech Coding,"IEEE Transactions Communicarrons, 1987, gl8-930. on pp. Sept. "Vector SumExcitedLinear hediction (VSELP)7950Bit PerSecond Voice Coding Algorithm,"Technical Description, Motorola,Shaumburg, Nov. 14, 1989. IL, 'An Expandable J.P. Campbell, C. Welch,andT. E, Tremain, V. Error-hotected 48fi) BPSCELPCoder(U.S.Federal Standard 4800BPSVoiceCoder\,"IEEEIntemational Conference Acoustics, on Speech and SignalProcessing,1989, 735-737. pp. T, S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principlesand Practice,Prentice-Hall, UpperSaddle River,NJ, 1996. R. V. Cox,'*IhreeNew Speech Coders from theITU Covera Range Applications," of I EEE Communications Magasrne, Sept.1997,pp. 4O47. R. D. HoyleandD. D. Falconer,'AComparison Digital Speech of CodingMethods for Mobile Radio Systems," IEEE Journal on Selected Areasin Communications, June pp. 1987, 915-920. N. Kitawaki, H. Nagabuchi,and K. Itoh, "Objective euality Evaluation for Low-Bit-Rate Speech Coding Systems,"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communitatio,ns, 1988, U2*24'7. Feb, pp. proceedings the J.B. O'Neal,Jr.,"Waveform Encoding Voiceband of DataSignals," of IEEE,Feb.1980, 232-247. pp. C. Schniderand M. H. Sherif, "The Road to G.729.. ITU g-kb/s Speech Coding Algorithm with WirelineQuality,"IEEE Corwnunications Magazine, Sept.1997,pp. 48*54.

56 57 58

59 60 61

62

63 64

PROBLEMS
3.1 Assume a signal con$istsof three tones:one at I kHz, one at 10 kHz. and one at 2l kHz. What tones will be presenrar rhe ouFut of a PAM decoderif the sam-

PRoBLEMS 159

3.2

3.3 3.4

3.5 3.6

3.7

pling rate is I ? kHz and the input is unfiltered? (Assume the output filter cutoff frequency is 6 kHz.) Derive an expressionfor the averagequantization noise power that occurs when the decoder output samples are offset from the center of a quantization interval by adistance equal to 25Voof the interval. (The outputvalues are aLtheTSVa point insteadof the 507opoint.) How much degradationin decibelsdoesthis offset represent(assuminguncorrelatedoffsets)? How much does the signal-to-noise ratio of a uniform PCM encoder improve when I bit is addedto the codeword? A black-and-whitetelevision signal has a banilwidth of about 4.2 MHz. What bit rate is required if this signal is to be digitized with uniform PCM at an SQR of ratio comparableto that used for 30 dB? Use a sampling-rate-to-Nyquist-rate PCM voice encoding. How much dynamic range is provided by a uniform PCM encoderwith l2 bits per sampleand a minimum SQR of 33 dB? What is the signal-to-quantizing-noiseratio produced by a segmentedp255 PCM coder when the input signal is a full-range triangular wave? (Assume the repetition frequency is low enough that the bandlimiting filter does not change the waveform significantly.) Given a samplevalue of 420 mV for a p255 PCM encodercapableof encoding a maximum level of 2 V, determine each of the following: (a) The compressedp255 codeword (b) The linear representationof the compressedcode (c) The A-law code obtained by converting from the p255 code (d) The pJaw code obtained by converting back from the A-law code

3.8 Given the following p255 codewords, determine the (noninverted) codeword the that represents linear sum (0 I 10 1001),(l 01 I 0I I I ). 3.9 Generatean encoding table (i.e., list the quantieationintervals and conesponding codes) for the magnitude of a piecewise linear code with segmentslopes 1, j, i, and f. Assume four equally spacedintervals are in each segment.Assume all intervals in the first segmentare of equal length (as in A-law coding). What is the signal-to-noiseratio of a full-amplitude samplefor the coder of Prob3.10 lem 3.9? 3.11 What is the signal-to-noiseratio of a maximum-amplitude samplein the first linear $egmentof the preceding coder? 3.12 What is the dynamicrangeimplied by Problems3.10 and 3.11? 3.13 For the encoderin hoblem 3.9, how many bits are required for unifotm encoding of the samedynamic range and sameminimum quantization interval? 3.f4 A uniform PCM system is defined to encode signals in the range of -8159 to +8159 in quantizationintervals of length 2. (The quantizationinterval at the origin extendsfrom -1 to +I.) Signals are encodedin sign-magnitudeformat with a polarity bit = 1 denoting a negative signal. (a) How many bits are required to encodethe full range of signals?

160

votcE DlcrrzAloN (b) How manyunused codes there? are (c) Determine quantization the noise,noisepower,andsignal-to-noise (in ratio -2336.4,and decibels) eachof thefollowing sample of values; 30.2,123.2, 8080.9.

part(c) in Problem l4 for piecewise 3.15 Repeat 3. linearp255PCM. 3.16 Given two A-law piecewise (00110110 linear(noninverted) codewords and 00101100), determine their linearrepresentations, them,andconvefiback add to compressed representation. "robbed 3.17 A D3 charrnel bankuses digit" signaling wherein leastsignificant of the bit everysixthframeis stolenfor signaling. Determine relativeincrease overall the in quantization noiseproduced this process by underthefollowing conditions: (a) The decoder merelytreatsthe signalingbit as a voicebit and decodes the PCM sample accordingly. (b) The decoder knows which bits are signalingbits and generates output an sample corresponding themiddleof thedouble-length to quantization interval defined the7 available by bits.(Thisis theactual technique specified for D3 channel bankdecoders.) 3.18 If 2 bitsper sample added a PCM bit stream, are to how muchcanthedynamic range increased thequantization be if intervals adjusted improvetheSQR are to by 3 dB? 3.19 How muchcantheSQRof a digitizedvoicesignal increased thebandwidth be if is reduced 30Vo thedynamicrange unchanged? by and is 3.20 AnA-law PCM encoder with a perfect zero-level threshold detect$ arbitrarily an smallinputsinewavebecause first quantization the intervaldoes straddle not the origin.Whatis thepowerlevelof thedecoded outputsignal? Assume power the level of a full amplitude sinewave +3 dBm. is 3.21 Determine sequence four p255 PCM samples a 2000-Hztoneat -6 the of for dBm whenthefirst sample occurs a phase 45". at of 3.?? Repeat Problem 3.21forAlaw signals. 3.23 Determine A-law codewords correspond thep-law codewords the the that to of digital milliwatt signalgivenin Example3.3.Assume both systems scaled are to the same maximumsignalpower.

AND ISSION TRANSM DIGITAL MULTIPLEXING

A fundamental considerationin the design of digital transmission $ystemsis the selection of a finite set of discreteelechical waveforms for encoding the information. In the realm of digital communications theory these discrete waveforms are referred to as signals. The sameterminology is used in this chapter with the understandingthat signals in the present context refer to intemal waveforms (pulses) of a transmission systemand not the control information (signaling) usedto set up and monitor connections within a network. In communicationstheory terminology, signalprocessing refers to filtering, shaping, and transformations of electrical waveforms, not the interpretation of conffol signalsby the processorof a switching machine. A secondaspectof digital transmissioninvolves defining certain time relationships between the individual transmissionsignals. The source terminal transmits the individual signals using predefined time relationships so the receiving terminal can recognize each discretesignal as it arrives. Invariably the establishmentof a proper time baseat the receiver requirestransmissioncapacity abovethat neededfor the digital information itself. Over relatively short distances(as within a switching system or a computer complex), the timing information (clock) is usually distributed separately from the information-bearing signals. Over long distances,however, it is more economical to incorporate the timing information into the signal format itself. In eittrer casethe timing information requireschannelcapacity in terms of bandwidth, datarate, or code space. This chapter discusses most common digital signaling techniquesfbr wireline the transmissionsystems.Thus the subject of this chapteris often referred to as line coding. Thesetechniquesaregenerallyapplicableto any transmissionsystemffansmitting digital signals directly in the form of pulses (such as coaxial cable or optical fiber). The fact that thesetechniquesinclude low-frequency componentsin their transmitted spectrum leadsto their also being called low-pass or basebandtransmissionsystems. In Chapter 6 we discuss bandpasstransmission sy$tems,that is, radio systems or voicebandmodemsthat require modulation and carrier frequencytransmission.Chap-

161

162

DtcrrALrRANSMtsstoN ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

ter 8 discusses some additional baseband transmission formats commonly used opin tical fiber system$. Thefollowing discussions concentrate system application on and level considerations of digital transmission. Analytic detailsof pulsetransmission systems not are emphasized sincematerial thisnature available all workson digitalcommuniof is in cations theory. somefundamentals pulse of transmission systems presented Apare in pendixC, wheremanyof theequations presented this chapter derived. in are

4.1 PULSETRANSMISSION All digitaltransmission systems designed particular are around some form of pulse response. Evencarriersystems mustultimatelyproduce pulseshapes thedespecific at tectioncircuitry of the receiver. a first step,consider perfectlysquare As pulse the shownin Figure4.1.Thefrequency spectrum corresponding therectangular pulse to is derivedin AppendixA and shownin Figure4.2. It is commonlyreferred as a to sin(x)/xresponse: -_ sin(roll2) aTl2

1'((0=(Il+ 1

(4.1)

where co= radian ftequency 2nl, 7 = duration of a signal interval Notice that Figure 4.2 also provides the percentage total $peckumpower at variof ous bandwidths. As indicated, 90Voof the signal energy is contained within the first spectralnull at f = l/T.The high percentageof energy within this band indicatesthat the signal can be confined to a bandwidth of l/T and still passa good approximarion to the ideal waveform. In theory, if only the samplevaluesat the middle of eachsignal interval are to be preserved,the bandwidth can be confinedto IlZT.From this fact the maximum basebandsignaling rate in a specified bandwidth is determined as

R** = 2BW

(4.2)

r -1

Time -**

Figure 4.1 Definitionof a square pulse.

4.1 PULSETFANSMISSION

163

t *ro
t E fi tt
u
.E E

Frtrtion of out-of-bmd pomr (<tB)

fl -ao

-30
Froqumcy (Hrl

pulse withduration T. of Figure4.2 Speckum square whereR = signaling rate,= IlT BW = available bandwidth theory creditedto resultfrom communications Equation4.2 statesa fundamental througha low'passbandHarry Nyquist;The maximumsignalingrate achievable is width with no intersymbolinterference equalto twice thebandwidth.This rateR^o referredto asthe Nyquistrate. is sometimes preservation ofthe pulses easiest visualize, are to square-shaped Althoughdiscrete, A requireswide bandwidthsand is thereforeundesirable. more typical squareshape of for shape a singlepulseis shownin Figure4.3.Theringingon bothsides themain with a limitedbandwidth. accompaniment a channel to partof thepulseis a necessary

l(tl

I I

\ ,''i*t
t
I I I I I I

-3r -2
Time.*

+--rlT

2T

4T

of Figure 4.3 Typical pulseresponse a bandlimitedchannel.

164

DTctTALTRANSMtSStoNANDMULTtpLEXtNG

Normally, a digital transmission is excitedwith square pulses(or modulated link equivalents thereofl, bandlimiting but filtersandthetransmission mediumitselfcombineto produce response theoneshown. a like pulseoutputin negaFigure4.3 shows tive time so the centerof the pulse occursat f = 0. Actually, the durationof the preringing limited to thedelayof thechannel, filters,andtheequalizers. is the An important feature thepulseresponse of shownin Figure4.3 is that,despite the ringing,apulsecanbetransmitted onceeveryT seconds bedetected thereceiver and at withoutinterference pulses. from adjacent Obviously, sample the time mustcoincide with the zerocrossings the adjacent of pulses. Pulseresponses the oneshownin like Figure 4.3 can be achievedin channelbandwidthsapproaching minimum the (Nyquist)bandwidthequalto one-halfof the signalingrate.AppendixC describes pulsetransmission design moredetail. in 4.1.1 Intersymbol Interference As the signaling rateof a digital transmission approaches maximumratefor link the a givenbandwidth, boththechannel designandthe sample timesbecome morecritical.Smallperturbations thechannel in response the sample or timesproduce nonzero overlapat the sample time$calledintersymbol interference. main causes inThe of tersymbolinterference are;
l. Timing inaccuracies 2. Insufficient bandwidth 3. Amplitude distortion 4. Phasedistortion

4.1.2 Timlnglnaccuracies
Timing inaccuraciesoccuring in either the transmitter or the receiver produce intersymbol interference.In the transmitter, timing inaccuraciescauseintersymbol interference if the rate of transmission does not conform to the ringing frequency designedinto the channel.Timing inaccuraciesofthis type areinsignificant unlessextremely sharp filter cutoffs are used while signaling at the Nyquist rate. Since timing in the receiver is derived from noisy and possibly distorted receive signals, inaccurate sample timing is more likely than inaccuratetransmitter timing. Sensitivity to timing errors is small if the transmissionrate is well below the Nyquist rate (e.9.,if the transmissionrate is equal to or lessthan the channelbandwidth, as opposedto being equal to the theoreticalmaximum rate of twice the bandwidth; seeAppendix C).

4.1.3 InsufflclentBandwidth The ringing frequency shown Figure isexactly in 4.3 equal thetheoretical to minimum
bandwidth of the channel. If the bandwidth is reducedfurther, the ringing frequency is reducedand intersymbol interferencenecessarilyresults.

TRANSMISSION 165 4,2 ASYNCHRONOUS VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS

purposely the Somesystems signalat a rateexceeding Nyquistrate,but do sowith These interference accounted in thereceiver. for prescribed amounts intersymbol of the pafrial-response systems-so calledbecause referred as to systems commonly are thetime of a singlepulse.Themost to channel doesnot fully respond aninputduring are in $y$tems discussed a latersection. commonformsof partial-response 4.1.4 AmplitudeDlstoilion spectrums require filtersto bandlimittransmit systems invariably Digital transmission to the in Overall, filtersaredesigned proandto rejectnoiseandinterference receivers. predetermined mediumwith When a transmission ducea specificpulseresponse. in can is these characteristics beincluded theoverallfilter design. characteristicsused, aderesponse the channelcannotalwaysbe predicted of However,the frequency to frequency response referred asamplitude is quately.A departure from the desired (reduced peakamplitudes improper and ringing pulsedistortions and distortion causes refor in Compensation irregularities thefrequency frequencies) thetime domain. in is to equaliqation. sponse thechannel referred asamplitude of 4.1.5 Phase Distortion

of as domain, pulseis represented the superposition a Whenviewedin the frequency If relationships. therelative and frequency components specificamplitude phase with amplitude distortionresultsas components altered, are amplitudes the frequency of phase distortionocare relationships the components altered, of above. the phase If of whenthefrequency components a signalexphase distortion results curs.Basically, link. of perience of differingamounts delayin thetransmission Compensation phase inFor is to distortion referred asphaseequalization. a goodtutorialon equalization, see for equalizer datatransmission, reference cludinga description an automatic of is in of equalizers available reference [2]. [1]. A gooddescription DSPbased

TRANSMISSION VERSUSSYNCHRONOU$ 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS difinvolvingtwo fundamentally Therearetwo basicmodes digital transmission of (sample terminal clock)in thereceiving a ferenttechniques e'rtablishingtimebase for transmisis link. techniques asynchronous of a digitaltransmission Thefirst of these Within an of of transmissions groups bits or characters. sion,whichinvolvesseparate signal. time intervalis usedfor eachdiscrete individualgroupa specificpredefined to the timesof the groupsareunrelated eachother.Thusthe However, transmission of for sample clock in the receivingterminalis reestablished reception eachgroup' are transmission, digital signals sent technique, calledsynchronous With the second and terminalmustestablish mainrate.Hence receiving the continuously a constant at to tain a sample clock thatis synchronized theincomingdatafor an indefiniteperiod of time.

166

DIGITAL THANSMISSION MULTIPLEXING AND

Tran$fiitted waveform

Receivad waneform

l t t | i l 1

l l l l l l r l

ldeol Ea|npletimer for each8-bit character

Figure4.4 Asynchronous transmission.

4.2.1 Asynchronous Transmiesion Between transmissionsasynchronous is in aninactive idlestate. beginan line or The ningof each transmission is signified a start Themiddte thestart group by bit. of bit
is determined, and succeeding information bits are sampled at a nominal rate beginning at the middle of the secondbit interval. Following the information symbols, one or more stop bits are transmitted to allow the line to return to the inactive state.* Figure 4.4 shows an asynchronousmode of operation commonly used for low-speed data communications. As shown in Figure 4.4, the detection of each information bit is accomplishedby ideally sampling the input waveform at the middle of each signal interval. In practice, sample times depart from the ideal depending on how much the start bit is comrpted by noise and distortion. Since the sampletime for eachinformation bit is derived from a single start bit, asynchronoussystemsdo not pedorm well in high-noise environments. of course,more than one start bit could be usedto improve the accuracyof the starting phase of the sample clock, but this would complicate the receiver and add more overheadfor transmissionof timing information. Sample timing enors also arise if the nominal rate of the sample clock in the receiver is different from the nominal rate of transmission at the source.Even though the start bit might define the proper starting phase for the sample clock, an offset in the clock frequency of the receiver causeseach successive sampletime to drift faflher from the centerofthe respectivesignal intervals. Since the very use ofthe term'hsynchronous" implies a free-running clock in the receiver, a certain amount of drift is inevitable in all asynchronoussystems.The maximum length of each symbol group or characteris determined by the limits of the initial phase inaccuraciesand the maximum expected frequency difference between the kansmitter and receiver clocks.

-Originally,

stop bits were inserterl to allow electromechanical equipment enough time to reset before the next character anived. With elechonic equipment thc only purpose of stop bits is to allow a start bit to always be a fransition to a space(logic 0).

TRANSMISSION VERSUS$YNCHRONOUS 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS

167

The main attraction of asynchronoustransmissionis the easewith which it determines the sampletimes in the receiver. In addition, asynchronousffansmissionautomatically provides characterframing and is inherently flexible in the range of average data rate$ that can be accommodated. For high rates, one character after another is transmitted. l,ower data rates are automatically accommodated by increasing the idle time between characters.In contrast, a synchronousreceiver must track changesin a transmitter rate before it can sample the incoming signals properly. Normally the receive clock of a synchronoussystemcan be adjustedonly quite slowly and only over a nilrow range. Hence an asynchronoussystem is more naturally suited to applications where the data rate varies. Synchronoustransmissionsystemscan suppofi variable information rates,but the (data link protask of adjusting the information rate falls upon higher level processes tocols) that insert null codesinto the bit stream.The null codesare used as filler when a source has nothing to send. This form of transmissionis sometimesreferred to as "isochronous." An isOChrOnous mode Of Operationis required whenever a SynChronous line carries data from an asynchronoussource. transmissionis its poor performancein terms The major drawbackof asynchronous transmissionevolved for applications oferror rateson noisy lines. Thus asynchronous where implementation costs dominated performance considerations.Asynchronous transmissionhas been usedin voicebanddata sets(modems)for transmissionratesup to 1200 bps. For digital telephony, something similar to asynchronoustransmission was proposedfor two-wire digital subscriberloops. Thesesystemsprovided a full-duplex (four-wire) circuit by transmitting bursts of data alternately in each direction on "ping-pong" a single pair of wires. Thus these systemsare sometimesreferred to as ffansmissionsystems;they are not ffuly asynchronoussinceeachtransmissionin each direction occurs at prescribedtimes allowing timing information in one burst to carry over into the next burst. The use ofasynchronous tran$missionon long-distancetransthe mission links is obsoletebecause cost of electronicsfor betterperforming synchrois no longer a consideration' nous transmission

4.2.2 Synchronou$Transmis$ion netlinks usedin thetelephone Tl linesandall otherinterofficedigital transmission exclusively.Thus the line-codingformat for transmission works use synchronous that regenerative to special considerations en$ure each mustincorporate these systems clock to the incomingsignaling a local sample can repeater receiver synchronize or miniimply thata certain requirements the speaking, synchronization rate.Generally indicationof sigprovidecontinuous is to mum densityof signaltransitions required Often, purely randomdatacannotbe relied upon to provide a naling boundaries. mu$tbe madeto incases ceftainprovisions In number transitions. these of sufficient Althoughthese extratransiwaveforms. into sertartificialtransitions thetransmitted the overhead, lossin capacitycan be tions imply a certainamountof transmission the techniques ensuring existfor of relativelysmall.Followingaredescriptions f,rve for enceof signaltransitions timing recovery:

168

DrcrrAL TRANSMtsstoN MULTIpLEXtNG AND

l. ?. 3. 4. 5.

Source coderestriction Dedicated timing bits Bit insertion Datascrambling Forced errors bit

A sixthtechnique-inserting transitions the signalwaveforms the into themselvesis discussed Section in 4.3. Source Code Restrlction Onemeans ensuring sufficientnumber signaltransitions to re$trict code of a of is the setor datapaftems thesource thatlong,transition-free sequences not ocof so data do cur.Historically, PCM channel banksin theNorth American telephone networkprecluded all-0's codewordssince the original line code of rl lines producedno transitions 0's. In thecase 8-bitPCM codewords, exclusion a singlecodefor of the of word representslossin transmission a capacity only onepartin 256.of Relyingon source codingto ensure sufficienttransitions the line codehasone in very significant drawbackThetransmission cannot usedfor newapplications link be where source the does exclude unwanted pattems. thisreason, total not the data For the capacity a Tl line couldnot be usedfor randomdatauntil a new line code[binary of (B8ZS)]wasintroduced. eight-zero substitution Dedlcated Timing Blts As an altemative excludingtransition-free to datapatterns, line itself can perithe odicallyinsetttransition-bearing into the datastream. bits These bits areinserted at regularintervals, independently ofthe source data,to ensure existence a minithe of mumnumber signaltransitions. of Thussome fractionof thechannel capacity dediis catedto timing bits. As an example, original Dataphone the Digital service(DDS) offering for dara communications over Tl lines providesa maximumcapacityof 56 kbps for each channel. when carriedwithin a 64-kbps channel, Tl only 7 of the 8 bits in eachrime slot of the channel available the user.Amongotherfunctions, unused are for the bit in eachtime slotprovides assurance all 8 bits of a time slot arenot 0. Several an that fiber systems described Chapter alsouseexplicit timing bits asinherent in 8 aspects of their line codes. The densityof timing pulses thesesystems in ranges from I in S bitsto I in 20bits.Noticethatinsertion a dedicated of rimingbit is essentially same the procedure usedto establi$h timing for asynchronous transmission. a synchronous In receiver, however, sample a clock is obtained averaging timing information by the overa largenumber timing transitions, just one. of not Blt lnsertion In thepreceding DDS exampleI bit of every8 bits in a time slot is dedicated ento suringsufficient timinginformation thebit stream. in Anotherpossibilityfor preclud"From an inf'ormation theory point of view the loss in voice information is even lower since the probahility of occunence of the all-()'s codeword is much less than I in 256.

TRANSMISSION 169 VEHSUS SYNCHRONOUS 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS

"bit insertion"only whennecessary. anexamAs line is ing unwanted patterns to use for ple, the sotuce dataovera Tl line couldbe monitored all 0's in the first 7 bits of as into a time slot.Whenever 0's occur,a I couldbe inserted the datastream the the 0's eighthbit of thetime slot.At theotherendof theline the I following seven is redataby the time of I bit, but Eachinsertiondelays source the movedautomatically. is of otherwise full capacity the channel available. the "zero-bitinsertion"algorithmusedin to is This procedure directlyanalogous the the High kvel DataLink Control(HDLC) protocol.In this protocola specificdata must the pattern to calleda "flag" is used indicate endof a datablock.Thetransmitter Themeans data. flag aspartof thesource sending the from inadvertently beprecluded flagsis to inserta 0 followinga stringof five L's in theuser inadvertent of preventing precludes unintended a data.Sincea flag contains stringof six I's, zero-bitinsertion any nodeof anHDLC datalink removes 0 following The flag transmissions. receiving five I's. The receipt of six 1's, however,can only be part of a legitimateflag all it (01I I 1I l0). If HDLC dataareinverted transmission, neverproduces 0's (exfor ceptduringtheidle state). than algorithmallowsfor moreefficientuseof a channel Althougha bit insertion First,this procedure a numberof drawbacks. has dedicated timing bits, the insertion a Hence is everytime aninsertion made. proce$$ causes source the datato be delayed the (suchasvoice)requires smoothing application real-time transmission continuous, process causes the Second, bit insertion buffersatthedestination. arival ratewith data to thetime slotstrucunrelated in anycharacter $tructure theuser'sdatato bebecome of link. hansmission Thusif userdataconsist 8-bit tureof a timedivisionmultiplexed with cannot maintained be (like character boundaries characters PCM voicesamples), link. respect 8-bit time slotsin a Tl transmission to Date Scrambling the to use systems datascramblers randomize datapatterns Many digitaltransmission are datascramblers similarto thoseused links. Althoughthese on their transmission the is purpose these of scramblers to prevent transmisthe for encryption, fundamental gendatapattems the patterns, to encrypt traffic.Repetitive not data sionof repetitive point from an interference moredegrading that erateline spectra canbe significantly produced randomdata patterns. by distributedspectra of view than continuously at are for Voiceband datamodems, example, allowedto operate higherpowerlevels are the to if theyincludescramblers randomize datatraffic.Also, digitalradiosystems repetimeans that whichessentially required theFCC to not ffansmitline spectra, by mu$tbe excluded. tive datapatterns data are datascramblers usefulin transforming sequence$ Evenwhennot required, Scraminto sequences strongtiming components. with densities with low transition on (T1 T2) $ystems andobsolete but wasused bling is not usedon lowerrateT-carrier system andcurrentopticalfiber systems. T4M coaxialhansmission the274-Mbps [3] long sffings (with equalinput andoutputbit rates) not prevent do Datascramblers patterns that Theymerelyensure relativelyshortrepetition of 0's in anabsolute sense. If of with a minimumdensity transitions. purely traffic aretransformed randomized to

17O DrcrrAL TRANSMtsstoN AND MULT|pLExtNc randominput dataarescrambled, outputdataarealsopurelyrandomandtherefore the havea certainstati$tical probabilityofproducingarbitrarilylong stringsof 0's. The probabilityof a randomoccurrence, however,is acceptable whencompared the to probabilityof nonrandom sequences representing pauses idle datatermispeech or nals.To determine whichseemingly random datasequence produces 0's attheoutall put of a scrambler, applyall 0's to the corresponding descrambler. TheT4M coaxialtransmission system useda datascrambler thebasicmeans as of producingadequate timing information.This systemcould toleratemuch longer stringsof 0's because timing recovery the circuitsin the regenerative repeaters used phase-locked loopsthatmaintain timing overrelativelylong periods time.In conof trast, originalTl systems the recovered timingwith tunedcircuitsthatresonated the at desired (1.544MHz) whenexcited a received clockfrequency pulse.Because by the tunedcircuitshavelowereffectiveQ's thana phase-locked loop,theoscillations drift from theproperfrequency die out morerapidly.Hence originalrl receivers and the couldnot tolerate long a stringof 0's ascouldT4M receivers. as PhaseJocked loop clockrecovery circuitsareused all latergeneration on wirelineandfibertrmsmission $y$tems muchlongerstringsof 0's canbe tolerated. so Forced Blt Errorg A fifrh methodof maintaining sufficienttiming informationin the line signalsinvolveshavingthetransmission terminalat the source forcean occasional errorin bit orderto intenupta long, transition-free pattern. the transition-free data If lrequences arelong enough uncommon and enough, intentional errorsmight be lessfrethe bit quent thanrandom channel errors thedigitaltransmission Thustheintentional on link. errorsmay not represent significantdegradation a over andabovethat that alreadyexists.Nevertheless, forcedbit errorsarenot generally recommended partof a lineas codingprocedure arementioned theinterest completeness. but in of As mentioned previously, NorttrAmericanchannel banksforce a bit errorin the second leastsignificant of an all-0's transmission bit codeto ensure sufficientsignal transitions. important An aspect thisprocedure thatit is performed the source of is by wherethesignificance thebit erroris known.If thetransmission itself inserted of link thebit errors, effectswouldnot be ascontrollable, the particularly whena varietyof traffic typesarebeingserviced. A moresubtleproblemwith forcedtransmission errorsarises the digital transif missionlink is usedfor automatic (ARQ) datatransmission. ARe repeat requerrt An datacommunication is designed provideerror-free link to transmission, despite randomchannel errors, inserting by redundancy thedatastream checking reinto and the ceived data for error-freereception.If errors are detected, retransmission a is requested. when the erTors not random, forcedby the transmission are but link, the ARQ system will become frustrated it everencounters reshicted if the sequence, no matterhow unlikelyit is.* once again, forcederrorsareused, if theyshould incorbe porated thesource partofthe $ource into as process not aga funccoderestriction and tion of thetransmission link.
*If thetransmission uses scrambler, unlikelysequence not berepeatecl. link a the will

coDrNc 171 4.s UNE

4.3 LINE CODING for timing informationare In the preceding sectionvarioustechniques establishing is on general The choiceof anyparticulartechnique dependent in terms. described the mostcommonline codes describes the specificline codein use.This section if what additionalsteps, any,areneeded and usedfor digital transmission indicates the between transmitterandreceiver.Someline-codto maintainsynchronization and provideadequate timing informationthemselves do not require ing techniques requireto previously. addition synchronization In discussed anyofthe procedures for ments,other considerations choosinga line codeare the spectrumof the line noiseandin' (particularly low frequencies), at bandwidth codeandthe available monitoring,and acquisitiontimes,performance terference levels,synchronization implementation costs.

4.3.1 Level Encodlng form of line codingusesa differentsignallevel to encode Conceptually, simplest the form system mostcommon the Within a computer eachdiscrete symboltransmitted. "1" andnear0 V for a "0." Overa of codingis an on-off codeusinga 3-V levelfor a binarydata in of it link, transmission however, is moreeff,rcient terms powerto encode balanced about0 V. For exdifference levelsbut symmetrically in with an equivalent is for powerrequired equallylikely +3- and0-V encodings 4.5 W ample,theaverage the enor distance (assuming fl resistance). With +l.5- and-1.5-V encodings, same 1 (2.25W). Communications engineers with half the powerrequirements is achieved codeasa codeasa unipolarcodeandthebalanced referto theunbalanced commonly balof binary data and its corresponding sequence polar code.A representative in Figure4.5.Noticethatthelevel are levelencoding shown anced unbalanced and for of eachsignalis maintained the durationof a signalinterval.For this reason

n[,]n n
I
Unipoler(unbalanced) rigneling

Figure 4.5 Unipolarandpolar(NRZ) line codes.

172

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIoN AND MULTIPLEXING

Figure 4.6 Direct-current wander NRZ signal. of the balanced(polar) encodingis alsoreferredto asa nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) code.* As indicated in Figure 4.5, an NRZ signal contains no transitions for long strings of I's or 0's. Hence one of the proceduresdescribedpreviously to en$uretiming transitions must be employed if NRZ encoding is used on a synchronoustransmission link. An NRZ line code is a pulse transmissionsystem wherein the pulse (before filtering) lastsfor the duration ofa signaling interval 7. Hence the frequency spectrum(assuming random data) of an NRZ code is the sin(x)/x specfrum of Equation 4.1 ancl shown in Figure 4.2. As indicated, the frequency $pectrumis significantly nonzero at zero frequency (dc). Most wireline transmissionlinks, however, do not passdc signals by virtue of their being altemating current coupled with transformersor capacitorsto eliminate dc ground loops. Furthermore, some systemspurposely remove dc components from the signal to allow line powering ofrepeaters or to facilitate single-sidebard transmission. The elimination of the low-frequency components in the waveform causeslong strings of I's or 0's to decay gradually in amplitude. Hence a receiver not only would lose timing information during these strings but also would lose its amplitude referencefor optimally discriminating betweena "r" lever and a "0" level. The effect of low-frequency cutof'f; called dc wander, is shown in Figure 4.6 for a typical transmissionsequence. Notice that following the long string of I's, the output of the link is such that 1-to-0 effors are more likely than O-to-l errors. Similarly, long strings of0's increasethe likelihood ofa O-to-1error. This problem arisesnot only for long strings of I's or 0's, but wheneverthere is an imbalancein the number of I's and 0's. Hence periodic timing pulsesare not sufficient to remove dc wander. The existenceof low frequenciesin a random data signal is the basic reasonwhy modems are needed for data communications over the analog telephone network. (Analog telephonecircuits do not pass direct current.) It is also the reasonthat NRZ coding is not often used for long-distancetransmission.Direct-current wander is not unique to data transmission systems.It is a phenomenonthat must be reconciled in television receivers,radar receivers,or radiation detectors. One technique of offsetting dc wander is referred to as dc or baseline restoration [a]. As illustrated in Figure 4.7, dc restoration involves passing received pulses through a capacitor,detectingthem, and then removing the chargeon the capacitorbefore the next pulse arrives. charge on the capacitoris removed by driving the voltage
*Some communications theorists ref'et to a balanced two-level code as a "bipolar code." The North American telephone industry, however, uses the term bipolar torefet to a t}reeJcvel code described in thc next section,

4.s L|NE coDrNc 173

+v
Switch on

Figure4.7 Direct-current restoration unipolar for pulses. (0 to a specific threshold V in Figure4.7)andthenremoving drivingvoltage the when thethreshold reached. is pulse, Sinceall charge thecapacitor removed on is aftereach thebaseline decision or reference levelis constant thebeginning signalinterval. at ofa An obvious disadvantage thistechnique thatthesignalinputmusthavezeroarnof is plitudeor be disabled duringtheresettime. A generally for moreusefultechnique overcoming is baseline wander to usedecisionfeedback, calledquantized also feedback equalization to [5*7]. In contrast dcrestoration, which drives the capacitor voltage to a constant,predeterminedlevel, quantizedfeedback compensate$ dc wanderby locally generating unreceived for the response adding to ttrereceived low-pass and it signal. accomplish theoriginal To this, datastream reconstructed. shownin Figure4.8,thereconskucted stream is As data is passed througha low-passfilter that generates pulseequalto the tail or droopchara acteristic the channel. feedback of The signaladdsto thereceived signalto eliminate the droop(intersymbol interference). Using a frequency-domain analysis, feedthe backresponse complimentary the channel is to response. is feedback used Quantized in ISDN basicrateline interfaces [8]. 4.3.2 Bipolar Coding The dc restoration in techniques mentioned the preceding simplify pulsedesection tectionby creating low-pass pulseresponse thereceiver. a in Therearenumerous line

Figure 4.8 Decision feedback equalization.

174

DGTTAL THANSMtsstoN MULTIpLEXtNc AND

(AMI)coding, Figure4.9 Bipolar codes arespecifically that designed notcontain energy thereby unaffected to dc and be by dc removal. Bipolarcodingsolves dc wander the problem usingthreelevers by to encode binarydata.specifically,a logic 0 is encoded with zerovoltagewhile a logic I is alternately encoded with positiveandnegative voltages. Hence average the voltagelevel is maintained zero-to eliminate components the signalspectrum. at dc in sincebipolarcodinguses polaritypulses encoding alternate for logic 1's,it is alsoreferredto asalternate (AMI).mark inversion Bipolarcodingis thebasicline-coding procedure used Tl linesin thetelephone by network. Rather thanusingfull-periodpulses, however, linesusea 50za TI dutycycle pulseto encode each logic 1.Return-to-zero pulses (RZ) (Figure4.9)wereselected to minimize intersymbolinterference and simplify timing recoveryin the regenerative repeaters a Tl line [9]. Thepowerspectrum a bipolarcodeis obtained of of from I l0]
AS

I cosror s(or)='Plc(co)|2 - l)coswT+ (2p- r)z | 2(2p = wherep probability a 1 of = G(rrl) spectrum anindividual pulse of
c(oro)=|* |

(4.3)

fr\ sin(roTl4) j

[rJ

ar/4

forSOVIdurycyclepulses

Equation is plottedin Figure4.10 for variousvalues p. For pureryrandom 4.3 of p data, = j. Recall,however, source that codingfor p255PCM codecs produces more I's than0's in theinterest establishing shongclock signal. of a Hence appropriate the valueof p for a Tl voiceline is normallysomewhat largerthan0.5 anddepends on theamplitude the voicesignal.Low-levelsignals remainin thefirst encoding of that produce valueof p approximately segment a equalto 0.65.on the otherhand,fullscalesinewavesproduce valuefor p thatis somewhat a below0.5 sincemostof the samples occurnearmaximumamplitude. Because bipolarcodeusesaltemating a polarities encoding stringsof l 's for I's, havestrong timingcomponent$. However, stringof 0's contains timing informaa no tion andtherefore mustbe precluded the source. specifications Tl line reby The for
*A mark is a term arising from telegraphy to refer to the active, or l, state of a level encoded transmission line,

4.3 L|NE CoDING 175

oStT
Frgquency

density bipolarcoding. of Figure 4.10 Specnal will maintain timing as long as no sfing of greaterthan peatersstatethat the repeaters f,rfteen is allowed to occur I1 11.A string of fifteen 0's can only occur if a 0 framing 0's bit falls between a 10000000code in time slot 24 and a 0fi)00001 code in time slot l.

Coda SpaceRedundancY during but code space onlytwoof thelevels bipolar coding a temary u$es In essence,
any particular signal interval. Hence bipolar coding eliminates dc wander with an inefficient and redundantuse of the code space.The redundancyin the waveform also provides other benefits. The most important additional benefit is the opportunity to monitor the quality of the line with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic being to transmitted.Since pulseson the line are supposed alternatein polarity, the detection pulsesof one polarity implies an error. This error condition is known of two successive as a bipolar violation. No single error can occur without a bipolar violation also occuning. Hence the bipolar code inherently provides a form of line codeparity. The terminals of Tl lines are designed to monitor the frequency of occurrence of bipolar violations, and if the frequency of occurrenceexceedssomethreshold,an alarm is set' bipolar violations are u$edmerely to detectchannelerrors.By In T-carrier systems, adding $omerather sophisticateddetectioncircuitry, the sameredundancycan be used for conecting errors in addition to detectingthem. Whenever a bipolar violation is detected, an effor has occurred in one of the bits between and including the pulses indicating the violation. Either a pulse should be a 0 or an intervening 0 should have been a pulse of the opposite polarity. By examining the actual sample values more closely, a decision can be made as to where the error was most likely to have occurred.The bit with a samplevalue closestto its decision thresholdis the most likely bit in error. This technique belongs to a general class of decision algorithms for redundant signals called maximum likelihood or Viterbi decoders[12]. Notice that this method of error coffection requires storageof pulse amplitudes.If decision values only are stored,error correction cannot be achieved(only error detection)' An additional application of the unused code spacein bipolar coding is to purposely insert bipolar violations to signify special sifuationssuch as time division mul-

176

DIGITALTRANSMISSIoNANDMULTIPLEXING

tiplex framing marks, alarm conditions, or specialcodesto increasethe timing content of the line signals. Since bipolar violations are not normally part of the source data, these special situations are easily recognized. of course, the ability to monitor the quality of the line is compromisedwhen bipolar violations occur for reasonsother than channel errors.

4.3.3 BlnaryMZero Substltution A major limitation bipolar (AMI) coding its dependencea minimum of is on density
of 1's in the source codeto maintain timing at theregenerative repeaters. Evenwhen stringsof0's greater than 14 areprecluded the source, low densityofpulseson by a theline increases timingjitter andtherefore produces highererrorrates. BinaryN-zero (BNZS) [ l3l augments basicbipolarcodeby replacing skingsof N substitution a all 0's with a special NJengthcodecontaining pulses purposely several that produce bipolarviolations. Thusthedensity pulses increased of is while theoriginaldataareobtainedby recognizing bipolarviolationcodes replacing the and themat thereceiving terminalwith N 0's. As an example, three-zero a substirution algorithm(B3zs) is clescribed. parThis ticular substitution algorithmis specified the standard for DS-3 signalinterfacein NorthAmerica[14].It wasalsoused theLD-4 coaxialmansmission in system canin ada[15]. In theB3ZSformat,each stringof three in thesource is encoded either 0's data with 00v or BOv. A 00v line codeconsisrs 2-bit intervals of wirh no pulse(00) followed by a pulserepresenting bipolarviolation(v). A BOv line codeconsists a single a of pulsein keeping with thebipolaralternation followedby no pulse(0), rurd (B), ending with a pulsewith a violation(V). With eithersubstitution, bipolarviolationoccurs the ' in the lastbit positionof thethree0's replaced the special by code.Thustheposition of thesubstitution easilyidentified. is Thedecision substitute 00V or BOv is madesothatthenumber B pulses to with of (unviolated pulses) between violations(v) is odd.Hence an oddnumber I's has if of beentransmitted sincethe lastsubstitution, 00V is chosen replace to three0's. If the intervening number I's is even,BOv is chosen. this manner purposeful of In all violationscontainan odd numberof intervening bipolarpulses. Also, bipolarviolations alternate polaritysothatdc wander prevented. evennumber bipolarpulses in is An of between violationsoccursonly asresultof a channel error.Furthermore, everypurposefulviolationis immediately preceded a 0. Henceconsiderable by systematic redundancy remainsin the line codeto facilitateperformance monitoring.Table4.1 summarizes substitution the algorithm. Example4.1. Determinethe B3zs line code for the following data sequence: 1010001 10000000010001 + to indicate positivepulse,- to indicate negarive . use a a pulse,and0 to indicate pulse. no

4.3 L|NE CODTNG 177

TABLE4.1 B3Z$ SubstitutlonRulee (1's) Pulses Number Bipolar ot SinceLastSubstitution Polarity of Pulse Preceding 0000+
+0+ -0-

dependingon whether an odd or even Sotution, There are two possible sequences pulseshas been transmitted following the previous violation: number of

Substitutions
\ l0l CaseI (odd): +0Case2 (even): +0* \

000 00+0+

ll

+-

000 +0+ -0-

000 -0+0+

001 000 00+ 00+ 0000-

Violations

JJ

up of of that Example indicates theprocess breaking strings 0's by substituting 4.1 greatlyincreases minimumdensityof pulsesin the line the with bipolar violations is density just over607o' is whiletheaverage code.In fact,theminimumdensity 337o Noticethat timingcomponent. strong a Hence B3ZSformatprovides continuously the with no restricinformation timing guarantee continuous all BNZScodingalgorithms in any data.HenceBNZS codingsupports application a completely tions on source manner, transparent T2 usedon obsolete transis AnotherBNZScodingalgorithm the862,5algorithm missionlines [16]. The 8625 algorithmis definedin Table4.2. This algorithmproducesbipolar violations in the secondand fifth bit positionsof the substituted sequence. bipolar to BNZS codingformatreferred ashigh-density ITTJrecommends another HDB codingrein theEl primarydigitalsignal, (HDB) coding[l7]. As implemented a containing bipolarviolationin the lastbit places strings four 0's with sequences of thanthree,it is restringsof 0's greater position.Sincethis codingformatprecludes as the is algorithm basically same theB3ZS ferredto asHDB3 coding.Theencoding Noticethatsubstithe Table4.3presents basicalgorithm. described earlier. algorithm substitutions and only in thefourthbit position, successive violations tutionsproduce polarities' produce violationswith altemating

178

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIoN MULTIPLEXING AND

TABLE 4.2 BZS Subetltution Rulee

Polarity Pulse ol lmmediately Preceding Six0'sto be Substituted

Substitution 0-+0+0+-0-+

Hxample: 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 + * ( 0 - + U + - ) + 0 - + ( o * - o - + ) ( u + - U - +)) 0 0 0 + - + (0+ - 0 - + ) - 0 (0- + 0 + - ) (0- + 0 T ) 0 0 0 +

A fundamental feature of end-to-end digital connectivity as provided by IsDN is 64-kbps transparentchannelsreferred to as clear-channelcapability (ccc) [18]. Two aspectsof a bipolar/AMl line code as used on Tl lines preclude ccc; robbed signaling in the least signilicant bit of every sixth frame and the need to avoid all-O's codewords on the channel. Bit robbing for signaling is avoided with commonchannel signaling (also an inherent requirement for ISDN deployment). Two meansof augmentingTl lines Io allow transparent channelshave beendeveloped. The first method is zero-bytetime slot interchange(ZBTSI) describedin reference il 91.ZBTSI was used for upgrading some Tl facilities for ccc but is not a godd long-term solution. The secondmethod, which is most desirablein the long run, involves the use of a BSzs line code for Tl lines. As such, the BBZS line code becamethe new line code standardfor Tl lines with the introduction of D5 channel banks. (D5 channel banks can also operate with bipolar/AMl line codes for backward compatibility.) As indicaredin Table 4.4, the BSZS algorithm is similar to the B625 algorithm in that each individual substitution is dc balanced.Notice that there are two bipolar violations, in positions 4 and 7, in every substitution.The purposeful introduction of bipolar violations requires replacementof any equipment that monitors all violations for performancemonitoring.

TABLE4.3 HDB3SubstltutlonHutes Number Bipolar of Pulses (1's) $inceLastSub$titution Polarity of Preceding Pulse
+

odd 000000+

Even +00+ -{0-

4.3 L|NE CODTNG 179

Rules TABLE4.4 BBZSSubetltution Pulse Polarity Preceding of Substitution 000-+0t.000+-G-+

Ternary 4.3.4 Pair Selected

of are in section examples described thepreceding algorithms TheBNZS substitution of the space increase timingcontent a binarysigto in code selecting codes theternary example. ternaryGST) I20l is another nal. Pairselected pairing the binary input datato producesebeginsby The PST codingprocess into digcodewords thentranslated two ternary are These quences Z-bitcodewords. of ternary codesbut only four Since there are nine two-digit its for transmission. the flexibility availablein selecting two-digit binary codes,there is considerable is shownin Table4.5.This parcodingformats codes. mostusefulof thepossible The dc but timingcomponent alsoprevents wander a ticularformatnotonly ensures strong pulses. The positiveandnegative between a to by switchingmodes maintain balance pulseis transmitted. thattimethe At from onecolumnuntil a single codes selected are single from theothercolumnuntil another codes switches modes selects and encoder polarity)is transmitted. pulse(of theopposite Exampte4.2. Encodethe following binary data streaminto a PST line code: l 100. 0t 001 10101 is the on solutions depending whether encoder in Soluti.on. Therearetwo possible of modeat thebeginning thesequence: thepositiveor negative 0l CaseI (+ mode): 0+ Case (- mode): -+ 2 00 -+ -+ 11 ++l0 -0 +0 10 +0 -0 ll ++00 -+ -+

is drawback thePSTcodingalgorithm thatthebinarydatastream of Onepotential and mustrecognize maintainpair must be framedinto pairs.Hencea PST decoder
TABLE 4.5 Pair Selected Ternaly Encoding

Binary Input 00 01 10 11

+ Mode *+ 0+ +0

- Mode 0-0 +-

180

D|G|TAL THANSMISSIoNMULTIPLEXING AND

boundaries.Recognition of the boundaries is not difficult if random data are being transmitted since a pairwise misframe eventually producesunallowed codes(00, + +, --). Furthermore, time division multiplex formats typically provide character and pairwise framing automatically. The power spechum of a PST line code with equal probabilities for l's and 0's is obtained from reference [20] and ploted in Figure 4.11. Also shown is the 8625 power spectrum [16] and the conventional bipolar power specffum. An important point to notice in Figure 4.l l is that bipolar coding and its extensions require equal bandwidths.Their only significant difference is that B625 and PST have higher energy levels as a result of greater pulse densities.The higher energy levels have the undesirableeffect of increasing crosstalk interference in multipair cables. However, the degradation from the increasedcrosstalk is somewhat offset by improved accuracyofthe recovered sample clock (assumingall signals in the cable are using the sameline code).

4.3.5 TernaryGoding
SincebipolarandPSTcodingusea temarycodespace transmitbinarydata,they to do not achieve high aninformation asis possible as rate with moreefficientuseof the codespace. example, eight-element For an ternary codeis capable ofrepresenting 38= 656I differentcodes. contrast, bitsof binarydara In produce I only 28= 256differentcodes. previously The described codes not takeadvantage line do ofthe higher informationcontentof ternarycodes; they select codesfor their timing contentand properties. spectral one temaryencoding procedure involves mapping groups 4 bits into successive of (483T) digits.sincebinarywordsof 4 bitsrequire threeternary only t6 of the27 possiblethree-digit ternary codewords, considerable flexibility exists selecting terin the narycodes. Table4.6presents possible one procedure. encoding Ternary wordsin the middlecolumnarebalanced their dc content. in Codewords from the first andthird

0.5tT Frequncy Figure4.ll

ltT

Specftum ofbipolar, B3ZS, and PST line codes for equally likely I's and 0's,

4,3 LINE CODING 181

TABLE4.6 EncodlngTablefor 4B3TLine Code Disparity) Ternary Word(Accumulated Word Binary 0000 0001 001 0 001 1 01 00 01 1 0 0110 01 1 1 1000 1001 1010 101 1 11 0 0 11 0 1 1110 1111 --0 -00-- - + - + f - -

+++ ++0 +0+ 0++ ++* +-+ -++ +00 0+0 00+

-00 0-0 000+0-+ +0-0+ +-0 -+0

than If dc to alternately maintain balance. morepositivepulses are columns selected Whenthe disparitybecolumn I is selected. pulses havebeentransmitted, negative Noticethattheall-O's column3 is chosen. pulses changes, tweenpositiveandnegative Because the of is codeword not used.Hencea $trongtiming contentis maintained' is the higherinformationefficiency,however, ability to monitorperformance sacri4B3T codingis usedon the boundaries. on ficed,andframingis required three-digit Tprovides by line developed ITT Telecommunications This system [21]. TI48 span that (48 usinga bandwidth is only for carriertransmission two DSI signals channels) of discussion (carrying channels)' generalized A 24 thana Tl bandwidth 50Vogrcatm in is [22]. 4B3T codingandotherternarycodingtechniques contained reference 4.3.6 DigitalBiphase levelsfor flexiBNZS andPSTuseextraencoding Bipolarcodingandits extensions and no dcwander, perfeatures suchastimingtransitions, desirable bility in achieving and the by increasing codespace are These features obtained monitorability. formance so discussed far, (Thefirst spectral of all codes null the norby increasing bandwidth. rate1/2.) at includinganNRZ code,is located the signaling by strong timing andno dc wander increasing achieve of Many varieties line codes data'One of the of the bandwidth the signalwhile usingonly two levelsfor binary and providingboth a strongtiming cornponent no dc mostcommonof thesecodes "diphase"or a "Manchester" code,alsoreferredto as wanderis the digital biphase code.

182

DtctrALTRANSMtsstoN MULTtpLEXtNc AND

'tfr

'FH IJ
Figure 4.12 Digital biphase (Manchester) code. line

A digital biphasecode usesone cycle of a squarewave at a particular phaseto encode a I and one cycle of an opposite phaseto encode a 0. An example of a digital biphasecoding sequence shown in Figure 4.12. Notice that a transition exists at the is centerof every signaling interval. Hence strong timing componentsare presentin the spectrum.Furthermore,logic 0 signalsand logic I signalsboth contain equal amounts ofpositive and negative polarities. Thus dc wander is nonexistent.A digital biphase code,however, doesnot contain redundancyfor performancemonitoring. Ifin-service performance monitoring is desired, either parity bits must be inserted into the data stream or pulse quality must be monitored. (A later section of this chapter discusses performance monitoring in more detail.) The frequency spectrum of a digital biphase signal is derived in Appendix c and plotted in Figure 4.13, where it can be compared to the speckum of an NRZ signal. Notice that a digital biphasesignal hasits first spectralnill atLlT.Hence the exrrariming transitionsand elimination of dc wander come at the expenseof a higherfrequency signal. In comparison to three-level bipolar codes,however, the digital biphasecode has a lower error rate for equal signal-to-noiseratios (seeAppendix C). Examination of the frequency specffain Figure 4.13 shows that the diphasespectrum is similar to an NRZ spectrumbut translatedso it is centeredabout 1/I instead of direct current. Hence digital biphase actually represents digital modulation of a squarewave carier with one cycle per signal interval. Logic I 's causethe squarewave to be multiplied by +1 while logic 0's produce multiplication by -1. Diphase is pri-

\ \ \ \
1/T ztr 3tT 4tT

Ftgure4.13 Powerspectral density digitalbiphase. of

4.3 LINE CODING 183 marily usedon shorterlinks where terminal costs are more significant than bandwidth "Ethemet" IEEE 802.3 local area data network uses digital biphase utilization. The (Manchester)coding.

Encoding 4.3.7 Dlfferential

up One limitation of NRZ and digital biphasesignals,as presented to this point, i$ that for a 0' On many transmissionmethe signal for a 1 is exactly the negative of a signal dia, it may be impossible to determine an absolutepolarity or an absolutephasereference.Hence the decodermay decodeall I's as 0's and vice versa.A common remedy for this ambiguity is to use differential encoding that encodesa I as a changeof state and encodesa 0 asno changein state.In this mannerno absolutereferenceis necessary to decodethe signal. The decodermerely detectsthe stateof each signal interval and comparesit to the stateof the previous interval. If a changeoccured, a I is decoded. Otherwise. a 0 is determined. Differential encoding and decoding do not change the encoded spectrum of purely random data (equally likely and uncorrelatedI's and 0's) but do double the error rate. If the detector makes ar effor in estimating the state of one interval, it also makes an error in the next interval. An example of a differentially encodedNRZ code and a differentially encodeddiphasesignal is shown in Figure 4.14. All signalsof differentially encodeddiphaseretain a transition at the middle of an interval, but only the 0's have a transition at the beginning of an interval'

4.3.8 CodedMarkInversion
A variety of line codeshave evolved similar to the digital biphasecode describedpreviously. One of theseis referred to as codedmark inversion (CMI) in ITU recommendations [l7l. CMI encodes I's (marks) as an NRZ level opposite to the level of the

(d)

Figure 4.14 Differentially encoded NRZ and diphase signals: (a) differentially encoded NRZ; (b) differentially encoded diphase.

184

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

l o l ' l ' l 0 l oI ' l o I

J l

I
Figure 4.I5 Codedmarkinversion.

previous and0's asa half-cyclesquare one waveof onepar"ticular phase. Figure4.15 showsa sample encoding cMI. Thereis no dc energyin the signalandan abunfor danceof signaltransitionsexist asin diphase. Furthermore, thereis no ambiguity between 's and0's-Eliminationof theambiguity I actuallyleads a majordrawback to * of cMI coding;Its errorpedormance 3 dB worse is thandiphase.cMI is thespecified interface codefor the fourrh-level (Bl) ITU multiplexsignalat 139.264 Mbps.cMI is alsousedfor electical interfaces soNET sTS-3csignals of described chapterg. in 4.3.9 MultllevelSignating In the line codes discussed far, two-lever(binary)signaling beenassumed. so has In applications where bandwidth limitedbut higherdatarates desired, numthe is are the berof levelscanbeincreased whilemaintaining same the signaling rate.Thedatarate R achieved a multilevelsystem givenas by is

R ros,(r) F)
where.L= numberof levelsthat canbe freely chosen during eachinterval I= signaling interval

(4.4)

The signalingrate llT is often referredto asthe symbolrateand is measured in bauds. within thedatacommunications industryit is common practice use..baud" to as being synonymous with bit rate.strictly speaking, however,the bit rate is only equalto thebaudrateif binarysignaling bit persignal (l interval)is used. Figure4. I 6 shows example aneight-level an of transmission formatthatachieves bitspersignal 3 interval(i.e.,3 bitsper baud). Multilevel transmission systems greater achieve datarateswithin a given bandwidthbut require muchgreater signal-to-noise ratiosfor a givenerrorrate.Oneaspect of wirelinetransmission favorsmultilevelline codingis thelower baudratefor a that givendatarate,which in turn reduces crosstalk. the Hence, crosstalk-limited in svs*The enor performanceof CMI is 3 dB worse than diphasewhen bit-by-bit detection is used.The inetficiency arises because one-half an intewal a I lookslike a 0. Because for of CMI hasredundancv. someof the inefficiency canbe recovered with maximumlikelihood ffiterti) tletection.

4.3 LINE coDtNc 185

wittr Figure 4.16 Multileveltransmission 3 bits per signalinterva'' tems the signal-to-noiseratio penalty of a multilevel line code is not as significant. The TlG T-carrier systemdevelopedby AT&T [23] usesa four-level line code at the TIC baud rate (3.152 MHz) to double the capacity of a TlC $ystem(from 48 channelsto

e6).

Another example of multilevel transmissionof pafiicular significance is the ISDN basic rate digital subscriberline (DSL), which uses fbur-level transmission at a $i8naling rate of 80 kilobauds to achieve 160 kbps. The primary factors that led to selecting a multilevel line code in this application are ( I ) near-endcrosstalkthat cannot be eliminated by pair isolation* as in Tl systemsand (2) high levels of intersymbol interferencecausedby bridged tap reflections. Both of thesefactors are easierto control when lower frequency signalsare used t241.Additional aspectsof this application are describedin the ISDN section of Chapter 11.

$ignaling 4.3.10 Partial-Response

Conventional bandlimiting filters of a digital transmissionsystem are designedto restrict the signal bandwidth as much as possible without spreadingindividual symbols so they interfere with samplevalues of adjacentintervals. One classof signaling techparniques,variously referredto as duobinary [25], correlative level encoding [26]' or introducesa prescribedamount of intersymbol tiai-responsesignaling [27], purposely interferencethat is accountedfor in ttre detection circuitry ofthe receivers.By overfiltering the encoded signal, the bandwidth is reduced for a given signaling rate, but the overlapping pulses produce multiple levels that complicate the detection process and increasethe signal power requirementsfor a given error rate' Figure 4.17 shows the pulse responseof a typical partial-responsesystem. If the channel is excited by a pulse of duration T, channel filters (defined in Appendix c) limit the spectrumsuch that the main part of the pulse extendsacrossthree signal intervals and contributes equally to two sample times. The reason for the term partial is response now apparent:The output only respondsto one-half the amplitude of the input.
*Pair isolation involves separating go and return pairs into separate cables'

186

DIGITALTBANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

\\N6xt output puhe

Figure 4.17 Outputpulseof partial-response channel.

If theinputpulse Figure4.17is followedbyanother of pulse thesame of amplirude, theoutputwill reach amplitude virtueof theoverlap full by between pulse$. However, if thenextinputpulsehasa negative polarity,theoverlap produces zeroamplitude at the sample time.Thus,asshownin Figure4.18,a partial-response system with twolevelinputs(+1,-I) produces ourputwith threelevels(+l , 0, -l). In similarfashan ion, Figure4.19shows system a with four inputlevels( +3, +1, -1, -3) andseven (+3,+2,+1,0, -1, -2, -3). output levels Detection a partialresponse of signal(PRS) complicated theadditional is by levels producedby the channelfilters andthe fact that samplevaluesaredependent two on adjacent pulseamplitudes. methodof detecting PRSinvolvessubtracting One a the overlapof a previously pulsefrom the incomingsignalto generate differdetected a encesignalrepresenting channel the response thenewpulse.only theoverlap(into tersymbolinterference) the sample at times needs be subtracted. difference to The samples nominallyequalto one-halfthe amplitude the unknowninput pulse. are of This technique doubles errorratein the same the manner thatdifferentiallvencoded errorratesaredoubled. Anothermethod detecting of partial-response systems involvesa technique called precoding thesource. at hecodingtransforms inputdatain sucha manner the the that outputlevel at thedetector directlyindicates originaldatawithoutcomparison the to theprevious sample value. a binarysystem, example, I is encoded a pulse In for a with of the same polarityastheprevious pulse.Hence logic I 's showup at thedetector as -l sample. eithera +l or a Transmission a 0 is encoded of with a pulseof opposite polarity to the previous pulse.Hencelogic 0's alwaysshowup at the detector a as zero-level signal.similar precoding techniques exisrfor multilevelsystems [zg].

Figure 4.I8 TfueeJevel partial-response inputsandourpurs.

4.s LINE coDtNe 187

inputsandoutputs' partial-response Figure 4.19 Seven*level The partial-responsetechniquejust describedis actually a special caseof a more generalclassof signaling techniquesreferredto as correlative level encoding [26]' To or describethe properties of generalizedpartial-response correlative level systems,it D to denote delay equal to one signal inis convenient to introduce a delay operator terval Z. Physically, D can be thought of as a delay line of length ?- Two units of delay is implemented with two delay lines in seriesand is denotedas D2' $y$temdescribedabove is referred to as Using this notation, the partial-re$ponse the l+D PRS: The output represents superpositionof the input with a delayedversion of the sameinput. Other forms of overlap are possible. These systemsdo not necessarily produce the overlapping pulses by over{iltering an input' An alternative approach is to overlap and add the pulsesdirectly in the encodingprocess(hencethe term correlative level encoding). An interesting special caseof correlative level encoding is the I - D system shown in Figure 4.20 and extendedin Figure 4.21 to show the effect of overlapping Pulses' The I - D encoderusesa single cycle of a squarewave acrosstwo signal intervals -+) produce dc to encodeeachbit. Since neither ofthe two individual signals ( +- or the positive and negative energy,the encodedsignal has no dc wander.Furthermore, leveis of the composite signal alternate in a manner reminiscent of bipolar coding' In fact, if differential encoding is used (i.e., if a 0 is encodedwith the samephase
widrh of one signal interurl
I

Overlap into sdiEcent interval

#-r

Logic I

Logic 0

levelcoding' for Figure 4.20 Individual signalelements I - D correlative

188

DtcITALTRANsMtsstoNANDMULTtpLEXtNG

Figure4.21 Representative waveform I - D correlative encodins. of level astheprevious intervalanda I astheopposite phase), form of encoding identhis is tical to bipolarcoding(assuming NRZ levelsarereplaced s}vo RZ pulses). the by Thus I - D correlativelevel encodingis usedto shape bandwidthratherthan the to limit it. The spectra unfiltered I + D, I * D, and | - Dz signalsareobtained of from referencel2Tl plottedin Figure4.zz.TheTlD T-carrier and system AT&T of precoded + D level encoding uses I (alsocalledduobinary). Thespectrum the 1 * D2signalis particularly of interesting. Ithas no dc componenr andan upperlimit equalto ll2T: thesame upperlimit as a maximallyfilteredNRZ codewith no intersymbol interference. I - D2partial-response The systems havebeen

l/
\

\t
Frequency {Hzl Figure 4.22 spectra unfilteredI + D, I - D, ard I - Dz correlative of encoded sisnals.

189 PERFoHMANcE 4.4 ERHoR providing48 voicechannels andfor [29] used GTE in a modifiedT-carriersystem by frequenradiosusingvery low baseband microwave over digitaltransmission analog exi$ts) (where messaBe spectrum no [30]' Theobchannels ciesfor pilotsandservice of system AT&T also used| - Dz codingwith soletelA-RDs (data-under-voice) Mbpsinto 500kHz of bandwidth [31]' four-levelinputsto get 1.544 the is Notice that the I - Dz spectrum essentially productof the I + D andthe I - D ena by can aI Indeed, - D2 system be implemented coxcatenating I D spectra. level (1 response: * D)0 + D) = | - Dz'Thusconelative a I + D channel coderwith and correlations representing are polynomials very usefulfor simultaneously system use level systems morelevelsthannecessary Sinceall correlative shaping. spectrum or for encodingthe data,they are inferior to uncorrelated full-responsesystemsin perfofinance' termsof error is identifyingvariousline codes prosystems of A summary digital transmission in are in usedspecifically fiber systems described 4.7.Otherline codes videdin Table 8. Chapter

4.4 ERRORPERFORMANCE rethe emphasized timing andpowerspecffum of sections this chapter Thepreceding in consideration codes.Another fundamental o1 varioustransmission quirements of in line codeis theerrorrateperformance thepre$ence noise.Excepton a choosing requireerror performance relativelyshofi lines,wherenoisemay be insignificant, If costsignificantly. a celtainminimumelror rateis specisystem mentrt impact can errorrate at lower signal-to-noise providingthe desired fied, thosecodingschemes instalreducing thereby fartherapart, to repeaters be spaced ratiosallowregenerative

Systems TABLE4.7 DigitalTransmiselon Bit Rate CountrY or DesignationAdministration (Mbps) T1 E1 T1C T148 9148A T.ID T1G T2 LD.4 T4M AT&T ITU-T ATAT ITT GTE AT&T AT&T AT&T Canada AT&T 1.544 2.048 3,152 ternary 2.37, 3.152 3.152 6.443 6,312 274.176 274.176
Line Code

Media pair Twisted pair Twisted pair Twisted pair Twisted pair Twisted Twisted oair

Repeater SPacing 6000ft 2000m 6000ft 6000ft 6000fr 6000ft 6000ft 4800ft 1900m 5700ft

AMYBEZS HDBs(B4ZS) Bipolar 4B3T 1 -D2, duobinary 1+D, duobinary Four-level B6ZS B3ZS Polar

pair Twisted Low-capacitance pair twisted Coax (NRZ) Coaxbinary

190

DtctrAl TRANSMlsstoN AND MuLTtpLEXtNc

lationandmaintenance.+ Repeater spacing animportant is economic factorin wireline transmission, opticalfiber transmission, on point-to-point in and radiolinks. Theerrorrateresults comparisons and presented this section based white in are on Gaussian noise.This is the mostcoilrmonform of noiseandthe bestunderstood. In someapplications, within theolderelectromechanical as telephone network, impulse noise maybemoreprevalent. Thusthese analyses notprovidea complete do errorrate analysis some for applications. intentof thissection to present The is relative errorperformance comparisons variousline-codingtechniques. this purpose white of For a noiseanalysis mostappropriate. impulses largeenough, is If are theycause enorsindependent thecoding$cheme use. of in For themostpart,thefollowingsections present only theresults theerroranalyof ses theform of graphs errorrateasa functionof signal-to-noise in of ratios. Appendix C derives basicequations the used produce results. to the 4.4.1 SignalDetection Invariably,the detectioncircuiuryof a digital receiverprocesses incoming signal waveforms mea$ure to eachpossible discrete signal.In mostcases mea$ures the are nothingmorethansamples a filteredreceive of signal. Depending thesignalshape on andthelevelof performance desired, receiver the uses moresophisticated piocessing. In anycase, endmeasurement a binarysignalnominallyproduces votmge the of one level for a 0 andanother voltage level for a I. A decision which signalwastransof mitted is madeby comparingthemeasurement the appropriate (at timeJto a threshold located halfwaybetween these nominalvoltages. Naturally,theerrorprobabilitydepends thenominatdistance on between voltages theamount fluctuation the and of in themeasurements caused noise. by Sincesignal mea$urement$ normallylinearin nature, errordistance are the between I ' s and0's is proportional thereceived to signalvoltage. Equivalently, amount the of noisepowerrequired produce erroris a directfunctionof thesignal-to-noise to an ratio. Theoptimumdetector a particular for signalsetmaximiees signal-to-noise the ratio at theinput to thedecision circuit. 4.4.2 Nolee Power white Gaussian noiseis characterized havinga uniformfrequency as spectrum across anarbitrarilylargebandwidth anamplitude and distribution variesaccording a that to normal(Gaussian) probabilitydistribution. parameterN,l A conventionally represents the powerspecfral densityof white noiseandis the amountof powermeasured a in bandwidth I Hz. Hence rms powerof whitenoisecominf out of a filter with a of the bandwidth BW is (Nr)(BW).t
Tl lines the rcpeater spacing was predetermined by the locations where loading coils needed to be .removed. Thus the error rate performance essentially determined the maximum oata iate. TThe power spcctral density of white noise is also specifred * oensity. as a fro r* " ir"**ia*a rfr-t4 praclical matter, there is no difference in the specificarions,'since a rcal filter has the mathematical equivalent of identical positive- and negative-frequencybands.Thus the measuredpower corDng through a filter with a one-sided (positive-frequency) bandwidth BW is No BW in either case. 'On

PEHFORMANCE I91 4.4 ERROR

circuit,it is necessary at powerpresent a decision of the To determine amount noise of the detectioncircuitry' Whenthe dely'p to determine andthe effectivebandwidth is bandwidttr usuof tectioncircuiky consists nothingmorethana filter, theeffective of the filter. With othermore sophisticated ally very closeto the 3 dB bandwidth As can the detectors. effectivebandwidth be moredifficult to determine' derivedin noisebandto referred astheeffective is bandwidth usually C, Appendix theeffective circuit is (No) noisepowerat the decision Hencethe *idth (FIBW)of the receiver. (NBW). 4.4.3 Error Probablllties to the noisecau$es signalmeasurement cross occurswhenever An enor in detection circuitry'Appenthe between two nominaloutputlevelsof thedetection thethreshold noiseas this dix C derives probabilityfor white Gaussian , ;

\ I I = -:-DfOD(erroD lVZ?t6 "|

nf rzd4,

(4.s)

where v = nominal distance(voltage) to a decision threshold 02 = noise power at detector,= (No)NBW) Equation 4.5 is nothing more than the area under the probability density function of a normal distribution. As shown in Figure 4'23, the equation representsthe error probability as the probability of exceedingv/o standarddeviations in a normal distribution with zero mean and unit varianceN(l' 0). The error rate is completely determinedby the ratio of v to o. Since v is the noiseis free sample voltage and o2 is the rms noise power, v?/O2 a signal-power*to-noisepo*"r rutio at the detector.This ratio is sometimesrefened to as a postdetectionSNR, after the detectioncircuitry. It is usually more important to express iince it is measured error rates in terms of an SNR at the input to the receiver. Figure 4'24 depicts a basic channel. a basic detection model, and the relation between a predetectionSNR and a in postdetectionSNR. For reasonscliscussed Appendix C, the most appropriatepredetection SNR for comparing line codesand digital modulation formats is an energy-

Dlo

l*

of Figure 4.21t Probability errorfor binarysignaling.

192

DGITAL TRAN$MIssIoN MULTIPLEXING AND

(';m;) F#=(;rs) (*)

v1
i
EquivalBnt noi* bendwidth : NBW Noi* power = o ' = N B I / I ',N o

Noire Epctral denrity Ns

Figure 4.24 Signaldetection model. per-bit-to-noise-densityratro E6/N0. The relationship betweenE6/N0Nrdthe signalpower-to-noise-powerratio is

siEpal Power g111p: power norse _dEs1tr) NoNBW dErlog2l (llT) NoNBW where d= E = Ea= logyL = l/7= NBW = pulsedensity energyper symbol energyperbit number bits per symbol(i.e.,t = numberof levels) of signaling rate effectivenoisebandwidth receiver of

(4.6)

In determining signalpower in Equation4.6, noticethe dependence the the on pulsedensity In a balanced d. NRZ line codethepulsedensity I, but in manyof the is otherline codes pulsedensityis dependent thedataandany substitution the on algorithmsthat may be in use.In these codes, increasing prrlse the densityincreases the sNR but doesnot reduce errorrate.The errorrateis determined the energythe by per-bit-to-noise-density In fact, increasing pulsedensitymight worsenthe ratio. the errorrateifintederencebetween cablepairsis a significant (Interferconsideration. enceis directlyproportional thesignalpower.) to Antipodal Signaling The optimumsignaling formatfor binarysignaling maximizes errordistance the for a given receivedsignalpower and simultaneously minimizesthe noisebandwidth. This conditionarises only whentwo signallevelsareallowedandonly whenonesig-

4.4 ERROR PEHFOBMANCE 193

(the ofthe other.Sincethesignalfor a I is theexactopposite nal is theexactnegative to is of antipode) thesignalfor a 0, optimumsignaling oftenreferred asantipodalsigperfortnance antipodal is scheme anybetter, no otherbit-by-bitsignaling naling.Since only previously, described Ofthe line codes usedasa basisfor comparisons. is oftin percan and digital biphase provideantipodal twolevel (NRZ) encoding balanced providedby antipodal Figure4.25 showsthe optimumerrorperformance formance. as signaling a functionof E/Ne andthe SNR. Error Bate of Level Encoded $ignale of two-levelline codeis capable providingoptia mentioned, balanced, As already level codeis used,suchasunipolar, If *u* "ooi rateperformance. an unsymmetric is The levelencoding. only difference is basicdetector usedasin symmetric the same "on" of mustbe movedfrom zeroto half theamplitude the threshold thatthedecision transmitpoweris increased the errordistance, average signal.To maintainthe same penaltyof 3 dB with rea 2. Hence unipolarcodecarries performance a by a factorof spectto antipodalPerformance. of Figure4.25 showsthe idealperformance a unipolar(on-oft) codewhereit is Notice that for all SNRsthe enor rateof the onperformance. to compared antipodal system with 3 dB lessSNR' is off system exaitly equalto theerrorrateof anantipodal Bipolar Slgnaling to identical a unipolar is bipolarsignaling basically to With respect errorperformance, one between of mustdecide interval,the receiver signal code.During any particular the polarity.Hence decision pulsewith the appropriate levels:zeroor a two possible zeroandthe pertinent a particularsignalintervallies halfwaybetween to threshold of to pulse. Nanowingthepulse 507o thesignalinterval of amplitudelevel theallowed pulseen(with respectto average the doesnot change theoreticalerror performance on*off keyingin Figure4'25 canbe usedto deterergy).Thustheerrorratecurvefor mine theoreticalbipolar effor rates. to in Oneconsideration a bipolarline codecontributes a slightlyhigherenor rate noise both because positiveandnegative occurs thanin on-offkeying. This increase In signalis transmitted. whena zero-level crossing threshold cancause erroneous an by positivenoisewhena lower level signal only contrast, unipolarcodeis affected a noisewhenthe upperlevel signalis transmitted' and is transmitted only by negative a pulseas a I (despite bipolarviolation)' ffeatsthe elroneous If the bipolardetector Thustheoverallerrorprobis doubled. theerroiprobabilitywhen0's aretransmitted if by ability is increased 50Vo 0's and I's areequallylikely. not does in ofthe curve,anincrease theerrorrateof 50Vo ofthe steepness Because if the errorrateis increased For penalty. example, represent muchof a performance by to powerof a line codeneeds increase only the from 1 x l0-6 to 1.5x 10-6, source occurs rates, largerpenalty a enor rate.At higherenor 0.2dB to getbackto a I x 10-6 in Figure4.25,where are effects demonstrated These the because curveis not assteep. to 0's) canbe compared the perof the idealperformance a bipolarcode(with 507o of formance a unipolarcode,

194

DIGITAL THANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

6 lo-t F

SisElll|olrlr-lo-nqllF-pffi rrfi q LdE) 8 9 l 0 l t 1 2 t 3

E
ll

E
>

8 7 B S r En rlv-FoFbit-b{ol$dilrity

rsflo, 4/IVo (dB)

Figure 4.25 Enor rates of polar (NRZ), unipolar, and bipolar line codes.

PEBFORMANCE 195 4.4 ERROH

(at errorrate)with respect Thefactthatbipolarcodingincursa 3.2-dBpenalty 10-6 are problems solvedby indc wander that timing and is to digital biphase indicative incursa bandwidth digital biphase *r*uring the numberof signallevels.In contrast' BNZS and and for penalry. all of the3.2-dBpenalty bipolarcoding, its extensions Not timing patcurrentandaddinga consistent direct to PST,"an be attributed removing or monitoring for redundancy performance considerable tem.Bipolarcodingcontains * possible errorcorrection. cable on system Z2-gauge of eachsection a T1 transmission Example4.3. Assume changes errorrate.Whatdesign with a 10-6 crosstalk limitedandoperating is near-end to areneeded reducethe error rateto 10-8? be limited,the enor ratecannot improved is Solution. Sincethe system crosstalk the is Thesolution to space repeaters. the by increasing powerout of theregenerative FromFigure solution). ofthis (ignore impractical aspects the together repeaters closer by powermustbeincreased I '6 dB to improve that +.i5 it canuedetermined thesignal the main lobe of the the error ratefrom 10-6to l0-8. In Figure4'10 it is seenthat up extends to 1.544MHz. However'most of the energyin the bipolar spectrum of that below 1 MHz. UsingFigureL14, we determine the attenuation spectrumlies = '32 kft or 320ft is thereduction cable Z-Z-gauge is 5 dB/kft at 1 MHz. Hence1.6/5 required. spacing in repeater of a 4.3 Example demonstratesnumberof importantaspects digital transmission with only a small qualitycanbe obtained iirst, arbitrarilygoodtransmission systems. in Thus,as mentioned Chapter2' a spacing.t plnalty in transmitpoweror repeater to networkcanbe readilydesigned impalt no degandswitching digitaltransmission converand analog-to-digital digifal-to-analog where rJation to voicequality,except takeplace. sions in in improvement errorratefor a relativelysmallincrease the Second, dramatic directionalso.A slightincrease sensitivityin the opposite impliesextreme the SNR in would causea largeincrease the error rate. in noisepoweror signalattenuation performbetter considerably of thenominaldesign a digitallink oftenprovides Hence necessarY. thannormallY ance formatusing to 4.3 to Third, thesolution Example applies anydigitaltransmission per attenuation mile. Sinceall line the and, of frequencies hence, same the same band errorrate,therelativechange at steepness a 10-6 the haveapproximately same codes detection Thus a Tl systemwith suboptimum samefor all systems. in SNR is the weremoved320ft if improvement therepeaters performance thesame wouldexhibit (Tl to closertogether. linesaredesigned providelessthana 10-6errorrateto begin on repoflof errorratesurveys Tl lines') for a thorough with. Seereference [32]
"In pulse is removed to terms of logicJevel decisions, a bipolar code carrrot provide effor conection, If a half of the time the efior is correctedbuthalf of the time another error is made. eliminate abipolar violation, a bipolar Enor corection is possible only with a Viterbi-like detectot described previously. In this case better performance than a unipolar code' code orovides tsome systems, such as the tadio systems discussedin Chapter 6, require a greater decreaseifl repeatel spacing to achieve the same improvement in performance'

196

DIGITAL TRANSMISsIoN MULTIPLEXING AND

Arrsrrgl snrqy-pFblt-to-ndire-dondty iltio, Ebftro (dB) Figure 4.26 Error rate of balancedmultilevel signals (all systemsproviding an identical data rate).

PERFORMANCE 197 4.4 ENHOH

tl

l3 14 1? EulVo ort tlrtdunncl

ID

ru

Figure 4.27 Error rates of I + D partial-responsesystems.

198

DG|TAL TRAN$MtsgtoN MULT|PLEXING AND

Multllavel Error Eatee Themultilevelkansmission system shownin Figure4.16does requirebandwidth not in excess a binarysystem of usingthe same signaling rate,yet it achieves threetimes thedatarate.Thepenalty multileveltransmission for comes theform of greatlyinin creased signalpowerfor a given error rate.For example, average the powerof the eight-level system Figure4.l6 is 8.7 dB abovethe average in powerof a symmetric two-levelsystem with thesame errordistance. makematter$ To worse, somesysrems arepeakpowerlimited,in whichcase eightJevelsystem a 12.4-dB the has disadvantagewith respect a two-levelsystem. errorratesof multilevelsystems deto The are rivedin Appendix andplottedin Figure4.26asa functionof E6/N11.For cases c those wherethe peakpoweris of interest, relationship the between peakand average the powerof a multilevelsy$tem derived AppendixC as is in Peak-to-average(dB)= l0log,o t. tlt

(u L)E'/: At - rf

(4'7)

whereI is thenumberof equallyspaced levelscentered aboutzero[e.g.,+1, +3, +5, . . ., J (r -1)1. The enor ratesof I + D partial-response rrystems alsoderivedin Appendixc are andplottedin Figure4.27.These errorrate$ derived are under assumption bir the that by-bit detection used. is Sincepartial-rerrponse systems containredundancy (conelation) in adjacent samples, betterperformance be achieved cal with Viterbi decoders 21. ll

4.5 PERFORMANCE MONITORING Two basic techniques for directlymonitoring qualityof a digitaltransmission exist the link: redundancy checksand pulsequality measurements. techniques deBoth are signed providean indicationof thebit errorrate(BER)of the channel. to 4.5.1 RedundancyChecks Redundancy beincorporated a digitalsignalusingoneof two common can into methods.First,the line codeitself may containredundancy in bipolarcoding.In a ranas dom,independent environment frequency bipolarviolations verynearly error the of is equalto the channel BER (except extremely for high BERs).Second, logic-levelredundancy be insefied can into thedatastream theform of overhead For examin bits. ple, parity bits are insertedinto DS3 and DS4 signalsfor the expre$$ purpose of monitoring channel the errorrate.(Theframestructures these otherhigherlevel of and multiplexsignals providedin chapter7.) cyclic redundancy are check(cRC) codes arealsoincorporated a number transmission into of systems a mean$ monitoring as of BERsandvalidating framingacquisition. Two prevarent examples cRC useare(l) of extended (ESF)onT I lines[33] introduced theD4 channel superframe with banks and (2) opticalfiber transmission usingthe soNET standard described chapterg. in

MONITORING 199 4.5 PERFORMANCE

(eitherparity bits or CRC codes) generally is The useof logic-levelredundancy (such bipolarviolations) because latthe as redundancy thantheuseofline code better link transmission itself.Logic-levelredunof on ter is dependent the technology the from cablepairsto fiber or radio. by dancy,on theotherhand,is unaffected a change of for a As described in thischapter, majorimpetus theintroduction ESFinto T I later of independent bipolar monitorability was transmission systems to get performance and into are line codes. I signals oftenmultiplexed higherleveldigitalsignals carDS in systems suchasfiber andradio.The CRC codes ried on a varietyof ftansmission pedormance monitoringinfor theESFframingformatprovidethemeans end-to-end systems carrythedatastream. of transmission dependent whatever pafity bits andCRC codes not providea do line coderedundancies, In contrast to relates parityerrorrate the Thefollowingequation of one-to-one indication theBER. (PER)to thechannel BBR: (4.8)

pER= I [T]p(r * p)N-i -t'J

t=l "

(i odd)

of whereN = lengthof a parityfield (number bits overwhichpantyis generated) = BER assuming errors random, independent p between PER andthe BER is plottedin Figure4.28for DS3 the The relationship N the Noticethatat low errorrate$ PERis essentially timestheBER andDS4signals. because oddnumber any changes this (Np).At high errorrates, however, relationship '\ilhen the BER is high from a singleerror. of errorsin a frameis indistinguishable as enough morethanoneerrorin a parityfield is likely, thePERis useless anabthat only thattheBER is the cases PERindicates of theerrorrate.In these solute estimate a equalto 1/N.Because DS4frameformatcontains approximately abovea threshold than for can parirybits,DS4signals be measured highererrorrates of a higherdensity canDS3signals. it Determination a CRCerrorrateis simplifiedbecause is unlikelyfor multiple of is a errorsto notproduce CRCerror.Thustheprobabilityof a CRCenor (CRCER) I minusthe probabilirythat no errorsoccur;
CRCER=1-(l-p)N

(4.9)

whereN = lengthof theCRCfield (includingCRCbits) enors random, independent p = BER assuming 4.9 4.9 to Again,at low errorratesEquation reverts N timestheBER (Np).Equation is 4614bits.(TheCRC wheretheCRCfleld is plottedin Figure4.28for ESFframes the field doesnot includeF bits in Table4.8 except C bits themselves.) mUSt the $equence be long in To haveCOnfidence enOrratemeasurements, sample size the size of enough allow anaverage about10enorsin thesample (e.g., sample to

d
:Y E o .f g

= 0

.$
CN (4 rTl

b
F

a
;

s
f
o

E
v

;
E e
bI)

S m
a q

tr &

a
d

U}

E
t t E} h q Fa 'ff (b F!

{)
b!

EI

eler r0r,$ cHs#til-|ed

4.5 PEBFORMANCE MONITORING 201 TABLE 4.8 Extendsd Superframe Framlng Channel Formata

F-Bit Assignment ESFFrame Number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I

ESFBitNumber 0 193 386 579 772 965 11 5 8 1351 15,14 1737 1930 2123 2316 2509 27Q2 2895 3088 3281 3474 3667 3860 4053 4246 4439

FPS

FDL

cRc
cB1

m m 0 m

c82
m 0 m

s
10
11

c83
m
I

12 13 14 15 16 17 1B 19 20 21 22 23 24

c84
m 0 m

cB5
m
1

;
m 1

aFPS,framingpatternsequonc . .001011. .); FDL,a kbpsfacility (. data link(message bits m); CRC' GRC'6 . cyclic redundancycheck (check bits CBl-CB6).

must be I0/BER). Hence, when trying to measurelow BERs (e.g., 10*6or l0-7), the measurement time may be too long to respondto changing channelconditions such as radio channelfading.

4.5.2 SlgnalQualityMeasurements
The secondbasic technique for monitoring digital ffansmission quality is to process the digital signal directly and measure ceftain properties related to lhe error rate. A simple approach involves merely measuring the received signal power, a coillmon technique in analog systems.In a fixed-noise environment this approachis adequate. However, on transmissionlinks where the noise level can vary or where signal distortions can arise, the quality of the pulsesthemselvesmust be measured.

202

DIGITALTHANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

Docirion threshold

Pmudoerror rcgion

Figure 4.29 Pseudoerrordetection.

Figure4.29demonstrates operation a'!seudo" errordetector the of designed deto pulseswith abnormal tect received amplitudes the sample at times.In the example shown,binarydatais detected useof a singlethreshold by located midwaybetween the normalpulseamplitudes. Two additionalthresholds includedto detectthe are presence pulses of with abnormal amplitudes. Sample valuesfalling into the central decision regiona.re necessarily enors,but a high pseudo-error is a good not data rate indication thatthechannel not performing is properly. In a random(Gaussian) noiseenvironment occuffence of pseudo*effors the rate is directlyrelated theactual to errorrate.Figure 4.30shows Gaussian a noise distribution anddecision thresholds chosen produce to pseudo-errors I 00timesa 10-6 at errorrate. Hencean attractivefeatureof this error ratemeasurement that it can measure is very low errorratesusingcomparatively shorttestintervals. Note,however, theerror that multiplication factoris dependent theerrorrate.Thetechnique estimating vsry on of a low error rateby extrapolatingfrom an artificially generated high error rate is sometimesreferred asa Q-factortechnique to (meanand the [34]. In essence, parameters variance) a Gaussian of distribution estimated easilyobtained are with mea$urements sothemuchlowererrorrates be estimated can from theparameters. technique This is particularly usefulin opticalfiber systems whereextremely errorratesareto be low determined otherwise that requireextremely longmeasurement times.

-1

-0.2 0 0'2

Figure 4.30 Pseudoerrordecision thresholdsfor error multiplication of 100.

4 . 5 P E R F O H M A N C E M O N I T O H I N G 203

ratesarenot is of detection that pseudo-elror A majordisaclvantage pseudo-error Channel disaccurately related actualerrorrateswhenthe noiseis non-Gaussian. to rateswhenthe actualerrorratesare cause high pseudo-error tortions,in particular, enorsdo not occurunless pulseamplitudes present, are small.Eventhoughabnormal high acnoisemightproduce thedistortion. theotherhand,impulse On noiseaddsto pseudoerror rates. tual errorrates relativelylow but is errorrates improvedwhen measured deduced and Thecorrespondence between pseudo-emor decision renarrower Unfortunately, threshold narrowed. is thedecision "error" rate multiplication gions are more difficult to implementand provide lower factors. 4.5.3 Framing Channel Errors of of in As described Section4.6.2.identification individualchannels a TDM data bits sffeamrequires overhead with a uniquedatapattemfor frameidentification.After bit occasional it terminalhas"locked" ontothe ftamingpattern, ignores a receiving (OOF)conditionwhenthe an theframingpattern declares out-of-frame but errorsin low Thusframingbit errorscanbeusedto determine errorrates erTorrt consistent. are loss indications subsequent of framand falseOOF that but not higherrorrates cause areusuallysohigh falseOOFindications to ing.Errorrates arehighenough cause that thatthelink is effectivelyout of service.

4.5.4 Performance Obiectives link of Themostbasicmeasure qualityof a digitaltransmission is its BER.If theerrors (i.e.,theyconformto a simplePoismanner and occurin a truly random independent Unthe BER completely specifies performance. sonprobabilitymodel),the average fortunately, elror rateobservations showthat ertorsoften occurin bursts,and [32] the in burstsaffectdifferentservices differentways,specifying qualityof a because datatraffic BER. For example, morethanjust the average link transmission requires no in is generallytransmitted blocksthat areretransmitted matterhow manyerror$occur in a block.Thus,a bursthaslittle moreeffectthana singlebit error.The rateof of of rekansmissions datablocksis morea functionof thefrequency theburststhan dehand,is increasingly BER. Voice traffic, on the other of the long-teflnaverage graded all bit errorswhether not theyoccurin bursts. or by to opcan that Channel errors occurin bursts alsobemuchmoredeleterious certain rate.A lossof error$at a similaraverage erations a networkthanaredistributed of timing Certain occurs moreoftenin a bursterrorenvironment.' framing,for example, by (pulse in 7 operarions stuffing)described Chapter arealsosimilarlyaffected bursts. (e.g., ercontinuous both outages Losses framingandtimesynchronization produce of
*Errors in a burst are not necessarily contiguous. They merely occur in a short time intewal at a rate that i$ too high to be rasonably explained as chance independent events.

204

DIGITALTRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

rors) in the associated haffic channels eveninadvertent or disconnects the condiif tionslasttoo long. parameter$ Commonperformance usedto characterize erTor ratesare: (EFS); Because blockstransmitred 64 kbpsrequire L Error-FreeSecond data at much less than a second,the percentage EFS essentiallyspecifiesthe of percentage time that the channel is available for data transmission of (Whentheblock transmissions muchshorter applications. are thana second. a shorter meA$urement intervalis moreappropriate.) 2. BurstErroredSecond (BES): An errored second with at least100errors. 3. Enored Secand (ES): A second with at leastoneerror. 4. Severely ErroredSecond (SES);A second with a BER grearer than(10)-3. 5. Degraded (DM): A minutewith a BER greater Minute than 10-6. Thelastthrceparameters defined ITU recommendation are in G.821for performance objectivesof a digitalnetwork. objectives a 27,5ff)-kmreference The for (implyconnection ing errorcontributions many$ources) ES< 87o, from are SES<0.ZVo,and <l\Vo. DM The availabilityof fiber optic transmission technology with extremely low error (e.g.,I errorin 1012 andhigherlevelcommunications rates bits) protocols rely on that very low errorrateshavecreated situation a wherethe very low errorratesarerelied on,eventhough theymightnotbeobtained metallicor radiosystems. discussed by As in chapter10,contemporary networks data transfer mode [framerelay,asynchronous (ATM), Internetprotocol(IP)l do not provideerrorcontrolat the datalink layerbut defertheproblemto a higherlevelprocess. 4.5.5 Forward Error Correction On ffansmission channels suchasdigital subscriber linesanddigitalradiolinks,relatively high errorratesaresometimes unavoidable. Whenreal-timeapplications like voiceor videoareinvolved, effects the ofchannelerrorscannot accommodated be by periodically addingredundant check-sum andrequesting bits retransmis$ion corof ruptedblocksof dataasis commonly donein manydatacommunications protocols. As mentioned the previous in particularly chapter, criticalbits of compressed digital mobilespeech redundantly are encoded with enough to permiterrorcorrection bits of some number bit errors. of Because basicprocess this does require not retransmission of data,it is knownasforwarderrorcorrection (FEC)t351. FEC involvesaddingredundant databits, like parity bits or CRC bits, but in sufficientquantityto enable errorcorrection instead ofjust error detection. Two basicformsof FEC areblock encoding convolutional and encoding. block enA coderattaches error correctionredundancy fixed-lengthblocks of data,which to implies the needfor establishing block framing to identify the fields of redundanr bits. A convolutional encoder, the otherhand,continuously on insertserrorcorrectionbits that arecontinuously processed the decodingcircuitry while recovby eringthe originaldata.

..5 PERFORMANCE MONITORING 205

Reed-SolomonCodes
Reedalgorithmshavebeendeveloped, Although a wide variety of block-coding datasymbols (RS)codingis themostpopularform. Whena blockof source Solomon is an of lengthM is inputto anRScoder, outputblock of lengthN symbols produced, - M is thenumber checksymbols An RScodewith these parameters is R. of where N code.An RS(N,ry - R) codecan referred asa RS(N,M) = RS(N,N - ,R) to commonly so a of In conect+R symbolerrors. mostcartes symbolconsists an 8-bit byteof data,* in a singlebyte areno worsethana singlebit enor. Digital video multiplebit errors (DVB) $y$tems RS(204,188) which means that asmanyas use codes, broadcasting andbe corrected. eightbytescanbe coffupted Exampte4.4. Determinethe probability of failure of an RS(204, 188) code with a bit errorprobabilityof 10-3'Assume in operating a randomerrorenvironment eachsymbolis an 8-bitbyte. the Solution. Because probabilityof multiplebit errorsin a singlebyteis small, the probabilityof a symbol error pr is very close to 8 x l0-3. Using p,, the probabilityof failure (theprobabilityof morethaneight symbolerrors),pp canbe determined as

-P,)'*' o,=EfI)'*'
I

zo4

=l-T
Lt r'4

f?-)"r'

-Pr)to*t

= 0.00005 GonvolutlonalCoding
Block diagramsof two basic convolutional encodersare shown in Figure 4.31. Both of theseencoder$are referred to as rate l/2 encodersbecausethe sourcedata rate is half the channel data rate. During each bit time of a sourcetwo output bits are generated.As illustrated in Figure 4.32, the constraint-zlength coder in Figure 4.314 outputs odd parity over bits A and B along with the value of B directly. In Figure 4.31b, odd parity acrossoverlapping fields (A, B, C and A, C) are generated.In the caseof odd parity over A, B, C an output value is a I if and only if an odd number of A, B, C are 1. An important considerationof a convolutional coder is the constraint length,wlich specifiesthe number of instancesthat a particular sourcebit getsmappedinto a chan*Reed*Solomon symbol in bits. codes are sometimes denoted as RS(N' N - R, B), wherc ,B designatesthe length of a

206

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

(o)

(b) Figure 4.31 Rate l/2 convolutional (a) encoders: sourceconstraint length 2; (b) source constraint length3. nel bit. In Figure 4.3la the length of the shift registersis 2 bits, which meansthat this coder has a sourceconstraint length of 2. Becausethe output clock is twice the input rate, the channel constraint length is 4. Similarly, the encoder shown in Figure 4.31b has a sourceconsffaint length of 3 and a channel constraint length of 6. Longer constraint lengths produce better performance. Because the encoder shown in Figure 4.31a has the shortestpossibly constraint length, it is not commonly used but is convenient for illustrating the basic operationofa convolutional decoder.Notice that each

Source data

01 11 0 1 1 0 11 00 01 1 1 -

F ,.. h
1 0 1
1

0 -{
I

Channeldata

Figure 432 Exampleinput and outputdatasequences convolutional for encoder Figure in 4.31b.

DIVISIoN MULTIPLEXING ?;O7 4.6 TIME

sourcebit in Figure 4.3la is mappedinto 3 channelbits. It is this redundancythat gets processedto recover the original data. Example 4.5. Determine the decoding logic to decode received data for the convolutional encoderof Figure 4.31a. Assume bit-by-bit decisionsare made on each received channelbit and only consider isolated channel errors. Solution. Two casesare possiblefor isolated channelerrors: an error in a sourcebit B or an error in a parity bit. If a sourcebit is receivedin error, two parity errors result. Thus, when two adjacent parity errors occur, the most likely scenario is that the implied databit needsto be inverted. If a single parity bit is receivedin error, the most likely scenariois that the parity bit is itselfin enor and no sourceerrorshave occurred. Thus, isolated parity error$are ignored. can Example 4.5 illustratesthat a convolutional encoder/decoder easily correct isolated channel errors-at the expenseof doubling the data rate. In contrastto the previous example and the normal implementation of an RS decoder, a convolutional decoder usually processe$the received signal with maximum-likelihood sequence (Viterbi) detectors[36]. In essence, sequence receivedsignal samplesis compared a of with the closestallowable sequence chosento to all possible channel input sequences benefits. Condetermine the sourcedata. The addedcomplexity provides signif,rcant straint Iength 7 convolutional coding, for example, provides better than 5 dB of improvement in error performance for a given SNR. Since a doubling of the necessary bandwidth (for rate l/2 coding) implies a relative noise increaseof 3 dB, a net gain of 2 dB is achieved- Notice further that a convolutional encoder can correct a much greater number of comrpted bits than can an RS code-as long as the comlpted bits are separated something greaterthan the channelconstraint length. Hence, convoby lutional coding is well suited to correct independentenors while RS codeswork well combinationsof the two codesare often in burst error environments.For thesereasons used. is Maximum-likelihood detection of convolutional code sequencert very similar to trellis-coded modulation (TCM) detection discussedin Chapter 6. The TCM discusthat involve the same basic processresion provides some example measurements quired for Viterbi detectionof convolution codes.

MULTIPLEXING 4.6 TIMEDIVISION and in FDMof digital signals possible is used some is special transmission Although
the means subdividing of TDM is by far themotitcolnmon economical and situations, whereFDM techniques facility. One application capacityof a digital transmission lines,where is havebeenusedfor digital signals on multidropdatacommunications of alongtheline. Most telephone the sources destinations thedataaredistributed and of however,involve clu$ters channels the form of trunk in network applications, wheresubgroupsbetweenswitchingoffices.In local digital access applications,

208

DrGrrAL TRANSMtsstoN AND MULTIpLEXtNe

scriberlocations distributed are throughout servicearea,channels sometimes a are addedanddropped a distributed on basis,but only with a limited numberof access pointsbecause maintenance reliabilityconsiderations.* of and Therearetwo basicmodesof operation TDM: thosethat repeatedly for assign a pofiionof thetransmission capacity eachsource those assign to and that capacity only asit is needed. first form of operation referred assynchronaus division The is to time multiplexing(STDM) whennecessary, distinguish from the "as-needed" to it mode of operation. Otherwise, TDM is generally understood imply the synchronous to variety.Theas-needed of TDM is variously form referred asasynchronous divito time sion multiplexing(ATDM), Asynchronous TransferMode (ATM), srarisrical time division multiplexing(Stat-Mux),or packetswitching.Circuit-switched telephone networksuse STDM, whereas datanetworkstypically use ATDM. Discussion of these lattertechniques deferred Chapter10. is to Thetermasynchronous alsousedin another is TDM contextto referto themultiplexingof multiple,independent tributarysignals into a singlehigherratesignal.In "asynchronous" this context, is totallyunrelated eitherasynchronous to transmission asdescribed thebeginning thischapter packetlike at of or multiplexingmentioned in the previous paragraph. this third contextasynchronous In refersto multiplexingof multipleunsynchronized tributaries a singlehigh-rate into serialstream. This chapter is concerned with multiplexing synchronized only of tributaries. TDM of unsynchronizedtributaries described Chapter is in 7. 4.6.1 Bit Interleaving Versus Word Interleaving Two differentstructures (synchronous) divisionmultiplexframesareshown of time in Figure4.33.In thefirst instance each channel assigned time slotcorresponding is a to a singlebit-hence the term bit interleaving. the second In instance eachchannel is assigned longertime slotcorresponding some a to largernumber bits,referred of to asa word-hence the tennword interleaving. Thedecision to whichstructure usein a particular as to application primarilydeis pendent the natureof the sources. T-carriersystems on [n produces eachchannel a complete 8-bit word at a time.Henceword interleaving desirable all bits canbe is so transmitted generated. as ln conffast, higherleveldigitalTDM multiplexers typicallyusebit interleaving of the lower level multiplexsignalssincethe lower level signals represent continuous, I-bit-at-a-time, streams. specific data The formats thehigherlevelmultiplexsignals of aredescribed Chapter whensynchronization bit streams considered. noin 7 of is One tableexception higherlevelbit interleaving theword-interleaved to is structure fiof ber-based SONETor SDH multiplexingdescribed Chapter in L
'The digital network has evolved with ever-increasinglevels ofmultiplexing creating serial bit streams with ever-increasing data rutes. The use of WDM on optical fiber systems represeflts a deparhrre from the single-streamparadigm stimulated by two factors: (l) it is impracticalto tansmit the ultrahigh speed serial channels and (2) separate wavelengths provide transparency for diverse applications.

4.6 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 1 Frame

209

f+
Bit intrlervlng I Freme

lilord intcrlearing

'

r'ffl =i L =P r=F r
2 3

TDM multiplexers, and of Figure 4.33 Bit interleaving word interleaving four-channel

4.6.2 Framlng
To identify individual time slots within a TDM frame, a receiving terminal uses a counter synchronizedto the frame format of the transmitter. Just as for synchronization of sampleclocks, a ceftain amount of hansmission overheadis required to establish and maintain frame synchronization.In fact, most of the techniquesusedfor frame synchronizationare directly analogousto clock synchronizationtechniquesdiscussed previously. Specifically, the basic meansof establishingframe synchronizationare; l. Added-digit framing 2. Added-channelframing 3. Unique line signal framing 4. Statistical framing The main considerationsin choosing a framing procedureare time required to esin tabli$h framing, effects of channel erTor$ maintaining frame synchronization,relabetween the line clock and sample clocks derived from the line clock, tionships transmissionoverhead,and complexity of the framing circuitry. The severiry of a loss of framing and the time required to reestablishsynchronization dependon the nature of the traffic. Since a loss of framing implies a loss of data on all channels,the mean time between misframes must be as long as possible' For voice traffic infrequent misframes can be tolerated if frame synchronization is rees"glitch" in the output speech' tablishedrapidly enoughto minimize the duration of the For data traffic the duration of reframe times is not as critical as the frequency of occurrence since most data communicationsprotocols initiate recovery proceduresand no retransmit a mes$age matter how many data bits are lost. A critical requirement for reframe time in the telephone network comes from the possibility that various in-channel control signals may be lost and interpreted as disconnects.Thus the maximum refiame time on a particular digital transmissionlink is often determinedfrom analognetwork signaling conventions.A loss of framing is also used as a performancemonitor for the transmissionlink and usually setsalatm condi-

210

DrcrrAL THAN$MrssroN MULTIpLEXtNc AND

tions, which in turn causeautomatic switching to spareterminals or transmissionfacilities. Generally speaking,terminals serving 6(X)or more channelsrequire automatic protection switching [37]. Out-of-frame conditions occur in two ways. First, the locally derived sampleclock may lose synchronization with the line clock and produce a slip in the counter sequence.Normally, the timing information in the line clock is sufficiently strongto prevent misframes of this type. An exception occurs on radio links when deep fades reducethe signal power to the point that clock synchronizationis impossible. Receiving terminals can also lose clock synchronizationthrough no fault of their own or of the transmissionlink. If the sourceclock at the transmitting terminal has too much jitter or generates abrupt phase shifts, receiving terminals may be unable to track the clock signal. Both phenomenaarerelatedto network synchronizationpractices,asdiscussedin Chapter 7. A second source of mi$frames is from channel errors creating false out-of-frame framing pattems. Thus considerableredundancyin the framing pattem is required to minimize the probability of false misframes.A loss of framing is determinedwhen the occurrenceof framing pattem violations exceedssome shoft-term density threshold. In all of the framing techniques discussedin the following paragraphs,special framing bits or codesare insertedinto the information skeam. Theseinsertionsdo not have to occur with each frame. lnstead, they can be sent only once for a predetermined number of information frames. In this manner the transmission overhead for framing can be reduced,which is particularly important in bit-interleaved systems.An individual information frame containedbetween framing indicators is sometimesreferred to arra "subftame,"

Added-DigitFramlng Onecommon technique framing digitalTDM information of a stream to periis

odically insert a framing bit with an identifiable data sequence. Usually the framing bit is addedonce for every frame and alternatesin value. This particular format is the procedureused to establish framing in the original Dl channel banks. When the Tl line carriesonly voice traffic, this framing format is pafiicularly useful since no information bits can sustainan alternating l, 0 pattem. (An alternatingpattern represents a 4-kHz signal component, which is rejected by the bandlimiting filter in the PCM codecs.) Framing is establishedin a receiving Dl channelbank by monitoring frrst one bit position within a 193-bit frame and then another, until the alternating pattern is located. With this framing strategy, the expected framing time from a random starting point with random data i$ derived in Appendix A as

I averagenumberof ) bitsto I I that I determine an I position I is linformation not a framingnositionJ I

MULTIPLEXING 21 1 4.6 TIMEDIVISION

= (+N) (2N+ l)
= M + |N bit times (4.10)

where Nis the number of bits in a frame including the framing bit. For D I channel banks, N = 193 so that the framing time is 37,346 bits, or 24. I 88 msec.Also of interest is the maximum framing time. Unfoftunately, fhere is no absolute maximum framing time for a Tl system with random data. It is very unlikely, however, that the framing time would ever exceedthe averagesearchtime fbr all bit positions, or 48.25 msec.This latter measureof framing time is refered to asthemaximum(werageframe time.It i$ the averagetime required to establishframing, but with before the the assumptionthat all bit positions must be testedfor the framing sequence actual framing bit is found. Obviously, the maximum averageframe time is twice the averagevalue from a random statting point defined in Equation 4. I 0. The framing time can be reducedby using more sophisticatedframe searchstrategies. One approach examines one bit at a time, as before, but during a reframe the searchbegins a few bit positions in front of the presentposition under the assumption that short lapsesof clock synchronizationcausesmall counter offsets. A secondapproach [38, 39] uses a parallel searchby monitoring all bit positions simultaneously when the for the framing pattern.With this framing procedure,framing is establi$hed last of the N* I information bit positions finally producesa framing pattern violation. The probability that all information bit positions produce a framing violation in n or less frames is derived in Appendix A as follows:

prob(frame time < n) = [ * (*f]t-t

(4.1l)

of 's of where is thenumber bits in a frameandtheprobability I i sj. UsingEquation N time < n) = i. 4. 11, we determine medianframingtime by settingprob(frame the Hence

n = -logzll- (+)r/(N-')l

{4.r2)

Setting N = 193 for the frame length of the Dl channel bank producesthe result that n = 8.1 frames, or approximately I msec. An even more sophisticatedframing strategyinvolves continually monitoring all bit positions, even while the system is synchronized.Then, when a misframe is deor tected,a new frame position is immediately established the frame searchtime is significantly reduced.Fufthermore, the continuous searchfor framing patternsprovides additional information for declaring an out-of-frame condition. (There is little point is discarding the presentframe position unless anotherbit position exhibits a more consistentfiaming pattern. )

212

DtctrAl TRANSMtsstoN AND MULTIpLEXINc

Theframingpatternof second-generation channel banks(D3, D4) from AT&T was from thealtemating 0 pattern establish longersequence identificachanged l, to a for previously, tion of signaling frames. mentioned As provideI bits these channel banfts of voicefor all time slotsexcept everysixthframe,whichuses leastsignificant in the PCM bit for signaling. signaling The channels derived dividedinto an A and thus are a B subchannel, implyingeachsubchannel sends bit in everytwelfth frame.Hence a a l2-bit framingsequence needed identifythesignaling andthetwo signaling is to bits subchannels. lZ-frame superframe (SF) structureand associated The framing sequence shownin Figure4.34. are Whendescribing processing framing$equence or the shownin Figure4.34,it is convenient divide the framingbits into two separate to sequences. During the odd framesthe framingbit altemates, while duringthe evenframesthe framingbit sequence Offi111000111000. is Figure4.34indicates theA signaling that framecanbe identifiedby a 0-to-l transition the even-numbered in framesequence. Conespondingly, a 1-to-0transition theeven-numbered in framesequence signifies B signaling a frame.Frameacquisition begins findingthealternating sequence by (with 385inbit terveningbits). Then,the 000111framing patternis located. Anotherframing sequence, (ESF),for DSI signals described Section extended superframe is in 4.6.3.

Added-Channel Frdmlng Added-channel framingis basically identical added-digit to framingexcept framthat ing digits areaddedin a groupsuchthat an exha channel established. is Hencethe
Framing bir

Freme no, 1 2 3 4
5 6

OFil-T] offi OFilTl Ftr-I 0FI*--*--T--*---] rlilTl lFI l--::] I-I -l f T--TI | I

1 2 0 Figure 4.34 Twelve-frame superframe sfucturc of DSI signalwith robbeddigit signaling, Framealignment signal(F) = l0l0l0; multiframealignment signal(M) = ffil ll0.

MULTIPLEXING 213 4.6 TIME DIVISION transmissionrate of individual channelsis integrally related to the line rate of the entire multiplex. The fact that the frame boundariesare identified by whole codewordsaddsconsiderableperformanceand flexibility to the framing process.First, framing can be established more rapidly since random 8-bit codewords are very unlikely to appear as f'raming codes. (See the problems at the end of the chapter.) Second,the larger code spacesimplifies identification of auxiliary functions such as superframeboundaries, parity bits, or equipment$tatus. most systemsthe addedchannelcontainsmore than In framing bits. The first-level digital multiplex signal of ITU (El) is an example of a system 32 framing. The El standardestablishes channelsper frame using added-channel with one channelproviding framing and one more channeldedicatedto signaling. channels.Figure 4.35 showsthe Thus, 30 of 32 channelsare availablefor message The frame alignment signal (FAS) is insertedinto frame structureof the El signal. the framing channel of every even-numbered frame and a I bit inserted into the secondbit position in every odd-numberedframe (to preclude FAS generationin those frames). The first bit of every FAS frame may carry a cyclic redundancy check (CRC-4) for additional frame alignment integrity and eruor rate monitoring. The remaining bits of the framing channel are used for CRC-4 alignment or alarm indications or re$ervedfbr other uses.(See ITU recommendationG.704 for more details.) The signaling channel ofFigure 4.35 depicts the use ofchannel-associatedsignaling (CAS), which implies that 4 bits per 16-frame multiframe are allocated to each messagechannel. The positions of the associatedsignaling channelsare determined with respectto the multiframe alignment signal (MAS). The 4 bits of each CAS signaling channel should never be 0000 to preclude inadvertent generation of the

Framing channel

Mesage channelr

Signsling ch6nn6l

Metcoge chennols

FramooTTEET-I Framer f'lil-T Framez fl- FAsT-l l

"' "' ...

lMAsTl f rTG-] I ,Tu-]

a

"' "' "'

l-] l-l |_*--l

,rPreclurion of FAS

FrEmB rb Ftame o

I trt [EsT--*]

-l

"' ...

| fi'T3t-l liifrHT-l

"' ...

T---l l-l

formatof ITU primarydigital signal(El). Figure 4.35 Channel

214

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIoN MULTIPLEXING AND

MAS. The use of thesebits is similar to the "bit-robbed" ABCD birs of the North American DS I signal.When common channelsignalingis carriedon an E1 link, the CAS channelsare replacedby a 64-kbps HDLC signaling link in time slot l6 of the El frame. The averageframe acquisition time of a multibit frame code is derived in Appendix Aas

Frame :#j.+ rime

(inbits)

(4.13)

whereN is the length of a frame including the frame code, /, is the length of the frame code,and it is assumed that I's and 0's are equally likely. From Figure 4.35 it can be seenthat for the El signal N = 512 and L = 7. Thus the averageframe time from a random starting point is determinedfrom Equation 4.13 as 0.5 msec.Again, the "maximum average"frame time is twice the averagefrom a random starting point, or I msec.Notice that theseframe times are much faster than DSI added-digit frame times becausea higher percentageof bits are allocatedto framing.

Unique Line CodeFramlng

Bipolar coding managesto shapethe spectrum(remove the dc component)of the line code by adding extra signal levels to provide more flexibility in selectingsignals.The sametechnique can be used to establishframe synchronization.In fact, with bipolar coding and added-digit framing, bipolar violations can be usedto identify the framing boundariesuniquely and rapidly. A particularly significant exampleof using line code violations for framing is the ISDN S/T basic rate interface describedin Chapter 11. Even without added-digit framing, unique line codescan be used to carry information while simultaneouslyconveying frame positioning. If the number of signal levels is doubled for the framing bit only, the extra levels provide sufficient code spacefor the information but uniquely identify that bit position as a frame boundary. This procedure does not necessarilyincreasethe effor rate, since for any particular bit (information or framing), half of the levels can be disallowed. The main advantageof using unique line codesfor framing is that the information bit positions cannot generateframing pattems. Hence framing is establishedas soon as a frame bit occurs, and misframes are detectedalmost immediately. The main disadvantages ofunique line codes are the added signal processingrequirements(if new levels are established just for framing) and the dependence the on transmissionterminals to locate framing. With the other framing techniquesdescribed in this section, the framing pattems are representedin the data of the bit stream. Hence the transmission equipment can be changed independently of the multiplex equipment. For additional information on framing techniquesand performanceanalysessee references[40] and [41].

4.6 TIMEDlvlsloNMULTIPLEXING 215

Statlstlcal Framing withinindividual of a transmisbits of framing relies thestatistics data on Statistical

to the of sionscheme. Assuming source thedatais known,it maybepossible ascertain and bit information suchaswhichbit is a mostsignificant (MSB) of a PCM codeword thereby recover byteframingwithoutan explicitframingbit of anytype.Obviously, applications. suchapplication One to thismethod framingis only applicable special of in is determining wordalignment ADPCM7-kHzaudio[42],asin ITU-T RecoiltmendationG.722. 4.6.3 DSI Extended Superframe telephone link, the operating When a Tl line is usedas an interofficetransmission and have access both endsof the line for maintenance performance to companies includeprotectionswitchingfacilities most installations monitoring.Furthermore, to thatcanalsobe usedto routinelytesta line while thetrffic normallyassigned that arises whena T1 line differentsituation to line.A significantly line is diverted a spare line networkor a$a leased in a to is used a customer access thepublic$witched by as created need the privatenetwork.The explosive of Tl linesin suchapplications use for The maintenance features T1 customers. ESFasprovidedin theD5 for enhanced features. bankprovides desired the channel monitoringof an needs noninfiusiveperformance is Foremost amongthecustomer serviceunit Tl end-to-end circuit. Monitoring bipolar violationsat the customer no (CSU)provides monitoringof thereceivesignalbut provides infornonintrusive marion regarding qualityof thesignalattheotherendof theline (whichterminates the involveintermeleased circuitsgenerally Tl Furthermore, at theprovider'sfacilities). Because interfaces the equipment. multiplexing, cross-connect and diatetransmission, has to the remove bipolarviolations, customer no access equipments of eachof these of facilities. Determination end-to-end intemalto theprovider's performance statistics requires takingat leasta portionof theTl in errorrateperformance this environment (for whichthereis usuallyno spare). circuitout of service pelformance monitoring in-service to end-to-end, ESF allowscu$tomefs achieve 2-kbpsframingchanDS of F by redefining 8-kbps bit of each I frameto consist a the representing checksum a CRC channel and nel, a 4-kbpsdatalink channel, a Z-kbps intactfromonecustomer is bits.Because CRCchannel carried the overall information CRC facility produce in channel enorsoccurring anyintermediate location another, to errorsat the far end. one numerou$ $ervices, of whichis theability to interrogate Thedatalink supports statistics. Thus the data for equipment, performance the far end,or any intermediate usefultool provider with anextremely provides boththecustomer theservice and link linesor equipment. for isolatingfaulty span are from reference As indicated Table4.8 obtained in [33], the threesubchannels "extending" D4 superframe 24 DSt frames. formatto encompass the established by thereare771 Because actualframingbits occuronly onceeveryfour DSI frames, the (FPS)00101 ' I sequence bits bits intervening between carryingthe framepattern

216

DrcrrAl THAN$MrssroN AND MULTIpLEXtNc

The6 CRCbits (CBI to CB6)of each extended superframe represenrCRCcheck a of all4608information in theprevious bits superframe.* providingend-to-end Besides performance monitoring, CRCvirtuallyprecludes chances falseframingon the the of a databit po$ition. Eventhoughstaticuserdatacaneasilysimulate FPS,it is exthe tremelyunlikelythatuserdatacanspuriously generate valid CRCcodes successive in (Six superframes. bitsof random datamatcha 6-bitcodewith a probability I in 64.) of The performance parameters measured reportedby the 4-kbpsdatalink (DL) and areframingbit errors, CRCerrors, (OOF)events, code(bipolar)vioout-of-frame line lations,andcontrolled events (described Chapter Individualevent$ reslip in 7). are portedaswell asevent$ummaries. four performance The summaries reported are: I. 2. 3. 4. (ESs)(ES= at leastoneCRC event) Enoredseconds (BSs)(BS= 2-3lg ESs) Burstyseconds Severely (SESs) (SES= >319ESsor OOFs) errored seconds (FSs) (l0consecutive Failed seconds SESs)

ESF CSUs typically determine the above parameterson 15-min intervals and store them for up to 24 hr for polling by a controller [43]. The sES report conforms to ITU recommendationG.821. In addition to suppofting remote interrogation of performance statistics,the data link carriesalarm information, loopback commands,and protection switching commands. In addition to the previously mentioned features,EsF introducesa new option for per-channel signaling via the robbed signaling bits in every sixth frame. Becausean ESF is 24 frames long, there are four signaling bits in every channel in every superframe as opposedto 2 bits in sF format (Figure 4.34). whereas the two signaling bits in the sF format are designatedas A and B bits, the four bits in the ESF caseare designated A, B, C, and D. Three signaling modes are defined: z-state where all bits are A bits, 4-state where the signaling bits are ABAB, and 16-sratewhere the signaling bits are ABCD. The SF format provides the first two signaling modes but not the last.

4.7 TIMEDIVISION MULTIPLEX LOOPS ANDRINGS

In Chapter 2 it is mentionedthat TDM is not a$amenableto applicationswith disrributed $ourcesand sinks of traffic as is FDM. In this section a particular form of a TDM network is describedthat is quite useful in interconnectingdiskibuted nodes.The basic structureof interestis referredto as a TDM loop or TDM ring and is shown in Figure 4.36. Basically, a TDM ring is configured as a seriesof unidirectional (two-wire) links arrangedto form a closed circuit or loop. Each node of the network is implemented with two f'undamentaloperationalfeature$.First, each node acts as a regenerativerepeater merely to recover,the incoming bit stream and retransmit it. Second,the net*Calculation ofthe CRC actually includes F bits that are setto I for purposesofCRC calculation only. Thus, charurel errors in the F bits do not create CRC errors (unless they occur in the CRC bits themselves).

MULTIPLEX LOOPS ANDHINGS 4.7 TIMEDIVISION

217

Figure 4.36 Time divisionmultiplexloop'

work nodesrecognize the TDM frame structure and communicateon the loop by removing and insefting datainto specific time slots assignedto eachnode. As indicated betweenany two nodesby in Figure 4.36, a full-duplex connectioncan be establi$hed a single time slot or channelfor a connection.One node insetts information assigning around the loop to the secondnode (all ininto the assignedtime slot that propagates data in the particular time slot). The destination tervening nodes merely repeat the node removes data as the assignedtime slot passesby and inserts return data in the proce$s.The retum data propagatesaround the loop to the original node where it is removed and replacedby new data, and so forth. Since other time slots are not involved with the particular connection shown, they are free to be useclfor other connection$involving arbitrary pairs of nodes. Hence a TDM Ioop with C time slots per frame can suppoft C simultaneousfull-duplex connections. to If, as channelsbecomeavailable,they arereassigned different pairs of nodes,the transmissionfacilities can be highly utilized with high concentrationfactors and provide low blocking probabilities betweenall nodes.Thus a fundamental attraction of a loop network is that the transmissioncapacity can be assigneddynamically to meet changing traffic patterns.In contrast, if a star network with a centralized swirching node is usedto intercorutectthe nodeswith four-wire links, many of the links to particular nodeswould be underutilized since they cannotbe sharedas in a loop configuration. Another feature of the loop-connectednetwork is the easewith which it can be reconfigured to accommodatenew nodes in the network. A new accessnode is merely inserted into the nearestlink of the network and the new node has complete connectivity to all other nodesby way of the TDM channels.In contrast,a $tarstructurednetwork requires transmission to the central node and expansion of the centralized switching facilities.

?18

DIGITAL TRANSMI$sIoN MULTIPLEXING AND

The ability to reassign channels arbiharypairsof nodes a TDM loop implies to in thattheloop is muchmorethana multiplexer. is, in fact,a distributed It tansmission andswitchingsystem. switching The capabilities comeaboutalmostasa by-product of TDM transmission. TDM loopsrepresent epitomeof integrated the transmission andswitching. TDM loopshavebeenusedwithin computer complexes providehigh capacity to andhigh interconnectivity processors, between memories, peripherals and The [,14]. loopstructure thisapplication sometimes in is moreatffactive thanmoreconventional bus structures sinceall transmission unidirectional is and thereforeavoidstiming problems bidirectional on buses limit theirphysical that length. Furthermore, more as nodes added a bus,theelectrical are to loadingincreases, causing limitationon the a numberof nodes that canbe connected a bus.Loops,on the otherhand,haveno to inherent limits of transmission lengthor numbers nodes. of The loop structure Figure4.36 is topologically of identicalto the token-passing ring developed IBM and standardized the IEEE asa 802.5local areanetwork. by by However,a token-passing operates ring differently than a TDM loop in that thereis only onechannel. when a nodeon a ring becomes active,it uses entirecapacity the of the outgoinglink until it is throughsending message. contrast, nodeon a its In a loopuses only specific time slotsin theTDM $tructure, allowingothernodes be sito "connected" multaneously usingothertime slots.[n essence,TDM loop is a distriba uted-circuit switchandan 802.5ring is a distributed-packet switch. A particularly attractive of a loopwith high-bandwidth use linksis shown Figure in 4.37. This figure illustrates use of add-dropmultiplexers the (ADMs) that access whatever bandwidth needed a local nodebut passthereston to othernodes. is at In fypicalapplications amount bandwidth the of allocated each to nodeis quasi-static: It is changed only in respon$e macroscopic to changes traffic patterns, in possiblyasa functionof thetimeof day.Thisbasicoperation genera-lly is referred asa cross-conto

Figure 4.37 Functional mesh, fiber loop,andADMs.

REFERENcES 219

link loop to circumvent failuresin TDM loops. Figure 4.3E Useof reverse nect function as opposedto a swirching function, which involves call-by-call reconfigurations. Both types of switching operationsare discussedin the next chapter.An important point to note about Figure 4.37 is the ability to utilize a general-purpose physical topology but define an arbitrary functional topology on top of it. One obvious limitation of a loop is its vulnerability to failures of any link or node. The effect of a node failure can be minimized by having bypasscapabilities included in each node. When bypassed,a node becomesmerely a regenerativerepeater,as on T-carrier transmissionlinks. Link failures can be circumventedby providing alternate facilities. Figure 4.38 showsone particular structureusing a second,reverse-direcflon loop to provide backup capabilitiesin the caseof failures. When fully operational,the network can use the reverse loop as a separate, independent network for traffic as needed.Whenever a failure occurs, the nodes adjacent to the break establish a new loop by connectingthe forward path to the reversepath at both places.Hence all nodes continue to have full connectivity to any node on the new loop' A particular example of the useof the dual reverseloop for both protection and disto tributed queuedaccess the channelsis the distributedqueueddual-bus(DQDB) [45] system developedby QPSX in Aushalia and standardizedby the IEEE as an 802.6 metropolitan area network. Further examples of loop structures and applications are provided in Chapter 8 where SOI.IET rings are discussed.

REFERENCE$
"A for F, deJager M. Christiaens, FastAutomatlcEqualizer DataLinks,"Pftillps and Technical Revielu, Vol. 36,1977,pp. 10-24. for 2 K. Azadet and C. J, Nicole, "Low-PowerEqualizerArchitectures High-Speed pp' e, 1998, I I 8- 126. Magaein October, Modems," IEEE Communicatinns "A for Repeater T4M"' IEEE 3 F. D. Waldhauer, Z-Level, 274 Mbls Regenerative renc C Intemational Communicationsonfe e, I 975,pp. 48-13-48- t 7. of 4 N. Karlovac and T. V. Blalock, "An Investigationof the Count RatePerformance I Washington, Symposium, paper presented theNuclearSciences at Baseline Restorers," DC.1974.

22O 5 6 7

DtctrAl TRANSMtsstoN MULIpLEXtNG AND F. D. Waldhauer, "Quantized Feedbackin an Experimental 280-Mb/s Digital Repeater for Coaxial Transmission," IEEE Trttnsacfionson Communications,Jan, 1974,pp, l-5. J. Salz, "Optimum Mean Square Decision Feedback Equalization," Bell System TechnicalJoumal, Oct. 1973,pp. l34l- I 373. J. M. Cioffi, W. L. Abbott, H. K. Thapar, C. M. Melas, and K. D, Fisher, "Adaptive Equalization in Magnetic-Disk Storage Channels," IEEE CommunicationsMagazine, Feb.1990,pp.15-29. S. Sugimoto, K. Hayashi, and F. Mano, "Design of ZBIQ Transceiver for ISDN SubscriberLoops," IEEE International Conferenceon Communications,Itrne 1989,pp. 8.1.1-8.1.5. M. R. Aaron, "PCM Transmission in the Exchange Plant," Bell SystemTethniml Joumal, Jan. 1962,pp. 99*141. Technical Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission Systems .for Communiuttion,r, Westem Electric Co., Winston Salem, NC, l97l , p. 668. "1.544 Mhps Digital Service," Bell System Technical Reference Publication No. 4l45l,May 1977. G. D, Forney, '"The Viterbi Algorithm," Praceedingsof IEEE, Mar. 1973,pp.268-2i8. V. l. Johannes,A. G. Kaim, and T. Walzman, "Bipolar Pulse Transmission with Zero Extraction," IEEE Transactions on Communications,Apr. 1969,pp. 303-310. "The D3 Channel Bank Compatibility Specification-lssue 3," Technica.lAdvisory No. 32, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Basking Ridge, NJ, Oct. lgj7. B. Johnstonand W. Johnston,"LD-4 A Digital Pioneer in Action," Telesis,Vol. 5, No. 3, June 1977,pp.66-72. J. H. Davis, 'T2: A 6.3 Mb/s Digital Repeatered Line," IEEE Inrernational ComrnunicationsConferenu, I 969, pp. 34-9-34- 16.

9 l0 ll 12 13 14 l5 16

17 RecommendationG.703, CCITT Orange Booft, Vol. 3, No. 2. 18 R. M. Wienski, "Evolution to ISDN within the Bell Operating Companies," IEEE CommunicationsMagafine, Jan. 1984, pp. 33-41. 19 American National Standard: Digital Hierarchy-Formats Specifications, ANSI Tl.l07-1988, Editorial RevisedApr. 1989. 20 J. M. Sipress,"A New Class of SelectedTernary Pulse Transmission Plans for Digital Transmission Lines," IEEE Transactions on Communitation Technology, Sept. 1965, pp. 366-372. 2l E. E. Schnegelberger and P. T. Griffiths, "48 PCM Channelson Tl Facilities," National Elettronics Conference, 1975, pp. 20 1-205, 22 P. A. Franaszek, "Sequence-StateCoding for Digital Transmission," Bell System Technical Journal, Dec, 1967, pp. 143-157. 23 J. O. Azaret, J. F. Graczyk, W. M. Hauser, and J, V. Mahala, "New Improved T-Canier 24 25 26 Doubles Capacity, Cuts Costs," BelI l-abs Rewrd, July 1985, pp. 26-31. J, W. Lechleider, "Line Codes for Digital Subscriber Lines," IEEE Communit:ations Magazine,Sept. 1989,pp.25*31. A. Lender, -'The Duobinary Technique for High Speed Data Transmission," IEEE Transactions Communication on Electronits, May 1963,pp.2l4-218. A. t ender, "Correlative Level Coding for Binary Data Transmission," IEEE Spectrum, Feb. 1960,pp. I 04- I I 0,

PFOBLEMS 221 "Partial Response on Signaling,"IEEE Transactions 21 P. Kabal and S. Pasupathy, pp. Sept. Communications, 1975, 921-934. "Multilevel Partial ResponseSignaling," 28 A. M, Genish and R. D. Howson, p' 1967, I 86. Communicafions Conference, International "Duobinary of Doubles Capacity Tl PCM System 29 D, W. JurlingandA. L, Pachynski, l9TT'pp.32.2-297-32-2-301. Facilities," IntemationalCommunicationsConferente, "An Efficient 96 PCM Channel Modemfor 2 GHz FM Radio,"National 30 T. Seaver, 197 t Conference, 8, pp. 38.4. -38'4'5' Telecommunications "special Joumal'Mar. 1984. BeIISystemTechnical Issue: IARDS," 3l of 32 M. B. Brilliant, "Observations Errors and Error Rateson Tl Digital Repeatered 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4l 42 pp' Joumal,Mar. 1978, 7ll*746. Lines," Bell SystemTechnical ..Carrier-to-Customer krstallation-DSl Metallic Interface," ANSI T1.403-1989, Institute. American NationalStandards Letters' |EEE PhotonhsTechnology F. N. S,Bergano, W. Kerfoot,andC. R. Davidson, pp. Vol, 5, 1993, 304-306. and Storage, S. B. Wicker, Error Control Sysferns Digital Communication for Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995. Prentice-Hall, Artech and Coding: Fundamentals Applications, L. H. CharlesI*e, Convolutional House. Norwood.MA. 1997. and in Eng,ineering Operations theBelI Laboratories, Technical Staff,Bell Telephone 1978. ElectricCo.,Indianapolis, System, Western "RobustFrameSynchronization Noisy for D. E. Dodds,L, R, Button,andS.-M.Pan, pp. May IEEE Transactions Communicatians, 1985, 465-469. on PCM Systems," "Statistical Distribution PCM Framing of D. E. Dodds,S.-M.Pan,andA. G. Wacker, pp' Nov. on Times,"IEEE Transactions Communications, 1988, 1236-'1241. Techniques,*IEEE Transacfionson R. A. Scholtz, "Frame Synchronization pp' Aug. Communications, 1980, 1204-1212"On FrameSynchronization of D. T. R. Munhoz.J. R. B, deMarca,andD. S, Arantes, Aug. on IEEE Transactions Communicarions, 1980'pp' 1213-1218. PCM Systems,* "Apparatusand Methodsfor RecoveringAlignment M. Andersonand O. Petruclrka, Sept' U.S.PatentNo.4,955'037' Multi-bit Digital Signal," Encoded from a Non-Ideally 4. 1990. K. Stauffer and A. Brajkovic, "DS-l ExtendedsuperframeFormat and Related pp' Magazine,Apt. 1989, 19-23' IEEE Communications Performance Issues,"

43 44

GeneralDescription,Radio company ReportNo, 523-0561697-20173R, C-System Dallas,TX, May I, 1970. CollinsRadioCompany, "New hoposal Extends Reach Metro Area Nets,"Data Communicuriorls, Feb. of the 45 pp, 1988, 139-145.

PHOBLEMS
4.1 If the transmitter and receiver of an asynchronoustransmission system utilize clock sourcesthat are accurateto one part in 103,determinethe maximum number of bits in a codeword if the maximum sampletiming enor is 207oof a pulse

222

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIONMULTIPLEXING AND

interval. Assume the sampleclock is eight times the bit rate and that the stalt bit is determinedby counting four sampletimes from the beginning of the start bit. 4.2 Using the symbols +, 0, and - to representa positive pulse, no pulse, and a negative pulse, respectively, determinethe following line code $equences the biof nary data sequence

0l l0 r0000t0001 100000001 0 (a) Bipolarwith mostrecent pulsebeingpositive (b) Bipolarwith mostrecent pulsebeingnegative (c) Pairselected temarybeginning thenegative in mode (d) B3ZSwith a +0+ substitution havingjust beenmade (e) 8625 with themostrecent pulsebeingpositive 4.3 Assume that two identicalcablesystems usedfor digital transmission are with equalpulseamplitudes. system One uses conventional bipolarsignaling the and otheruses PST.comparethecrosstalk levelsof thetwo $ystems. (Assume that l's and0's areequally probable.) 4.4 A digitaltransmission system operating anerrorrateof 10-6is to haveits data at rateincreased 50Vo. by Assuming the same that poweris to be used transmitted in the second system, whatis thenewerrorrate? 4.5 Whatis theaverage reframe time of a D3 channel bank(usingSFframing)from point?What is the maximumaverage a randomstarting reframetime of a D3 chalnelbank?(Assume and0's in theme$sage I's traffic areequallylikely.) 4.6 Repeat hoblem 4.5 for theprimaryTDM multiplexsignalspecified CCITT. by 4,7 A TDM systemoperating 2 Mbps is to havea maximumaverage at reframe time of 20 msec. What is themaximumpossible framelengthif framingis established with a bit-by-bitframesearch? (Assume that I's and0's in message channels equallylikely.) are 4.8 A Tl transmission system usinga Dl frameformatis to haveanaverage reframe time (from a randomstarting point) of l0 msec. How largea block of bit positionsmustbe examined parallelto achieve desired in the result? 4.9 what is theexpected framingtimefor a Tl line (D3 frameformar)if theframing strategy bit by bit andthedatasheam 60% I's and40Vo is has O's? 4.10 What is the average pulsedensityof 4B3T coding(Assume and0's are I's equallylikely.) 4.11 A TDM transmission using4B3T codingcantransmit 64-kbps link 32 voice channels usingthe samesymbolrateas a Tl line (1544kbps).Assuming a fixed Gaussian noise environment, how much must the average transmit powerof the 4B3T system increased providethe equivalent be to errorrate of a bipolarcode? 4.12 Assume crosstalk that interference a multipaircablesystem in produces effect an equivalent Gaussian to noiseat anequalpowerlevel.Usinganerrorrateof 10-6 asa design objective, determine effective the degradation thecrosstalk biof on nary$olar) NRZ codingunder each thefollowingconditions. of (Theeffective

PROBLEMS

2?3

power,in decibels, required as transmit is degradation determined theincreased rate.) the error to achieve desired signallevel,but thecrosstalk (a) Thecrosstalk level is I 6 dB belowthe average pair (i.e.,all otherpairs$tayat a powerlevel is to be overcome only one on for 10-6BER with no crosstalk). of signallevel,but theeffects (b) Thecrosstalk levelis 16dB belowtheaverage (Flfnt:Use signal-power-toon the crosstalk to be overcome all pairs' are noise-power ratios,not E/N^0.) 4.12for bipolarcoding. 4.13 Repeat Problem of degrade errorrateperformance a pothe 4-14 How muchdoes-1 8 dB of crosstalk are (Assume transmitters at that all Iar binaryNRZ signalfor a BER of l0-7? what per decade frequency, in 15 If increases dB equalpowerlevels.) crosstalk data level of a four-levelNRZ codecarryingthe same is the relativecrosstalk compared penalty thefour-level of system rate? Whatis theoverallperformance to thetwo-levelsystem? from temarysymof 4.15 How manydistinctcodewords length4 canbe constructed containan equalnumberof positiveand codewords bols?How manyof these to a can pulses? How manycodewords beused ensure minimumof one negative in timing pulseoccurs eachcodeword? binarydata to of codewords length8 be constructed encode 4.16 Cana setof ternary of equalnumbers posiper four pulses 8-bit word andcontaining usingexactly pulses? tive andnegative determine levels, +1, 4.17 Giventheinput$equence -3, +1, -1, +3, +3, -3 of signal encodof thefollowingcorrelative of thesequence outputsignallevelsfor each ings. (a)l+Dencoder (b)1-Dencoder (c) I -.d encoder 4.18 Whatis theprobabilityof a CRCerrorin a DSI signalwith ESFframingif the BER is 10-7? random in burstof errors an lengthof a correctable 4.19 Whatis theminimumandmaximum RS(204, 188)codewhereeachsymbolis an 8-bitbyte? in the 4.20 Determine probabilityof failureof anRS(7,2) codeoperating a randomeachsymbolis with a bit errorprobabilityof lQa. Assume errorenvironment an 8-bitbyte. in 4.21 Determine probabilityof failure of an RS(31,15) codeoperating a ranthe symbol each probability l0-3.Assume of with environment abit error dom-error is an 8-bit byte. length the 4.22 Determine parity error patternthat resultsin a bit-by-bit constraint in (B) bitsin a row arecomrpted detected and if decoder two data convolutional for bits errorbut no otherreceived arein error.Usethe following bit sequence databit andB 1and82 arein enor.POB0, where is thefirst received P0 reference,
P181,P282, P383.

SWITCHING DIGITAL
'"' t' ''

*ltransmisrion network(terminals, in Of thethree basicelements a communications the yet are switches the mostinvisibleto theusers represent most dia, andswitches), in As offerings. mentioned Chapter service in impoftantelements termsof available controlswitching in was l, a majorr.nilestone established 1965whenstored-program control network.Stored-program into wasfirst introduced the U.S. publictelephone and userservices for greatly manyinnovative provides means implementing for the and simplifyingswitchadminishation maintenance. of to The useof computers controlthe switchingfunctions a centraloffice led to "electronic"switching the designation [e.g.,electronicswitchingsy$tem(ESS)or (EAX)]. However,the switchingmatricesof these exchange electronicautomatic The in electromechanicalnature. first are electronic switches actually first-generation whendigitalswitchin in o.cqrned France 1971, switchingmatrices useof electronic Ironically,thesefirst digital switches ing wasappliedto an endoffice envfriinment. werefirst inswitching matrices Digitalelectronic control. did notusestored-program into the U.S. public networkin 1976with AT&T's No. a EsS-digitaltoll troduced switch. in began be installed the UnitedStates, to In thelate 1970s digitalclass5 switches At switches. thattime for as mo$tlyin smallerend,offices replacements step-by-step controlfrom had switchingofficesalready stored-program mostmajor_ mettoi_oJif4n Because digitaltoll andendoffice switching the No. I ESSor No. I EAX machines. environments, transmission analog in wereinitially installed predominantly machines The no their digitalmatrix provided directbenefitto networkcustomers. motivation lowermain-companies: costsfor the operating wa$ for the digitalmachines reduced costs and floor space, simplifiedexpansion, lower manufabturing tenance, reduced
By the mid-1980s the interoffice hansmission environment had changedto be almost exclusively digital. Thus analog-to-digital conversion costs moved from being associatedwith digital transmission links to being associatedwith analog switches, thereby further sealing the fate of analog toll or tandem switching technology. At this swing to a digital entime frame, end office ffansmissionenvironmentsalso begantJqe vironment. Interoffice trunks were alreadydigital, digital loop barrier systemsbecame

tu.

226

DIGITALSWITCHING

cost effective in metropolitan applications, remotely conmolled switching modules with digital fiber interconnectbecamecommon for service to outlying communities, digital cross-connectsystem$(DCSs) were being deployed, and the feeder portion of the subscriberloop plant beganto use fiber. The cost penaltiesof interfacing to a digital transmissionenvironment and higher maintenancecosts led to the older electromechanicalclass 5 switches being replaced by digital machineswhen expansionor consolidationof an office occurued. The ability to offer ISDN services was a lessermotivation for changing to digital switches becauselow-cost fiber transmissionin conjunction with DCS sy$temsallows provisioning of these servicesfrom other offices. This chapterdescribesthe basic operation and implementation of digital tifiie division switching as applied to PBXs, end offices, toll switche$,and crossconnects.Be' fbre digital switching is discussed,certain basic switching conceptsand terminology are introduced.

5.1 SWITCHINGFUNCTIONS
Obviously, the basic function of any switch is to set up and releaseconnectionsbetween transmissionchannelson an "as-neededbasis," The structureand operation of a switch dependon particular applications.Three switching categoriesfor voice circuits are local (line-to-line) switching, transit (tandem) switching, and call distribution. The most common switching function involves direct connectionsbetween subscriber loops at an end office or between station loops at a pBX. These connections inherently require setting up a path through the switch fiom the originating loop to a specific terminating loop. Each loop must be accessible every other loop. This level to of switching is sometimesreferred to as line switching. Transit connectionsrequire sening up a path from a specific incoming (originating) line to an outgoing line or trunk group. Normally, more than one outgoing circuit is acceptable.For example, a connection to an interoffice trunk group can use any one of the channelsin the group. Hence transit switching sffucturescan be simplified becausealternatives exist as to which outgoing line is selected.Furthermore, it is not even neces$ary that every outgoing line be accessible from every incoming line. Transit switching functions are required by all switching machines in the telephone network. Some machines such as remote concentrators and toll or tandem switches serviceonly hansit traffic (e.g., do not provide local connections).Theseconceptsare illustratedin Figure 5. l. call distributors are often implemented with the samebasic equipment as pBXs. The mode of operation (software) is significantly different, however, in that incoming calls can be routed to any available attendant.Normally, the software of an automatic call distributor (ACD) is designedto evenly distribute the arriving calls among rhe artendants.Although it is not an inherent requirement that every incoming line (trunk) be connectableto every attendant,call distributors are normally designedto provide accessibility to all attendants.Furthermore, it is often desirablethat nonblocking op-

l\

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACFDIVISION

227

examples. Figure 5.1 Local andtransitftaffic switching erations be provided. (No matter what switch paths are in use, a new requestcan be servicedby any available attendant.)

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE DIVISION as is arrayof crosspoints, structure a rectangular switching the Conceptually, simplest any to matrixcanbeused connect oneof Ninlets This switching in shown Figure5.2. only to ate If to anyoneof M outlets. theinletsandoutlets connected two-wirecircuits, is per connection required'* onecrosspoint (transit) connecto EIIrays designed provideintergroup ale Rectangular crosspoint for aninlet groupto anoutletgroup.Applications thistypeof tionsonly,thatis, from occurin thefollowing: an operation concentrators 1. Remote 2. Call distributors 3. Portionof a PBX or endoffice switch that provides transit switching switches in 4. Singlestages multiple-stage that it applications, is not necessary theinletsbe connectable In mostof theforegoing in savings considerable of involvinglargegroups outlets, to everyoutlet.In situations of only if inlet canaccess a limitednumber outbeachieved each can totalcrosspoints "limited availability"is saidto exist.By overlapoccurs, lets.Whensucha situation a called"grading" inlet groups, technique for outletgroups various pingtheavailable in matrixis shown Figure5.3.Notice switching An of is established. example a graded
*ln

fact, two (and sometimes thrce) switching contacts are associated with each ctosspoint of a two-wire switoh, Since these contacts are pa-rtof a single unit and opetate in unison, they are considered a single crosspoint.

228

DIGITALSWITCHING

,y Ourlerr Figure 5.2 Rectangular crosspoint alray. that if outlet connectionsare judiciously chosen,the adverseeffect of limited availability is minimized. For example, if inlets I and I in Figure 5.3 requesta connection to the outlet group, outlets I and 3 should be choseninsteadofoutlets I and 4 to avoid future blocking for inlet 2. Graded switching structure$were often used for accessto large trunk groups in electromechanicalswitches where crosspointrr were expensiveand individual switching modules were limited in size. Gradings were also used in individual switching stages large multiple-stageswitcheswhere more than one path to any particular outof let exists. Becausevery large digital matrices can be implemented with full accessibility, graded switch structuresare no longer necessaly. Intragroup switching, as in line-to'line switching, requireseach line to be connectable to every other line. Thus full availability from all inlets ro all outlets of rhe switching matrix is required.Figure 5.4 showstwo matrix structuresthat can be usedto fully interconnect two-wire lines. The dashedlines indicate that coffesponding inlets and outlets of two-wire switching matricesare actually connectedtogetherto provide bidirectional transmissionon two-wire circuits. For purposesof describingswitching matrices, however, it is convenient to consider the inlets and ouflets of two-wire switching matrices as being distinct.

2 3

{
lnlCli _ E

6 I I

r
Figure 5.3

Outlctr Graded rectangular switching matrix.

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACEDIVISION

?,29

Inlrtil out|.t

(t)

ft)

(folded)' (b) (a) swirching matrices: square; triangular Figure5.4 Two-wire a by to in Both structures Figure5.4allow anyconnection beestablished selecting matrix, mahix,whichis alsocalledatwo-sided the However, square singlecrosspoint. if in to connection be established two ways'For example, input allowsanyparticular can crosspoint be at theintersection to link i is to beconnected input linkj, the selected of of inlet i andoutletj-or at the intersection inlet j andoutlet i. For simplicity these In to arereferred as(f,i) and(J, i), respectively. a typicalimplementation, crosspoints (j' service, crosspoint i) is usedwhen and (i,7) crosspoint is usedwheninputi requests service. inputj reque$ts The crosspoints eliminated. are In the triangularmatrix of Figure5.4 theredundant Beforesetting however. doesnot comewithoutcomplications, crosspoint reduction switchinput i andswirchinputi, the switchcontrolelement between up a connection (i,i) is selected' i is If which is larger:dorj. If i is larger,crosspoint mustdetermine swirching,the (.7,i) must be selected. With computer*controlled smaller,crosspoint conholled line number comparisonis trivial. In the older, electromechanically complexityof the swirchcontrolis moresignificant. the added switches, however,

Inlorr i

i
N

3
Outlrtt

'

Flgure 5.5 Four-wire switchingmatrix'

230

DIGITALSWITCHING

Switching machinesfor four-wire circuits require separateconnection$for the go and return branchesof a circuit. Thus two separateconnection$must be established for each service request.Figure 5.5 depicts a square-matrixstructureused to provide both connections.The structure is identical to the squarematrix shown in Figure 5.4 for two-wire switching. The difference,however, is that correspondinginlets and outlets are not connectedto a common two-wire input. All of the inlets of the four-wire switch are connectedto the wire pair carrying the incoming direction of transmission, and all of the outlets are connectedto the outgoing pairs. When setting up a connection betweenfour-wire circuits i andj, the matrix in Figure 5.5 must selectboth crosspoints (i, j) and (j, f). In actualoperationthesetwo crosspointsmay be selectedin unison and implemented as a common module.

5.2.1 Multlple.$tage Swltching In theswitching $tructures described thispoint, inletis connected to an directly an to
outlet through a single crosspoint. (Four-wire switches use two crosspointsper connection, but only one for an inlet-to-outlet corurection.)For this reason,theseswitching structuresare referred to as "single-stage" switches. Single-stageswitches have the property that each individual crosspointcan only be used to interconnectone particular inlet-outlet pair. since the number of inlet-outlet pairs is equal to N(N - lyz for a triangular array, and N(N - l) for a $quare array, the number of crosspoints required for a large switch is prohibitive. Furthermore,the large number of crosspoints on eachinlet and outlet line imply a large amount of capacitiveloading on the message paths. Another fundamental defrciency of $ingle-stageswitches is that one specific crosspoint is neededfor each specific connection. Ifthat crosspoint fails, the associated connection cannot be e$tablished.(An exception is the square,two-wire switch that has a redundant crosspoint for each potential connection. Before the redundant crosspointcould be usedas an alternatepath, however, the inlet-oriented selectionalgorithm would have to be modified to admit outlet-oriented selection.) Analysis of a large single-stageswitch revealsthat the crosspointsare very inefficiently utilized. Only one crosspointin eachrow or column of a squareswitch is ever in use, even if all lines are active. To increasethe utilization efficiency of the crosspoints, and thereby reduce the total number, it is necessarythat any par-ticularcrosspoint be usablefor more than one potential connection.If crosspointsare to be shared, however, it is also necessarythat more than one path be available for any potential connection so that blocking does not occur. The alternatepaths serve to eliminate or reduce blocking and also to provide protection againstfailures. The sharing ofcrosspoints for potential paths through the switch is accomplished by multiple-stage switching. A block diagram of one particular form of a multiple-stageswitch is shown in Figure 5.6. The switch of Figure 5.6 is a three-stage switch in which the inlets and outlets are partitioned into subgroupsofNinlets and Noutlets each.The inlets ofeach subgroup are serviced by a rectangular array of crosspoints.The inlet arrays (first stage) are n x ft arays, where each of the ft outputs is connectedto one of the ft cenrer*smge ar-

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE DIVISION

231

M rt!il

maffix. switching Figure5.6 Three-stage of consists The are connections oftencalledjunctors. third stage rays.Theinterstage arrayto the from eachcenter-stage artaysthat provide corxrections ft x n rectangular arrayswe N/n x N/n arraysthat provideconnecgroupsof n outlets,All center-stage any first-stagealray to any third-stagearray.Notice that if all affaysprotions from pathsthroughthe switchfor anyparticular vide full availability,thereareft possible centerEachof the ft pathsutilizesa separate inletsandoutlets. between connection Thus the multiple-stagestructureprovides altematepathsthrough the stagearray. to link is connected sinceeachswitching Furthermore, failures. swit"6 to circumvent loadingis minimized' capacitive crosspoints, of a limited number switch, as shownin N1E The total numberof crosspoints requiredby a three-stage Figure5.6,is

Nx=2Nft.-[#l
of whereN = number inlets-outlets n= sizeofeachinlet-outletgroup arrays ft = numberof center-stage

(s.1)

5. in defined Equation I can of the $hortly, number crosspoints As is demonstrated requiredfor single-stage be significantlylower than the number of crosspoints are arrays needed how we First.however. mustdetermine manycenter-stage switches. service. to provide satisfactory

232

DIGITAL SWITCHING

Nonblocklng Switches Oneattractive feature a single-stage of switchis thatit is strictlynonblocking. the If calledpartyis idle, thedesired connection alwaysbe established selecting can by the particular crosspoint dedicated the particular to input*outputpair.Whencrosspoints are shared, however, possibilityof blockingarises. 1953charlesclos [2] of the In Bell Laboratories published analysis three-stage an of switchingnetworksshowing how manycenter-$tage arraysarerequiredto providea strictly nonblockingoperation. His resultdemonstrated if each that individualarrayis nonblocking, if thenumber and of center stages is equalto 2n -I, theswitchis strictlynonblocking. ft Theconditionfor a nonblocking operation be derived first observing a can by that connection throughthe three-stage switchrequireslocatinga center-stage arraywith ar idle link from the appropriate firsr $tageand an idle link ro the appropriate third stage. sincetheindividualarays themselves nonblocking, desired are the pathcanbe rtetup any time a centerstage with the appropriate links canbe located. key idle A point in the derivation to observe sinceeachfirst-stage is that arrayhasn inlets,only n - I of these inletscanbebusywhentheinletcorresponding thedesired to connection is idle. If ft is geater thann - l, it follows that,at most,n - I links to cenrer-srage irrray$ be busy.Similarly,at mostn - I links to theappropriate can third-stage array canbe busyif theoutletof the desired connection idle. is The worst-case situation blockingoccurs(asshownin Figure5.7) it alln - r for busylinksfrom thefirst-stage arrayleadto onesetofcenter-stage arays andifall n I busylinks to the desiredthfud-stage Errray comefrom a separate of center-stage set arrays. Thusthese two setsofcenter-stnge arrays unavailable thedesired are for connection. However, onemorecenter-stage exists, appropriate if array the inputandoutputlinksmustbeidle,andthatcenter stage beused setup theconnection. can to Hence if k=(n * 1) + (n - l) + 1 =2n- 1,theswitchissrictlynonblocking. substituting

t l l r L--J
ArnlhblG pffh

Flgure 5.7 Nonblocking three-srage switching matrix.

DIVISION SWITCHING ?33 5.2 SPACE

this value of t into Equation 5.1 reveals that for a strictly nonblocking operation of a three-staseswitch

Nx=2N(2n-

t)+(2n-t,[rOI

(5.21

threein 5.2,the numberof crosspoints a nonblocking in As expressed Equation into are andoutlets partitioned subgroups on stage swiichis dependent how theinlets to 5.? Equation with respect n andsettingtheresultingexof iize n. Differentiating revealthat (for largeM) the optimum the pression equalto 0 to determine minimum an 5.2 this Substituting valueof n into Equation thenprovides valueof n is (N/z)Ltz. of crosspoints a nonblockingthree-stage for expression the minimum numberof switch:

N*(min)=4N({2N - l)

(s.3)

of whereN = total number inlets-outlets. threenonblocking of Table5.1 providesa tabulation Nx(min) for various-sized in of thenumber crosspoints a single-stage to the switcheiandcompares values stage a providefour-wirecapabilities, inherently *qu*" matrix.Both switchingstructure$ impliesfour-wirecircuits. digitization voice because for requirement digital switches reswitchingmatrix providessignificant in As indicated Table5.l, a three-stage of the However, number crossfor particularly largeswitches. in ductions crosspoints, typically Largeswitches is switches still quiteprohibitive. pointsfor largethree-stage For in crosspoints' example, reductions to o*" -o.* thanthreeStages providegreater lines' up matrixthatcanservice to 65,000 switching an theNo. 1 ESSuses eight-stage not areachieved somuchfrom numbers in reductions crosspoint Themostsignificant low acceptably probabilities but siages by allowingthe switchto introduce additional of blocking. Swltches of Requlrsments Nonblocklng TABLE 5.1 Croeepoint
Number Lines of 128 51? 2,048 8,192 32,768 131,072 fot of Number Crosspoints Switch Three-Stage
7,680 63,488 516,096 4,2 million 33 million ?68 million

for Number CrossPoints of Switch Single*Stage

16,2s6 261,632 4.2 million 67 million 1 billion 17 billion

234

DIGITAL SWIT0HING

5.2.2 Blocklng Probablilties: Lee Graphs Strictly nonblocking switches rarely needed most voice telephone are in networks. Both the switchingsystems thenumber circuitsin interofficetrunkgroups and of are sizedto service mostrequests theyoccur,but economics as dictates networkimthat plementations limitedcapacities areoccasionally have that exceeded duringpeak-traffic situations. Equipment the public telephone for networkis designed providea to cerlainmaximum probabilityof blockingfor thebusiest hourof theday.Thevalueof this blockingprobabilityis oneaspect the telephone of gradeof service. company's (other aspects grades service availability, of of are tran$mission quality,anddelayin 'tetting a call.) up A typical residential telephone busy 5,l0va of rhe time duringthe busyhour. is Business telephones oftenbusyfor a largerpercentage theirbusyhour (which are of may not coincidewith a residential busyhour).In eithercase, network-blocking occurrences the orderof l7o*duringthebusyhour do not represent significant on a reductionin the ability to communicate sincethe calledparty is muchmorelikely to havebeenbusy anyway.under thesecircumstances, office switches end and,to a lesser degree, PBXscanbe designed with significant reductions crosspoints alin by lowing acceptable blockingprobabilities. Therearea varietyof techniques canbe usedto evaluate blockingprobthat the ability of a switchingmatrix.These techniques vary according complexity-, to accuracy,andapplicabilityto differentnetworkstructures. of the mostversatile One and conceptually straightforward approaches calculatingblocking probabilitiesinof volvestheuseof probabilitygraphs proposed c. y. Lee [3]. Althoughthistechas by niquerequire$ several simpliffing approximations,canprovidereasonably it accurate results, particularly whencomparisons altemate of structures moreimportant are than absolute numbers. greatest The valueof this approach in theease formulation lies of andthefactthattheformulas directlyrelate theunderlying to networkstructures. Thus theformulations helpprovideinsightinto thenetwork$tructures how these and structuresmight be modified to change performance. the In thefollowing analyses aredetermining blockingprobabilities various we the of switchingrrtructure$ usingutilizationpercentages, ,,loadings," individuallinks. or of Thenotationpwill beused, general, represent fractionof timethataparticular in to the link is in use(i.e.,p is the probabilitythata link is busy).In additionro a utilizarion percentage loading,p is also sometimes or referredto as an occupancy. probThe ability thata link is idle is denotedby = | - p. q when any oneof n parallellinks canbe usedto complete connection, com* a the positeblockingprobabilityB is theprobabilityrhatall links arebusyt;
B=pn

(5.4)

'Transmission

and switching equipment in the public network is normally designedfor even lower blocking to provide for growth in the traffrc volume. .probabilities 'Equations 5.4 and 5.5 assumeeach link is busy or idle independently of other links.

swlrcHlNc 205 DlvlsloN s.z $PAoE the to of Whena series n links areall needed completea connection' blockingprobthattheyareall available: as ability is mosteasilydetermined I minustheprobability B=l-{

(5.s1

rein networkis shown Figure5.8.This graph A probabilitygraphof a three-stage with ft different pathsl can pafiiculaf connection be established latesthe fact that any link alray.Theprobabilitythat anypalticular interstage onetlrough eachcenter-stage networkcanbe for a three-stage by is busyis denoted p'. Theprobabilityof blocking as determined ff = = = = probability that all pathsarebusy (probabilitythat an arbitrarypathis busy)e (probability that at leastonelink in a pathis busy)ft (l-qa)k

(5.6)

alrays whereft = numberof center-stage link q'= probabilitythat aninterstage is idle, | - P'' If the probabilityp that an inlet is busy is known, the probabilityp' that an interas link is busycanbe determined stage

p,=fr tr<F)

(s.7)

of number inlets(or outthe 5.7 wherep = Mn.Equation presents factthatwhensome (or inputs)arealso outputs third-stage numberof first-stage Iets)arebusy,the same links asthereareinlets or = Vn times asmanyinterstage busy.However,thereare F by links thatarebusyis reduced thefactorp' of the Hence percentage intersgge outlets. implies that the first stageof the The factor p is defined as thoughft > n, which (i.e.,switchingsomenumberof input links to a expansion switchis providing$pace largernumberof outputlinks).Actually,p may be lessthan 1, implyingthatthefirst

P ' i e

Figure 5.8

Probability graph of three-stage network'

236

DtctrAL swtrcHtNc

stage concenffating incomingtraffic.First-stage is the concentration beenusedin has endoffice or largePBX switches wheretheinletsarelightly loaded (S_l}vo).In tan_ demor toll offices,however, incomingtrunksareheavilyutilized,andexpansion the is usuallyneeded provideadequately to low-blocking probabilities. substituting Equation into Equation provides complete 5.7 5.6 a expression the for blockingprobabilityof a three-stage switchin termsof the inlet utilizationp:

Table 5.2 tabulates numbers crosspoints of obtained from Equation5.g for the same switchsizes presented Table5.1.Thenumberof center in arrays waschosen in eachcase providea blockingprobabilityon theorderof 0.002.Theinlet urilization to in eachexample assumed be 107o. was to Noticethatthedesigns with smallbut finite blockingprobabilities significantly are morecosteffective thannonblocking designs. Theswirchdesigns Table5.2assume theinletsareonly l0zobusy,asmight in that be thecase anendoffice switchor a PBX. Thedramatic for savings crosspoints in for largeswitches achieved introducing is by significant concentration factors[yp; into the middle stage. when the inlet utilizationis higher(astypicallyoccursin tandem switches), high concentration factorsarenot acceptable, the crosspoint and requirementstherefore increase. Table5.3 lists corresponding crosspoint requirements and implementation paraffreters inlet loadingsof 'l\Vo. for The results presented Tables5.2 and5.3 indicatethat very largeswitches in still require prohibitively largenumbers crosspoints, whenblockingis allowed. of even As mentioned previously, very largeswitches morethanthreestages providefuruse to therreductions crosspoints. in Figure5.9shows ablockdiagram a five-stage of switch obtained replacing by everycenter-$tage in Figure5.6 with a three-stage array array. Thisparticular structure notoptimumin terms providinga givenlevelof performis of ancewith the fewestcrosspoints, it is a usefuldesignbecause its modularity. but of (Furthermore, is a lot easier analyze it to thansomeotherfive-stage sfucrures.) If themiddletlree stages a five-stage of swirchasshownin Figure5.9 arestrictly nonblocking = Znz- I ), thedesign (kz provides savings 9704crosspoints each a of in TABLE Three-Stage 5.2 Switch Deslgns Blocking for Probabititlee 0.002 Intet of and
Utlllzation of 0.1

'= ['-fii L' ]

I r

rz'1ft

(s.8)

Switch Size,N 't28 512 2,048 8,1S2 32,768 131,072

Number of Crosspoints I 16 32 64 128 256 5 7 10 15 24 41 0.625 0.438 0.313 0.234 0,188 0.160 2,560 14,336 81,920 491,520 3.1million 21.5 million

Number Crosspoints of in Nonblocking Design 7,680 63,488 516,0e6 4,2million 33 million 268million (k= 15) (k = 31) (k= 63) (k= 127) (,(= 255) (k = 511)

SWITCHING DIVISION 5.2 SPACE

237

of Switch Deslgnsfor Blocking Probabllltles 0.002end lnlet TABLEE.l Three-Stage of UtllltationB 0.7
Switch Size N

n I 16 32 64 128 256

k 14 22 37 64 11 6 215

B 1.75 1.38 1.16 1.0 0.91 0.84

Number of Crosspoints 7,168 45,056 303,104 2.1million million 15.2 1 1 3m i l l i o n

in of Number CrossPoints Design Nonblocking 7,680 63,488 516,096 4.2million 33 million 268million ( k =1 5 ) ( k= 3 1 ) (k = 63) (k = 127) (k = 255) ( k= 5 1 1 )

128 512 2,048 8,192 32,768 131,072

earlier' presented switch designs three-stage array of the 32,7681ine, center-stage switch tandem in are I million crosspoints saved the 32,768-line Hencea littl* one, blocking,theperformdo the middlestages not introduce of design Table5.3. Since design' of to switchis identical theperformance thethree-stage of ance thisfive-stage by couldbe obtained allowingsmgllamounts design Naturally,a morecost-effective The in of bloclcing themiddlestages. probabilitygraphof thefive+tageswitchis shown as graph, blockingprobabilityis determined follows: the Fromthis in Figure5-.10.

B = ll - (sr)z - (1- d)t']]r' [t

(s.e)

fl1 r 11

11 1il1

azx*z ffirr,,, ;frx

swirchingnetwork' Flgure 5.9 Five-stage

238

DIGITAL $WITCHING

rz=rrfir rfir

Ft

,-1/3-1i.15--\,^.

Pr

Flgure5.10 probability graph five_stage of network. where4r - | - h and, qr= I - Or. Even greatercrosspoint reductions can, of course,be achieved using more by stages replacethe ratherlarge first- and third-stageaffays.For example,the total to number crosspoints the 32,0001ine of in switchcanbereduced lessthan3 million. to The 130,000-line switchis not practicalwith electromechanical switchingmakices but is well within thecapabilities a digiraltime divisionswitch. of 5.2.3 Blocklng Probabiliiles: Jacobaeus Theformulations blockingprobabilityobtained of from probabilitygraphs enrailseveralsimplifyingassumptions. of these one assumptions involves expressing comthe positeblocking probability of the alternate pathsas the produci of the blocking probabilitiesof eachindividual path. This stepassumes the individual probthat abilitiesare independent. fact, the probabilities not independent, In are particutarty whensignificant amounts expansion present. of are Consider switching a matrixwith k=Zn - 1.Equation produces finite blockingprobability 5.8 a eventtrough switch the is knownto be strictlynonblocking. inaccuracy The results because when2n * z paths arebusy,theremaining pathis assumed be busywith a probabilityof I - (qjr. In to fact,theremaining pathis necessarily idle. In general, whenspace expansion exists, assumption the ofindependent individual probabilities leadsto an erroneously high valueof blocking.Ttrelnaccuracy results

DIVISION SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE

239

as because moreandmorepathsin a switcharefoundto be busy,the remainingpaths links canever ofn lessandlesslikely to be in use(only a subset ofthe interstage are at anyonetime). be busy was switchingmatrices preof but A moreaccurate not exactanalysis multistage stoaightforis 1950 C. Jacobaeus Althoughtheanalysis conceptually by sented in [4]. here. that of amount manipulation is notpresented involvea considerable ward,it does from reference as switchis obtained [5] for equation a three-stage Theresulting

u=ffipk(2-il,*
where n = number of inlets (outlets) per f,trst-(third-) stagearray IIIrays 11= number of second-stage pinletutilization

(s.10)

In the interest of comparing the two methods, Equations 5'6 and 5.10 have been switches with varying amount$of spaceexpansion.The reevaluatedfor three-stage for inlet utilization of 0.7 and are presentedin Table 5'4' sults were obtained are Table 5.4 revealsthat the two analyses in close agreementfor near-unity expanif p = l, the two formulations produce identical results' As exsion factors. In fact, pected,the Lee graph analysis (Bquation 5.8) producesoverly pessimisticvalues for the blocking probability when p > 1. Table 5.5 is included to demAs anothercomparisonbetweenthe two approaches, 5.8 and 5.10 for switches with significant amounts of onstrate the use of Equations concenfrationmade possible by a relatively low inlet utilization of 0.1. Table 5.5 reveals that a Lee graph analysis (Equation 5.8) consistently underestimates the blocking probability when concentration exists. Actually, the Jacobaeus analysis presentedin Equation 5.10 also underestimatesthe blocking probability if large concenhation factors and high blocking probabilities are used.When necessary, more accuratetechniquescan be used for systemswith high concentrationand high of TABLES.4 Comparison Blocking ProbabilityAnalyses(P= 0'7)" Number Center of k Stages, 14 16 20 24 2B 31D Expansion, Space F 0,875 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 1.94 Lee 5.8 Equation 0.548 0.221 0.014 3 . 2x 1 0 + 3 . 7x 1 0 4 8.5x 104
Jacobaeu$ 5.10 Equation

0.598 0.221 0.007 2 . 7x 1 0 + 7.7x 104 0 , 1x 1 0 - 1 2

aswitchsize N = 512; inletgroup8izn = 16i inletulilization = 0.7. p Di,,lonblocking.

240

DIGITAL SWITCHING

TABLE5.5 Comparison Blockingprobablllty of (p= Anatyses 0.1)" Number Center of Stages, k Space Expansion,

F
0.375 0.5 0.625 0.75 0.875 1.0

Lee Equation 5.8

0,0097 2 . 8x 1 0 4 4.9 x 10+ 5 . 7x 1 0 4 4.0 x 10-10 2 . 9x 1 0 * 1 2

Jacobaeus Equation 5.10

0.Q27 8 . 6x 1 0 + 1 . 5x 1 0 + 1 . 4x 1 0 - 7 7 . 8x 1 f l o 2.9 x 10-12

10 12 14 16

aswitchsize N = 512; inletgroup p siz6 n = 16; Inlrutilization = 0.1

blocking. However, switcheswith high blocking probabilities normally have no practical interest so they are not consideredhere. Usersof PBXs sometimesexperiencedhigh blocking probabilities, but blocking in thesecasesusually arisesfrom too few tie lines to other corporatelocations or too few trunk circuits to the public network. The subjectof blocking in trunk groups is heated in Chapter 12. up to this point, the blocking probability analyseshave assumedthat a specific inlet is to be connectedto a specific outlet. Also, it has been assumedthat the requests for service on the individual lines are independent.These assumptionsare generally valid for swirching one subscriberline to another in an end office switch or for connecting one station to another in a PBx. Neither of these assumptionsapply to connections to or from a fiunk group. when connectingto a trunk circuit, any circuit in a trunk group is acceptable. Thus the blocking probability to a specif,rc circuit is only as important as its significance in the overall blocking to the trunk group. The blocking probability to any particular circuit in a trunk group can be relatively large and still achievea low compositeblocking probability to the trunk group as a whole. If the blocking probabilities to the individual trunks are independent,the compositeblocking probability is the product of the individual probabilities. However, the paths to the individual trunk circuits normally involve {iome common links (e.g., the junctors from a first-stage array to all second-stage arrays). For this rea$on the individual blocking probabilities are normally dependent, which must be consideredin an accurateblocking probability analy-

sis.

As an extreme example, consider a casewhere all trunks in a trunk group are assigned to a single outlet array in a three-stageswitch. since the paths from any particular inlet to all trunks in the group are identical, the ability to selectany idle 61nk is useless.In practice, the individual circuits of a trunk group should be assignedto separate outlet arays. Another aspectof fiunk groups that must be consideredwhen designing a swirch or analyzing the blocking probabilities involves the interdependence activity on the of

DtvtstoN swlrcHlNc s.z sPAcE

241

individual circuits within a trunk group. In contrast to individual subscriberlines or PBX stations,individual circuits in a trunk group are not independentin terms of their probabilities of being busy or idle. lf some number of circuits in a trunk group are testedand found to be busy, the probability that the remaining circuits are busy is inis creased.The nature of these dependencies discussedmore fully in Chapter 12. At this point it is only necessaryto point out that these dependenciescause increased blocicingprobabilities if the individual ffunks are competing for common paths in the is switch. ,l,gain, the effect of thesedependencies minimized by assigningthe individinlet-outlet arraysso that independentpathsareinvolved in conual trunks to separate nections to and from the trunk group. This process is sometimes referred to as decorrelatingthe trunk circuits. One last aspectof the blocking probability as a gradeof serviceparameterthat must be mentionedinvolves variations in the loading of the network by individual users.In the design examplesfor an end office presentedearlier, it was tacitly assumedthat all are subscribersarebusy l07o of the time during a busy hour' In fact, some subscribers l07o are active much more than I 07oof the time, and other subscribers active lessthan presentmore than 0.1 erlangs* of the time. In terms of haffic theory, some subscribers of traffic to the network, whereasothers presentless' When a switch is partitioned into subgroups(as all Iarge switchesmust be) and the haffic is concentratedby first-stage switching alrays, a few overactive subscribers in one subgroup can significantly degrade service for the other subscribers in the subgroup. It does not matter that the subscribers in some other subgroup may be explriencing lower than averageblocking. Their essentiallynonblocking service is no compensation for those subscribers experiencing a relatively poor grade of service. Operatingcompanieshave traditionally solved the problem of overactivesubscribinlet groups to ersby specifically assigningthe most active lines (businesses) separate to the switctr. Sometimesthis procedurerequires making traffic measurements deof which lines are most active and reassigningtheselines to different palts of the termine switch. These proceduresfall into the general category of line administration. If the subgroupsare large enough, or ifthe designsprovide adequatemargin for overactive ure.s, thir aspectof line administration can be minimized. One feature of a digital switch that can be utilized in this regard is the ability to design economical switches with very low nominal blocking probabilities so that wide variations in traffic intensities can be accommodated. Even a modern digital switch can experienceloading problems when confronted with extreme traffic conditions. An Internet service provider (ISP) in a metropolitan area may atffact an extremely large amount of traffic that all passesthrough a single class 5 switch. Although the connectionsto the ISP are lines, as far as the switch is concerned,they actually representa trunk group with very heavy haffic, so much so that $pecialline adminishation is required.

*An A a is oftimethat device busy' circuit the specifying proporlion oftraffic intensity is erlang ameasure l0olo thetime. of if 0.1 is said carry erlang it is busy to

242

DIGITAL SWITCHING

5.2.4 Folded Four-Wire Switchee Multiple-stage switches be used eithertwo- or four-wireswitching can for operations. Figure5.ll depictsa four-wireconnection througha four-stage switch.Noticethat two paths mustbeestabli$hed thecomplete for connection. two-wireconnection A requiresonly onepathsinceeach outletis extemally connected its corresponding to inlet. Thetwo pathsshown Figure5.1I demonshateparticularly in a usefulrelationship; Onepathis a mirror imageof the otherpath.If the switchdiagramis folded aboutthe verticalcenter line,thepaths coincide. Hence method setting connections this of up is sometimes referredto as a folded operation.When all connections the switch are in setup with a foldedrelationship, several benefits result. Firstofall, only onepathfinding operation needed is sincethereverse pathis automaticallyavailable a mirror image theforwardpath.In essence, as of everycrosspoint on onesideis pairedwith another crosspoint a corresponding in arrayon theopposite sideof theswitch.Whenever crosspoint a pair is used a connection, other one of in the crosspoint thepair is alsoused. example, third inlet arrayin the first stage in For the uses (6,4) to connect sixthinlet to its fourthoutlet(leading thefourth crosspoint its to artay of the secondstage).The corresponding crosspointin the third outlet array of thelaststage connects fourth inlet (comingfrom thefourth arrayin thefour-th its stage) to its sixth outlet.[n general, crosspoint in onearrayis pairedwith crosspointj,I f,7 in the conesponding arrayon the opposite sideof a switch.Sincethe availabilityof onecrosspoint a pair ensures availabilityofthe other,therever$e in the pathis automaticallyspecified available. and A secondadvantage the folded four-wire operationresultsbecause amount of the of information specifying status theswitchcanbe cut in half. Only thestatus the of of

grth Inldt of thlrd arEy

of rfiird rnv

a t
I

a I a

(7 llt
El6|rrfr of liftdnfi inlit my

Eldudnfior|tl|t
of flftrnfi ffr.y

Figure 5.11 Four-wireconnection through four-stage switch.

DIVISION SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE

245

each pair of crosspoints or associatedjunctor is needed to find an available path through the switch. A third benefit of the folded structure occurs becausethe blocking probability is one-half of the probability of finding two pathsindependently.It might seemthat pairing the crosspointsin the describedmannerwould reshict the pathsavailablefor a particular connection. On the contrary, the crosspoint pairings merely guaranteethat a reverse path is automatically available for any selected path in the forward direction' The folded operation in the preceding paragraphs referred to a switch with an even the number of switching stages.An even number was chosenbecause conceptis easiwhen no center stage is present. The basic approach can be exest to demonstrate tendedto odd numbersof switching stagesif the centerstagecontainsan even number of anays and is folded about a horizontal line at the centerof the stage.In this manner, alray is paired with crosspointj, i in the bottom crosspoint i,7 in the top center-stage array, and so on. center-$tage

5.2.5 Pathfinding sincethenecswitchis virtuallyautomatic a Determining paththrougha single-stage In by is crosspoint uniquelyspecified theinlet-outletpairto beconnected. conessary the switchcomplicates path of trast,availability morethanonepathin a multiple-stage of process. catlprocessor theswitchmustkeeptrackof whichpotential The selection pathsfor a particularconnectionare availablein a statestore.A pathfindingroutine path.Whenever newcona an to processes state storeinformation select available the with theapprothe storeis updated or is nection established anold onereleased, state priateinformation. Pathtlndlng Times requirethe useof commonequipmentand must thereforebe Pathfindingbperations The can requests be processed. time the analyzed determine rateat whichconnect to on requiredto find an availablepath is directly dependent how manypotentialpaths in of can system$ testa number paths parbeforeanidle oneis found.Some aretested number potential of time.Sincetheexpected the shorten processing allel andthereby to pathsthatmustbe tested find anidle pathis a functionof link utilization,pathfindis controlequipment busiest. whenthe cornmon increase ing timesunfortunately beingbusyis depath the of that Assume theprobability a complete through swirch the paths through switchhasanequalandindependent of noted p. If each k possible by before No number paths thatmustbe tested of probabilityof beingbusy,theexpected in idle pathis foundis determined AppendixA asfollows: an

N,:H

( s.l ) r

to tested paths must.be that of number potential Example5.1. Whatis theexpected in 8192Jineswitchdefined Table5.2? find anidle pathin thethree-stage,

244

DretTAL swtrcHtNc

solution. As indicated the table,a $pace in expansion factor of 0.234is usedto providea blockingprobabilityof 0.002.Hencetheutilizationof eachinterstage link =0.427. The blockingprobability eachpaththroughthe switchis is 0.1/0.234 of merelythe probabilitythat oneof two links in series busy.Hencetheprobability is = p = | * (I - O.427)z 0.672,andtheexpected number paths be resred of to is
I - (0.672)15

Np=

| -0.672

=3.04
Example 5. I demonstrates that, on average,only 3 of the 15 potential paths need to be testedbefore an idle path is found. However, when the switch is experiencing greaterthan normal ffaffic loads,the averagenumber of paths testedincreases. exFor ample, if the input line utilization increasesfrom 10 to l|Vo, the blocking probability increasesfrom 0.002 to 0.126, and the expectednumber of paths to be testedin the pathfinding operation increasesfrom 3 to 4.g. Although this simple pathfinding example is, by itself, not particularly important, it demonstrates a very important aspect of the loading of common equipment in a switching system(or a network as a whole): Linear increases ttre offered traffic proin duce geometric increases the utilization of the network resources. a systemis dein If signed and analyzedunder nominal traffic conditions and the results are extrapolated to determinetotal capacity,greatly optimistic estimatesoften occur. In the pathfinding example the processingrequirementsincreasejust when the call processor(storedprogram conhol) is already loaded with greaterthan averagetraffic volumes. For further discussionof the effects of traffic loads on the common equipmentof a switching sy$temseeSchwartz [6].

5.2.6 SwitchMatrixControl
When an available path through a cofilmon control switching network is determined, the control element of the switch transfers the necessaryinformation to the network to selectthe appropriatecrosspoints.Crosspoint selection within a matrix is accomplished in one of two ways. The control may be associatedwith the output lines and thereforespeciff which inputs areto be connectedto the associated outputsor the control information may be associated with eachinput and subsequentlyspeciff to which outputs the respectiveinputs are to be connected.The first approachis referred to as output-associatedcontrol while the secondis called input-associatedcontrol. These two control implementationsare presentedin Figure 5.12. Input-associatedcontrol was inherently required in step-by-stepswitches where the information (dial pulses) an-ivedon the input link and was used to directly select the output links to each successivestage.[n common control system$,however, the addressinformation of both the originating line and the terminating line is simultaneously available. Hence the connection can be establishedby beginning at the desired

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACEDIVISION

245

(b) Figure 5.12 Switchmatrixconffol:(a) outputassociated; inputassociated. outlet and proceeding backward through the switch while selecting inputs to each stage. The implementation of both types of digital crosspointarraysusing standardcomcontrol uses a conventional data ponents is shown in Figure 5.13. Output-associated selector/multiplexer for each matrix output. The number of bits required to control eachdata selectoris log2 N, where N is the number of inlets' Thus the total number of bits required to completely specify a connection configuration is M log2 N. control can be implemented using conventional line decoders/deInput-associated "wired-or" logic function. Thus the multiplexers. The outputs are conmoned using a output gatesof each decodercircuit must be open-collectoror histate devices if transistor-transistor-logic (TTL) is used. The total number of bits required to specify a connection configuration in this caseis N log2 M. control arisesfrom the need to disable A significant drawback of input-associated unused inputs to prevent cross connectswhen another input selectsthe sameoutput.

Dfir rclictot/mu ltiPloxor

Linr dccoder/demultiplexer

loga N

log?rY

ft) Figure 5.13 Standard component implementation of digital crosspoint aray: (a) outputassociatedcontrol; (b) input-associatedcontrol.

246

DIGITALSWITCHING

with output-associatedconffol, unused output$ can remain connected to an input without preventing that input from being selectedby another output. For this reason and for generally greaterspeeds operation,digital switching networks typically use of output-associatedcontrol. Notice, however, that the total amount of information neededto specify a connectionconfiguration with input-associated control is lessthan that with output control if the number of inputs N is much smaller than the number of outputsM (N log2 M < M log2Il). Furthermore,input-associated conffol is more flexible in terms of wired-or (e.g., bus) expansion.

5.3 TIMEDIVISION SWITCHING Asevidenced multiple-stage by switching, sharing individual of crosspoints more for
than one potential connectionprovides significant savingsin implementation costs of spacedivision switches.In the casesdemonstrated, crosspointsof multistagespace the switchesare sharedfrom one connectionto the next, but a crosspointassignedto a particular connection is dedicated to that connection for its duration. Time division switching involves the sharing of crosspointsfor shofier periods of time so that individual crosspointsand their associatedinterstagelinks are continually reassignedto existing connections.When the crosspointsare sharedin this manner, much greater savings in crosspointscan be achieved.rn essence, savings are accomplishedby the time division multiplexing the crosspointsand interstagelinks in the samemannerthat transmissionlinks are time division muttiplexed to shareinteroffice wire pairs. Time division switching is equally applicableto either analog or digital signals.Ar one time, analog time division switching was attractive when interfacing to analog transmissionfacilities, since the signals are only sampled and not digitally encoded. However, large analog time division switches had the samelimitations as do analog time division ffansmission links: the pAM samples are particularly vulnerable to noise, distortion, and crosstalk.Thus, large electronic switching matriceshave always incorporatedthe cost of digitizing PAM samplesro maintain end-to-end signal quality. The low cost of codecsand the prevalenceof digital trunk interconnectionsimply that analog switching is now usedin only the smallestof switching system$(e.g.,electronic key systems).

5.3.1 AnalogTimeDlvlsion Swltching

Although analog time division swirching has become obsolete,it is a good starting point to establishthe basic principle of time division switching. Figure 5.14 depicts a padicularly simple analog time division switching structure.A single switching bus supportsa multiple number of connectionsby interleaving pAM samplesfrom receive line interfacesto ffansmit line interfaces.The operation is depicted as though the receive interfacesare separate from the respectivetransmit interfaces.When connecting two-wire analog lines, the two interface$are necessarilyimplemented in a common

DrvrsroN swtrcHtNc 247 s.s TIME

[-l r r i - iI |-l
t - l l
a

-tlr
t-l -1 i-1

f\H
i

I r_r, I

F\ t-l
Lin6 inGrfe6

L-l/ I
-$,vltchlng i bur Tlme _ I Cvclls I divirion I qqqqql I controt

time swirching' Figure5.14 Analog division weresimultaneanalogsamples in module.Furthermore, somePAM-PBX systems, the between interfaces in [7]. ouslytransferred bothdirections controls The Included Figure5.14aretwo cycliccontrolstores. first controlstore in control storeoperates gatingof inputsonto the bus one sampleat a time. The second output line for eachinput with the first and selectsthe apPropriate in synchronism to pulses, from eachactiveinput line, is referred asa one set sample. complete of A the line. For voicesystems rate frame.Theframerateis equalto the sample of each weresometimes rate$ rateranges ftom 8 to 12 kHz. The highersampling sampling filtersin theline interfaces. filter andreconstructive usedto simplifythebandlimiting 5.3.2 DlgltalTimeDlvlsion Swltchlng a section essentially space is in matrixdescribed thepreceding The analogswitching for changing connections shortperiods the divisionswitchingmatrix.By continually divisionswitchis replicated of the of time in a cyclicmanner, conflguration thespace is for eachtime slot. This modeof operation refenedto as time multiplexed once and can swirching. While thismodeof operation bequiteusefulfor bothanalog digital signals usuallyrequireswitchingbetween signals, digital time divisionmultiplexed between time slotsrepresents physicallines.Switching time slotsaswell asbetween and dimension switching is refenedto astime switching. of a second unle$s of In thefollowing discussion digitaltime divisionswitchingit is assumed, directlyto digitaltime divinetworkis interfaced that otherwise stated, theswitching

248

DIGITALSWITCHING

sionmultiplexlinks.This assumption generally justified$ince, is evenwhenoperating in ananalog environment, mostcost-effective the switchdesigns multiplexgroups of digital signalsinto TDM formatsbeforeany switchingoperations takeplace.Thus mostof thefollowing discussion concerned is with the intemalstructures time diof visionswitchingnetworks possiblynot with the structure an entireswitching and of complex. The basicrequirement a time division switchingnetworkis shownin Figure of 5.15.As anexample connection, channel of thefirst TDM link is connected chan3 to nel l7 of thelastTDM link. Theindicated connection impliesthatinformation arriving in time slot 3 of thefirst input link is transferred time slot l7 of thelasroutput to link. Sincethevoicedigitization process inherently impliesa four-wireoperation, the returnconnection required realized transferring is and by information from time slot 17 of the lastinput link to time slot 3 of the first ouFut link. Thuseachconnection requires two transfers information, of eachinvolving translations both time and in space. A varietyof switching sffuctures possible accomplish transfers are to the indicated in Figure5.15.All of thesestructures inherently requireat lea$ttwo stages: space a divisionswitching stage a timedivisionswitching and stage. discussed As later,larger switches multiplestages bothfypes. use of Beforediscussing switching bothdimenin sions, however, discuss characteristics capabilities timeswitching we the and of alone. A Digital lllemory Swltch Primarilyowing to the low cosrof digital memory,time swirching implemenrarions providedigitalswitching functions moreeconomically space than divisionimplementations. Basically, time switchoperates writing datainto andreading a by dataout of a singlememory. theprocess, information selected slotsis interchanged, In the in time asshownin Figure5.16.when digital signals be multiplexed can inro a singleTDM format, very economical switches be implemented can with time switchingalone. practical However, limitationsof memoryspeed limit thesizeof a time switchsothat someamountof space divisionswitchingis necessary largeswitches. demonin As strated later sections, mosteconomical in the multistage designs usuallyperformas muchswitchingaspossible thetime stages. in Thebasicfunctional operation a memoryswitchis shownin Figure5.17.Indiof vidualdigital message circuitsaremultiplexed demultiplexed a fixed manner and in
I FNAffiH

I
I t

Figure 5.15 Time andspace divisionswirching.

SWITCHING 249 5.3 TIMEDIVISION

operation. Figure5.16 Timeslotinterchange to establish singleTDM link for eachdirectionof travel.The multiplexinganddea as multiplexingfunctions be considered partof the swirchitself, or they may be can form In terminals. eithercase, byte-interleaved a in implemented remote transmission transmission The asynchronous hierarchy(DSz, DS3, of multiplexingis required. and demultiplexing requires back-to-back DS4) usesbit interleaving and therefore In multiplexing operations before switching curbe accomplished. contrast,the spebyteinterleaving in 8 SONETnansmission formatdescribed Chapter canprovide to cifically soit canbe moredirectlyinterfaced a digital switchingsystem. by two between differenttime slotsis accomplished Theexchange information of (TSI) circuit.In theTSI of Figure5.17datawordsin incoming a time slotinterchange Datawords locations thedatastorememory. of time slotsarewritteninto sequential from a control obtained for outgoingtime slots,however,arereadfrom addresses between store.As indicated the associated in controlstore,a full-duplexconnectron i TDM channeli andTDM channelj impliesthat datastoreaddress is readduringouttwiceduringeach goingtime slotj andvice versa. datastorememory accessed The is the link time slot.First, somecontrolcircuitry (not shown)selects time slot number

MUX

T I M E S L O TI N T E H C H A N G E

Figure 5.17 MIDVTSI/DEMLIXmemoryswitch.

250

DIGITAL SWITCHING

as a write address.Second,the content of the conffol store for that particular time slot is selectedas a read address. since a write and a read are required for each channel entering (and leaving) the TSI memory, the maximum number of channelsc that can be supportedby the simple memory switch is

r25 c:4

(5. ?) r

where I ?5 is the frame time in microsecondsfor 8 kHz sampled voice and f" is the memory cycle time in microseconds. As a specific example, consider the use of a t 5.2 nsec of memory. Equation 5. 12 indicates that the memory switch can support 4096 channels(2048 full duplex connections) in a strictly nonblocking mode of operation. The complexity of the switch (assumingdigitization occurselsewhere)is quite modest:The TSI memory storesone frame of data organizedas 4096 words by 8 bits each.The control store also requires 4096 words, but eachword has a length equal to log2(c) (which is 12 in the example). Thus the memory functions can be supplied by a096 x 8 and 4096 x lz bit randomaccessmemories (RAMs). The addition of a time slot counter and some gating logic to selectaddresses enablenew information to be written into the conffol $torecan and be accomplishedwith a handful of conventional integratedcircuits (ICs). This switch should be conrrastedto a spacedivision design (Equation 5.3) that requires more than 1.5 million crosspoints for a nonblocking three-stageswitch. Although modern IC technology might be capable of placing rhar many digiral crosspointsin a few ICs, they could never be reachedbecauseof pin limitations. As mentionedin Chapter 2, one of the main advantages digital signals is the easewith of which they can be time division multiplexed. This advantagearisesfor communication between integratedcircuits as well as for communication between switchine offices.

Time Stagesin General

Time switching stagesinherently require some form of delay element to provide the desiredtime slot interchanges. Delays are most easily implemented using RAMs that are written into as data arrive and read from when data are to be transferredout. Ifone memory location is allocated for each time slot in the TDM frame format, the information from each TDM channel can be stored for up to one full frame time without being overwritten. There are two basic ways in which the time stagememoriescan be controlled; written sequentiallyand read randomly or written randomly and read sequentially.Figure 5.18 depicts both modesof operation and indicateshow the memories are accessed to translateinformation from time slot 3 to time slot 17. Notice that both modes of operation use a cyclic control store that is accessed synchronism with the time slot in counter.

s.4 TWo-DTMENS|oNAL swrrcHrNc 251

DEtd Stors

'ims glot Countdr

(rl

{bl

Figure 5.18 Time switch modules: (a) sequential writes/random reads; (b) random writes/ sequentialreads.

in The first modeof operation Figure5.l8 impliesthat specificmemorylocations TDM link. Datafor eachincomto of channels theincoming arededicated respective a locations within the memoryby incrementing ing time slot arestored sequential in duringtime slot the modulo-c counter with everytimeslot.As indicated, datareceived On 3 areautomatically in stored thethird locationwithin the memory. output,inforfor is which address to be accessed mationretrieved from the controlstorespecifies word of thecontrolstorecontime slot.As indicated, seventeenth the thatparticular to 3 of tainsthenumber3, implyingthatthecontents datastoreaddress is transferred theoutputlink duringoutgoing time slot 17. of the modeof operation in depicted Figure5-18is exactly opposite the Thesecond as locations specified theconby frrstone.ftrcoming dataarewritteninto thememory undercontrolof an outgoing sequentially trol store,but outgoingdataareretrieved duringtime slot information in received As time slotcounter. indicated theexample, retrieved it dur17, 3 is writtendirectlyinto datastoreaddress where is automatically opof number17.Noticethat the two modes time $tage ing outgoingTDM channel control and ration depicted in Figure 5.18 are forms of output-associated presented designexample control,respectively. a multiple-stage In input-associated and the other in to later,it is convenient u$eone modeof operation one time stage in time stage. modeof operation another

SWITCHING 5.4 TWO.DIMENSIONAL in and dimension a operations botha space requireswitching Largerdigital switches that dimension. Therearea largevarietyof networkconfigurations canbe used time strucrequirements. beginwith, consider simpleswitching To the to accomplish these T a of shownin Figure5.19.This switchconsists only two $tages: time stage folture (TS) switch. is Iowedby a space stage Thusthis $tructure refered to a time-space S. in is the time stage to delayinformation arrivingtime slots Thebasicfunctionof is information transAt outputtime slotoccurs. thattimethedelayed until thedesired

252

DIGITALSWITCHING

(TS)swirching f,'lgure5.19 Time-space matrix. ferred through the space stage to the appropriate output link. In the example shown the information in incoming time slot 3 of link I is delayed until outgoing time slot l7 occurs. The return path requiresttrat information arriving in time slot 17 of link N be delayed for time slot 3 of the next outgoing frame. Notice that a time $tagemay have to provide delays ranging from one time slot to a full frame. Associated with the $pacestage is a control store that contains the information needed to speciff the space stage configuration for each individual time slot of a frame. This conhol information is accessed cyclically in the samemanner as the control information in the analogtime division switch. For example,during eachoutgoing time slot 3, control information is accessed that specifresinterstagelink number 1 is connectedto output linkN. During other time slots,the spaceswitch is completely reconfigured to support other connections. As indicated, a convenient meansof representinga conffol store is a parallel endaround-shift register. The width of the shift register is equal to the number of bits required to specify the entire spaceswitch configuration during a single time slot. The length of the shift register conforms to the number of time slots in a frame. Naturally, $omemeansof changingthe information in the conhol storeis neededso that new connections can be established. actualpractice, the control store$may be implemented In as RAMs with counters used to generateaddresses a cyclic fashion (as in the time in stagecontrol storesshown previously).

lmplementationComplexltyof Time Dlvlslon Switchee In previous sections, alternative division space switching structures compared were in
terms of the total number of crosspointsrequired to provide a given grade of service. In the caseof solid-stateelectronic switching matrices, in general,and time division switching, in particular, the number of crosspointsalone is a lessmeaningful measure of implementation cost. Switching structures that utilize ICs with relatively large numbersof internal crosspointsare generally more cost effective than other $uuctures

5.4 TWO.DIMENSIONAL SWITCHING 253

paHence morerelevant a design but thatmayhavefewercrosspoints morepackages. If totalnumber IC packages. alternate switches wouldbethe of rameter solid-state for may from a comlnonset of ICs, the numberof packages designs implemented are closelyreflectthenumberof crosspoints. a In additionto thenumber crosspoints space in divisionstages, digitaltime diof in visionswitchuses of that significant amounts memory mustbeincluded ane$timate memory arrays the and the countincludes time stage of theoverallcost.-Thememory the stages. largeswitches, numfor In controlstores boththetime stages thespace and can ofincreasing amount the at stage crosspoints be reduced theexpense berof space implementationcomplexityrequires of required. Thus,athoroughanalysis of memory relativeto thecostof a bit of memory.Beknowingthe relativecostof a crosspoint it is cause crosspoint closelyassociated an extemalconnection, costssignifia with integration medium-scale ICs Theuseof standard cantlymorethana bit of memory. Use as costing aboutthesame I fi) bits of memory.t of customleads onscrosspoint to this memory change factor,particularly can ICs or application-specific with integrated per provideaccess manymorecrosspoints pin. For to IC because large-scale packages the purposes illustrating design of of trade-offs, followinganalyses implemenvarious coststo be lfi) timesthe costof a to tationcomplexitycontinue consider crosspoint this memorybit. Depending theimplementation approach, factormay not be accuon in except exrate,but minimizingthecostof a matrixis no longermuchof a concern, (e.g., switches 100,000 voicechannels). in exceeding systems tremelylargeswitching as complexity expressed follows: Theimplementation is

=N**ffi ComPlexitY
where

No

(s. l3)

Nx = number of spacestagecrosspoints NB = number of bits of memory

in of complexity theTS switchshown the Example5.2. Determine implementation eachinput line wherethe numberof TDM input linesN = 80. Assume Figure5.19 matrix assume one-stage a Furthermore, contains singleDSl signal(24 channels). a space stage. is usedfor the as stage determined of is in Solutinn. Thenumber crosspoints the space Nx = 8d: 6400

*lt

is worth noting that digital memories are inherently implemented with at least two crosspoints per bit. In this case the crosspoiflts are gates used to provide write and read accessto the bits. These crosspoiflts, howcver, are much less expensive than messagecrosspointsthat are accessedfrom extemal circuits, TSeethe first or second edition of this book.

254

DIGITALSWITCHING

(Thecrosspoints themaindiagonal included on are sincetwo channels within a single TDM input may haveto be connected eachother.)Thetotal numberof memorybits to for the space stage controlstoreis determined as Nnx = (number linksXnumber controlwords)(number bits per control of of of word) = (80x24X7) = 13.440 Thenumber memorybitsin thetime stage determined thesumof thetime slot of is as interchange thecontrolstorebitsl and Nsr = (number links)(number channels)(number bitsper channel) of of of + (numberof links)(number control words)(number bits per of of controlword) = (80X24X8) (80)(24)(s) + = 24,96O Thustheimplementation complexity determined is as = Complexity Nx * : 6114equivalent crosspoints

The implementation complexitydetermined Example5.2 is obviouslydomiin nated thenumber crosspoints thespace by of in stage. significantly A lowercomplexity (andgenerally lower cost)canbe achieved groupsof input links arecombined if into higherlevel multiplexsignals beforebeingswitched. The costof the front-end multiplexers relativelysmallif the individualDSI signals is havealready beensynchronized switching. thismanner, complexity thespace for In the of stage decreased is appreciably whiletheoverallcomplexity thetimestage of increases slightly.(See only the problemsat the end of this chapter.)The implementation costsare reducedproportionately, to the point that higherspeeds up dictatethe useof a moreexpensive technology. A significant limitationof theTS structure Figure5.19occurs of whena connection hasto bemade a specific to channel anoutletasopposed anychannel anoutlet. of to of A connection a specificchannel blockedwhenever desired to is the time slot of the inlet TSM is already use.For example, time slot 17of thefirst inlet is in usefor in if someconnection from the first inlet to somelink otherthanlink N, the connection from channel of inlet I to channel of inletNcannotbemade. 3 17 Because thislimiof tation,theTS structure usefulonly if theoutletsrepresent is trunk groups, which implies any channel an outletis suitable.* of Applications that requireconnections to specific channels require additional stages adequate for performblockingprobability ance.
'A full-duplex connection requires the reverse connection to be established, which adds restrictions to which outlet channels can lre used. See the problems at the end of the chapter.

5.4 TWO-DIMENSIoNAL SWITCHING 255

Multlple*Stage Time and SpaceSwitching

means reducing costof a time As discussed thepreceding section, effective an of in the together practical performas divisionswitchis to multiplexasmanychannels as and Time stage less muchswitchingin thetime stages possible. as switchingis generally digital memoryis much than spacestage$witching-primarily because expensive (AND gates). repeat, crosspoints To themselves cheaper thandigital crosspoints the pins it and arenot soexpensive, is thecostof accessing selecting themfrom external thatmakes their userelativelycostly. can Naturally,therearepracticallimits asto how manychannels be multiplexed into a commonTDM link for time stageswitching. Whenthesepracticallimits are furtherreductions theimplementation can complexity beachieved only by reached, in resultwhena singlespace stage somecostsavings Obviously, usingmultiplestages. by matrixof a TS or ST switchcanbe replaced multiplestages. the moreeffective involvesseparating space stages a time by A generally approach stage. next two secseparating time stages a space by The stage, conversely, or, two of consisting a time stage these basicstructures. first structure, two The tionsdescribe (STS)switch.Thesectwo is to stages, referred asa space-time-space between space (TST) switch. is ond structure referred asa time-space-time to

5.4.1 $TS Swltching

A functionalblock diagramof an STS switchis shownin Figure5.20.Eachspace (nonblocking) switchis assumed be a single-stage switch.For verylargeswitches, to with multiplestages. Establishing it maybe desirable implement space the to switches finding a time switchanay with an available a paththroughan STSswitchrequires readaccess duringtheincomingtime slotandanavailable duringthedewrite access (S, the individualstage T, S) is nonblocking, optime slot.Wheneach siredoutgoing space equivalent theoperation a three-stage of switch.Hence eration functionally is to graph graphin Figure5.2I of anSTSswitchis identical theprobability to a probability the Conespondingly, blocking probof Figure5.8 for three-stage spaceswitches. abilitv of an STSswitchis

(STS)switchingstructure. Figure 5.20 Space-time-space

256

DIGITALSWITCHING

2
a a I

Figure 5.21 Probabilitygmph of STSswitch wirh nonblockingstages.

B=(1 -q'?)k where4'=l - p'=l - pl\ (F= fr/llt ft = number of center-stage time switch arrays

(5.14)

Assuming the spaceswitchesare single-stageEuray$ that eachTDM link has c and messagechannels, we may determine the implementation complexity of an STS switch as*

= Complexity numtter space of slage crosspoints * (number space of stage controlbits + number time stage of memorybits + numberof time stage controlbits)/100

=2H,{ +

2/cc log, N + tc(8) + ftclog, c 100

(5.15)

Example5.3. Determine implementation the complexityof a 2048-channel srs switchimplemented 16 TDM links with 128channels eachlink. The desired for on maximumblockingprobabilityis 0.002for channel occupancies 0.1. of solution. The minimum number of center-stage time switches to provide the gradeof service be determined desired can from Equation 5.14as fr = 7. Using this valueof ft, thenumberof crosspoints determined (2X7Xl6) = 224.Thenumber is as of bitsof memory be determined (2X7X128)(4) (7X128X8) (7)(lZB)(7) can = as + +
*This derivation assumesoutput-associated control is used in the first stageand input-associatedcontol is third stage, A slightly different result occurs if the space stages are controlled in different ffiar3l"

swtrcHrNc 257 s.4 rwo-DrMENsroNAL 20,608. Hence the composite implementationcomplexity is 430 equivalent crosspoints. in complexity 5.3 Thevalueof implementation obtained Example should combe pared thenumber for switch ofcrosspoints obtained anequivalent-sized three-stage to listedin Table5.2.Thespace whiletheSTS requires ,920crosspoints 8l switchdesign comes only 430equivalent The aboutas crosspoints. dramatic savings design requires (for havingalready resultof thevoicesignals beendigitizedandmultiplexed transa into an analog missionpurposes). werefirst inserted environWhendigital switches in Digital interface ment,thedominant costof the switchoccurred theline interface. particularly a per-channel costs, basis. interface on costsaremuchlower thananalog 5.4.2 TST Swltchlng form of multiple-stage switchis shownin Figure5.22- the time-space The second of in arrivingin a TDM channel anincominglink is delayed TST switch.Information path is At until an appropriate throughthe space $tage available. the inlet time $tage outstageto theappropriate that time the informationis transferred throughthe space whereit is held until the desired outgoingtime slot occurs, Assuming let time stage providefull availability(i.e.,all incomingchannels be connected can the time stages a any to to all outgoing channels), space stage time slotcanbe used establish connecstage replicated In a functional is oncefor everyintemaltimeslot. sense space the tion. by This concept reinforced theTST probabilitygraphof Figure5.23. is

(TST) switching sfiucfure. Figure 5.22 Time-space-time

258

DIGITAL SWITCHING

2
I a a

Figure 5.23 Probability graphof TST swirchwith nonblocking stages. An important feature to notice about a TST switch is that the spacestageoperate$ in a time-divided fashion, independentlyof the external TDM links. In fact, the number of spacestagetime slots I does not have to coincide with the number of external TDM time slots c. If the spacestageis nonblocking, blocking in a TST switch occurs only if there is no intemal $pacestagetime slot during which the link from the inlet time stageand the link to the outlet time stageare both idle. obviously, the blocking probabiliry is minimized if the number of spacestagetime slots I is made to be large. In fact, as a direct analogy of three-stage $paceswitches,the TST switch is strictly nonblocking if I = 2c -1. The generalexpressionof blocking probability for a TST swirch wirh nonblocking individual stages(T, S, T) is

B =lr _ q?lt = w h e r e 4 ll - p r = l * p l a = rimeexpansion (//c) cr, I = number space of stage time slots Theimplementation complexity a TST switchcanbe derivedas of N/ log, N + 2Nc(8)+ 2Nl log, c

(s.16)

Complexity =N2 +

100

(s.17)

Example5.4. Determine implementation the complexityof a 2048-channel TST switchwith 16TDM links and 128channels link. Assume desired per the maximum blockingprobabilityis 0.002for incomingchannel occupancies 0.1 of Solution' UsingEquation 5.16,we candetermine number internaltime slots the of required thedesired grade service 25.Hence for of as timeconcentration 1/g = 5.I ? of is possible because the light loadingon the input channels. implementation of The complexity now be determined can from Equation 5.17as656.

25S 5.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SWITCHING is Theresults 5.3 thattheTST architecture obtained Examples and5.4 indicate in thanthe STSarchitecture. Notice, however,that the TST switchopermorecomplex the with space concentraateswith time concentration whereas STSswitchoperates increase, is tion. As the utilization of the input links less and less concentration in the TST acceptable. the input channel loadingis high enough, time expansion If expansion the STSswitcharerequired maintain low blocking switchandspace in to probabilities. at expansion, can Sincetimeexpansion be achieved lesscostthanspace utilia TST swirchbecomes morecosteffectivethanan STSswitchfor high channel of two in zation. Theimplementation complexities these system$ compared Figure are 5.24asa functionof theinput utilization. in havea distinctimplementation advanAs canbeseen Figure5.24,TST switches largeamounts traffic arepresent. smallswitches, For of tageoverSTSswitches when complexities the implementation favor STSarchitectures. choiceof a particular The testability, architecture be moredependent otherfactorssuchasmodularity, on may favorsanSTSstructure its relais that One andexpandability. consideration generally with heavytraffic tively simplercontrolrequirements For very largeswitches [8]. of Evidence this of loads,the implementation advantage a TST switchis dominant. in by introduced 1976to service an fact is provided the No. 4 ESS,a TST structure voicechannels. excess 100.000 of

SlSrsotprmlonf .i

STEcomFhxlty .2

g
{

lm

,.,f

d
."d"' rsrtlil.rDililofid

$
E

I
.B A

6m

ztr

,z
Udllrdoft ot lnFut drnndr p

Figure 5.24 Complexity comparisonof STS and TST switching structuresfor a blocking probabilityof 0.002.

260

DrerrAL swtrcHtNc
lnlct tifte rtrgtc $pece stEaE

Spacr BtNg

OuttGt tlm6 rtage

Figure 5.?5 Time*space-space-space-time (TSSST) switching sfllrcture.

TSSSTSwltches
Whenthe space stage a TST switchis largeenoughto justiff additional of control complexity,multiple space strages be usedto reduce total crosspoint can the count. Figure5.25depicts TST architecture a with a three-stage space switch.Because the threemiddle stages all spacestages, are thi$ structureis sometimes referredto as a TSSSTswitch.TheEWSD switchof Siemens usesa TSSSTstructure. [9] Theimplementation complexity a TSSSTswitchcanbe determined of as* = Complexity Nx * Nu* *Nu, *Nrrc (5.18)

100

= whereNyg= number crosspoints, ZNft+ k (Nln)z of = number space Nsx of stage controlstorebits, = 2k(Nln)llog2(n) + k(Nln)l log2(N/n) = NBr = number bits in time stages, 2Nc (8) of ffnrc = number time stage of controlstorebits,= 21Vl logz(c) Theprobabilitygraphof a TSSSTswitchis shownin Figure5.26.Noticethatthis diagram functionally is identicalto theprobabilitygraphof a five-stage space switch shownin Figure5.10.Usingtheprobabilitygraphof Figure5.26,we candetermine theblockingprobabilityof a TSSSTswitchas

B = { 1 _ (qr)tlr_ 0 _ d)ollt

(s.l9)

The assumed connol orientations stages output,output,output,input, andinput, by are

s.4 rwo-DrMENsroNAL swtrcHrNc 261

P, = Pla pr=pllodl c= Uo

u-*''

graph TSSST of switch. Figure5.26 hobability where4r*I-pt=l-pla Qz=r-Pz=I-plu9

complexity of a 131,072-channel Example5.5. Determinethe implementation TSSSTswitchdesigned providea maximumblockingprobabilityof 0.002under to channel the 1024TDM input links with occupancies 0.7.Assume switchservices of is link. Also assume unity timeexpansion used thespace that on 128channels each on stages. on in Solution. The space switchcanbe designed a varietyof waysdepending how (andthird) space stages. valueof A manylinks areassigned eacharrayin thefirst to 32 is chosen a convenient binarynumbernearthe theoretical optimumpresented as (N/2)12. 5.19is thenumber With thisvaluefor n, theonly unknown Equation earlier in to of center-stage arraysft, which is determined be 27 for a blockingprobabilityof from Equation 0.0015. is 5.l8 as Thecomplexity determined + Nx = (2X1024)(27) (27)QDz=82,944 = I 8,880 Nnx = 2(27X32X28X5)+ (27)(32)(r28X5) 1,65

=2,097,152 Nsr= 2(10?4X128X8) = 1,835,008 * Nnrc 2(1024X128)(7) = 138,854 82,944 5,591,040/100 + equivalent crosspoints

DIGITALSWITCHING

5.4.3 No.4 ESS Toll Swltch

As shown Fi gtxe5.27 thebasicstructure a No.4 ESSmaFixis time-space-time in of , with four stages thespace in switch(i.e.,a TSSSST) tl0, I ll. Theinputsto thematrix arel20-channel TDM links formedby multiplexing DSI signals five together. Before theseinputsareinterfaced the matrix, they arepassed to througha decorrelator disto tributethe channels incomingTDM funk groupsacross of multipleTDM links into thematrix.Decoruelation usedbecause No. 4 ESSis a toll switchin which the is the incomingTDM links represent trunk groups from otherswitchingmachines. conIn trastto TDM links of an endoffice switchformedby multiplexingindependent subscriberchannels, channels a TDM trunk grouparenot independently the of busy.In fact,theactofconcentrating multiple,independent sources ontoa fiunk groupcauses highlevelsof correlation between activityon theindividualchannels. thechanthe If nels of a trunk group were not decorrelated, they would experience much higher blockingprobabilities because wouldall be vying for thesame they paths throughthe matrix. Decorrelation shufflesthetrunk groupssothealternate pathsavailablefor any particular connection morelikely to be statistically are independent. Noticethat,besidesshufflingchannels, decorrelator provides the (7 space expansion to 8) andtime (l?0 expansion to I28). Themaximum of theNo.4 ESSuses128deconelators seven size with 12O-channel inputseach.Thusthe maximumchannel = capacity (128X7X120) 107,520 is channels.Thespace stage a 1024x 1024matrixwith four possible is paths provided during eachof the 128space stage time slots.Theprobabiliry graphof theNo. 4 ESSswirch is shownin Figure5.28,from which thefollowingblockingprobabilityis derived: B = [l - (l -p,Xt -pzXl *pr)]rz8

(5.20)

p where is theextemal channel utilization, = Q l8)(1201128)p, p2is theblocking p1 and probability thefour-stage of space switchderived AppendixA as in

pz=zplql+rlplfi + s0p1q1+ szplfi+zlp\q\,+Bfrqr+ p!

(5.21)

Example5.6. Determine blockingprobabilityandnumber paths haveto the of rhat be searched a No. 4 ESSwith inlet channel in occupancies 0.7 and0.9. of Solution. The occupancies the interstage of linls (pzr)aredetermined be 0.574 to and 0.738,respectively. Using Equation5.21, the corresponding valuesofp2 are determined 0.737 and 0.934.Equation5.20 can now be usedto determine as the blocking probabilitiesas 0.fi)2 and 0.56 for inlet occupancies 0.7 and 0.9, of respectively. The probability that all four spacepathsare busy in a parriculartime slot is I to erezh (he baseterm in Equation5.20),which evaluates 0.952forp = 0.7 and

R9 p ura oO

!1

(}
I (t D( +

g.
l A x{
d L

r A iA o |J.{ *
:'-(

i5
A

.i E

z
F FI

vi P
EO tl

o
F E E

iE

5 U

I r

263

7
264
DIGITAL SWITCHING

pt

Figure 5.28 Probability graphof No. 4 ESSmatrix.

0.9955forp - 0.9. Equation 5.11now determines average the numberof time slots (four paths time slot)thatmustbe tested find anidle pathas2l and9g,respecper to tively. Example5.6 demonstrates low blockingprobabilities be achieved that can even whenindividualpathsarehighly utilizedif thereareenough alternatives-a feature thatis mostpractical with timedivisionswitching. Thisexample demonstrates also the sensitivity the call procs$sing of time asa functionof loadin thatpathsearch times morethanquadruple whenthenodebecomes overloaded traffic. Reference l] with [l reportsthat the pathsearch time is only 72vo the total processing of load at p = 0.7, but thisexample impliesthatit wouldbecome morethan50zoof theloadatp = 0.9 if otheraspects call processing of werelinearfunctions thetraffic volume(a risky asof sumption). 5.4.4 Sy$rem 75 Dtgitat PBX As originallyreleased, system75 PBx of AT&T wasa midrange pBX that can the suppofr stations, datainstruments, 200trunks[12].Theswitching 400 200 and matrix consists two bytewide of TDM buses shownin Figure5.29.Because buses a$ the operate 2.048MHz, thereare256time slotsperbusperframe.Thusthetotalnumber at of timeslotsonthebuses 5 12,whichsupport full-duptex is 256 connections.* ports All of theswitchhaveaccess all time slotson bothbuses. dual-bus to The architecture allows theuseof slowerelectronics provides and redundancy thecase failure. in of As long asthereis an idle time slot on eitherbus,any source be connected can to anydestination. Thustheblockingprobability zerofrom rhestandpoint matching is of
*Be"uursome of the time slots are used for overhead and continuous distribution of various tones, the maximum traffic capacity is 7200 CCS [12], which relates to 200 connections.

SYSTEMS 265 5.5 DIGITAL CROSS-CoNNECT

Switch BUBA $Yvitch Bu$ B

architecture. 75 Figure5.29 System matrix are ifmore Connections ofcongeStiOn: as occur,hOwever, a reSUlt lOss. BlockingCAn of of by requested canbe supported thenumber time slots.Blockinganalyses this than theory.As prereferredto ascongestion type requirea different form of mathematics trafthat with theprobability theoffered theorydeals 12, sented Chapter congestion in with somevalue.Matchingloss,on the otherhand,is concerned fic load exceeds traffic volumes. or average busy-hour are in analyses Chapter12 showthat if 800 stations congestion As an example, service requests when400 statheprobabilitythat a station on 37.5Vobwy, average, for is busyis lO-s.Thusthe system virtuallynonblocking voiceaptionsarealready the areoften full-periodconnections, blocking plications. Because dataconnections involvin applications moresignificant may probability voiceconnections become for problemsetin Chapter12for some See dataswitching. the voiceband ing intensive examples.

5.5 DIGITAL CROS$.CONNECTSYSTEMS for interface setting a matrixwith an operations A DCS is basicatly digital switching Instead or input andoutputsignals chamels. between up relativelystaticconnections pertaining call-byto information response signaling to in connections of establishing to in are DCSconnections established response networkconrequests, call connection patch act as an electronic The mostbasicfunctionof a DCS is to figurationneeds. frameswere facility. Manualcros$-connect panelin lieu of a manualcross-connect pointsbetween fatransmission officesasdemarcation in typicallyinstalled switching points between cilities and switching machinesand in wire centersas demarcation the of facilities.In bothcases, majorpurpose thecrosscables distribution and feeder for circuitsandaccess testof framewasto allowrearrangement transmission connect ing thecircuitsin bothdirecfions. while Figure5.31 environment cro$ri-connect Figure5.30showsa typicalmanual are connects implewith functionimplemented a DCS.Manualcross shows same the within theDCS connections wires.Cross with bridgingclipsandpunch-down mented (eitherlocally or reconsole by at areestablished enteringcommands themanagement

266

DIGITAL SWITCHING
Menutl (voicefrequencyl Cros-Connect Freme MGIEllic Fociliti$

\ / \ / -\ rr

ltr.r\
I I

Alr iul

Local Switching System

Figure5.30 Manual cross-connecr sysrcm. motely).As indicated the two figures,a majorfeature a DCS is its elimination in of of back-to-back multiplexingfunctionswhen crossconnecting individualchannels within TDM transmission links.Additionaladvantages a DCS system of with respect to manual cross-connect $vstems are: r. Automatic Record Keeping.Because crossconnects under'processor the are control,circuit connection reportsarereadilyavailable throughthemanagement interface. contrast, In records manualsystems in wereinherentlyerrorproneand oftenout of date.

Clnnnrl Benk Frcilitiet

Conlole

'*l
IDLC DCS lllol

Channl Switchcd Treff ic Ti6 linrs Fortign Exchange

M13

::

Local (DigitBll Swltching Syrtem

Circuit SwitchedTraff ic

Flgure 5.31 Elecnonic digitalcross-connect system.

SYSTEMS 267 CROSS-CONNECT 5.5 DIGITAL 2. Remoteand Rapid Provisioning. Provisioning is the basic procertsof providing (or discontinuing) service to a particular customer. The basic operations involved are outside-plant cross connections, inside-plant cross connections, configuration changes in switching system data base, and customer record were Obviously, the more theseprocesses updatesin business(billing) $ystems. automated, the faster and more accurately they could be performed. frame Testing analogcircuits at a manualcross-connect 3. AutomatedTest Access. involves physically breaking the connection (by removing bridging clips) and attaching the test equipment to the side of the circuit to be tested.All manual operationsare eliminated with an electronic patch panel by entering commands at the management console to connect the desired test tone$ and (DSP) channelsto the circuit under test. measurement Figure 5.31 depicts two type$ of network traffic: circuit-switched traffic and channel-switched trffic. Circuit-switched traffic representslocally switched fraffic (DSO circuits typically) and channel switched-traffic refers to leased line equivalents of digital channels.Channel-switchedhaffic might terminate at another public network switching office as in a foreign exchange(FX) circuit or at a distant cu$tomerpremise as a tie line of a private network. In the latter case,more than one DSOchannel might be concatenatedtogether to form a single higher rate channel referred to as a fractional TI circuit or M x 64-kbps channel. Channel-switchedservicestypically account for over one-half of the ffansmissionbandwidth betweenU.S. metropolitan offices [13]' The processof separatingchannel-switchedservicesfrom circuit-switched servicesis "grooming." Figure 5.30 also showsthat universaldigital loop caroften referred to as rier (UDLC) becomesintegrated digital loop carrier (IDLC) in a digital environment in (Figure 5.31). (Chapter I I describesDLC $y$tems more detail.)

and Segregation 5.5.1 Consolidation

Two basically different DCS grooming functions are depicted in Figures 5.32 and 5.33: consolidation and segregation.When multiple-accesslines carrying traffic destined to a coillmon distant node are partially filled, the per-channelco$tsof transpon to the remote node can be reducedby consolidating the traffic. Conversely,when different types oftraffic originate at a single location, it is desirableto allow a single faFrrthlly Filled Locsl Acc$6r Totally FillGd Nstvvork

50t6

mt\*l-l
30e6--{

rm*

*E;

o"'F-

30!_.+{_l

t0096

Figure5.32 Consolidation.

268

DIGITALSWITCHING DDS Nttrvork Tio Llnal Fortign Exchenga Losil Swltching

Figure5.33 Distribution. cility (e.g.,a T1 line)to carryall types traffic andsegregateat theDCS.Examples of it of suchtraffic arecircuit-switched channels, DDS channels, lines,multidropdata tie circuits,FX circuits,or otherspecial services might be available ttrat only at another office. 5.5.2 DG$ Hierarchy The cross-connect system depicted Figure5.31terminates in DSI signals interand changes DSOsignals, which leadsto the designation DCS l/0. similarly, a digital cross-connect system terminates that DS3 signals rearranges signals and DSl within theDS3sis referred asa DCS3/1.If a DCS,sucha$a DCS3/0,provides to rearrangementof lowerlevelsignals, rruch DSOs, does necessarily as it not mean it alsoprothat vides cross-connect servicesfor intermediate-level signals,such as Dsls. cross connection DSls requires of transparent mapping theentirel.5zt4Mbps,whichinof cludes framingchannel-a capability maynorbeprovided the that when64-kbps DSO channels the primaryfocus.when a DCS provides are multiplelevelsof crossconnects, intermediate the levelsaresometimes designated-asin DCS 3/l/0 for terminatingDS3sand rearranging DSls and DS0s.In most cases, is not necessarJ it to providecross-connect services all levelsofthe digitalsignalhierarchy all ofthe at for terminations. Figure5.34 depictsa DCS hierarchythat providesrearrangement of lowerlevelsignals only subsets higherlevelsignals. higherlevel(e.g., on of The Ds3) signals arenot cross that connected a lowerlevelDCSmaybeunchannelized to high(44.736-Mbps) speed signals transitDS3sthatterminate a DCS 3/l or 3/0 at a or on

Figure 5.34 DCS hierarchy.

SYSTEMS 269 5.5 DIGITAL CROSS-CONNECT

restoration of location. primarypurpose theDCS3/3is to providenetwork The distant rearand or protection switchingof the DS3 signals to possiblyprovidetime-of-day in links SONBTtransmission described Chaprangement trunkgroupassignments. of producing DCS layers. at additional connected muchhigherrates ter 8 arecross 5"5.3 IntegratedCrose-ConnectEquipment and Figure5.31 depictsdistinctmultiplexingequipment two distinctand colocated swirchingsystems: DCS and the local digital switch.AlthoughDCS functions the priequipment, with separate within thepublic networkaretraditionallyimplemented multiplexingandcrossthat vatenetworksoftenutilize equipment providesintegrated Tl has connectfunctions.This equipment evolvedfrom CPE-based multiplexers additionsto Tl multiplexinghardTSI because circuitsare insignificanthardware multiplexers refenedto asintelligent ware.Suchequipment variously are [14],nodal functions alsoincolpoare processors, networking multiplexers. Cross-connect Tl or again, costof theTSI functionis vidually the ratedinto newer because, DLC systems nil. (suchas with higherleveldigitalsignals functions of Integration cross-connect level signalsare the a DS3) hasnot occurredbecause mannerin which the higher for in multiplexed(described Chapter7) is not amenable direct terminationon a by multiplexing,as specified switchingsystem. The newerform of (synchronous) in the SONET standarddescribed Chapter8, allows integrationof higher level for systems both public andprivateequipdigital multiplexerswith cross-connect ment. functionsare basicallynothingmore than "pegged"or Althoughcross-connect "nailed-up"circuit-switched the connections, two functionsaretraditionallyimplerequirein of because the following differences the application mentedseparately ments: at to l. A DCS needs be strictly nonblocking the DSOlevel,which is generally in uneconomical largepublicnetworkswitches. of transport the signalrequires of cross-connection a 1.544-Mbps 2. Transparent because DSI in framingbit that is not possible typicaldigital circuit switches framingin with are the interface equipment a$sumes DSI signals channelized the 193rd bit. of 3. DCS functionality does not involve processing signalingbits so fully to as costs whenu$ed interfaces haveexcess functional circuitswitchinterfaces systems. cross*connect (fractional channels) Tl DSO multiple,concatenated channels 4. Cross connecting data requiresmaintainingorderin the concatenated stream.Althoughthe order by can always be maintained careful mappingof the individual 64-kbps it connections, i$ a function that is typically not provided in DSO circuit switching software.Figure 5.35 shows how the order of bytes in the 64-kbps connections' by can data concatenated stream be transposed ill-chosen

27O
lffimlng Oflr

DIGITAL SwITcHING

Ditr Outgolng

Ch{nnel ConnGtloni Ero At to 8t , Az to Bil As to Bl

Figure 5.35 Transposition of data in concatenatedtime slots.

5.6 DIGITAL SWITCHING AN ANALOG IN ENVIRONMENT whendigitalendofficeswitches PBXs) installed ananalog (or are in environment,
theanalog interfaces necessarily are unchanged. Althoughthedigital switchmay interfacewith digital subscriber canier or digital fiber feedersystem$, thesesysrems merelyextendthe analoginterface point closerto the subscriber. This sectiondescribes basicconsiderations the ofusing digital switchingin suchan analog environment.Chapterl l describes digiralendoffice switchingwith digital subscriber loops in relationto the integrated services digital network. 5.6.1 Zero-LossSwitchlng As alreadymentioned, well-designed a digital transmission switchingsystem and addsno appreciable degradation the end-to-end to quality ofdigitized voice.In particular,thederived analog signalcomingout of a decoder be adjusted thesame can to levelasthatpresented theencoder thefar end.Curiously, to at zero-loss transmission presents some problems significant whendigitalswitching used theanalog is in fiansmissionenvironment a class5 centraloffice. of Analogendofficeswitches two-wireswitches are designed interconnectbidirecto tionaltwo-wirecustomer loops.The voicedigitizationprocess, however, inherently requires separation the go andreturnsignalpathsinvolvedin a connection. of Thus, a class5 digital endoffice or digitalPBx mustbe a four-wireswitch.when inserted into a two-wireanalogenvironment, hybridsarerequired separate two directo the tionsof transmission. shown Figure5.36,hybridsateach of ttreinternal As in end dig! produce four-wirecircuit with thepotential echoes singing. tal subnetwork a for and (Amplifiersareshown conjunction in with theencoders offsetforwardpathlossinto herent thehybrids.) in Instabilityarises a resultof impedance as mismatches thehyat bridscausing unwanted couplingfrom the receive portionto the transmitportionof the four-wireconnection. Impedance mismatches occurbecause the variabilityin of the lengths wire sizes and ofthe subscriber loops.In pafticular, loaded unloaded and wire pairshavemarkedlydifferentimpedance characteristics. Theinstabilityproblems compounded certain are by amounts artificialdelaythat of are requiredin a digital time division switch.Althoughthe delaythrougha digital switch(several hundred microseconds, typically)is basically unnoticeable a user, to

ENVIRONMENT 271 IN SWITCHING ANANALOG 5,6 DIGITAL

I
I \

underirNbh \
trEnfhybrid coulllns I /

interfaces. analog switch two-wire with digital Flgure5.36 Four-wire

delay of the it represents equivalent asmuchas30 to 40 milesof wire.This increased be frequencies might otherwise outside that oscillation hasthe effectof loweringthe filters' by be and thevoiceband effectively removed encoder/decoder to usedat the interface the l, in As mentioned Chapter hybridsweretraditionally these instances, four-wire. In is medium basically toll networkwherethetransmission amount a by theinstabilityof thefour-wirecircuitwascontrolled designing prescribed path toll (by of netaftenuation wayof netloss)into thetransmission of shofier network by are the and On circuits. thelongercircuits, echoes singing eliminated echosuppresinstabilityin the same couldprevent Class5 digital switches $orsor echocancelers. process' manner: designing certainamountof lossinto the encoding/decoding a by path (approximately dB in each 2-3 amount signalattenuation of While thenecessary to some connections toll added loss the on [5]) couldbe tolerated localconnections, wouldbe unacceptably large. attenuation that it Fromtheforegoing discussion canbe seen the useof selectable into loss The to is onesolution theinstabilityproblems. necessary is insefied thetalkhave calls,whichalready on but ing pathfor localconnections not u$ed long-distance at the involves matching impedance thehysolution into lossdesigned them.A second of elimination the unof bridsmoreclosely.Beforethe advent DSPnearlycomplete isolationof the However,adequate was prohibitivelyexpensive. wantedcoupling networks: paths couldbe accomplished just two differentmatching with transmission has matching been loops[61. Impedance loopsandonefor unloaded onefor loaded (DSP)that containtrainable electronics interface simplifiedby the useof advanced matching circuitsessencircuitry.Theimpedance matching impedance andautomatic echocancelers short-delay tially represent [17]. avoidsinstability Notice that an all-digital network(with four-wiretelephones) problems because thereareno two-wireanaloglines.Voice is digitizedat the telepath phoneandusesa separate from the receivesignalall the way to the destination echoes and four-wire circuit completelyeliminates Thus an endrto-end telephone. basis' on to singing, allowingall connections operate a zero*loss

272

DIGITALSWITCHING

5.6.2 BORSCHT
In Chapter thebasicfunctional I requirements ofthe subscriber interface deloop are scribed.Theserequirements repeated are herewith two additionalrequirements a for digital switch interface: codingand hybrid. The complete of interface list requirements unaffectionately is knownasBORSCHT[18]: B : Batteryfeed o: Overvoltage protection R: Ringing S : Supervision C; Coding H: Hybrid T: Test As mentioned chapter l, thehigh-voltage, in low-resistance, currentrequireand ments manyof these of functions particularly are burdensome integrated to circuitimplementations. First-generation digital end office switches reduced termination the costsby usinganalogswitching(concentrators) commoncodecs. to The DMS-100 Telecom theNo. 5 ESSof AT&T [20] useanalog and [19] of Northern concentration at the periphery. Integrated circuit manufacturers haveworkeddiligentlyto implement the BORSCHTfunctionsin what is calleda subscriber loop interface circuit (sl-rc). Perline sLICs allow implemenration perJine BORSCHT functions. of sLICs can be usedin PBx applications with a minimumof otherextemalcomponents.In cenffaloffice applications, wherelightningprotection and test access are moredemanding, sLICs typicallyneedothercomponents a complete for interface. 5.6.3 Conferencing In ananalog networkconference areestablished merelyadding calls by individualsignalstogether usinga conference bridge.Iftwo people talk at once,theirspeech suis perposed. Furthermore, active talker can hearif anotherconfereebeginstalking. an Naturally, same the technique beused a digitalswitchif thesignals first concan in are vertedto analog, added, thenconverted and backto digital. As described chapter3,1t?55 theA-law (ITU) codeweredesigned in and with the specificpropertyof beingeasilydigitally linearizable (EDL). with this property, the addition functioncanbeperformed digitallyby first converting codes linearforall to mats,addingthem,andthenconverting backto compre$sed formats. theuser,the To operation identical thecustomary is to analog summation. a conference For involving N conferees, separate N summations must be performed,one for eachconfereeand containing signals his own.For a description all but ofthe conferencing algorithmin the system75 PBX of AT&T, seereference descriptions of [12]. For moregeneral conferencing implementations digital switches, reference in see [21].

273 REFERENCES Another conferencing technique involves monitoring the activity of all conferees and switching the digital signal of the loudest talker to all others. Although this technique is functionally different from a customaryanalog conferencebridge, it is advantageous for large conferencesbecausethe idle channel noise of the inactive talkers does not get addedinto the output of the conferencebridge. High-quality conference circuits also include echo cancelersso higher signal powers can be provided.

REFERENCES
I M. R. Aaron, "Digital Communications-The Silent (R)evolution?" IEEE pp. Magazine, Jan.1979, l6-26. Communications
"A Study of Non-Blocking Switching Networks," Bell SystemTechnical C. Clos, Joumal, Mar. 1953, pp.4O6-424. "Analysis of Switching Networks," Bell SystemTechnical Journal, Nov. C. Y. Lee,

pp. 1955, 1287-1315.

"A No. Erics Techniques, 48, son in C. Iacobaeus, Studyof Congestion Link Systems," pp. Stockholm, 1950, 1-70. A TimeFor Innovation,Merle Telecommunications, A. A. CollinsandR. D. Pedersen, Dallas.TX, 1973. CollinsFoundation. Protacols, Modeling and Analysis' Netvvork M, Schwartz, Telecommunications MA, 1987. Reading Addison-Wesley, "New Time DivisionSwitching Units and T. E. Browne,D. J. Wadsworth, R. K. York, pp.443-476, Joumal,Feb.1969, Aell SystemTechnical for No. l0l ESS," "Telephones Digital,"IEEE pp.51-60. 1979, Spectrurn,Oct. Go S. G. Pitroda,

"EWSD;WhereIt Is," 'lieruen's Telecom Repon,Vol. 12,No. 2-3' 1989' 9 N. Skaperda, pp.56-59. M. W. l 0 J. H. Huttenhoff.J. Janik.G. D. Johnson, R. Schleicher, F' Slana,and F' H' "No. 4 ESS:Peripheral Technical Journal,Sept.1977' Bell Systems," System Tendick, pp. 1029-1042. "No. and Objectives Organization," u A, E. RitchieandL. S.Tuomenoksa, 4 ESS:System pp. Journal,1977, 1017-1027. BeIlSystemTechnital and t2 L. A. Baxter,P. R. Berkowitz,C. A. Buzzard,J. J. Horenkamp, F' E' Wyatt' "system 75: Communications Control Architecture," AT&T TethnicalJoumal, and pp. Jan.1985, 153-173. "hoviding and Managing l 3 R. K. Berman,R, W. Lawrence,and P. C. Whitehead, IEEE Clobecom, in ChannelSwitchedServices an IntelligentISDN Environment," pp.4.6.1-4.6.5. 1987, in t4 J. L, MelsaandH. R. Scull,"The Applicationof lntelligentT1 Multiplexers Hybrid pp. 1989, 15.3.1-15'3'6. IEEEGlobecom, andISDNNetworks," Digital Network," for Planning anEvolvingLocalSwitched 1 5 J. L. Neigh,"Transmission pp' July on IEEETransactions Communications, 1979, 1019-1024. "Tnro loss Considerations Digital Class5 in l 6 R. Bunker,F. Scida,and R. McCabe, pp' July on Office,"IEEE Transactions Communications, 1979, 1013-1018.

274

DIGITAL SWITCHING

l 7 D, L. Duttweiler, "A Twelve Channel Echo Cancellor,', IEEE Transactions on

Communications,May 1978, pp. 647-653. 1 8 F. D. Reese,"Memo to Management-You Must Appraise How New Technology Fits Customers," TelephoneEngineering and Management, Oct. I, 1975, pp. I 16-121. l 9 J. B. Terry, D. R. Younge, and R. T. Matsunaga, "A SubscriberLine Interface for the DMs-l00Digitalswitch," IEEENationalrelecommunicationsconference,lgTg,pp. 28.3.1-28.3.6. 20 D. L. Camey, J. I. Cochrane, L. J. Gitten, E. M. Pretl" and R. Staehler. ..The 5 ESS Switching System: Architectural Overview," AZ& T Technical Jorrrual, Aug. 19g5. 2 l R. J. D'Ortenzio, "Conferencing Fundamentalsfor Digital PABX Equipments,',IEEE International Conferenceon Communications, 1979, pp. 2.5-2g-2.5-36.

PROBLEMS 5.1 How manyfour-wirevoice circuit connections be providedby a bidireccan tionalPAM switching if theminimumachievable bus pulsewidth is 250nsec? 5.2 TheTS switchof Figure5.19usesDSI signals eachrDM rink. what is the on implementation complexityif groupsof five DSI inputsarefirst multiplexedto form 16input links with 120channels eachlink? on 5.3 Determine LeegraphandJacobaeus the blockingprobabilities thefirst switch of in Table5.5 (ft = 6) if two inletsout of 16 become connected l-erlangsubto (Possibly scribers. these linescouldbe dial-upporrsto a compurer.) (Hint:Two inletsarepermanently busybut the remaining inletscontinue be O.l-erlang to porrs.) 5.4 Repeat Problem but instead two inletsbeingbusyassume two of the 5.3 of that outputlinks of thefirsr-stage modulehavefailed. 5.5 How manycrosspoints needed a l024line, three-stage are in space swirchif the inputloadingis six common-channel per signals line andthemaximum acceptableblockingprobability(usinga Leegraphanalysis) 0.005? is (a) If n = 16,N/n = 64 (b)If n =32,N/n=32 (c) tf n = 64,N/n = 16 5.6 what is the(Leegraph) blockingprobability theTS switchin Figure5.l9 for of channel loadingof 0.2erlang? (a) Assume eachTDM inputis a 24-channel interoffice trunk group. (b) Assume TDM inputsarederived the from24-channel banks with each analog interface connected a dedicated to 0.2-erlang line. 5.7 Design sTS switchfor 128primaryTDM signals theccITT hierarchy an of (30 per voicechannels input).Blockingshould lessthan0.002andtheloadingis be 0.2 erlangper channel. How manytime slot interchange modules needed? are Whatis thecomplexiry the switch? of 5.8 Repeat Problem for a TST design. 5.7

PROBLEMS 275

Nx 5.9 Determinethe numberof crosspoints and the total numberof memorybits as Ns required a TST switchdefined follows;numberof linesis 32, singlefor is per space switch,numberof channels ftameis 30, andtime expansion $tage 2. load5.9 of 5.10 Whatis theblockingprobability theswitchin Problem if thechannel ing is 0.9 erlangperchannel? circuit for a 60in 5.ll How manybits of memoryareneeded a time slot interchange signalwith 9 bitsper time slot? channel controlin the first stageand input-associated 5.12 DeriveEquation5.15 assuming controlin thethird stage. output-associated all are 5.18assuming controlorientations outputassociated. 5.13 DeriveEquation

MODUL,ATION DIGITAL SYSTEMS ANDRADIO

digital informationfor transmission of variousmeans encoding 4 Chapter discusses the links.In the contextof this chapter dataen(or fiber) transmission overwireline coding.To impressthe same in Chapter4 is referredto asbaseband codingdescribed used signalis commonly a baseband ontoa carrierfor radiotratrsmisSiOn, information sigspecfumof abaseband shiftsthedc-centered modulate carrier. Modulation the to binarytrans4, to In frequency. contrast Chapter which emphasizes nal to thecarrier high data to multileveldigital modulation achieve emphasizes mission,this chapter data or definedbandwidthof a radio channel analogvoiceband rateswirhin therigidly can techniques mostmultilevelmodulation laterin this chapter, circuit.As described a modulating carrierwith oneof themultilevelbaseband by be implemented directly 4. in signals described Chapter cover in described this chapter techniques for Applications the digitalmodulation modems. and digital cellularsystems, voiceband point-to-point sy$tems, microwave are microwavesystems no longerusedalongheavyffaffic Atthoughpoint-to-point in applications public network,they are still utilizedin thin-route routesof ttreU.S. wherecostof a fiber right-of-wayis prohibitive'Furthe the U.S. andaround world in used privatenetworks is microwave still commonly digitalpoint-to-point thermore, sucha$digitalvideo applications in special (alongwith some analog and systems) old transportfrom a studioto a transmitteror to and from a digital cellular basestation. modulation stations mobileunitsuses and base between Digital cellulartransmission sysoriginaldigital point-to-point that techniques areidenticalto that usedin some
TEInS.

the radioswerefirst beingdeveloped, FCCestablished Whendigitalpoint-to-point to in theUnitedStates enby radios certaindatarates[1] thatmustbe achieved these Basically, spectrum. surea minimum utilizationefficiencyof the radio frequency of number the in minimumrates(shown Table6.1)specifyapproximately same these radiosin useat thetime FM in voicecircuits(at 64 kbps)aswereavailable theanalog in (19?4).Althoughindividualvoicechannels a FDM signaloccupy4 kHz of bandby the typically expands signalbandwidth a factorof modulation width, frequency 277

278

DIGITAL MoDUI.ATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEMS

TABLE6.1 InformatlonDensltleg Fequiredby Fcc for common-carrlerMicrowsve Channele Using64 kbps per VolceCircuit
Band (GHz)

Channel (MHz) BW 3.5 20 30 30 40

BitRate(Mbps) 6.144 73.7 73.7 73.7 73.7

(bps/Hz) Density 1,8 3.7 2.5 2.5 1.8

2.1 10-2.130 3.700-4.200 5.9?5-6.425 6.52ffi.87s 1Q.7-11.7

about4, depending the amountof FM deviation on applied. Thusthedigital systems wererequiredto compete with an equivalent voicechannel bandwidthof about 16 kHz' If the digitalradioswereforcedto compete with analogsingle-sideband radios in [2, 3] introduced theearly 1980s, theycouldnot havedonesowithoutusinglower bit ratevoiceencoding. over andabove minimumbit rates the established theFCC,competition by among digital microwavemanufacturers the economicsof manimizing the numberof and voicecircuitsper radio stimulated development moreadvanced the of digitalmodulationtechniques achieve to greater even transmission rates. an example signal As of processing advances, 6G150 the MB digitalradioof NEC carries 155-Mbps a payload in 30 MHz of bandwidth-an information density ofjust over5 bps/Hz. Thefirst part of this chapter describes basicmodulation techniques the transmission and efficienciestheyprovide.The lattersections describe radiosystem design considerations for point-to-point microwave relaysystem$. lnformation Density A usefulparameter characterizing bandwidth for the efficiency a digitalmodulation of system theinformation is density, definedas

s-#
where R = data rate in bits per second BW = bandwidth of digital signal in hertz

(6.1)

The units of information density are sometimesreferred to loosely as bits perhertz. However, as defined in Equation 6.1, the units shourdbe bits per secondper hertz or simply bits per cycle. Since bits per secondper hertz conveysthe natureof information density more completely, it is the preferred unit. The bandwidth factor in Equation 6.1 can be defined in a variety of ways. In theoretical studiesthe bandwidth of a signal is usually determinedas the width of the ideal filter used to strictly bandlimit the signal (i.e., the Nyquist bandwidth). hr practical systems,where the spectrumcan never be strictly bandlimited, the bandwidth is more

279 MODULATION 6.1 DIGITAL miniwith a certain is a difficult to define.In radiosystems channel usuallyspecified is density easily the In atthebandedges. thiscase, information attenuation mumsignal dividedby the allotas determined the bit rateof a signalmeetingtheserequirements ted bandwidth. the however, bandwidth are specifications provided, Whenno particulalemission in anothermoreor lessarbitrarymanner' requiredby a digital signalmustbe defined may drop sincethe signalspectrum is using a 3-dBbandwidth usuallyinappropriate spill overinto adjaof to amounts energy allow.significant ratherslowly andthereby would be level to definethe bandedges attenuation Using a greater cent channels. arbitrary.A generallymorerelevantcriterion but more appropriate is still somewhat required of defines bandwidth a signalasthechamelspacing the systems for practical channels. adjacent into levelof interference identical maximum a specified to achieve commonlyusedin Europe,is the 997opower definitionof bandwidth, Yet another bandwidth. is densityfor binarysignaling 2 bps/tlz for information maximum The theoretical signal'If a fourdouble-sideband a two-levelline codeor 1 bps/flz for a modulated information the 2 levelline codeis usedto achieve bits per signalinterval, theoretical carriersignal. densityis 4 bps4lz for theline code,or ZbpslHzfor a double-sideband by can signals be doubled usingsingledensifl of amplitude-modulated Theinformation the to sideband transmission effectivelyachieve sameefficiencyas the line codes (baseband signals). line telephone data practical a example, representative rateon a dial-upanalog As a rate). (usuallywith l2 bits per signalintervalanda 2400-Hzsignaling bps is 28,800 3 is channel approximately kHz, a typical of bandwidth a telephone Sincetheusable informationdensityof a dial-upline is 9.6 bps/H2.. the radios,Table6.1 includes minimum point for digital microwave As a starting bands in required common*carrier informationdensities bit ratesandcorresponding led with the digital hierarchy to and Competition compatibility of the UnitedStates. efficiencies. transmission of realizations evengreater

6.1 DIGITALMODULATION in on Digital transmission a radiolink differsfrom wirelinetransmission two importo a mustmodulate carrierin somemanner information First,the digital tantregards. proce$s can (RF) signal.In manycases modulation the produce radio frequency the (NRZ) by modulation a nonreturn-to-zero form of amplitude be viewedasa special moduthatamplitude signal a Thustheline coderepre$entsbaseband line codesignal. the receiver. in by latesthe carrierin the transmitterandis reproduced demodulation that the RF the Representing modulationprocessin this mannerhas the advantage to spectra the the by spectra be determined merelytranslating line code(baseband) can carrierfrequencY. $elected
*Slightly higher rates are sometimes achieved with V.34 modems. Rates approaching 64 kbps are also possible in special (V.90) applications described in Chapter 1I .

280

DtctrALMoDULATtoN RADIo AND sysrEMS

second,a radio link differs from wireline tansmissiondue to the necessity of strictly bandlimiting transmitted the signals preventinterference otherchanto into nels.Althoughwirelinetransmission links automatically filter theline signalto some extent,explicit filter requirements sometime$ occuronly in the receivers rejectas to muchnoiseaspossible.* Since radiolinks arebandlimitedin hansmitter zpise the and the filter functionmustbe partitioned filtered in thereceiver, end-to-end between the two ends.Figure6.I showsa block diagramof a radio link showingrepresentative baseband RF waveforms and along with corresponding frequencyspectrums. For modulation, Figure6.I shows multiplication thecarrierby thebaseband of waveform. Modulationin a digitalradiomustultimatelybe designed conjunction in with the firlterfunctions. ease description, For of however, modulation techniques considare eredfirst. Later on, the filtering requirements eachtype of modulationare disof cussed. Figure6.1alsoshows baseband the encoding proce$s beindependent to ofthe process. mostof themodulation modulation For techniques described this chapter in thisview is appropriate. thecase trellis-coded In of modulation (TCM) andcarrierless amplitude phase (cAP) modulation, and described later,encoding incorporated is into themodulation process. 6.1.1 AmplitudeModulailon Historically,the simplestform of modulationto generate detectis amplitude and (AM). A conceptual modulation illustration amplitude of modulation shown Figis in ure 6.2.Themathematical definitionis x(t)=[l +am,(r)]cosro"t wherea = modulation index(0 < a S l) mn$)=n-level, symmetric NRZ baseband signalnormalized maximum to amplitude I of 0[ = is the radiancarrierfrequency, 21;1 = Amplitudemodulation an example a classof special is of modulation techniques referredto as"linear modulation."Linearmodulationimpliesthat the spectrum the of modulated signalis obtained ffanslating baseband by the spe{trum theselected to carrier frequency band.As shownin Figure6.2, amplitude modulation a two-level by digitalbaseband signalessentially translates sin(x/x baseband the specrrum to the up carier frequencyf,.other linearmodulation techniques double-sideband are modulation,single-sideband modulation, vestigial-sideband and modulation. Inspection Equation or Figure6.2indicates if lfi)7o modulation used of 6.2 thar is (a = I ), no carier is produced a logic0. Forobvious for reasons, form of amplitude this modulation oftenreferred ason-off keying,oramplitude is to (ASK). As shifi keyrng
'Adherence to EMI compatibility specifications defined by the FCC (Paxt 15) often requires some amount of transmit filtering in on-premiseswireline transmission systems.

(6.2)

!
j j
f
ct

c CI -g

tE
t
B ,6
E

,f

?i
6

E!

{)

f
o

bI)
6

E
,t4

j
4
rE

o
E
F F

EE
E

(h

\a P HO

FB

281

282

DIGITALMODULATION AND RADIOSYSTEMS

*kl = [t *an,(rll coro.r

] -.t

Figure 6.2 Digital binaryamplitude modulation. shown in Figure 6.3, on-off keying can be obtainedby direct multiplication of a carrier with the two-level (unipolar) line code describedin Chapter 4. Amplitude-modulated signalsare usuarly demodulatedwith a simple envelopedetector. The cost effectivenessof this detectoris the basic reasonthat commercial analog broadcastingusesamplitude modulation. unfortunately, the eruorperformanceof digital amplitude modulation in general,and envelopedetection in particular, is inferior to other forms of digital modulation and detection. For this reason, amplitude modulation is used only where the cost of the receiver is a significant consideration. Digital microwave links and digital cellular systemsuse other forms of modulation and demodulation to minimize the enor rate for a given signal-to-noise ratio. Conventional amplitude modulation provides suboptimum error performance for two basic reasons.First, if a < r, a discrete (informationless) spectral line occurs at the carrier ftequency. Although the existenceof this spectralline simplifies canier recovery' it increasesthe transmitter power without aiding discrimination between information signals. with 1007omodulation (on-off keying) no line specfraare produced, but the system is still inefficient in its use of transmifted power. As discussedin chapter 4 for two-level line coding, the maximum use of transmittedpower is achievedwhen one signal is the negativeof the other. Thus, a seconddeficiency of amplitude modulation arisesbecausea 0 signal is not the exact negative ofa I signal. To achieve optimum performance,a symmetric twolevel basebandsignal should directly modulate (multiply) the carier. As shown in Figure 6.4, this form of modulation producestwo iden-

MoDULATIoN283 6.1 DtctrAL

frF+

#t+t# #'q#q# +Sffiffiffi

Figure 6.4 Phase-reversal keying.

reis this Hence modulation sometimes reversal. for except a 180"phase tical signals phase shift keying keying(PRK),or moreoften,two-level reversal ferredto asphase a Instead, PRK detection' by be (2-PSK),f-Iotice that PRK cannot detected envelope carier reference. by signalmustbe detected comparingit to a coherent the involvescomparing incomingsignalto a local carriersyndetection Coherent amplitudemoduWith conventional to chronizedin phase that usedat thetransmitter. all however, of the With PRK signaling, in lation thereis no information the phase. for The useof a coherentreference PRK signalsallows informationis in the phase. defininga PRK signalis The elror rateperformance. basicequation optimum(antipodat) oct x(t1= r77r111cos (6'3)

signallm2$)= +1 for a I andm2(t)= -l for is wherern2(t) thebinarydigitalbaseband is equation a 01.Thedemodulation y(t) =.r(t)[2cosoct] = lmr(t) cosoctl [2 cosro"tl * m?(t)+ m2(t)cos2ro.t (6.4)

term is removedwith a low-passfilter' wherethe double-frequency proce$$ demodulation in As indicated Figure6.4 andEquation6.4, the coherent furtherto detectthedatabe processed produces symmetrictwo-level signalthat can -Since a it to equivalent a line code, must signalis, in essence, baseband thedemodulated 4. Chapter [n particular,theremustbe in as includetiming considerations discussed signal to allow recoveryof a sample enoughsignal transitionsin the baseband signalneednot precludedc wandersincedc levels clock. However,the baseband

284

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDHADIoSYSTEMS o r r 0 0 t 0 t t 0 0 l o t t 0 0 l

trffi#hirfut\ddill Eq#
Phsre dctoclol Low pssg fllur

Modulator

Denrodulstol

Figure6.5 Binary frequency keying. shift aretranslated thecarrierfrequency passed to and adequately thedouble-sideband by system.6.1.2 Frequency $hift Keytng In additionto an inefficientuseof signalpower,conventional amplitude-modulated (not PRK) haveoneotherundesirable signals characteristic. definition,an ampliBy tude-modulated signaluses multiplesignallevels,which impliesAM is quitevulnerable to si8nal saturation that narrowsthe distance betweenamplitudelevels and produces spectrum spreading. common A source saturation a radiosyslem of in occurs in the outputpoweramplifierof the transmitter. mostcases In outputamplifiersare operated lessthanmaximum at powerto eliminate saturation othernonlinearities, and sotheycanaccommodate amplitude-modulated signals [4]. systems or pM u.leconstant-amplitude FM signals adversely not _ _Angle-modulated affectedby signalsaturation. HenceFM and pM canbe transmitteaat higherpowei levelsthanAM systems. ability to usesaturating The poweramplifiersis oneof the rea$ons FM wasoriginallychosen analog why for microwave radios. This section discusses digitalfrequency modulation, commonly referred asfrequency to shift keying (FSK).Thenext section discusses digitalphase modulation, commonly refenedto as phase shiftkeying(PSK).Both systems providea consrant-amplitude signal. systems usingconstant-amplitude carriers alsoreferred asconstant-envelJpe are to sysrems. Thegeneral expression ann-aryFSK signalis for

.(,):*,[[*..9J']
'A

(6.5)

single-sideband system does not pass dc energy. Thus if single-sideband modulation rs used, the basebandsignal must exclude.dc energy from its spectrum. Some double-sidebandsystems might also require the elimination of baseband dc energy so that a carrier tone can be inserted intl the center of tlre passband without affecting the signal.

MODULATION 285 6,1 DIGITAL

wherero"= radiancenterfrequency signal ln, = n-levelNRZ digitalbaseband = radiandifferencefrequency betweensignals Aro A typicalbinaryFSK signalis shownin Figure6.5 alongwith a simple(but lowThe the of performance) means implementing modulatoranddemodulator. modulator frequency the (VCO)thatis biased produce center to oscillator is a voltage-controlled baseband two-level a of thesymmetric The is whenno modulation applied. amplitude +Arr/2for a I and -L{dy?for a 0. of deviation a signalproduces frequency detector, loop:a VCO, a phase as is Thedemodulator implemented a phase-locked the between FSK in phase the measures difference detector anda loop filter. Thephase produced whenthe receivesignal signalandthe VCO output.A positivevoltageis After beingfilteredto otherwise. voltageis produced leadsthe VCO, anda negative theVCO in sucha way outputdrives detector the of minimizetheeffects noise, phase Ideally,theinput controlvoltageof thedemodulator difference. the asto reduce phase VCO' The loop filter, however, VCO will be identicalto the input of the modulator of to response minimizethe effects noise. slowsthe demodulator necessarily than poorer errorperformance PSK,parprovides shift Frequency keyinggenerally moOlder asynchronous bandwidth. in ticularly for multilevelsignaling a confined FSK modulation' networkused telephone over demsfor datatransmission theanalog to compared betthe do Newersystems not useFSK because simplerimplementation is techniques no longersignificant. ter performing

Mlnimum Shift KeYing attention considerable shift keyingthathasreceived form offrequency Oneparticular MSK is binaryFSK (MSK) [51.Basically, is in raaio systems minimumshift keying in difference phase so selected that exactly180o frequencies with the two signaling MSK interval'In this manner in the shift existsbetween two frequencies one signal of anintervalusinga minimumdifphase at differential theend a produces maximum continuous an Furthermore, MSK signalmaintains frequencies. i"r"n"e in signaling of belongs a class FSK signals to MSK For transitions. thisreason phase signaling at a Figure6'6 depicts shiftkeying(CPFSK). frequency iefenedto ascontinuous-phase cycledifference one-half Noticethatthereis exactly MSK waveform. representative a between I signalanda 0 signal(? cyclesversus1'5 cycles). 6.5, can for expression MSK signaling be derivedfrom Equation A mathematical = n/7. The result for wherenn(t) = mz(t)is a symmetricbinary NRZ signal and ACO signalintervalis anyparticular

fo- 1,6tT

h*2lt

rrtr t/r- shnrllno

Figure 6.6 Minimum shift keYing.

286

DIGITAL MoDULATtoN RADto AND sysTEMS

f ( TE * u o ) ) * q (logic1) lcosl'cr \ x(r)={

l ( T E t . \

(6.6)

f'o'[*'- a+qo)

(logic 0)

where1/7is thesignaling andS6is thephase thebegiruring thesignal rate at of interval (+n in Figure6.6). Themainattraction MSK is its comparatively of compact spectrum. Furthermore, with anappropriate means detection, of MSK canprovideoptimumerrorperformance in termsof the energy-per-bit-to-noise-density (E/No). The expression the ratio for powerspectral densityof theMSK signaldefinedin Equation is 6.6

s(rrr):t6rt7[4"==f -Ot')
[n,

(6.7)

wheres = l(D- to.lr. The frequency spectrum an MSK signalis plottedin Figure of 6'7, whereit is compared the frequency to specrrum pRlt(2-psx; signating of wittr the same datarate.Noticethat the MSK spectrum morecompact hasits first is and spectral at 3/4Iinsteadof l/Ifor pRK.* null Minimum shift keyingis actually just oneexample a general of classof continuous-phase (cPM) techniques maintain constant modulation that a amplitude, narrow power spectrum, goodenor performance. a goodoverviewandbibliography and For of this classof modulation schemes reference cpM schemes see havenot been t6l. usedin point-to-point microwave applications because they do not providehigh informationdensities. Many versions CPM havebeenusedin sat"llit" applications of wherenonlinear transponder amplifierspreclude useof modulation the iechniques with multipleamplitude levels[7]. Gausslan MSK Like MSK, Gaussian minimumshift keying(GMSK) produces constant-amplitude a and continuous-phase signal.GMSK differs from MSK throughthe use of a RF Gaussian baseband pulseshape prace a square in of pulseshape MSK. Because for the pulserisesanddecays Gaussian asymptotically with respect a zeroresponse to level, it hasa muchmoreconstrained bandwidth. Althoughit is conceivable a GMSK that signalcouldbe generated filteringthemodulated by signal,a rypicalimplementation [8] utilizesbaseband filtering,asshownin Figure6.8,whereit is contrasted unfilto teredMSK' TheMSK signalis generated directFSK modulation a carrierwith by of a baseband signalthatis scaled amplitude produce modulation in to a indexor 0.5.A modulation indexof this valueproduces difference l80o of phase the of shift for the two datavalues. one complication the bandwidthJimiting of filter of GMSK is the
*MSK i. achrally more closely related to 4-PSK and therefore rs compaxed to it in a later section of this chapter.

MODULATION 287 6.1 DIGITAL

Sigmlingr.to = D|ta rute= l/T

E
a

,f,ol out*o{-hnd ponnr IMSKI

fttctioh

of outd+and

Pdvir

I
I

&

(Hrl Fruqrrency

Figure 6.7 Power spectraof unfiltered MSK and 2-PSK signals'

MSKWaveform Unfiltered
NRZ Baseband Waveform Index * 0.5 Modulation (a)

Filter PulseResPonse Gaussian

A
= Index 0.5 Modulation
(b) MSK and(b) GMSK' of Figure 6.8 Comparison (a) directmodulation

288

DtctrAL MoDULATtoNRADto AND sysrEMS

creationof intersymbolinterference similar to partial-response sy$tems discussed laterin this chapter. essence, In GMSK trades smallamount adjacent a of channel interference a smallamount intersymbol for of interference. GMSK modulation utilis g izedin GSM digital cellular[9] discussed Chapter andin cellulardigitalpacket in data(CDPD)applications. 6.1.3 Phase $hift Keying The second category angle-modulated, of constant-envelope signals referred as is to phase shift keying(PSK).Actually,oneform ofpsK hasalready beendiscussed as phase reversal keying(PRK),morecorlmonly referred as2-psK, indicatingthat to eachsignalintervaluses oftwo phases are lg0" apartto encode one that binarydata. Multiple-phase keyingis alsopossible. shift Four-psK(alsocalledepsK) andg-psK pSK. arethemostcommon examples multiple-phase of Phase shift keying (which includes 4-eAM described next) is the mosrpopular modulation technique intermediate for information density high-performance applications.The popularityis primarily dueto its constant envelope,lnsensitivity level to variations, gooderrorperformance. and Both z-pSK and4-psK providetheoretical optimumerrorperformance termsof a signal-to-noise (E/ in ratio d. A general expression n-aryphase for shiftkeyingis provided Equation This in 6.g. expression assumes lfi)7a modulation employed. is That is, thephase shift from one intervalto the nextcanrange anywhere from -190" to +1g0..It is po$sible devise to PSKsystems lowermodulation with indices allow only transitions neighboring that to phases:

"tt=cosfco'.O9O)

(6.8)

where =Znln is theseparation Af between a-djacent signalphases mn$)is a symand metricn-levelNRZ baseband signalwith levels+1, t3, . . . . Examples typical 2-PSKand4-psK waveforms shownin Figure6.g. Ttre of are signaling for the4-PSKsystem shown be exactlyone-half z-psr signal_ rate is to the ing ratesothatequaldatarates provided. are Thesame figurealsoshows corresponding phasor diagrams the signaling of phases a cosinewaveasdefined Equation of in 6'8. other phase orientations possible. particurar are The phases $hown, however, are convenient laterdiscussions for relating 4-psK systems othertypesof digitalmoduto lation.

Quadrature Signal Bepresentailone Despite somewhat the exoticsounding name, quadrature signalrepresentations a are very convenient powerfulmeans describing psK signals manyotherdigiand of and tally modulated signals. signalrepresentations Quadrature involveexpressing aran bitraryphase sinusoidal waveform a linearcombination a cosine as of waveanda sine

MODULATION 289 6.1 DIGITAL

Ph$e disgrim h)

Timrwrwform

dirgrem Fharn ft)

Timewwgform

Figure 6.9 Phaseshift keying; (a) 2-PSK (b) 4-PSK.

is of The phases. derivation this representation providedby wavewith zerostarting the trigonometricidentity: + cos(to"t 0) = cosQcosro./- sin $ sin ro"t

(6.e)

over a signalinginterval andhencerepreNotice that cosQandsin Qareconstants cos of + cos(ro"t $) asa linearcombination thesignals for sentcoefficients expressing to phase with respect each O"t and sin co.f.Sincecos rrr"tand sin or./ are90" out of "in quadraother, they are ofihogonalin a phasordiagramand henceare saidto be
ture.tt representbasis vectors in a two-dimensional phasor co$ In essence, Oct and sin tDcf diagram. The cosine signal is usually referred to as the in-phase or l signal, and the sine signal is referredto asthe out-of-phaseor B signal' Table 6.2 provides an example

lor SlgnalCoefllclente 4'PSK Modulatlon TABLE6.2 Quadrature Coefficients Quadrature DataValues 01 00 10 11

cos ocf sin ool CompositeSignal

0.7Q7 -0.707 4.707 0.707

4,707 -0.707 0.707 0.707

cos(ot n/4) f+ + cos(ru"f 3r/4) 3r/4) cos(<o"tco$(0)cl- ty'4)

290

DGIALMoDULATtoN HADto AND sysrEMs

TABLE6.3 Ouadrature SignalCoefficiente g-pSKModutatlon for Quadrature Coefficients DataValues 011 010 000 001 101 100 110 111
cos ocf sin o.f CompositeSignal

0.924 0.383 -0.383 -{.924 -0.924 -{.383 0.383 0.924

-{,383 4.924 -{.924 -o,383 0.383 0.924 0.924 0.383

cos(cu"f dB) + cos(ro"f 3r/8) + cos(o"t+ 5nl8) cos(ro"f 7rl8) + * cos(ohf 7rrle) cos(ocf- 5nl8) cos(ro.f-3nl8) cos(ro.f dB)

of quadrature signalrepresentations the4-psK signals for presented Figure6.9.Tain ble 6.3 providesa corresponding specification an g-psK systemusing signal for phases provided thephasor as in diagram ofFigure6.10.Thephasor diagram assumes counterclockwise rotation, hence sinefunctionlagsthecosine and the functionby 90o. Most of the rest of this chapterrelies heavily on quadrature signalrepresentations to describe various modulation concepts, analyses, implementationr. and Modulator Implementatlone A varietyof techniques possible implementing psK modulators. mentioned are for As whendiscussing PRK modulation, 2-psK modulator beimplemented merely a can by invertingthecarier (multiplyingby -l) for a logic 0 andby nof invertingfor a logic l. someof the basictechniques psK signals usedfor generating multiple-phase are thefollowins;

dn 0r.t

Figure 6.10 Phasor diagram B-pSKsignal. of

MODULATION 291 6.1 DIGITAL

at usingdigital signalprocessing suitably waveforms of L synthesis the desired modems). (asin voiceband low carrierfrequencies the between phases of multiplephases a singlecarrierandselecting 2. Generating on depending the datavalues. to througha switchingarrangement provide delaysselected 3. Using controlled signals the to phase shifts.Delaysareoften used generate separate the desired 2. in method signals. of as the & Generating PSK signals a linearcombination quadrature of a represent directimplementation multiphase techniques Noneof theforegoing 6.8 Equation directly,a deTo implement 6.8. in as PSKmodulation defined Equation to shiftsin directproportion the levelsin carrierphase that vice is needed produces wherea multipliercan of case Z-PSK for Except thespecial signalmn(t). thebaseband +180o do phase shifts,suchdevices not exist' be usedto produce PSK signalsif a quadrature can signals produce by Direct modulation baseband is signalimplementation used,as indicatedin method4' Actually, two multilevel (I) one to signals need be established: for thein-phase signalandonefor the baseband for to are (0) signal. signals referred asr4(t) andtt?q(t) baseband These out-of-phase corsignals p signals, for The levelschosen thetwo baseband respectively. the1 and a needed repre$ent PSK signalasa linearcombination to to respond the coefficients defined how an 8-PSKsignal, Figure6.11 shows For of the/ andQ signals. example, quadrature signals. two by in Table6.3,canbegenerated adding amplitude-modulated 6.I 2. This in is implementation provided Figure of A blockdiagram thecorresponding for not particularform of modulatoris chosen, so much asa recommendation actual importantmodulationconceptsand is it but implementation, because demonstrates of requirements PSK signaling' the usefulin analyzing spectrum Demod uI ator Irr p le m e ntati o n with the aid of a mustbe detected all envelope,* PSK systems Owing to the constant with oneof thetwo is theidealreference coherent For localreference. Z-PSKsystems, signal, a is phases. Whenthis reference multiplied(mixed)with an in-phase possible phase, maxia theopposite Whenmultipliedby positive outputis obtained. maximum In outputis obtained. this manner,2-PSKprovidesantipodalperformmum negative process for The is reference established. demodulation ancewhena local coherent in 2-PSKis presented Figure6.4 andEquation6.4, wherethe mixing and filtering signalruz(t). the recovers baseband process effectively filter shownin Figure6.4 is generally of combination a mixer anda low-pass The mathematipropertyis represented detection phase The detector. phase referredto asa cally as
*Discussions to this point have not considered the effects of filtering on constant-envelopesignals. A heavily filtered PSK signal does not have a constant envelope. However, as long as filtering occurs after channel nonlinearities (e,g., power amplifiers), the most harmful effect of a nonlinearity, spectrum sprcading,is avoided.

29?

DIGITAL MODULATION RADIOSY$TEMS AND

tr(ll ' frr . cB @.r

rq {rl = ng ' rin o.r

t k l = r f ( r l + r Oi r l

ilt=fiQl ilO r ln9t

0r = FhrF ol Jrh Intflil

Figure 6.11 Generationof 8-pSK signals by superposition of quadrature-amplitudemodulated signals.

+ 0) (2) ocr} #r; = 1o*Ouss{cos(ro"r cos = lowpass{cos cos cos S+ Q 2ro"t sin2qrl
=COs0

(6.10)

wherelowpass{.}is a low-pass filter functiondesigned removetwice carrier to terms. Whendetecting 2-PSKmodulation, single-phase a detector indicates whether the received phase closerto 0oor to 180".Thedesired is information directlyavailable is asthepolarityof thephase detector outputcosQ.In multiphase systems, however, the information providedby a single-phase detector inadequate two reasons. is for First,

Ampliturlc moduhtid Id{ml

Oonnrmerryrlopr PSK$nd

$n adc t

Amplltudt modrlrted 0SCul

Figure 6.12 Generalized PSK modulatorstructure.

MODULATION 293 6.1 DIGITAL

Secas no of a measure cos$ provides information to whether is positiveor negative' Q as to proportional the signalamplitude well as is detector ond,theoutputof thephase refunless outputis meaningless detector of the to cos$. Hence magnitude thephase erenced the signalamplitude. to problemsare overcomeif a secondmixer and filter Both of the aforementioned the As reference. expected, bestperformto with respect a different the measure phase to is reference orthogonal thefirst. Ify{r) is theoutwhenthesecond is ance obtained phase detector 6. in defined Equation I 0, thenthesecond put ofthe first phase detector becomes outputyQ(r) + lB$) = lowpass{cos(o"r0) (2) sin rrl.rl = _sin 0

(6.11)

phase ambiguity the phase not detector only resolves positive/negative Thesecond can All reference. decisions be an the but alsoeliminates needto establish amplitude As outputandnot on the magnitude. a first detector on based thepolarityof a phase in defined Table6.2'Noticethatthe of detection the4-PSKsignals consider example, angleis positive(tt/4 or 3nl4) anda 1 othfirst databit in a pair is a 0 whenthephase by specified thepolarityof sin Q:theoutHence first databit is completely the erwise. databit is a I whenthe yA(f).Similarly,the second phase put of the second detector all phase it/4, indicatingthat the polarityofyr(fl provides informationnecessary is of bit. to detectthe second The basicimplementation a 4-PSK (QPSK)demodulato is tor/detector shownin Figure6.13.AIso shownis a 4-PSKmodulator emphasize is A the between modulatorand demodulator. 4-PSK system prethe relationships it and it because is a popularsystem because is a usefulfoundation specifically $ented techniques' othermodulation for describing shownin Figure6.13is that concept noticein *re 4-PSKsystem to An important The datastreams. modulatordividesthe incoming two thereare,in e$$ence, separate modulatorl andthe out-ofbit streamso that bits are sentaltematelyto the in-phase phase deat bits appear the outputof the respective phase same modulator These O. In backinto a serialbit $tream. wherethey areinterleaved tectorsin the demodulator, using are binary PSK channels established independent two essentially this manner to are cos and carriers r.rlct sin ocf. Thechannels usuallyreferred asthe theorthogonal within an two of This respectively. technique establishing channels I andSchannels, referredto asquadraturemultiplexing' existingbandwidthis sometimes are in As long asthe carriersin the modulatorandthe references the demodulator the in (coherence maintained bothchannels thereceiver), 1and for is truly orthogonal in do B channels not interferewith eachother.Any amountof misalignment thesereCrosstalkalso channels. betweenthe two quadrature cros$talk lationshipscauses channel. in phase distortion thetransmission if arises thereis unequalized the multiplexingincreases capacity thatquadrature At first thoughtit might seem however,thatthebinary givenbandwidthby a factorof 2. It mustbe remembered, of a Hencethebandsignal. is channel a double-sideband PSK signalon eachquadrature utilizedin comis multiplexing, only 507o withoutquadrature of the channel, width

?,94

DIGITAL MODULATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEMS

parison to a single-sidebandsy$tem. when quadraturechannels are used, a singlesideband operation is no longer possible since the sideband separationprocess deshoys the orthogonality of the two signals.In essence, quadraturemultiplexing only recoversthe loss of capacity incurred by the double-sidebandspecfrum.In fact, $ome single-sidebandmodulators [10] possessa remarkable resemblanceto the epsK modulator shown in Figure 6.13. Demodulation and detection of higher level psK systemsare complicated by the fact that the use of only two referencesdoes not provide a simple meansof detecting all databits. There are two basic ways in which simple decisions(positive versusnega* tive) can be establishedto detect all data. One method is to establishmore references in the receiver and measurethe phaseof the received signal with respectto the aclditional references.The secondmethod is to use only two referencesand related phase detectorsand generateall additional measurements linear combinationsof the first two. as

D|tr Input t 0 1 0 1 0

Frtqudrcy HrcG

4-PSK $lgnrl

lflf
Q Chrnnd

4-PISK Signal

Dt$ iltput

r 0
0 t

1
0

Q Glunml (h)

Figure 6.13 Four-PSK modulator-demodulator structure: (a) modulator; (D) demodulatordetector.

MODULATION 295 6.1 DIGITAL

for detection. references 8-PSK Figure6.14 Receiver

in defined Table6.3 the consider 8-PSKsystem of As anexample thefirst method, if obtained two can for andshownin Figure6.10.Optimumdetection this system be at to detectoroutputsareprovidedwith respect references +ru/4and additionalphase -tc/4.Thetwo newreferences designated andB asshownin Figure6.14' A are are to corresponding the four references deterdetectors The ouputs of four phase minedasfollows;

+ 0Xz) sin to"f = -sin S } )0 = lowpass{cos(ro"r = lowpasscos(co"t OXz)sin(rrl"r i r) } + + yu { =O.707 0 - 0.707 $ sin cos + yr = lowpass{cos(rrr.r0X2) cosoct} = cosS = lowpass{cos(ro"t + 0X2)cos(co"ti n)} * yA = 0;707 $ + 0.707sinQ cos

(6.12)

As an aid in determining the appropriatedecision logic, theseequationshave been evaluatedfor each of the eight possible signal phasesand listed in Table 6.4. Examination of Table 6.4 indicatesthat the fust data bit is I whenever yg is positive. Similarly, the seconddatabit is 1 whenevery1is positive. The third databit is a I whenever bit is )a,lr, and y6 are all positive or when they are all negative.Hence the third data a logical combination of phasedetectoroutputs' In summary, determinedas

D r =Q

Dz=I

Dt=AIB+AIB

(6.13)

positive representing whereDi is the lth databit and0, /, A, andB arelogic variables from yg, /r, )4, andyr' respectively. outputs

296

DtcrrAL MoDULATtoN HADto AND sysrEMs

TABLE6.4 Elght-P$KPhaeeDetactorOutpurs
Data

Phase
nl8 3rll8 5nl8 7r18 -hil8 -5nl8 -3?r/8 4tlB

Yn

YB

Yt

YA

011 010 000 001 101 100 110 111

-0.383 4.924 -0.924 4,383 0.383 0.924 0.9?4 0.383

0.383 4.383 {.924 -0.924 -0.383 0,383 0.924 0.924

0.924 0.383 -0.383 -0.924 -0.924 {.383 0,383 0.924

0.924 0.924 0.383 4.383 -0.924 4.924 4.383 0,383

Another method detecting of 8-PSKsignals, whichavoids extrareferences two and phase detectors, revealed thephase is in detector Equation 6.12.The exhamea$urementsyd andy6 canbe determined as h= 0.70'lyr O.707yn + t6= 0.7O7y, 0.707y, (6.14)

Hencethe Ja and)r measurements be obtainedas linear combinations the can of quadrature channelphasemeasurements andJg, andno additionalphase y7 detectors arerequired. resulting The 8-PSKdemodulator/detector is shown Figure6.15.Noin tice that implementation the linearcombinations Equation of in 6.14canignorethe magnitude the0.707multiplierssinceonly the signof theresultis needed. of The linear combinations Equation6.14 essentially in represent rotationof the a quadrature channel basis vectors throughanangleofr/4 radians. changing anBy the gle of rotation, linearcombinations the needed otherphase for measuremen6 easare

Figure 6.15 Eight-PSK demodulator-detector usingonly two references,

297 MODULATION 6.1 DIGITAL demodulators can be implemented ily determined. Hence all phase-detector-based linear combinations as needed.The general with two phase detectors and as many equation for the linear combinationsproduced by a rotation of a radiansis v"=v^coscL-y,slng
y. = v^ $rn fl, + V, cOSg,

(6.1s)

Beference and Clock Recovery paragraphs require local,phase-coall a in di$cussed thepreceding Thedemodulators systems re* multiple-pha$e herent,carrierreference their operation.Furthermore, for with the first one. Recoveryof any quire at leastone more reference quadrature in -rapshift keyingis a double-sideband is reference complicated thefact thatphase by line spectral at In is pressed system. otherwords,there no discrete carier modulation the carrierfrequencyasthereis with someothertypesof modulation.In fact, theFCC signal.The linesareallowedin thefransmitted that hasruledspecifically no spectral by is absence a spectral at thecarrierfrequency overcome usingoneof several line of a reference established, is processing techniques nonlinear [1]. After one coherent quadrature is reference obtainedby delayingor differentiatingthe flust. is in is ways.Oncecarrierrecovery accomplished Clockrecovery obtained several in by occurs, clockcanbe obtained lockingontotransitions the the anddemodulation as Baseband occurs thoughthesignalhasneverbeen clockrecovery signal. baseband dibe In the modulated demodulated. contrast, clock can sometimes recovered and is rectly from the modulated signal.If a PSK signalis heavilyfiltered,the envelope frequency. at modulation the signaling amplitude in fact, contains not constant and, by of independently signaldemodulation, envelope Hence clockcanberecovered, the filteredPSK signal[2]. a detecting heavily halfby Clock transitionsareoften assured purposelyshifting thecarrierreference the Using4-PSK,for example, references interval. pointsin every signal waybetween sigby wouldbe shifted 45o.Duringanyoneintervaltherearestill only four possible between states beingaligned alternate the nal states by separated 90o.However, signal a in at with thel andQ axes beingaligned 45', asshown Figure6'9' Because phase and and the(filtered)carier envelope the interval, both with shiftis ensured everysymbol shifts, Without the reference transitions. amplitude recovered signalhave baseband in as minimumdensityof datatransitions described properclockrecovery requires a 4. Chapter D itfere ntial Detectl o n merelycompafe somesystems reference, a tO AS an alternative recovering Coherent interval.The signalrein intervalto the phase the previous in the phase the present for intervalis delayed onesignalintervalandis usedasa refceivedin theprevious Assuming thedatahavebeen that erence demodulate signalin thenextinterval. the to phase positions, datacanbe the of shift, instead absolute encoded termsof phase in referredto as"differential dete{tion," inherproperly.Hencethis technique, decoded ently requiresdifferential encoding.

298

DIGITALMODULATION AND RADIOSYSTEMS

In general, PSKsystems require differential encoding sincethereceivers normally haveno means determining of whether recovered a reference a sinereference a is or cosine reference.Furthermore, polarityof therecovered the reference ambiguous. is Thuserrorprobabilities PSKsystems doubled for are automatically because thedifof ferentialencoding process. Differentialdetection, the otherhand,impliesan even on greater of performance loss sincea noisyreference usedin thedemodulation is process. Typically,differential detection imposes penaltyof I to 2 dB in signal-to-noise a ratio[10]. PSK Specta By far theeasiest to determine spectrum a PSKsignal to analyze baseway the of is the bandwaveforms applied thequadrature to channels. Owingto theorthogonality the of two channels, signals uncorrelated, thecomposite the are and spectrum merelythe is sumofthe individual(identical) spectra. In either?-PSKor 4-PSK systems baseband the signalis a symmetric two-level NRZ waveform. corresponding The spectrum thecommon is sin(x)/x spectrum shown in Figure4.2. High-levelsysrems (8-PSKor greater) symmetric use multilevelNRZ pSK baseband baseband signals similarto thatshownin Figure4.16.Themultiphase signalis somewhat differentsinceunevenly spaced levelsasdef,rned Table6.3 are in used. As mentioned chapter4, a multilevelNRZ signalhasthe samespectrum a in as two-levelsignal.Henceall conventional PSK systems produce spectrum fola that lows the sin(x)/xresponse definedin Equation but translated the carrierfre4.1 to quency.tFigure 6.16 showsthe PSK spectrum two-, four-, and eight-phase for systems designed providethesame to datarate.Hence higherlevelsystems the signal at lower ratesandhaveproportionately narTower spectra. PSK Error Pertormance The errorperformatrce any digital modulation of system fundamentally is relatedto thedistance pointsin a signalspace between diagram. example, z-psK sy$tem, For a asrepresented the phase in diagramof Figure6.9, is capable optimumerrorperof formance sincethe two signalpointshavemaximumseparation a given power for level (radiusof thecircle).In otherwords,one2*psK signalis the exactnegative of the other'Hence2-PSKmodulation provides antipodal errorperformance defined as in Chapter 4. Theerrorperformance a multiphase of PSK system easilycompared a 2-psK is to system determining relativedecrease theerrordistance by the in (voltage outputof a properlyreferenced phase detector). additionto the error distance, In however,the relativevalues thenoisebandwidths of (Recallthatthenoise mustalsobeconsidered. bandwidth effectivelydetermines variance the noisesamples.) the of
*Absolute phase can be determined if a particular pattern in the data sream such as a framing pattern is ,unambiguously related to some particular phase of the caxrier. 'The baseband levels must be unconelated to each other to produce a sin(.r)/.rspectrum,If phasetransitions from one interval to the next are restricted in some manner, the baseband levels are correlated. and a different spectrum results.

MODULATION ?99 6.1 DIGITAL

6 3
F

E s
E

E
T

\ "o*\

I
l - I 3T 2t ? 3r
t T

.l 3T

3 2T

_E3T

PSK signals of carryingequaldatarates. Figure 6.16 Spectrum unfiltered The general expression for the distance between adjacent points in a multiphase PSK systemis

d= 2 ,i"

(6.r6)

[_N) whereN is the number phases. of A generalexpression the bit error probability (or bit error rate) of an N-phase of is PSKsystem derivedin AppendixC as

= (z) Pu*fu erf

where

(6.17)

,=,*F)u"*rt"'["+J
the 4-PSKprovides same errorper6.17reveals to Equation that,with respect EblNg, provideoptimum both systems earlier, formance does2-PSK.Thus,asmentioned as has The performance, 4-PSKutilizeshalf asmuchbandwidth. 4-PSKsystem an but of error distance that is 3 dB smallerthan the error distance Z-PSK.However,the (indicating in is shorter errordistance offsetby a 3-dB decrease thenoisebandwidth For to in a 3-dB reduction noisepowerat the detector). the 4-PSKsystem havethe noise a it samenoisepowerat the detector would haveto experience 3-dB greater ratios density. Hence signal-power-to-noise-power (SNRs)can spectral conventional Howevet,as parameters comparing digital modulationsystem$. be misleading for performances termsof SNRsare desiredwhen in mentioned Chapter4, error rate in

300

DtctrAL MoDuLAloN RADto AND sysrEMS

E
o

t =
t

0 r 1 1 2 t s 1 4 1 8 t 8 Enrqy-prrdt-E-noh-dindty mio A/Vo {dBl

Figure 6.17 Errorratesof PSKmodulation systems.

MoDULATToN 301 6.1 DtcrrAL or determiningthe effectsof interference when specifyingerror rate$with respectto of quantities. measurable Figure6.17displays errorperformance 2-, 4-,8-, 16-, the needed for Appendix provides relationships the C and32-PSKasa functionof E6lNs. ratesin termsof SNR. enor 6.1.4 QuadratureAmplitude Modulation phase previously, convenient shift keyingwith means representing of As described a signals. thecase 4-PSK,the of In involvestheuseof quadrature four or morephases quadrature by of two signals represent separate channels virtue of the independence In the signals eachquadrature for channel. higherlevel PSK systems, the baseband level of is level of a baseband signalfor the1 channel not independent thebaseband (see havebeen signals for theQ channel Table6.3or Figure6.I I ). After thebaseband processes channel and however, quadrature the modulation demodulation established, for areindependent all PSK systems. (QAM) canbeviewedasanextension multiof modulation amplitude Quadrature independently phase are signals generated PSKmodulation wherein two baseband the (quadrature) independent channels established Thustwo completely are ofeachother. processes. thespecial oftwo levIn case includingthebaseband codinganddetection (fl) on eachchannel, system identicalto 4-PSKandis oftenreferred as to is els the however, distincflydifferentfrom the higher are such.Higher level QAM systems, obof Figure6.18shows signalconstellation a I6-QAM system a levelPSK $ystems. sigquadrature channel. dotsrepresent The composite tainedfrom four levelson each amplitudelevels in each nal points while the hatchmarks on the axesrepresent quadrature Figure 6.19 showsa basic QAM modulatorand demodulator channel. waveform l6-QAM. for structure alongwith,arepresentative the Noticethat,in contrast PSK signals, QAM signalshownin Figure6.I 8 does to with is nothavea constant A envelope. constant envelope maintained PSKmodulation channels. QAM system on thequadrature A by restricting combination levels of the indeare doesnot restrictthe combinations sincethe levelson eachchannel selected amplifiers. pendenfly. be cannot usedwith saturating ThusQAM modulation

Figure 6.18 Signalconstellation I6-QAM modulation. of

30?

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN HADIo AND SYSTEMS

Modulrtor

Oetnodulrtor

Ftgure6.19 QAMmodulator-demodulator. Thespectrum a QAM system determined thespectrum thebaseband of is by of signalsapplied thequadrature to channels. Sincethese signals havethesame basicstructure as the baseband PSK signals,QAM spectrumshapes identicalto psK are spectrum shapes with equalnumbers signalpoints.Specifically,l6-eAM hasa of spectrum shape is identicalto I6-PSK,and64-QAM hasa $pectrum that shape identical to tr-PSK. Eventhoughthe spechumshapes identical,the error performances the two are of system$ quitedifferent. are with largenumbers signal points, of systems always eAM outperform PSK systems. basicreason thatthe distance The is between signalpoints in a PSK $y$tem smallerthanthe distance is between pointsin a comparable QAM system. Figure6.20compares signalpoinrsof a I6-QAM sysrem the with the signal setof a 16-PSK system usingthesame peakpower.

r6-oi.u

r6-P$K

Figure 6.20 Comparison I6-QAM and I6-PSK signalsets. of

6,1 DIGITAL MODULATION 303 The general expressionfor the distance between adjacent signal points in a unit peak-amplitudeQAM systemwith /, levels on each axis is

d= {2 L-l

(6. 8) r

over has Equations 6.16and6.18revealthatan n-aryQAM system an advantage an powerlevels, peakpowerlevel.In termsof average with the same n-aryPSK system advantage. following equation, the QAM system an evengreater has The derivedin for ratio expression the peak-to-average of a QAM a AppendixC, provides general svstem:
Peakpower L(L - I)2

(6.re)

power zZ!!l 1zi- t1? Average

relativeto a of the Example6.1. Determine enor performance a I6-PSK system I6-QAM systemwith the samepeak power level. Also determinethe relative powers. performance respect identicalaverage with to provideidenticalnumbers signalpoints,they of Solution. Sincethe two systems bandwidthfor a given datarate.Thusthe signalat the samerateandrequirethe same between is by relativeerrorperformance completelydetermined therelativedistances signal points. (When different signalratesare used,the effect of different noise Equations 6.16and in Evaluating bandwidths thereceiver$ mu$talsobe considered.) for over 16-PSK a givenpeak advantage 6.18indicate$ 16-QAMhasa 1.64-dB that powerratio of power.Equation6.19indicates that I6-QAM hasa peak-to-average ratios,the advantage a of haveunity peak-to-average 2.55 dB. SincePSK $ystems powers. 16-QAMsystem is average overa 16-PSK 4.19dB for equal bettermodulation of Theresults Example I showthat I 6-QAM is a significantly 6. like modelsthathaveno technology for formatthan 16-PSK applications voiceband of advantage I6-QAM is the limits.- In digital microwave applications performance but, nevertheless, is at 16 signal it diminishedby availableamplifier technology, reasons. points that PSK modulationdefersto QAM modulationfor performance digital radiosused8-PSKmodulation Somefirst-generation [13] and someused
'Voiceband

modems are not resticted by technology but by signal power limits to prevent intetference with other signals in the network. It is ironic that these rcstrictions arise primarily from old FDM analog radio systems in which a high-powered signal in one channel could create inter{erence (crosstalk) into other channels. In a predominantly digital network the main signal limitation would be the saturation point of PCM encoders(and possibly crosstalk in subscriberpairs). It is also ironic that increasing the signal power ofa voiceband modem (V.34 and earlier) to falljust short ofthe PCM saturation point would not improve performance in a mostly digital network. Performance of high-speed modems in this case is primarily determined by multiplicative noise crcated by PCM companders[18].

304

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN HADIo AND SYSTEMS :21.96d8

Figure 6.21 256QAM andstepped square QAM. 256

I6-QAM [a] with comparable performance. Second-generation use64-eAM radios followedby third-generation radioswith 256-QAM [16, t7]. [5] Reliable operation high-density of modulation formars 256-eAM requires like extremelylinearamplifiersto toleratethewide rangeof signalamplitudes extremely and accurate adaptive equalizers removesmallpercentages intersymbolinterference to of that arisewhen a high-amplitude pulse is kansmittedadjacent a low-amplitude to pulse.Amplifier andequalizer performance requirements basically functionof are a thedynamic rangeof thesignalamplitudes*;

Dynamic roilg =

lorog,ot"Tl

(6.20)

The dynamicrangeof a square QAM modulationformat canbe improvedby modifying thesignalsetto eliminate pointsthatproduce corner highpeakpowers. one such technique referredto as 256-stepped (256-sseAM) tlgl is shownin square QAM Figure6.21,whereit canbe compared with the signalsetof conventional 256-eAM. Example6.2. Determine dynamicrangeof both the conventional the 256-eAM signalsetandthe 256-SSQAM signalsetshownin Figure6.21. Solution. Usingintegral quadrature of l, 3,5,7,9,1 l, 13,and unitsalong each axis 15for 256-QAM,thedynamic range(DR) is
/ t'- 2 - r - t s 2 \ q ^" I DR(256-QAM):lOlosr |l o 12+12 | \ , / = 23.52 dB
'Ifthe quadrature carriers are perfectly recovered, intersymbol interference would only be a functio n ofthe dynamic range along each axis. To make an allowance for quadrature carrier phase enor, which causes interfercnce between I and p channels, the composite signal power is used.

. 6,1 DIGITAL MODULATION 305

Thehighestamplitude is signalpoint of 256-SSQAM the (5,17)point.Thusthe dyof namicrange the256-SSQAM signalis

= lolog,o DR(256-ssQAM) l'Hl

\:21.96 dB

is The resultof Example6.2 showsthatthe peakpowerof 256-SSQAM 1.56dB 256-QAMfor the same signalpoint sepalowerthanthepeakpowerof conventional 256-SSQAM operate with 1.56 ration.Thusin a peak-power limited application, can 256-QAM.Whenother,lesssignifithan dB moresignalseparation canconventional radio that 256-SSQAM cantfactors considered, reference reports a 140-Mbps are [20] advantage. at6 GHzhasa 2-dB performance The theoretical derivedin AppendixC, enor rateequation QAM modulation, for number levof baseband rateequation enor with thesame to is identical themultilevel equation usedto produce effor ratecurves 4-, 16-,64-,and256-QAM for is els.This in the modulation Figure6.??.Table6.5 compares most coillmonforms of digital microwave radiosystems. modulation usedin point-to-point Offeet Keylng signals highJevelPSK modulaof of in Because the interdependence the baseband However, coincide. channels tion, the signaltransitions thequadrature on necessarily they are not channels, independently modulate quadrature the sinceQAM systems Whenthesignalintervals to on consffained alignthesignalintervals thetwo channels. (Figure6.23),themodeof operation referred asoffset to is otherby 507o overlap each (morecommonlyreusedon 4-QAM systems keying.Offsetkeying is commonly of The ferredto as4-PSKor QPSKsystems). mainadvantage offsetkeyingliesin the to recovery synchronized theincoming circuitryto become carabilityof thereference (aligned) rier at lower signal-to-noise ratiosthanconventional QAM andQPSKsystems[21,22], QAM Representation of Mlnimum Shlft Keying haveassumed useof baseband signals the discussions QAM sy$tems Thepreceding of pulseshapes A view of QAM allowsarbitrary with NRZ levelencoding. moregeneral pulseshape a halfis in generating baseband signals. Oneparticularly interesting the pulse; sinusoid

A(t):cosff I r < / < + l F "z

\ ) where? is the duration a sienalinterval. of

(6.21)

306

DGtrAL MoDUt-ATtoN RADto AND sysrEMs

10-l

\ \
t0-?

\ \

\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
zEE-I evel

\
l0-3

e
E o

1o-4

= 5

to
d

10-6

\ \

to4

l(r7

\l
\ \
2{t 2l

0l

+
l0- 9 10 lt

t6-i

32-lcvil

\
12 13 t4 t5 t8 r7 18 rg Avrage rnergy-per-bit-to - mis - dsrrlty rutio Eb /,Vo (dBl Error rates of QAM modulation systems.

Figure 6.22

6.1 DIGITAL 307 MODULATION ol Basedon Equal TABLE6.5 Comparison VarlousDigitalModulatlon Technlquss Data Rstes Signal-to-Noise^Ratios forBER= 10* (dB) System Designation 2-PSK 4.PSK,4-QAM QPR 8-PSK 16.QAM 16-QPR 16.PSK 32.QAM 64.QAM Information (bp#Hz) Density 1 2
Zb
q

EblNo the on Channel 10,6 10.6 1?,6 14.0 14.5 16.5 18,3 17.4 18.8

SNHat Decision Peak-to-Average Hatio(dB)e Circuit 13.6 13,6 17.6 't8.8 20.5 24.5 24.3 24.4 26,6 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 2.55 4.55 0.0 2.3 3.68

4 4b 4 5 6

aRetio maximum powerto averag signalpowerwith random data.MBasured a of Bignal on steady-state liltor channel square-rool partitloning. with Dlna strictBns, signalbandwidth a panial-response of th6 systmis no narrower than the th6orBtical (Nyquist) As however, partialthe bandwidth a conesponding fulFresponse mannr, of sybtem. a practical re8pons systems lsss require about17ol, bandwidth [21].

pulseshaping duration is used bothchannels an offset of on 7 of If half-sinusoidal p(r) as the signals andq(r) canbe expressed keyedQAM system, quadrature channel follows;

= p(t)ai*,[r$J""- +t=,=+t) +r f
= Q(t) aq'-[ff)-i" *"t ( 0 < r < I )
(6.22)

tr(rl=Dr(,|'cE

" l ^^ l ^ l , l . l ' l".llo l . l ' l ^ l l

rln(dJl

Figure 6.23 Offsetkeyed4-PSKsignaling.

308

DGITAL MoDULATtoNRADto AND sysrEMS

wherea; andc, aredatavalues (tl) for the/ and0 channels, respectively, cos(ntlLT) is shaping the.lchannel, sin(nrl?T) shaping thep channel. on and (Thesinefuncis on tion is usedto account offsetkeying.)Addingthetwo quadrature for signals together andapplyingsome fundamental produces result trigonometric identities the

x(t): p(t)+ q(t) = a i c o l' [ + r +nr) ( a , = n o ) s 7J ( m \ = 4i cos rrj [*t

(a,+au)

(6.23)

Equation 6.23 is essentiallyidentical to Equation 6.6 defining minimum shift keying. Hence, except for a logicJevel transformation of data values, offset QAM with sinusoidalpulse shapingis identical to MSK 15,241.The relationship is further demonstrated in Figure 6.24, which shows how an MSK signal is generatedby offset keyed quadraturechannel modulation with sinusoidalpulse shaping.

I-Channel brrohnd: Dr(rl

,5rltl = Df(tl ' cor (o.rl

Q-Chennelbftsbrnd: Dg lrl

(tl .$a = Dq (rl . rin (<o.rl

(rl $(tl = sr{tl +.So

l ^ lr,^It
w, =2tf,

l r l r . l r " l r " l ^l l^ l ^ l o o
lo * 2'l5lt

fi =a.isrt

Figure 6.24 MSK signaling produced offsetkeyedQAM with sinusoidal by pulseshapes.

MoDULATToN 309 6.1 DterrAL

6 3
F

T
E t

f,

Frnumcrr {Hzl

Figure 6.25 Powerspectra MSK and4-PSKsignals. of

4These to foregoing resultsshowthatMSK is very closelyrelated offset-keyed pulseshapes for baseband PSK. The only difference in the useof half-sinusoidal is pulseshapes 4-PSK.Because this closerelationship, is inof it MSK andsquare for in Figure6.25.As inof teresting compare amplitude spectra the two systems to the than higherfrequency null dicated, MSK spectrum its first spectral at a 507o has the is thanthe4-PSK 4-PSK'sfirst null. Otherthanthis,theMSK spectrum morecompact the lower in amplitude frequencies outside mainlobe and at spectrum is significantly where conof thespectrum. thigreason MSK is anattractive modulation technique For is and Onesuchapplication on digital stantenvelopes little or no filteringaredesired. requiring transsatellite divisionsubchannels In applications links with frequency [7]. mitter filters, MSK hasno particularadvantage a over 4-PSK and usuallyrequires modulator. morecomplicated 6.1.5 CarrlerlessAmplitude and Phase Modulatlon form of amplitudeand phase(CAP) modulation[25] is a specialized Carrierless in Figure6.26,no explicitmodulation a carrier(or carriers) ocof QAM. As indicated generated filter two separate signals directly are with DSP curs.Instead, modulated The functions: for anin-phase channel onefor a quadrature channel. in-phase one and wavewhile thequadf filter convefts channel datadirectlyinto a filteredDSPcosine the raturefilter converts channel datainto a filteredDSPsinewave.In this manner 0 (Typiinto symbolrateis lockedto animpliedcarrierembedded thefilter algorithm. carier frequency equalto thebaudratesothereis onecycleof is cally,theembedded signals a "carrier"in eachsymbolinterval.)After fhein-phase quadrature-phase and

310

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN HADIo AND SYSTEMS

Figure6.26 CAPmodulator blockdiagram. areadded,the result is convertedto an analogsignaland f,rltered smooththe DSp to sampling frequency. CAP modulationis used in one versionof asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) [26] and for a 51.84-Mbps unshielded twisted-pair ATM srandard [27]. ADSL applications described Chapter11. are in 6.1.6 Partlal-ResponseQAM Another popular modulationtechniqueis quadrature partial-response signaling (QPRS). commonly As implemented is [28], a QPRSmodularor nothingmorethana filter that "over filters" the quadraQAM modulatorfollowed by a narrow-bandpass ture signalsand producescontrolledintersymbolinterference eachchannel.The in mostcommon application QPRS of involvestwo levelson each channel beforefiltering andthreelevelsafterward (see Chapter 4). This systemis essentially 4-PSK systemwith partial-response a filtering to increase information the density. shown Figure6.27,theeffectof partial-re$ponse As in fiIteringis to produce ninesignalpointsfrom theoriginalfour. In a similarmanner, a 16-QAMpartial-response system, with four levelson eachchannel beforefiltering, hasseven levelsafterward 49 signalpointsin all t291. and

Edtor" filtfiing

Afti. tlltfiing

Figure 6.27 QPRSsignalconstellations.

\-

MODULATION 31 1 6.1 DIGITAL

Heiredcodne chonncl

Truncetion loll = OdB (dueto prkingf Cdinc chrnnol

NBw= 1/r

Sigr|nl sspsr|tiod

=,/Ve

-i

Truncrtlon lon = 2dB

= NBW Z/tT (2dBbolort l/n

Signrl rGpdratlon

=t/Iatz

with systems equal rates. data of and Figure6.2E ComparisonQPSK QPRS

can system beconventional Althoughthemodulators a QPRS of QAM modulators, must be modified to accountfor the extra levels in the the demodulator/detectors processes eachchannel for the After the signalis demodulated, detection waveform. in PRSdetectionprocedures described areindependent identicalto the baseband and 4. Chapter in a to Figure6.28compares QPRSsystem a QPSK(4-PSK)system termsof equal transmitpowersaredifferent,howpeakpowerout of the modulator. The average the system overfiltersthe signalto reduce transthe ever,because partial-respon$e by practice,the informationdensityis increased about 177o mitted bandwidth.In

t231.
sigbetween filteringcutsthedistance 4, in As discussed Chapter partial-response However,the reductionin error performance. nal pointsin half, indicatinga 6-dB of filter is lowerthanthenoisebandwidth thecornoisebandwidth a PRSreceive of is degradation rethat someof theenor distance system full-response so responding loss 6.28the net performance of a For shownin Figure covered. the filter systems the to that is QPRSsystem 4 dB. Notice,however, with respect poweron thechannel performance is only 2 dB. loss 6.1.7 Trellls-Coded Modulation in of The 2-dB pedormance disadvantage PRS mentioned the previoussectionasone by sumes dataaredetected makingharddecisions bit at a time.As described that If two that in Chapter however, PRSsignalhasredundancy overlaps bit intervals. a 4, the two circuitry processes signalspanning intervalsbeforemakinghard the detection signalin penalty be recovered. a Processing redundant the can decisions performance

312

DrcrTAL MoDULATtoNRADto AND sysrEMS

this way is an example a maximumlikelihoodor viterbi decoding of algorithm[30] for redundant signals. theredundancy extended morelevelsandmoreintervals If is to andoptimallyprocessed, greater even codinggainsarepossible. typicallyimpleAs mented, these extensions extrasignalpointswith reskicted use (transitionrr sequences points).Whenthe allowedsequences represented between are with stateffansition diagrams, form a trellis.Hence termtrellis-coded they the (TcM) t3l, 3zl. modulation As mentioned chapter4,TCM is very similartoconvolutional in coding.Themajor differenceis that convolutional coding addsredundant symbols(increases the bandwidth) TCM addsredundant but signallevels(increases signalspace). the Both $ystems detected similar fashions are in usingtrellis diagrams. The decoding algorithmsof both$ystems essentially determine mostlikely sequence states the the of of tran$mitted codes, transitions The between states thendetermine data. the As a TCM example, consider expansion a 4-PSKsignalsetto an B-psK sigthe of nal setas shownin Figure6.29.Althoughthereareeightsignalpointsin the g-psK constellation, only four pointscanbe freelychosen any oneinterval.which four in pointscanbe chosen dependent is ofthe signalpointschosen previous in intervals. A TCM demodulator/decoder determines then which of the allowedsignalsequences mostcloselymatches received a $equence beforemakingharddatadecisions. Figure6.29 showsthat if datadecisions madeoneintervalat a time. without are processing redundancy, errorperformance ttreexpanded the the of signalsetis 5.33 dB worsethantheoriginalsignalset(a consequence thenoise powermarginof adof jacentsignalpointsbeingreduced from 0.5 to 0.146).Also shownin Figure6.29are thenoisemargins morewidely separated of signalpoints.TCM recovers 5.33-dB the penalty, more,by ensuring allowedsequences and all includesomeof thelargerdistances. Furthermore, noisein only oneintervalis notlikely to produce decision a error. when four-state coded 8-PSKuses transition the rellis shown Figure6.30,theperin formance approaches3-dB improvement a with respect uncoded to 4-psK t3ll. To understand Figure6.30,it is important realizethatit represent$ transito state tionsin theencoding process, signalwaveforms. useof thestates thismannot The in

4 (157.5)

= 0.146 or2= sinlae.s")

5 (202.5)

d3=sint+s")=0.S
dsz=sintoz.b") = 0.854
doz=sintggo)=1.0
Figure 6.29 EighrPSK signalpointsanderrordisrances.

MODULATION 313 6,1 DIGITAL

Figure 6.30 Four-state trellis for 8-PSKmodulation.

past are of means representing history.(All pasthistories enner is just a convenient with are to from onestate another labeled Transitions capsulated just four states.) into Noticethatonly four of the 2 for the8-PSKsignalpointchosen encoding bits of data. pointshavethe sarne $eparaand 8-PSKsignalpointscanbe freelychosen that these proces$ suflrmaare aspects the decoding of tion asuncoded 4-PSK.The significant rizedasfollows; 1 . An allowed transition between two statescan occur with either of two signals,
information does not help discriminate between those which implies sequence two particular signals.However, the two signals in question are chosento have maximal separation(noise margin 1) so redundancyis unnecessary.

2. Transitions that originate in different statesand terminate in any particular state

are encodedwith signalshaving noise power margins of 0.5. that 3 . All sequences begin and end in common statesare at least three intervals long with minimum noise power margins of 0.5, 0.146, and 0.5. Thus the total is noise margin betweenany two minimum-length sequences 1.146.

that to It may be necessary discriminatebetweenseguencerl arelongerthanthreebut with noisepowermarginsof 0.5' Thus in all cases endpoints the involvetransitions thanthenoisemargin than l, whichis 3 dB greater thenoisemarginis alwaysgreater is 4-PSK.Determination the exacterrorrateof a TCM system much of of uncoded is Reference shows detection used. moreinvolvedthanwheninterval-by-interval [31]

314

DGTTAL MoDULATIoN HADto AND sysrEMS

that the bit error rate of coded 8-PSK asymptotically approaches3*dB improvement with respectto 4-PSK as the noise margin would indicate. Example 6.3. A receiver for a trellis-coded modulation system as shown in Figure 6.30 detects a phase sequenceof 20o, 220", and 10o. Determine the allowabre $equenceof three signals with the closest distance to the given received sequence. Assume the starting stateis stateB. solution. To begin with we can determine the closest encoder signal phasesas 22.5",202.5o,22.5",whichcorrespondtosignalpoints l.ExaminationofFigure l,5, 6.30 indicates that this is a disallowed sequence becausea 5 signal cannot follow a I signal. If data were decidedon a symbol-by-symbol basis,an error would certainly be made. By tracing the trellis from state A, a list of allowable state sequences can be determinedas provided in Table 6.6. For eachtransition, the most likely signal of each pair of signals that can produce a particular transition is indicated. The symbol errors (in degrees) eachof thesesignalsis then determinedfollowed by the total sequence for error. As indicated, the most likely statesequence cAA (signal sequence:1,6,0). is Although the result of Example 6.3 indicatesone particular sequence more likely is than any other, there are two other allowable sequences (l4l and 162) that are fairly close to the most likely signal sequence.Notice that these two sequences have end states(C and B) that are different than end stateA ofthe selectedsequence. Thus, there is more information to come as to which is the most likely sequence. Becausestates A and B have no coillmon allowed signals, the next symbol will provide additional discrimination between 160 and 162. The very next signal will not help discriminate between 160 and 141 but the signal following that will. A thorough determinationof the most likely transmitted signal sequence needsto consider other possible starting phasesand, consequently,previous signal values. (This is an exerciseleft to the student.) Coded 8-PSK TCM hasbeenusedin satellitecircuits [33] where nonlinearitiesdictate the use of a constant-envelope signal. TCM with higher density eAM signal sets

TABLE6.6 Sequence and Error Detrmlnatlon Example6.3 for States

Signals 141 351 160 370 143 353 16? 372

Symbol Enors ?,5,62.5, 12.5 9?.5,17.5, 12.5 2.5,27.5,32.5 92.5,72.5,32.5 2.5,62.5, 102.5 92.5, 17.5, 102.5 2.5,27.5,57.5 92.5,72.5,57.5

TotalEnor 77.5 122.5 62.5 197.5 167.5 212.5 87.5 222.5

cBc
DDD CAA DCB CBD DDC CAB DCA

6.1 DIGITAL MODULATI0N 315

V.33 [3a] and voiceband suchasthe 14.4-kbps is usedin high-speed QAM modems with MSK modulation V.34 [35]. TCM can alsobe usedin conjunction 28.8-kbps microwave radiossuchasthe 155-Mbps utilizedin point-to-point TCM hasbeen t361. formatis 128-QAM.NEC refersto TCM 6G150MB radioof NEC.The modulation (MLCM). asmultilevelcodedmodulation 6.1.8 MulticarrlerModulation formats to described thispointit hasbeenimplicitly assumed In all of themodulation opcarriers on on or occurs a singlecarrier, possibly two quadrature thatmodulation (MCM) involvesdividingthe Multicarriermodulation frequency. eratingat the same in that datastreaminto multiple, lower ratesffeams aretransmitted parallelon multiapplications special ple carrierfrequencies. AlthoughMCM hasbeenutilizedin some implethatallowseconomic of in the past[37],It is theemergence DSPtechnology The for applications. and mentation multiplemodulators demodulators commercial of (FFTs), means implementing of MCM utilizesfastFouriertransforms mostcommon for into data dataaredemultiplexed separate streams asshownin Figure6.31.Source into are encoded The eachsubchannel. datafor eachsubchannel thenindependently channel of the representing amplitudes quadrature complexnumbers discrete-level into components a timetransforms complex$pectrum the An FFI carriers. inverse and to that is converted analog transmitted. domainwaveform timewhere incoming the in are of Thebasicsteps theprocess reversed thereceiver domain waveformis sampledand fed to an FFT that recoversa complexspectrum' as components thenprocessed individualQAM (or possiblyPSK) The spectrum are data backinto a composite the signalsto decode data,which arethen multiplexed and of Not stream. includedin Figure6.31areancillaryfunctions equalization clock is component dedicated a pilot signalthatcaras recovery. Normally,onefrequency involvesmerely fbr all subchannels. Amplitudeequalization ries clock information Amplitudeequalizaat amplitudes theoutputof theFFT. scaling FFT component the is eventhough tion may not evenbe requiredif PSK modulation utilized because, the within eachnarrowsubchannel theremaybe amplitude distortionin thechannel,

Encode

InvstEe FFT

Figure 6.31 Multicarrier modulationutilizing fast Fourier transforms.

316

DtctrAL MoDULAIoN RADto AND sysrEMS

distortion is essentiallyflat, which implies that PSK data can be recoveredby merely determining the phaseof each complex frequency term. Multicarrier modulation with an FFT implementation is commonly referred to as discrete multi-tone (DMT) in North America and as orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) in Europe. (The term "orthogonal" occurs becausethe frequency components of an inverse FFT are harmonically related and therefore have zero-valuedcross-correlationproducts.)The terms DMT and OFDM are interchangeable with the exception that in some OFDM applicationsit is understoodthat all subchannels utilize the $ame form of modulation with the same number of bits per channel. In DMT systemsthe modulation of the subchannels more general so that is different dataratescan be carried on different subchannels dependingon the transmission quality of the respectivesubchannels. principal application of DMT is ADSL A by [38] standardized ANSI committee TlEl.4. OFDM is specifiedby EuropeanTelecommunications standards Institute (ETSD as the modulation format for Digital Video Broadcasting(DVB) t391. One of the most attractive featuresof DMT is the inherent ability to match an information signal spectrum to a channel response.An example of such a system is shown in Figure 6,32 that is representative an ADSL application on subscriberwire of pairs. A significant impairment of using existing wire pairs for high-bandwidth clata is the possiblepresenceof bridged taps.ISDN basic rate installationsrequire removal of bridged taps. In an ADSL implementation bridged rap$are accommodatedby detecting their presenceduring channel characterizationand then transmitting only as much information in the affected subchannel(s)as can be reliably supported.Notice that a conventional wideband data signal would experiencesignificant distoftion if ffansmitted on the channel of Figure 6.32. Thus, a significant amount of amplitude (and probably phase)equalizationwould be required.

Bridgedtap notch Narrowband interference

Channel response

Information per density subchannel Frequency Figure 6.32 Use of DMT modulationto matchsubchannel datacapacityto transmission channel.

PARTITIONING 317 6.2 FILTER

to densities individual assigns information Figure6.32showsthata DMT system ratios determined during channel signal-to-noise basedon respective subchannels that ofnanowbandinterference Included theprocess detection is in characterization. wideband Noticethata conventional altogether. to a causes subchannel be eliminated For on mightbetotallydisabled thenarowbandinterference.* moredetails by system in see DMT implementations theADSL discussion ChapterI l.

6.2 FILTERPARTITIONING typicallycontains of equipment a digitalradiosystem and Thetransmitting receiving or Sincethe endto severalfilters that limit the signalspectrum somedegree another. pulserebaseband response thechannel mustconformto certain to-endfrequency of the among filter functionmustbepartitioned objectives, desired composite the sponse to individualfilters.Normally,a numberof the filters canbe designed providetheir pulseresponse. For impacting channel the functions withoutsignificantly respective of produces sumanda difference the inputfrequencies. a a mixing process example, when is whenmixing upward,or only the difference wanted Only the sumis wanted by canbeeliminated a filter thatdoes Usuallytheundesired terms mixing downward. signal. followingdiscusThe of affectthepulseshape theunderlying not significantly pul$e response; the influence baseband that sionassumes only two filters significantly onein the transmitterandone in the receiver. 6.2.1 Adlacent-Channel Interference One basic pil?o$e of the radio channelreceivefilter is to minimize the amountof purpose this filter is to rejectenergyin adof A noisepresent the detector. second at is jacentradio channels. that doesnot get rejected Energyfrom an adjacent channel that we In interference. this discussion, assume the referredto as adjacent-channel This spectra. situchannels identical thedesired to in are spectrum shapes theadjacent is shownin Figure6.33,which depictsa numberof frequency-division-multi ation plexeddigitalchannels. occurs a resultoftwo interference as As indicated Figure6.33,adjacent-channel in powerP1because adjacent the passes phenomena. unwanted First, the receivefilter The prevent into thedesired channel. secoverlap to signalis notcompletely truncated provideinf,tfilter doesnot because receive the P2, ofinterference, occurs ond source Unwanted channel. of nite attenuation power properly belongingin the adjacent by filter, while P2is minimized narthe powerP1is minimized narrowing transmit by
*Totally avoiding the effects of high-energy narrowband interference in a DMT sylttem is not as simple as it might seem, If the interference is present at the input to the A,/D converter in the recei ver, the interference may causeA/D saturation(orincreased quantizationnoise ifa compandedconverter is utilized). Thus, total avoidance of narrowband interference requires front-end norching of the signal. A front-end notch could also be used in a conventional wideband system followed by decision feedback equalization to accommodate the inserted distonion [401.

318

D|GITAL MoDULATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEMS

rowing the receive filter. Since channel pulse responseconsiderationsconstrain the compositefilter function to someminimum width, one componentof the interference cannotbe reducedwithout increasingthe other. Hence the total filter function must be partitioned in some marlner to minimize the sum of Pr and p".

6.2.2 Optlmum Partitionlng The optimumfilter design anyparticular for application may depend a number on of factorsincludinglegislated emission specifications, available technology power for amplifiers, availability the ofcrosspolarization adjacent*channel for isolation, the and relativeeffects noiseversus of adjacent-charurel interference. theabsence exterIn of nal constraints, classical a resultattributed Sundet4ll andalsopresented referto in ences and [43] determines optimumpartitioningasonemarching outpurof [42] the the transmitfilter to the square root of the desired channelresponse. desiredoutThe put spectrumY(or)is obtainedas

Y(or)= Holo);I1r*(ol)X(ro)

(6.24)

whereX(ro) = channelinput spectrum flrx(rn) = transmitfilter response = /1nx(ot) receive filter response Thentheoptimumpartitioning obtained is as

Adi*rnt rlgnrl

De$rrd tignrl

Adleent rl0nrl

Rffihrfi

filtrr.E|pofite

Figure 633 Adjacent-channel interference.

PARTITIONING 319 6.2 FILTEH

lflo*(o)l =lY(rt)llt?

lar*(ru)l=H

(6.25)

to the re$ponses minimizetheadjacent-channel 6.25def,rnes filter amplitude Equation containidentical signals interference under the condition tttat the adjacentchannels is powerlevels. addition, thetransmitted if spectrumffty(ro)X(ro) the In with identical Hs;q(o), receive filter is matched the filter response complex of conjugate thereceive is to the channelspectrum, the bestpossibleerror performance obtainedwith reand spect signalpoweron thechannel. to 6.25is shownin Figure6.34for a pulseinput Partitioning defined Equation by as signalspecAppendix Eventhough only baseband output(see C). raised cosine anda filter functions. is extended easilyto passband the tra areshown, concept the basisfor determining optheoretical a AlthoughEquation 6.25provides sound particular may reof application practical considerations a timum filter partitioning, in quire deviationfrom the "optimum."Oneproblemthat arises digital microwave filter in Figure6.34.With of is to radios related thepeakat thebandedges thetransmit relossinto the midband only by inserting fllter this peakcanbe obtained a passive as no If sponrte. the transmitpowercanbe increased compensation, ill effectsresult. radiosis limitedby thetechnolHowever, outputlevelof manydigitalmicrowave the (a rapoweramplifiers few wattstypically).Sincethese frequency ogy of microwave dios are device power limited, midbandinsertionloss cannotbe overcomeand signallevel. directlyfrom thereceived subtracts therefore the applications optimumhansmitfilter is onehavinga In device-power-limited response thedetector, at channel the in To flat response thepassband. achieve desired at insertion Channel losses at receive mustthenbe peaked the bandedges. filter the performance both the signaland fhe noiseate attenu$ince this point do not degrade the havetheundesirable effectof increasing receiver the However, peaks atedequally. interference. Although of noisebandwidthand the P1component adjacent-channel thanthat obtained theoreticallyopby represent poorerperfonnance a theseincreases to is timum partitioning,the degradation not a$ Sreatas the insertionloss needed that achieve "theoretical optimum."As onefulther note,it shouldbe mentioned the

ilob. Nnd Infirfafdftot

excitationand raised-cosine Flgrrre 6.34 Theoreticaloptimum filtering for square-pulse output.

320

DrcrrAL MoDULATtoN HADto AND sysrEMS

not all theoretically optimum transmit filters havea peak at the band edges.In particular, partial-response systemsdo not require band edge peaking (seeAppendix C). Another aspectof the optimum designto be kept in mind is that optimum error performance is achievedwith respectto signal power on the channel,and not with respect to unfiltered transmitterpower. It is this featurethat allows any amount of attenuation to be inserted into the charurelat the transmitter and not degradethe optimum performance. If performanceis measuredwith respectto unfiltered transmit power, the best transmit filter may be different from that defined in Equation 6.25. Not only would less midband attenuationbe desirable,as discussed,but it might also be desirable to widen the transmit filter response.This decreases truncation loss in the kansmit the filter so the receive filter can be narowed to decrease receiver noise bandwidth. the As an extreme example of how widening the transmit filter can improve error rate performance,consider removing the transmit filter and incorporating it into the receiver. For a given output at the power amplifier, the signal at the detector is un* changed.The receiver noise bandwidth, however, is reduced becausethe composite filter is nilrower than the original receive filter. Hence a higher signal-to-noiseratio is presentat the detector. The penalty incurred for removing the transmit filter, of cour$e, is a greatly increasedP1componentofadjacent-channelinterference.Ifadjacent channelsdo not exist or if they are adequatelyisolated by cross-polarization(i.e., if the systemis noise limited), the performance can be improved by moving some of the transmitter ffuncation lossesto the receiveruntil adjacent-channel interferencematchesthe noise. Keep in mind, however, that if the sy'rtemis adjacent-chamel interferencelimited, the optimum partitioning is indeed defined by Equation 6.25.

6.3 EMISSION SPECIFICATIONS One unavoidable consideration determining filterfunctions a transmitter when the of
and receiver is the out-of-band emission specificationsestablishedby the FCC in the united states or the ITU-R in other parts of the world. In many casesthe emission specificationsdictate a narower transmit filter than the theoreticaloptimum. Thus the partitioning aspectof the filter designsmay be predetermined. It is somewhatironic that the FCC emissionspecificationswere intendedto control adjacent-channel interferencebut, in somecases,actually causethe interferenceto increaseby forcing the use of a wider than optimum receive filter. The FCC specifications, however, were intended to protect adjacent analog radio channels from out-of-band digital emissions.They were not selectedwith adjacentdigital channels in mind. In January 1975, when the FCC establishedthe out-of-band emission specifications, two separate specificationswere established; forradios operatingbelow 15 GHz and for radios operating above l5 GHz. The emission limitations for operationbelow l5 GHz are more restrictive than those for operation above 15 GHz because lower the frequencieswere heavily used for analog FDM-FM radios, which are more sensitive to interference.The higher frequencieshave not beenusedextensively because vulof

SPECIF|CATIONS321 6.3 EMISSTON

specialare Thesefrequencies usedfor short-distance, nerability to rain attenuation. Initially, the putpose and as applications arenot ascongested thelower frequencies. for were I I and6 GHz. bands digitalmicrowave mostpopular below 15GHz are limitationsfor operation Theemission A = 35 + l0log,oB + 0.8(P 50) (P > 50) (6.26)

A where = powerin 4-kHzbandrelativeto meanoutputpower(dB) bandwidth(MHz) B = authorized (50 from carrierfrequency is thebandedge) removed P = percent the outside bandbut A the In addition, attenuation mustbe at least50 dB everywhere limitationsare 80 needto exceed dB at anypoint.Noticethat the emission doesnot powerlevels,but only relativeto the transmitted in not $pecified termsof absolute limitationsdo not constrain outputpowerlevelof the the emission power.Thusthese amplifiertechby Microwaveoutputpowersareoftenconshained microwave radio. can (A limit of 10W of ouryutpowerdoesexistwhentechnology reachit') nology. usinga40MHz of bandmaskfor I 1-GHz radios the 6.35displays emission Figure 8-PSKradiousinga signaling of width.Also shownis thepowerspectrum a 90-Mbps the specification, $-PSKpower with theemission To be compatible rateof 30 MHz. between sigthe in termsof powerper4-kHzband,Thedifference is spectrum shown of required the the the FCC maskrepresents minimumattenuation and nal spectrum provides information densityof an filtered8-PSKsignalthereby transmitfilter. The and 90/40= 2.25bpslHz.This is the basicmodulation frlteringformatusedby Coldigitalradio,theMDR-I1 [13]' in their9O-Mbps lins/Rockwell as bands above15GHz is defined limitationfor microwave Theemission

PorYrrin {kHr bmcl rclstir'c to mcln outFut potw {dBl

FCCrmidon limitrtiom SX $.ct.um Fowr/{ kHr (3OirHt $gilllne .rtrl

-60 *70 -H)

h
Frnqucncy(MHrl

maskat I t GHz anda 90-Mbps8-PSKspectrum. Figure 6.35 FCC emission

322

DIGITAL MODULATION RADIOSYSTEMS AND

A = ll + 101og,oB 0.4(p-50) +

(p>50)

(6.27)

where A = attenuationin l -MHz band below mean output power (dB) B = authorizedbandwidth (MHz) P - percentremoved from carrier frequency The attenuationA must be at least I I dB but does not have to exceed56 dB. In conjunction with the emission limitations, the FCC has stipulated that no discretelines exist in the transmittedspectrum[44]. Thus no carrier componentscan exist and no repetitive data patterns are allowed to occur. The repetitive data pattems are effectively eliminated by using a scramblerin the transmitter and a descramblerin the receiver. As mentioned already, PSK and QAM are forms of double-sidebandsappressed carrier modulation so that the carrier terms are eliminated automaticallv as long as modulation is continuous.

6.4 HADIO SYSTEM DESIGN Theforemost design requirementapoint-to-point system telephonyopof radio for is
erational dependability,usually referredto as availability. Availabitity is expressed as the percentage time that a systemprovides a specified minimum quality of service. of with analog systems,minimum performanceis determinedby the noise power in the receivedsignal.The performanceof a digital systemis determinedby the bit error rate. Typical objectives for bit error rates range from l0-3 for voice trafTic to 10-6or l0-7 for data traJfic. Recall that a bit error rate of l0+ correspondsto the thresholdofperceptibility fbr errors in a PCM voice signal. Typical designobjectivesfor microwave radio systemsspeciff availability on rhe order of gg.g\vo [45, 46]. Hence the maximum acceptableaccumulation of outage,due to all causes,is on the order of z hr per year. Radio systemavailability is dependenton equipmentreliability and path propagation characteristics. The high-availability objectivesof a typical radio systemmandate redundalt equipmentand often require redundantpath$.The needfor redundantpaths is determinedby the likelihood of atmospheric-inducedoutages(rain attenuationor multipath interference).Rain is a dominant considerationat higher carrier frequencies (above lt GHz), and multipath interference must be considered at all frequencies. Multipath fading is dependenton prevailing climate and terrain. Redundantradio equipment typically operatesin either a backup or a hot-standby mode with automatic protection switching. The transmissionpath is backed up with sparechannels(freguency diversity) or sparepaths (spacediversity receivers).In extreme ca$e$ backup route may even be utilized. a

6.4.1 FadeMargins
The main technique usedto circumvent atmospheric-induced outagesis to provide an exffa $trong signal at the receiver during normal path conditions. The difference be-

DESIGN 323 6.4 RADIO SYSTEM pertween the normal receivedpower and the power required for minimum acceptable formance is referred to as the fade margin. Greater fade margins imply less frequent occurrencesof minimum performance levels. Radios operating in higher frequency to bandsgenerally require greaterfade margins becausethey are more susceptible rain fade margin is typical for a digital radio at I I GHz, while a 40attenuation.A 50-dB dB fade margin is typical for lower microwave frequencies. The amount of fade margin actually required for a particular route dependson the Thus drier cliprobability of multipath-induced fades and heavy rainfall occurrences. matespermit lower fade margins, thereby allowing greaterrepeaterspacing.In some mountain-basedmicrowave links in the western United States,microwave hops can be 100 miles long. By comparison,the averagehop in other parts of the country is less than 30 miles long. When large fade margins are provided, the received signal power during unfaded problems conditions is so strong that bit errors arevirtually nonexistent.Nevertheless, with extra strong signals do exist. Namely, automatic gain control in a receiver must operateover a wide dynanric range.If the maximum signal level into the demodulation and detection circuihy is not controlled, saturationis likely to degradepetformance, especially in high-density modulation formats such as 64- or 256-QAM, where information is encodedinto the signal amplitudes. To minimize dynamic rangerequirementsin a receiver and reduceinterferencebetween systems,adaptive transmitter power control (ATPC) is sometimesused [47]. ATPC usesa feedback data link from a receiving station to control the output power it of a transmitting station.Thus when excesspower is unnecessary, is not used' ATPC is commonly used in digital mobile telephone$ystemswhere interferencecontrol is a primary concern.

6.4.2 SystemGain
used to characterizedigital microwave system One of the most impoltant parameters performanceis the systemgainA,. Systemgain is defined to be the difference,in decibels, of the transmitteroutput power and the minimum receivepower for the specified error rate;

Ar=

fr,\ r0ros,o ['p;j

(6.28)

where P.1= transmitter output power Pn = rceive power for specified error rate The minimum acceptablereceive power is sometimes referred to as the threshold power and is primarily dependenton the receiver noise level, the signal-to-noiseratio required by the modulation format, and various system degradationssuch as excess noise bandwidth, signal distortions, intersymbol interference,carrier recovery offsets,

324

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEMS

timingjitter, andcouplingandfilter losses eitherattenuate signalor increase that the thenoiselevel. Noisepowerin a receiver usuallydo:ninated thermal is by noisegenerated thefrontin endreceiver amplifier.In thiscase, noisepowercanbe determined follows: the as pN = (FXNfl(B) = F(kTo)B whereF= No= B= ft = 7o= thereceivernoise figure thepowerspectral densityof thenoise thereceiver bandwidth' 1.38(10)-23Boltzmann's is constant theeffectivereceiver temperatures degrees in Kelvin

(6.2e)

Equation6.29 essentially states that the receivernoisepower is determined the by spectral noisedensityof the receiver input resistance the additional and noiseinhoduced the amplification by process (noisefigureF). Normally,a reference temperatureof 290 K is assumed thatthethermalnoisedensity(ftTo) 4 x 10-21 so is wFIz. The noisefigure of any deviceis definedasthe ratio of the input signal-to-noise ratioto theoutputsignal-to-noise ratio; _ (S/Mi, r=(s/N)out

(6.30)

In effect,thenoisefigurespecifies increase noisepowerrelativeto theincrease the in power.sinceall physical in signal devices inhoduce noise, noise the figureofany system is alwaysgreater than I andis usuallyexpressed decibels. a system no in If has gainor attenuation, noisefigureis exactly the equal theratioofoutputnoi$e input to to noise.Noisefiguresof low-noisemicrowave amplifierstypicallyrangefrom z to 5 (3-7 dB). Radioreceiver noisefiguresaretypically6-10 withouta low-noise amplifier. combiningEquations and6.29andincorporaringtermD for thedegradation 6.28 a from idealperformance produces following general the expression system for gain;

A,=ro**,,[ffi*rJ-"
-Typically,

(6.3 r)

whereSNRis thetheoretical signal-power-to-noise-power required themaxiratio for mum acceptable errorrateandD includes degradations all from idealperformance.
B is assumcd to be the minimum theoretical bandwidth for the particular modulation format in use. Excess bandwidth required by practical implementations is then incorporated rnro a sysrem degradation factor.

DESIGN 325 SYSTEM 6.4 RADIO

ra6.31refersto signal-power-to-noise-power Noticethatthe SNRtermin Equation in is SNRandE6lNs provided AppendixC. betwen The tios andnot EblNO. relationship the gainsandpathlosses, determines gain,in conjunction with antenna Thesystem fademargin:
Fade margin = A, + 6r + GR + 20 log,n fu-Af - A0

(6.32)

where 6i1 = transmitter antenna gain (dB) Gq = receive antennagain (dB) L = tran$mittedwavelength Af = antennafeeder and branching loss (dB) attenuation(distanced must be in the sameunits as l,) Ao = free*space = 20logro (4nd)

is the Thedirectivity, andconsequently gainof, an antenna directly proportionalto the waveproportional the square the transmitted of to and sizeof its aperture inversely it power,however, is actuallyonly the areaof the length.In determining receive the designers and that antenna is important not thedirectivityor gain.Thusradiosystem gainsas contributing signal to transmitand receiveantenna consider conveniently (20log1s to relate gainof therethe l,) normalization powerbut includea wavelength backto the sizeofits aperture. ceivingantenna gain,greater directivitiesalsoreduce antenna In additionto providingincreased emanation paths, whicharisefrom greater problems. longersecondary The multipath anUnfortunately, havelower powerlevelswhenthedirectivityis increased. angles, Economically regards: in tennagainsarelimited by practicalconsiderations several is mechanical alignment diffiantennas, only limited-sized sizedtowerscansupport and stabilityof boththe antenna thepathis limited. cult, anddirectional single 6.32arisebecause in 41 losses included Equation and Thefeeder branching reFurthermore, radios. for channels separate carryseveral systems typically antenna be and transmitters receivers availusuallydictatethat spare liability considerations or for The process combiningsignals transmission switching. of ablefor protection of amounts attenuation introduces inherently various reception themafter distributing or splittingof signalpower. gainof a l0-Mbps, z-GHzdigitalmicrowave the Example6.4. Determine system the and 4-PSKmodulation an outputpowerof 2.5 W. Assume excess repeater using from ideal performance bandwidthof the receiveris 307oand ttrat other departures and a Assume noisefigureof 7 dB for the receiver, the to amount 3 dB degradation. antenna the errorrateis 104. Also determine fademarginassuming desired maximum and gainsof 30 dB eachanda pathlengthof 50 km. Thebranching couplinglosses are5 dB. can for valueof E6lN0 4-PSKmodulation Solution. FromFigure6.17,therequired (in Appendix it canbe determined C), 3.42 as bedetermined 10.7dB. UsingEquation

326

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEMS

that the signal-power-to-noise-power at the detector 3 dB higherthanE6lr/6. ratio is Thus, required the SNRis 13.7 dB. since4-PSKmodulation provides bps/rlz,the signaling is 5 MHz, whichis 2 rate thetheoretical minimum(Nyquist)bandwidth. Equation 6.31cannow be usedto determinethe system gain: 13.7*7-3*10losl.3 ) :l16dB At a carrierfrequency 2 GHz,thewavelength 3 x 108/2xlOe= 0. l5 m. Thusthe of is fademargincanbe determined from Equation 6.31: Fademargin= I I 6 + 60 + 20 log,o(0. - S- Z0 log,n(4ru5 lOa) l5) x
= 38.5dB

6.4.3 Frequency Diverslty

As mentioned previously, neither the transmitting and receiving equipment nor the path is normally reliable enoughto provide an acceptablelevel of systemavailability. Frequency diversity is one means of providing backup facilities to overcome both types of outages.A deep multipath-induced fade occurs when a signal from a $econdary path arrives out of phasewith respectto the primary signal. Since the phase shift produced by a path is proportional to frequency, when one carrier fades, it is unlikely that another carrier fades simultaneously. Frequency diversity involves the use of a sparetransmitter and receiver operating in a normally unusedchannel. Since separate hardware is used, frequency diversity also provides protection againsthardware failures. The simplest meansof implementing frequency diversity is to use one-for-one (l : l) protection switching as indicated in Figure 6.36. one-for-one protection switching implies that one sparechannel is provided for each assignedmessagechannel.when high-spectrumefficiency is required, it is generally necessary have only one spare to for a group of N channels( I ; N protection swirching). In fact, the FCC has stipulated that, in somefrequencybands,a systemmust be implementablein one-for-Nconfigurations. The main impact of a I ; Nprotection systemis the complexity of the switching unit and the needto switch back to the assignedchannel in the first available hop so that a single sparechannel can be reusedrepeatedlyon a long roule. Frequency diversity normally does nothing to alleviate rain outages since all channels in a particular frequency band are simultaneously affected. when rain is a pafticular problem, it can be overcome only by using higher transmit powers or shorter hops.

DESIGN 6.4 RADIoSYSTEM

327

-'Wrt

frequencydiversity. Figure 6.36 Protectionswitchingwith one-for-one

6.4.4 SpaceDiverslty two separating 6.37, vertically by in as is Space diversity implemented,shown Figure
receive antennason a single tower. The resulting difference in the two paths is norSpacediversity is mally sufficient to provide independentfading at the two antenna$. receivthe most expensivemeansof improving the availability, particularly if separate channelsare used for each antenna.The cost can be minimized, howers for multiple manner for input to ever, by combining the two received signals in a phase-coherent provides less hardware backup than when a common receiver t451. This technique receiversare used for each antenna. completely separate

6.4.5 Angle Diverslty

Becausemultipath fading is producedby multiple incident rays alTiving at slightly different angles,protection from fading can be achievedby discriminating on the angle

diversityreceivers. with space Figure 6.37 hotection swirching

328

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEM$

of arrival' Angle diversityutilizestwo side-by-side receiving antennas with slightly differentangular elevations providethediscrimination. to Althoughanglediversityis generally aseffectiveasspace not diversity,it canimprovethe availabilityofdigital signals[48, 49] in applications wherethe towerrequirements space of diversityare impractical disallowed. or 6.4.6 Adaptlve Equallzation Sincemultipatheffectsare frequency dependent, all frequencies a particular not in channel simultaneously experience same the amount fading.Thusmultipath of fading canproduce only a general not attenuation ofthe received signalbut alsotheequivalentof in-band amplitude (andphase) distortion. Distortionof thespectrum amplitude produces general a degradation the errorperformance andabovethefenalty in over incurredby the generalattenuation the signal.In widebanddigital radios,freof quency-selective fading (as opposed flat fading)hasprovedto be the dominant to source multipathoutage$. of Fortunately, betterperformance be achieved the can if spectrum amplitude equalized (adjusted a uniformlevel). is to Since atmospheric-induced multipath interferena varies with time,removal mulof tipath-induced amplitudedistortionrequiresadaptive equalization. commonapA proachto adaptiveamplitudeequalieation merely samples energyat selected the frequencies the received in signalspectrum. compensating A filter shape theninis serted the signalpathto adjustall energy into samples a common to level.This basic technique usedin digitalradiosmanufactured Bell Northern[45] andRockwell is by International [50].Reference reports 7-dB improvement effectivefademara [50] in gin canbe achieved with an adaptive equalizer. Because channel distortions produce intersymbol interference thereceived in basebrurdsignal,time-domain equalization with adaptive transversal filters or decision feedback equalizers alsoused. is Reference contrasts relativemeritsof both the [51] approaches providesan extensive of references. and list The use of high-density modulation formats such 256-QAMplaces as verystringent requirements theadapon tive equalizers these so radioscommonly bothtypesof equalizers use [47]. Frequency-selective fading,which comrptsonly a portion of a wide-bandwidth channel, particularly is difficult to equalize because changes it rapidly andrequires complicated equalizer (in structures the frequency domainor the time domain). The problem begreatlysimplifiedif, instead usinga singlecarrier, can of multiplecarriers (i.e.' MCM) within theallottedbandwidth usedto create are mulriplesubchannels. With thisapproach, fadingwithin anysubchannel relatively andeasy equalize. disis flat to The advantage this approach thecostof replicated of is circuiry for eachsubchannel. reAs portedin [5?],however, atmospheric-induced outages greatlyreduced. are 6.4.7 Route Design Thelayoutof a point-to-point microwave relaysystem involves numerous considerations of thelocalterrain, prevailingatmospheric conditions, radiofiequency interference with othersymbols,andinterference from onehop to anotherwithin a singlesystem.

REFERENCES 329

Path Length The foremost considerationin setting up a single hop of a microwave system is that line-of-sight transmissionis required. Using antennaheights of about 60 m, the curvature of the earth limits the transmission distanceto approximately 50 km. Longer line-of-sight distancesare possible if taller antennatowers are used.However, plsctical considerationsof mechanicalstability limit the height of a tower, particularly since longer distancesimply larger and more directive antennas. When antennasare rigidly mounted on the top of a building or the side of a mountain, mechanicalstability may not be a problem but the $tability of the path itself may becomea limiting factor. Under some atmosphericconditions, radio waves can be refracted to the point that a narrow beam completely misses the receiving antenna. Bending of the propagationpath can also causea f,rxedobstacleto intermittently obstruct transmission, implying that clearance between the notmal path and nearby physical obstructionsis required.Thus there is always a practical limit on how narrow the beam can be. Local teruainalso influences the prevalenceof multipath fading. Nearby bodies of water contribute significantly to multipath conditions during late evening or early morning hours when thereis litfle wind. Direct transmissionovor water is usually very difficult becauseof reflecfions off the water surface.Transmission over water often requireshigher antennasand some meansof blocking direct reflections.

Since there are a limited number of channelsavailable for point-to-point microwave systems,the same channelSmust be used Over and over again. ReuSeof microwave fiequency bands is enhancedby the directivity of the antennasand the general need however, thereis so much traffor line-of-sight reception.In many metropolitan areas, fic converging into one particular areathat it is impossible to completely isolate two systemsusing the samechannel. This type of interferenceis refened to as cochannel interference. results from converging routes or from overreach of one Cochannel interf'erence hop into anotherhop of the same systemreusing a channel. Sometimesreflections or atmosphericrefractions can contribute to overreach,even when direct line of sight is not present.Overreach is usually controlled by zigzagging the hops so that a beam receive antennasin a route. The reduced from one tran$mitter misses all subsequent for long-distanceftaffic has reducedthe cochannel use of point-to-point microwave intetference in point-to-point systems.However, cochannel interference is a major in considerationin the design and deployment of digital cellular systems,as discussed Chapter 9.

Cochannellnbrterence

REFERENCES
I 2 Federal Communications Commission, Report and Order, Docket No. 19311' FCC 7 4-985, releasedSePt.27, 1974. ..SpecialIssue: AR6A Radio System," Bell systemTethnical Joumal, Dec. 1983.

330

DIGITAL MODULATION RADIO AND SYSTEMS W. A, Conner, R. J. Girvin, and W. R. McClellan, ,.FrequencyControl of the MSR_6 single sideband system," IEEE International conference on communicarions. 19g3, pp, E2.5.1-E2.5.5. Y' Yoshida, Y. Kitahara, and s. yokoyama, "6G-90 Mbps Digital Radio system with I6-QAM Modulation," IEEE International conference on comrnunicafiozs, 19g0, pp,

52.4.r-52.4.5. "Minimum s. Pasupathy, shift Keying: A spectrallyEfficient Modulation,"/EEE Comrnunications Magaline,July 1g79,pp. l4-ZZ. "continuousphase c.-E. sundberg, Modulation,"IEEE communications Magafine, pp.25-38, Apr. 1986, Y. Morihiro, s. Nakajima, N. Furuya,"A 100Mbir/s hotorype MSK Modemfor and satellitecommunications," IEEE Transactions communications, on oct, 1979,pp. l512-1518. "hactical GMSK Data Transmission," MX-coM Application Note, rggg (www.mxcom.com). K. MurotaandK. Hirade,"GMSK Modulationfor Digital Mobile RadioTelephony," IEEE Transactions Communications, lg8l. on July R. E. Ziemer and w. H. Tranter,principlesof communications, HoughtonMifflin, Boston, 1976. "A E. Panayirci E, Y. Bar-Ness, New Approach Evaluating performance and for the of a symbolTiming Recovery systemEmploying General a Typeof NonlinEarity IEEE ,,' Transailions Communicarrans. 1996. on Jan. c' R. Hogge, 'carrier andclock Recovery g-psK synchronous Jr., for Demodulation," IEEE Transactions Communications, 1979, 529_533. on May pp. P' R. Hartmann J. A. crosset,"A 90 MBS Digital Transmission and systemat I I GHz Using8 PSKModulation," IEEE International conference communications.lg16. on p p .l 8 - 8 - 1 8 - 1 3 . I. Horikawa,T. Murase,and y. saito, "Designand performances 200 Mbivs 16 of QAM Digital Radio system,* IEEE Transactions computers,Dec. 197g, pp, on r953-1958. "64-eAM Digital J. A' crosserand P. R. Hartmann, ttadio Transmission sysrem Integration Performance," and IEEE International comrnunications conference.lgg4. pp. 636-641. w. A' conner,"DirectRF Modulation 256eAM Microwave system,"lEEEGlobemm Proteedings, 1988, 52.7.1,52.7.6. pp. H. Matsue,T. shiraro,and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio system with DSP Fading countermeasures," IEEE Intemational conferenceon Communications, 1988, 41.5. June pp. l-41.5.6. "A K. Pahlavan J. L. Holsinger, Modelfor theEffectsof pcM compandors the and on Petformance High speed Modems," IEEE Grobecom proceediigs, 19g5, pp. of 28.8.1*28.8.5. T. Ryu' J. uchibori, and y. yoshida,'A stepped square256 eAM for DigitarRadio system,"IEEE Intemationalconference communicarions, on 19g6,pp. 1477-l4gl.

l0 l1

l2 l3

t4

l5

r6
t1

t8

l9

331 HEFERENCES "6 and S. T. 20 M. Tahara, Deguchi, Mizoguchi, Y' Yoshida, GHz 140MbpsDigitalRadio 1987' pp' Systemwith 256-SSQAMModulation,"IEEE GlobecomProceedings, 38.3.1-38.3.6. "Performance Offset-QPSK with Communications PartiallyCoherent of 7.1 S. A. Rhodes, ConferenceRemrd, Nov. 1973' pp' Detection." National Telecommunications 32A-l-32A-6. "Offset QuadranrreCommunicationswith 2? M, K. Simon and J. G. Smith, on IEEE Transadions Communftations, CarrierSynchronization," Decision-Feedback pp. Oct.1974, 1576-1584. "High Density Digital Data and J. C. Bellamy, 23 J. W. Bayless,R, D. Pedersen, Conference Record, 1976, pp. Transmission," National Telecommunications 51.3-l-51.3-6. "MSK and Offset and QPSKModulatton,"IEEE S. A. Oronemeyer A. L. McBride, Aug, 1976'pp. 809-820. on Transactions Communicafians, "MethodandApparahrs forWideband and R. D. Gitlin, S.K. Rao,J.Werner, N. Zervos, Officeand Central a for Between, Example, Telephone of Transmission Digifal Signals May 8' 1990. No.4,9U'492' U.S. Premises," Patent Customer "comparisonof single-carrierand Multitone Digital Modulationfor B. Saltzberg, Nov' 1998,pp. l14-122' Magazine, IEEE Communication't ADSL Applications," ,,Mid-range Twisted-Pair"' for PhysicalLayer Specification Calegory3 Unshielded 1994' ATM afohy-0018.000, Forum,Sept. "Modulationconsiderations a 9l Mbit/sDigital for and Anderson s. G. Barber, c. w, pp. May on Radio,"IEEE Transactions Communications, 1978, 523-528' .,Fade Margin flnd outage computationof 49-QPSRRadio D. P. Taylor andM. Shafr, Equalization,"IEEE Intemational Conferenteon Feedback Employing Decision 1983, Communications, pp. 1453-1458' Optimum Codes anAsymptotically and for A. J. Viterbi,"Error Bounds Convolutional on lffirmation Theory,Apr' 1967' pp' DecodingAlgorithm," IEEE Transactions 260-269. "Trellis-CodedModulation with RedundantSignal Sets Fart G. Ungerboeck, Feb.1987'pp. 5-l l' Magaeirre, IEEE Communicatktns Introduction." "Trellis-codedModulation signal setsPartII: state with Redundant G. Ungerboeck, Feb.1987'pp. t2-21 . Magarine, IEEE Communications of theArt," RateTransmission Information R. J. F. Fang,"A Coded8-PsK systemfor 140-Mbivs on 7th Proceedings IntennationalConference over 80-MHz NonlinearTransponders," pp' 1986, t2-16' Communications, DigitalSatellite '"TrellisCoding l4'4kb/s Data M. T. Kamitake,K. Uehara, Abe, and S. Kawamura, Digital signalhocessor,"/EEE with a single-chipHigh-speed ModemImplemented - I 2.8.6' I I edings,987'pp. I 2.8. Proce Globemm .,A Modemoperatingat DatasignalingRates to 28,800 for use on theGeneral bps up swirched TelephoneNetwork and on LeasedPoint-to-PointZ-wire Telephone-Type Circuits,"ITU-T Rec.V.34,Sept,1994. "Generalized Minimum shift-Keying Modulation Ramin sadr and J. K. omura, pp. Jan. of Communications, 1988, 32-40' IEEETransactions Techniques,"

25

30

3l

33

332

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN RADIo AND SYSTEMS

37 J. A' C' Bingham,'-Multicartier Modulationfor DataTransmission: IdeaWhose An Time HasCome," IEEE Comtnunitations Magazine,May1990, 5_14, pp. 38 J. M. cioffi, "Asymmetric Digita-l subscriberLines," in The cornmunications Handbook, Gibson, J. Ed., CRCpress, BocaRaron, FL, 199g, 450_479. pp. 39 Digital Vidco Broadcasting (DVB): Framing stucture,channel codingandmodulation for digitalterresrrial television, 300 744,vl.Z.l, ETSI. lggg_01. EN "Comparison 40 B. Saltzberg, of Single-Canier and Multitone Digita.lModulationfor ADSL Applications," IEEE Comrnunications l4agaline,Nov. lg9g, pp. llL-llL. 41 E. D. sunde,"IdealBinarypulseTransmission AM andFM," Eel/ systemTechnical by Joumal,Nov. 1959, 1357-1426. pp. 42 w. R. Bennet J. R. Davey, and Data Transmission, McGraw-Hill.New york. 1965. 43 R. w. Lucky, J. salz, and E. J. weldon, Jr., principlesof Data communications, McGraw-Hill.New york. lg68. 44 Federal Communications Commission, Memorandum Opinionand Ordermodifying FCCReponand Orderof Docket193 l, released I January Zg,1975. 45 G. H. M. de witte, "DRS-B:systemDesignof a Long Haul 9l Mb/s Digital Radio," I EEE NationalTe ommunicat ns Confe e, I g7g, pp. 3g,l l _3g.1.6. lec io renc 46 H. Kostal,D. R. Jeske, v. K. prabu,"Advanced and Engineering Methods Digital for Radio Route Design,"IEEE Intemational communitationsconference,l9g7, pp. l9B.6.l_198,6,6. "Digital 47 c' P. Bates, L. Penney, K. L, seastrand, P. and RadioTechnology theAT&T in Network," IEEE Intemationar communications conference, 19g7, pp, l98.5.l 198.5.7. "A 48 E. A. Sweedyk P. Balaban, MultipathFadingModelfor Tenesrrial and Microwave proceedings, Radio,"IEEE Glohecom lgB8,pp. 52.6.1_52.6.1 . 49 s. H. Lin, "openingNew vistas for Microwave Radio,"gel/core Exchang,e,July/Aug. 1988, 9-12. pp. 50 P. R. Hartmann E. W. Allen, "An AdaptiveEqualizer Correction Multipath and for of Distortion in a 90 MB/s B-psK system," IEEE Intemational conferenceon Communications, 1979,pp, l-5.6.4. 5.6. ,.Receiver 5l J. K. chamberlain, M. clayton, H. sari, andp. vandamme, F. Techniques for MicrowaveDigital Radio," IEEE cownunitations Magazine,Nov. 19g6,pp. 43-54. 'Advancedrechniques 52 Y, Nakamura, ohtsuka,s. Aikawa,and H. Takanashi, H. for super Multi-carrier Digital Microwave Radio with Trellis-coded 2s6 eAM proceedings,lggg, l l.3.l_l1.3.6. Modulation," IEEE Globecom pp.

PROBLEMS
6.1 To prevent the transmission of line spectra, digital radio terminals use data scramblers to randomize the data patterns. Furthermore, differential encoding is normally required for proper datadetection.Both functions inffoduce error mul tiplication. If the combined effect of theseoperationscausesan averageof five

PROBLEMS 333

enors for everychannelenor, what is the effectivepenaltyin transmit decoded At at powerfor a 4-PSKsystem BER = 10-6? BER = 10-3? errors thermal-noise-induced at a rate is 6.2 If a digitalradioreceiver experiencing from bits, whatis thenewerrorrateifthe pathlengthis decreased of I per 106 30 to ?5 miles? 6.18. 6.3 DeriveEquation of bandwidth an 8-PSKsignalcarrying4800 6,4 what is the minimumtheoretical bps? the by 6.s A 32-QAM signalsetis implemented eliminating four cornerpointsof a in what is theminimumerrordistance termsof thepeaksignal 36-QAMsignal. sigfor to compale theerror distance antipodal power?How doesthis answer in the naling?(Express answers decibels') 6.5) assuming ratio 6.6 what is the peak-to-average of a 32-QAM signal(Problem data? of transmission random to performance compare 32-PsKenor 6.5)eruor 6.7 How does32-QAM (Problem performance? (a) In termsof average signalpowers? (b) In termsof peaksignalpowers? provides errorrateof an using4-PSKmodulation system 6.8 A carriertransmission bandto to is l0-6. tf themodulation changed 16-PSK naffowthetransmission to how rate width (data unchanged), muchmustthehansmitpowerbe increased maintainthe sameerror rate? and that Problem6.8 assuming the bandwidthis unchanged the datarate 6.9 Repeat is doubled. with a signal-to-Gaussian-noise 6.10 Whatis theerrorrateof anidealI6-QAM signal ratio(SNR)of 18dB? 6.11 What is the error rate of hoblem 6.10 if interferenceis also present at a level
that is 21 dB below the received signal? (Assume the effect of the intefference is identical to Gaussiannoise at the samerms power.) 6.r2How much must the transmit power in Problem 6.1 I be increasedto off'setthe effect of ttre interference?(Assume the interferencelevel is fixed.) in RepeatProblem 6.1?, but assumethat the interferenceincreases proportion to 6.13 the increasein transmit power. (Signal powers in the adjacentchannelsare increasedalong with the desired signal power.) RepeatProblem 6.3 assuminga starting stateof D6.14

RON SYNCH IZATION NETWORK ANDMANAGEMENT CONTROL

are systems of requirements transmission 4 In Chapters and6 somesynchronization involve carier recoveryfor coherentdetectionof Theserequirements discussed. incomingdata,and framingproceclock recoveryfor sampling signals, modulated considin dures identifyingindividualchannels a TDM signalformat.All of these for and,for the mostpart, operate systems are eratrons inherentin digital transmission deof in of independently otherequipment a network.An instance one subsystem's datamu$tincludeminimum wasnotedfor Tl lines.Tl source pendency another on other link. timing on theoriginaltransmission In contrast, of densities 1's to maintain of independently the clock synchronization line codesare describedthat maintain data. source for considerations insynchronization network-related This chapterdiscusses Foremost and variousdigital transmission switchingequipment. terconnecting of is among theseconsiderations synchronization switching equipment'When network,the was digital switchingequipment first installedin thepublic telephone Hence,each switchingmachine systems. were analogtransmission interfaces frequencysource(clock) that convertedall could operatewith an autonomous voice signalsinto digital signalswith preciselythe samedatarate (nominally 64 to kbps).Theseswitchingmatriceswere designed carry one channelrate and one redigital switch interconnection The advent of subsequent channelrate only. else in the netdigital channelsoriginating someplace quired switchesto carry work-from a different frequency source. Thus, network synchronization arose. requirements are and transmission switchingequipments interWhen individual synchronous thateithersynprocedures to beestablished need certarn to connected form a network, chronize the clocks to each other or provide for their interoperabilitywhen each of clocks.Followingthe discussion networkclock synuses subsystem independent of to is of the chronization, concept synchronization extended otheraspects network control.

336

NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION CONTROL MANAGEMENT AND

7.1 TIMING All digital systems inherently requirea frequency source, ..clock,"asa means or of timing internaland externaloperations. operationstimed from a singlefrequency source notrequire do particularly stable sources sinceall commonly clocked elements experience timing variations common. differentsituation in A occurs whentransfers aremadefrom one synchronous equipmentto another(asfrom a ffan$mitterto a receiver). Evenif theclockof thereceiving terminalis "synchronized" thetransmitto ting terminal a long-term average on or basis, short-term variations eitherclockmay in jeopardize integrityofthe datatransfer. the Thusit is generally necessary usefreto quencysource$ (oscillators) boththe transmitter thereceiver areasstable in and that asis economically feasible. 7.1.1 Tlming Recovery: Fhaee-Locked Loop A commonmeansof synchronizing receiverclock to a transmitter a clock usesa phase-locked (PLL) asshown Figure7.l. A phase loop in detector continuously measuresthe phase difference between incomingclock anda locally generated the clock. Thephase detector Figure7.1merelymeasures difference thezerocrossings in the in between two signals. the Whenthe zerocrossing the line clock precedes zero of the crossing thelocalclock,a positivevoltage generated; of is otherwise, negative a voltageis produced. outputof the phase The detector filteredto eliminate muchreis as ceivenoiseaspossible, thenthephase and measurement adjusts frequency the the of voltage-controlled oscillator(VCo) to reduce phase the difference. Someamount of noiseor interference inevitablypasses throughthephase detector thefilter, causand ing erroneous adjustments the vco frequency. time passes, in As however,a frequency offsetproduces ever-increasing phase shifts.Whenthephase difference builds up,it is easier detect, theappropriate to and changes theVCo occur. in Hence local the

Figure 7.1 Phase-locked clockrecovery loop circuir.

rMrNG

337

variproduces $hort-term but frequency inherenfly average clock maintains desired the ofthe line clock. frequency asit "hunts"theunderlying ationsofphaseandfrequency in to Theline clockin Figure7.1is shown havea transition everyclockinterval,a With someline line or Manchester diphase-type codes. that situation doesoccurwith of duringintervals (bipolaror AMI in particular) thereareno clocktransitions codes artificialtransicircuitryinserts the clock extraction cases either binary0's. In these duringinis detector disabled or intervals thephase from previous tionsexffapolated pulseis detected. tervalswhenno 7.1.2 Clock InstabilltY of is above an example of The variationin the outputfrequency the VCO described clockshavea certainamountof instability-even free-running clock instability.All the of aspect clockinstabilityis its frequency: rateat which An oscillators. important from beingtoo high to beingtoo low. The frequencyof the clock frequencychanges of as the instability canbe directly observed the frequencyspectrum the VCO control variesslowly, PLL clockrecovery circuit.WhentheVCO controlvoltage in voltage a to asclock wander.Whenthevariationsaremorerapid,the the variationsarereferred dividing accepted instabilityof the clock is refenedto asjitter. The mostgenerally produces jitter is 10Hz. Purewander a Tl line therefore on pointbetween wander and positivephase errorsfor morethan77,200bit intervals(0.05sec)followedby more of The pha$e errors.* mainsources clockinof bit than77,200 intervals only negative (bothwander jitter) in a networkare; and stability 1. Noiseandinterference media in 2. Changes the lengthof transmission in 3. Changes velocityof propagation Dopplershiftsfrom mobileterminals 4. timing information 5. Irregular

it with If thelow-pass filter of a PLL is designed a verylow cutofffrequency, canfilter link on all outalmost of thenoiseandinterference a transmission thatwouldotherwise why arbimarilylow passfilcomrptthetiming recovery.Therearethreemain reasons (e.9.,lock synchronization First,theability ofthe PLL to acquire be terscannot used. If related thePLL bandwidth' the VCO beto clock)is inversely on to theunderlying is and ginsoscillating thewrongfrequency thebandwidth too narrow'thePLL may at is this of to neverpull theoscillator thefrequency theline clock.Sometimes, problem and synchronization a by accommodated usingtwo bandwidths: wide oneto acquire afterlock is achieved' a narrowonethatis selected
+As discussed later, observing wander in this way requires extremely stable clocks as a reference. The normal PLL clock recovery circuitry cannot be used to observe wandet because the VCO tracks the relatively long-term phase offsets, Thus the clock recovery citcuit does not filter out thc wanderbut passes it on.

Nolseand lnErterence

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NETWoRKSYNcHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

A secondconsiderationthat generally precrudes useofvery nanow filters, even the after acquisition, is that the sourcemay vary in frequency that cannot be tracked by a slowly respondingPLL. In this case,the recoveredclock doesnot track the ideal sample times leading to high error rates or, worse yet, the pLL loses synchronization altogether and has to reacquire lock. The third limiting factor for low-bandwidth PLLs is the instability of rhe VCO irself. If the vco begins to drifr in frequency, very low bandwidth filters preclude adjusting the VCO input voltage soon enough to prevent bit errors or possible loss of synchronization. Because operational considerations dictate certain minimum PLL bandwidths. noise and interferenceon the transmissionlink always causethe recoveredclock to be more impaired than the sourceclock. The pLL does, however, eliminate that portion of a disturbancewith frequency content abovethe bandwidth of the PLL. Thus disturbanceswith low-frequency content are the most difficult to deal with. systematicjitter, as produced by particular pattems of intersymbol interference, can have an arbitrarily low frequency content and is discussedmore fully in a later section. An important considerationin the design of a digitrrl transmissionlink is the accumulation ofjitter in tandemclock recovery circuits. If a recoveredclock is usedto time the transmissionof outgoing data, as in a regenerativerepeater,some amount of incoming jitter is imbedded into the outgoing clock. The clock recovery circuit in the next receiver tracksits incoming clock but introduceseven morejitter due to noise and interferenceon the secondsection. Thus jitter accumulatesat every regenerativerepeaterusing its received line clock as its transmit clock. If there is a large number of regenerativerepeaters, thejitter can accumulateto a point where subsequent clock recovery circuits have difficulty tracking the receive clock, produce sampling error$, and possibly lose lock.

Changee Lengthof Transmiesion ln Media

Path length changesoccur as a result of thermal expansionor conffaction of guided transmissionmedia or of atmosphericbending of a radio path. while a path is increasing in length, the effective bit rate at the receiver is reducedbecausemore and more bits are being "stored" in the medium. similarly, as the path shortens,the bit rate at the receiver increa$e$ because number of bits storedin the transmissionlink is dethe creasing.After the path has stabilized, the receive signal returns to the nominal data rate. The mo$t significant changesin path length occur with communications satellites' Geostationarysatellitesproduce path length variations of approximately ?fi) miles, which causepropagationtime variations of approximately I msec I I . path length changes I also occur in guided transmission media such as copper wire and optical fibers. These changesare referred to as diurnal changesbecausethey occur once a day.

Changesin the Vetocityof propagation

Temperaturechangesnot only causeexpansionand contraction of wireline transmis* sion media but also can changethose propagation constantsof the media that deter-

7.1 rMrNG

339

mine the velocity of propagation.The resulting changein received clocked stability, however, is much less than that produced by the changein path length [2]' The propagation velocity of radio waves in the atmosphere also changes with temperature and humidity. Although these velocity changes are more significant than those occurring in wirelines, they are still smaller than the path-length-inducedvariations. Notice that a change in propagation velocity is effectively equivalent to a "stored" in the transmission path is change in path length since the number of bits changed.

Doppler Shlfts clock occurs timing instabilityin a received of source potential The mostsignificant a For or asa resultof Dopplershiftsfrom airplanes satellites. example, Dopplershift clockinstabilityof 5 x 10*7' to amounts anequivalent airplane by induced a 350-mph to Dopplershiftsequivalent must accommodate receivers Digital mobiletelephone Again,Dopplershiftsoccur,in es$ence, of clock instabilities aboutonepartin 107.* asa resultof pathchanges. Ineg u lar Tlm ing lnfo rmetlo n of requirement a digital line codeis thatit 4, in As discussed Chapter a fundamental and provide sufficienttiming informationto establish maintaina receiverline clock. jitter durclockincreases is If thetiminginformation datadependent, in therecovered of of ing periods relativelylow densitytiming marks.Themagnitude thejitter is de* pendentnot solely on the densityof timing marksbut also on the timing (data) however, only the densitywould matter.In practice, patterns. an ideal repeater, In jitter lead variousimperfections to pattern-dependent [3]. insertoverhead higherlevel digitalmultiplexers later As discussed in this chapter, When the higherrate data streamfor variouspurpo$es. data bits into a composite is the is stream demultiplexed, arrivalrateof datawithin individualchannels irregular' new produces timingjitter whengenerating line clocksfor thelower This inegularity and ofjitter (waitingtimejitter) is oftenthemosttroublesome This source ratesignals. in moredetaillater. is discussed 7.1.3 Elastic Stores represent paragraphs essentially in described the preceding The timing instabilities the case noise-and of link. in in changes the numberof bits stored a transmission In data in "bits stored"occursbecause are samthe interference-inducedjitter, change dataof a regeneraSincetheoutgoing pleda little earlieror a little laterthannominal. phase offsetin the clock, a to according the recovered are tive repeater transmitted is from whenthere nomisalignis the the clockmeans delaythrough repeater different mentin timing.
*If you *e pa*noid about cooperation between cellular operators and law enforcement authorities, you may not want to use your cell phone while speeding.

340

NETwoHKSYNcHHoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Ifphase offsets in successive regenerativerepeaterscoincide, a net changeof several bits of storagein a long repeatedtransmissionlink occurs. Sincetheseexffa bits enter or leave the hansmission link over relatively short periods of time, the accumulated jitter rnay representa relatively large, but short lived, instability in the receive clock. Becauseregenerativerepeater$ use incoming sample clocks as output clocks, sustained timing differencesbetween inputs and outputs do not exist. The endpointsof a transmissionlink, however, may interface to a local clock. In this casea difference between a received and a relatively fixed local clock must be reconciled with an elastic store' An elastic store is a data buffer that is written into by one clock and read from by another.If short-term instabilities exist in either clock, the elastic storeabsorbsthe differencesin the amount of datatransmittedand the amountof datareceived.An elastic store can compensate only for short-term instabilities that produce a Iimited difference in the amountsof data transmitted and received.If sustainedclock offsets exist. as with highly accuratebut unsynchronizedclocks, an elastic store will eventually underflow or overflow.

TDld-Swltch ln|errtace
A typicalneed anelastic for store occurs whena digitaltransmission is interfaced link to a digitaltime divisionswitch.As shown Figure7.2,theelastic in storeis placed betweentheincomingdigitaltransmission andtheinlet sideof the switch.In most link instances digitalswitchprovides the timingfor all outgoing TDM links sotharno timing discrepancies between exist these links andtheswirch. thetimebeing,assume For that the far end of the digital link derivesits clock from thereceivesignalanduses thatclockto timedigitaltransmissions returning theswitch. to Thisis thesituation that arises whena remotechannel bankis connected a digital swirchthroughTl ]ines to andis commonly referred aschannel to bank"loop timing."when looptimingis used, the line clock on the incominglink of the switchis nominallysynchronized the to switchclock.However,for rea$ons discussed previously, certainamountof instaa bility in the incomingclock necessarily exists.The elasticstoreabsorbs these instabilities sothatpurelysynchronized areavailable the swirch. data for

Figure 7.2 store.

Interface between TDM nansmission link and a digital switch using an elastic

TrMrNc 941

maintains store links by In essence, loopformed thetransmission andtheelastic the a constantand integral numberof clock intervalsbetweenthe inlet and outlet of the as operate thoughdiswitch.Thus,from a timingpoint of view,theinletsandoutlets of source timing. to rectlyconnected eachotherusinga common Removal of Accumulated Jitter for Anotherapplication an elasticstoreis shownin Figure7.3,whereit is usedto reNormally,aregenrepeater. timing movetransmission-induced jitter in a regenerahve the establishes transmittiming directly from the locally derived erativerepeater local by timingis defined a separate the sample clock.In Figure7.3,however, transmit clock,butthe in instabilities thereceive the storeabsorbs shoft-term clock.Theelastic "ava by clock is controlled maintaining cefrain Of frequency thetransmit long-term to clockis synchronized Thusthetransmit in level of storage" theelasticstore. erage is Ifthe elasticrltore basis. basis, not on a short-term but theline clockon a long-term in variations thedatarate,high-frequency all to largeenough accommodate transient instabilityof theinputclockis removed. timing,deused of regardless themechanism to recover repeaters, All regenerative overa period the rive their outputclocksby averaging incomingtiming information the of time.Tunedcircuitsaverage incomingclockfor relativelyfew signalintervals; of a In phase-locked loopsdo sofor manyintervals. all cases certainamount storage the to or delayis implied.An elasticstoreis merelya mechanism increase available can delay so that output timing adjustments be mademore gradually.Notice that an of amount$ artificial delayinto the datapath' elasticstorealwaysinsertssignificant (wander), aftihalily large elastic instabilities To removearbitrarilylow frequency elasticstore Thusa jitter-removing VCOs)arerequired. (andarbitrarilystable stores jitter accumulation the threatens only into should inserted achainof repeaters when be to repeater maintainsynchronization' ability of a regularregenerative in link of Jitteris notjust a phenomenon a digitaltransmission but alsooccurs digijitter removallike that shownin Figure7.3 is used For $y$tems. example, tal storage blurringof thevisualimages to [4]. in laserdiscptayers eliminate Elastlc Store ImPlementdtiong bits hundred for sizeof an elasticstorevariesfrom a few bits to several The required of one links.Figure7.4 shows means imcommunications long-distance high-speed, and a converter, register, plementing smallelasticstoreutilizing a series-to-parallel a

repeater. regenerative Figure 7.3 Jitter-removing

342

NETWoRK sYNcHRoNIzATIoN coNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Input clock Input rignrl

Ortput clock OrrtDUtdrtr

Figure 7.4 Basicimplementation an elasticstore. of a parallel-to-seriesconverter.As indicated, incoming data are transferredinto the register as soon as each word is accumulatedin the series-to-parallelconvefier. Some time later, data in the register are transferredto the output parallel-to-serierr converter as a complete word is shifted out. Notice that transfersto the parallel-to-seriesconverler are independentof the incoming clock. As long as ouFut transfbrsoccur between input transfers,no data are lost, and short-term jitter is absorbedby varying delays through the elastic store. Normally, somecontrol circuitry (not shown) is neededto initialize the elastic store so that the first transferinto the registeroccurs midway betweenoutput transfers.This processmeanssomeincoming dataare initially discardedby the series-to-parallel register until the desiredtransfer time occurs. The relative times of the parallel transfersinto and out of the holding registerprovide a direct indication ofthe relative phaseofthe input and output clocks. Thus the parallel transfer clocks contain the information neededto generateVCO control voltagesif the elastic store is being used to remove accumulatedtransmissionjitter. The basic structureshown in Figure 7.4 can be extendedto implement larger elastic stores,as shown in Figure 7.5. The only changeinvolves the substitution of a f,rrst-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer for the holding register of Figure 7.4. This data buffer i$ designed specifically to allow input transfersunder the control of one clock while output$ are controlled by a different clock. Normally, the FIFO buffer is initialized by inhibiting output transfers until it is half firll. In fact, some commercially availabll FIFO buffers have an output signal specifically indicating when it is half full or greater.

7.1.4 Jitter Measurements A simple circuit measuring for jitteris shown Figure As indicated,is timing in 7.6. it
nothing more than a phase-lockedloop (pLL) with the output of the phasecomparator providing the measurementof the timing jitter. Normally, the bandwidth of the lowpassfilter (LPF) is very small so the vco ignoresshort-termjiner in the timing signal. If there is no jitter at all, the output of the phasecomparatoris constantand no signal is passedby the high-passselectionfilter (HpF).

7.1 TrMrNc 343

Inrutfita Irput clalt

Outputclock Output (htr

of store. Figure7.5 FIFOimplementation anelastic jitter ciurnot measured thecircuit in Figure7.6 because by be Very low frequency jitter maybe of no conphase shifts.Low-frequency theVCO tracksslowlychanging jitter, on the it because canbe hackedby a PLL. Higher frequency cern,however, errorsor a lossof lock in theclockrecovery sampling otherhand,is moreaptto cause is content thejitter aswell asits magnitude of interof Thusthespectral of a repeater. jitter, the circuit of Figure7.6 low-frequency not est.Besides beingableto measure declock signal,Section7.4.7 lock ontothefundamental if cannotoperate it cannot jitter andothertiming impairments within a network. scribesanotherway to measure theorists a powermeasas jitter is commonlyspecified communications by Phase As radians') (Onecycle= Zru or squared cyclessquared. in urement unitsof radians jitterPoweristhenameasure thevariance thenumof of in indicated Figure7.7,phase link. (UIs) stored thetransmission In a physical in berof clockcyclesor unit intervals not timing variations, it jitter "power" haslittle meaning because represents sense jitter asa powercanbe obtained by justificationfor expressing physical power.Some detectoroutput signalis propottionalto that theIms power o| of the phase observing jitter ofr: therms phase

2 at

Jitt0f

Clock rlgnal

Phi|e lock loop

timingjitter' Figure 7.6 Circuittbr measuring

344

NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT Prohbility dkfibution of ryrtolr in trrnrlt of nuftbGr

lntunbncou| numblr = /V Ar,6rgp - ilo

Trsn|ftrhtfi *ith it|bh rimingsurE+

Rtcdrnr

Figure 7.7 Phase jitter modeled as the variance in the number of symbols ',stored" in the transmissionlink.

ot,=K3siry2)
whereKa is thephase gainfactorin voltsperradian. detector

(7.1)

Example7.1. Givenan rms phase jitter of 10.7dB relativero oneuI, what is the standard deviation thephase of offset? Solutinn. Thevariance thesignalphase determined ofr: l0 exp(10.7/10) of is = as 11.76UI squared. Hence, standard the deviation (ll.?6)u2 = j.4j UI (symbol is intervals)'Since687oof a normalprobabilitydistributionlies within one standard deviation, phase thissignal within +3.43symbol the of is intervals 687o thetime. for of Onepercent the time the signalphase of will be outside2.6 standard deviations. or +8.9symbol intervals. jitter arises a resultof additiveGaussian If phase as noiseon a stablesignal,the phase noisecanbe approximated as

4:#
whereofr= additivenoisepower Pr = signalpower

(rad2)

(7.2)

Equation is the basicequation 7.2 ofphasejitter produced additivenoiseon a by continuous sinusoid[5]. when timing is exhacted from a datasignal,the timing informationis usuallynot continuous. distinctionis not importantbecause The jitter produced additivenoiseis normallyinsignificant by compared othersources to [6]. For an analysis phase jitter produced regenerative of by repeaters operating ranon domlyoccurring timing transitions, reference see [7].

TrMrNc 3rt5 TABLE7.1 Maxlmumlnstabllltyof D$l Customerlnterlace Band Frequency

<10H2 < 10Hz 10 Hz-40 kHz I kHz-40 kHz

Variation Peak-to-Peak Maximum 28 Ulsin 24 hr 5 U l si n 1 5m i n 5 Uls 0 , 1U l s

As an example of a particular instability specification, Table 7.I lists the wander and jitter specificationsof a DSI digital carrier (Tl) interface to the public network [8]. Notice that the higher frequencyjitter specificationallows deviationsin pulse centers of only 5Vo,which effectively specifies the accuracy of the data sample clock' Larger variations are allowed for lower frequency instabilities becausethe clock recovery circuits can track the changesto maintain a good sample clock.

7.1.5 $ystematlcJitter by was An originalanalysis jitter in a chainof digitalregenerators reported Byrne' of Each Karafin,andRobinson Figure7.8 showsthebasicmodelof their analysis' [3]. wavetiming from thereceived in of theregenerative repeaters a T-carrierline extracts of clock.Because as form andpasses timing on to thenextregenerator a transmit that in (primarily intersymbolintetference) the timing reimplementation imperfections on One is by coverycircuits,jitter produced repeaters dependent the datapatterns' an lag. Anotherpattemproduces expatternproduces exhemephase an worst-case to lead.Whenthedatflpatternshiftsftom oneworstcase theother,a phase tremephase the implemenfadon, jitterprothe basic everyrepeaterha$ same Because rampoccurs. nature ofthisjitter The tends be coherent. systematic to by duced individualrepeaters of line source accumulated clockjitter at the end of a makesit the most signiflrcant chainof repeaters.

I I

Phuodritt $rilih rr
Stvitch ln drtr ptt$7nt indlvlilirl ttlpetif

(D2 jitter in a string of regenerative repeaters; = phaseshift Figure 7.8 Model of systematic by shift produced worst-case lead;(Dt = phase data produced worst-case pattemfor phase by datapattemfor phaselag.

346

NETWoRKSYNCHRoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

As indicated in Figure 7.8, the last repeaterin the chain experiencesa large phase ramp equal to the number of repeaters times the phaseshift of eachindividual repeater. This phaseramp representsan abrupt changein the clock frequency that may cause bit errors or a complete loss of synchronization.Thus there is a limit to the number of repeatersthat can be used without jitter removal. For more analysesof jitter accumulation including the combined effects of systematicjitter and rzurdomperturbations, seereferences [0], and [11]. [9J,

7.2 TIMING INACCURACIES

In the precedingsectionthe natureof certain instabilities or transientvariationsin timing was discussed. Although thesevariations representshifts in the frequency of a line clock, the shifts are only temporary and can be absorbedby elastic stores.In some instances digital communicationsequipmentusing autonomousfrequency sourcesmust be interconnected.when this happens,the clock ratesof the two systemsarenever exactly the $ame,no matter how much accuracyis designedinto the frequency $ources. An offset in the two clocks, no matter how small, canaotbe reconciledby elastic stores alone. In the preceding section,channel bank loop timing was mentioned as an example of how remote terminals are synchronized to a digital switch. When the remote terminal is anotherdigital switch using its own frequency sourceas a reference,a difTerent situation results. As shown in Figure 7.9, the outgoing clock for each direction of transmissionis def,rned the local switch clock. Thus the incoming clock at each by switch interface containsnot only tran$mission-line-induced jitter but also a small and unavoidablefrequency offset.

7.2.1 Slips
As indicated in Figure 7.9, the interface of eachincoming digital link necessarilycontains an elastic store to remove transmissionlink timing jitter. The elastic store at the first digital switch is written into by the recoveredline clock but read from the local rateR1.If the averagerate of the recoveredline clocklR2is different fromRl, the elastic

Figure 7.9 Connections between autonomously timeddigital switches.

7,2 TIMING INACCURACIFS 347

storewill eventually underflow overflow,depending whichrateis larger.When or on causing thanR1,the elasticstoreat the first digital switchoverflows, a R2is greater If lossof data. R2is lessthanR1,thesame elastic storeunderflows, causing extraneous datato be insefiedinto the bit sffeamentering switch.Normally,the extraneous the transferred theswitch.Disruptions the dataarea repetition databits already of into in datastream of an elasticstorearereferred as caused underflows overflows or to by "slips." impairments a digitalnetworkbeUncontrolled very significant to slipsrepresent generally Thetefore, cause cause loss of framesynchronization. slips are althey a manners do not upsetframing.One general lowed to occuronly in prescribed that approach controllingthe slipsis to ensure theyoccuronly in theform of a repethat to and tition or deletionof an entireframe.Thusthe time slot counter$ framing logic aswith the multiplexgroupremainsynchronized. Conholledslipscomprising sociated can entireframes be assured usingelasticstores with at leastoneframeof storage. by As a slip occurs, storage level in the elasticstoreis effectivelyincreased deor the creased a full frame.Ratherthanactuallyinsertingor deletinga frameof informaby pointersin a more easily by indexingaddress tion, the desiredeffect is achieved random-acce$$ memory. Sucha system shownin Figure7.10. is writing input information by Theelasticstorein Figure7.10operates sequentially to into memoryaddresses corresponding individualTDM channels. Datafor individin ual outputchannels obtained reading same are the sequential by addresses thesame manner. the Ideally,if thereis no offsetbetween clock rates, readtimesof each the The occurmidway between write timesfor corresponding channels. elastic channel delayvariations to one-half storethenhasthecapability absorbing transmission up of of a frametime.

Memory wrltS* Memory reodr

Double reEd

Figure 7.10 Hlastic storeoperation memory, with a one-frame

348

NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION CONTROL ANDMANAGEMENT

The timing diagram in Figure 7.10 depicts an exaggerared timing offset in which the switch clock R2 is greaterthan the incoming clock lt1. As indicated, the read times carch up gradually with the write times until a "double read" occurs.At that time the information retrieved for eachcharurelis a repetition of the information retrieved for the previous outgoing frame. Although write and read times for only one channel are shown, the corresponding times for all other channelshave the samerelationship. Thus all charurelsslip together.Notice that R1 is greater than R2, a slip occurs when a "double write" on all channelscausesthe information in the previous incoming frame to be overwritten. The elastic store operation depicted in Figure 7.10 is very similar to the operation of a time slot interchangememory describedin Chapter5. This relationshipis exploitable in a TST switch where the inlet memory can provide both the elastic store function and the time switching function. When the two functions are combined, slips generally occur at different times for different channels. Nevertheless,individual charnels maintain proper frame alignment since each channel is transferredthrough the inlet memory using dedicatedmemory addresses. One attractivefeatureof using the inlet memory as an elastic storeis that, when setting up a new connection,an internal switching time slot can be chosenso that the inlet memory read is halfway betweeninlet memory writes for the particular channel.Thus a slip in that connection will not occur for a long time, probably not until long after the connection is released.(With a clock inaccuracy of one pafl in 108,ttre time between slips in any one channel is 3.5 hr.) One potential problem with the elastic store in Figure 7.10 occurs when write and read times nearly coincide. When both accesses a single channeloccur one after the to other, transient timing instabilities can causethe two accesses cross back and forth to with respectto each other. Thus slips causedby double readsmay follow slips caused by double writes and vice,versa.To remedy this situation, some amount of hysteresis is neededin the counter adjustmentprocess.The hysteresis,in turn, implies that additional storageis neededto defer the occurrenceof one type of slip after a slip of the other type has recently occurred. One meansof implementing an elastic storewith the desiredhysteresisis to usetwo framesof storageas shown in Figure 7.11. Forconvenience,the elastic storeis divided into an A-frame memory and a B-frame memory. The counterlogic again accesses the memories in sequentialfashion except that frames are written alternately into the A and B memories.Under normal operation,the memoriesare accessed the sameway in for output data. When a slip is imminent, however, control logic causesthe output channelcounter to be reset so that the A memory is read twice in a row. This situation is depicted in the timing diagram of Figure 7.1I, which again assumesthat R2 is Sreaterthan R1.The imporrant point to be noticed in the timing diagram is that after the counter adjustmentproducesa double read of memory A, the write and read times of each individual memory are approximately one frame time apart. Thus anotheradjustment can be deferred until the write and read accesses again drift one full frame time with respectto eachother. The structure and mode of operation shown in Figure 7.11 describethe elastic store used for DSI signal interfacesto AT&T's (now Lucent's)No. a ESS II2].

7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES

349

n,$

VP

I awntr I l \

J I
I

J}
P/S ilhmory r$lt|| l,/hmofy rgrd A A

fi2

A Double t?ral

Figure 7.ll

Elasticstorewith a two-frame memory.

9llp Bate Qbjactlves

If the difference between an elastic store's input data rate and its output data rate is M,- the time between slips is

A7={ AR
where N is the number of bits that get dropped or repeatedwhenever a slip occurs. Normally, a slip involves a full frame of data, in which casethe time between slips is determined as

47=-l^F

whereAF is the differencein framerates. As long asslipsarecontrolled theydo not disruptframing,ltheir only effectis so repetition deletion theinformation aninfrequent of within affected TDM channels. or "click." Only The audibleeffectof slipson a digitizedvoice signalis an occasional oneslip in 25 produces audible click in PCM voice[]. Voice signals therefore can an perminute[13]. tolerate slips several
*Typicatly, clock offsets are specified in relative terms (e,g,, onepart in 106). A clock tlat is accurateto P parts per million (ppm) has a maximum offset of AR = ll . P/10". TWith single-frame slips, framing is disrupted in thc sense that framing pattem is shifted, Thus, the frame sequence has to be reacquired, but this process is simplified by the fact that the location of the framing bits and the integrity of the message channels are maintained.

350

N ETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTHOLAND MANAGEMENT

A moresubtle troublesome and aspect slipsoccurs of whena digitizedchannel carriesvoiceband data.High-speed modems the analogtelephone data for networkuse with coherent detection thereceiver. in Since these modems parQAM modulation are ticularlysensitive phase to shifts, theyareparticularly vulnerable slips.An 8-bitslip to in a digitizedmodemsignalusinga carrierof 1800Hz causes instantaneous phase an shift of 8l o.obviously,a phase shift of this sizecauses dataerror,but moreimpora tantly,it upsets carrier the recovery circuitryin thereceiver causes and multipleerrors. A singleslip canupsettheoperation some of voiceband modems several for seconds [ 1 4 ,1 5 ] . characterizations theeffects slipson Group3 facsimile of of equipment reveal [16] thata singleslip cancause lossof four to eightscanlineswithoutanerrorreport. the Sometimes lossof thelinesis not immediately the evident thereconstructed to image. Diagonal lines,however, readilyrevealmissingverticalspace. Encrypted traffrc(voiceor data)is moresusceptible slipssincetheencryptionto process decryption usuallyrelieson bit-synchronous scramblers unscramblers. and Whenthebit countis altered insertion deletion bits in a time slot,counters by or of in the source anddestination become unsynchronized. berrt, decryption At process the causes everyslip to be audible. worst,unintelligible At speech dataresultuntil the or unscrambler resynchronized. is Anotherimportantaspect encrypted of communication is transmission encryption of keysor indexes encryption to keys.If synchronization is lost for some reason, maybenecessary resynchronize encryption it to the keys, thereby compromising security. Whena digitaltransmission is beingusedto transmit link datadirectly,theeffect of a slip maynot be anymoresignificant thana singlechannel error.Most datacommunications receiving equipment requests complete a retransmission anyblock of of datanot satisfying certain redundancy checks. Thusoneerroris asbadasmanyerrors or a complete of data.Theeffectof the slip will be moresignificant, loss however, if the communications protocol[e.g.,the DDCMP of Digital Equipment corporation (compaq)lrelieson bytecountprocedures delimitmessage to blocks.Insefiionor deletion of databy the networkcauses receive the counter become to unsynchronized, andthenormalexchange information disrupted of is until thelossof synchronization is recognized. Fromtheforegoing considerations datatransmission, slip rateobjective for the for theAT&T networkandadopted BellcoreandANSI for NorthAmericawasserar by oneslip in 5 hr for anend-to-end connection [17-19]. Sinceslipscanoccurat multiple pointswithin a network,the objective slipsat individualtrunk and switchinginfor terfaces $etat oneslip every20 hr. was Example7.2. Determine relativeaccuracy the requirement$ two independent of clocksto maintaina mutualslip rateobjective one slip in 20 hr. Assume frame of a rateof I kHz asin PCM voicesisnals. solution. The slip rateobjective impliesthattheframerateproduced oneclock by canbe different thanthe framerateproduced the otherclock by no morethan by

7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES I

351

r;

* * *

= 1.39x 10-5slipsper second

per the is as Sinceilrereare8000frames second, relativeaccuracy determined

1.39xl0-5

ffi

= 1.7x " n . - , lo-e sliPs/frame

Hence clocksmustbe accurate 1.7partsin lOe. the to Example7.2 determines only a maximumrelativeinaccuracy, absothe Because ( I .7 x 10-e)/2, 0.85parts each lute inaccuracy individualclockmustbe lessthan or of in 10e. 7.2.2 Asynchronou$ Multlplexing sectioncertainaspects networksynchronization In the preceding of werediscussed that implied the needfor clock synchronization preventa lossof databy way of to to slips.In this section procedure a referred as"pulsestuffing"is discussed avoids that The misboth slipsandclock synchronization. termpulsestuffingcanbe somewhat Ieading sinceit impliesthatpulses inserted into the line codeto maketiming adare justments. Actually,pulsestuffinginvolvesonly the datastream is independent and system use.Pulsestuffingis a termcommonly in used of theline codeor modulation concept refenedto as"justification"in Europe.in North Americawhile the $ame is whose rate Thebasicconcept ofpulsestuffinginvolves useof anoutputchannel the higherthantheinputrate.Thustheoutputchannel carryall inputdata is purposely can plus somevariable numberof "null," or "stuff," bits.The null bits arenot partof the Theyareinserted, a prescribed in to incomingdata. manner, padtheinputdataskeam to the higheroutputrate.Naturally,the extraneous or stuff,bits mustbe identinull, fiablesothat"destuffing"canrecover originaldatastream. the (Table of whenthe initial digitalTDM hierarchy Thepractice pulsestuffingarose links 1.10)was defined.At this time therewere only isolateddigital transmission within the networkthat precluded themto a commonclock.Whenit synchronizing (e.g., (e.g., ls) into higherlevelsignals DS came timeto combine lowerratetributaries procedure DS2sor DS3s),themultiplexing necessarily to accommodate had tributarThegeneric unsynies operating $lightlydifferentrates. these at termfor combining chronizedsignalsis asynchronous multiplexing.In this context,"asynchronous" refersto multiplexingofunsynchronized into a higherlevel signal(using tributaries pulsestuffing).It doerr refer,in any way, to a means transmission. higher not of The link. level signalis alwayscarried a synchronous on transmission As the amountof digital equipmentin the networkgrew andmore andmore of it interconnected, themeans thenecessity a differentform of muland for became both
*Justification is the pnnting industry practice that aligns the right sirle oflines oftext by inserting a variable amount of spacewithin the line. As you will seein the following discussion,aligning individual tributaries to thc rate of a higher level multiplexer is conceptually the same process,

352

NETWoRKSyNcHRoNTzATToNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

tiplexing arose.The chosenapproach refened to as synchronous is multiplexing (SONET)in North AmericaandSynchronous (SDH) in therestof Digital Hierarchy theworld.Theprinciples SONETandSDH aredescribed conjunction of in with fiber systems thenextchapter. in P ulse-Stuff i ng Concepts point for understanding needfor pulsestuffing,consider simple As a starting the the two-channel, bit-interleaved multiplexerin Figure 7.12. As indicated,within any stringof even-numbered in the multiplexer bits ouryut,thenumberof bits carriedin eachsubchannel necessarily is identical.Thus the ratesof the subchannels also are identical.If the two input clata streams runningat differentrates,the outputcanbe are synchronized oneofthe channels not both.Thusslipswould necessarily to but occur in at leastoneof thetributaries. As a simplifiedexample pulsestuffing,Figure7.13 showsa two-channel, of bitinterleaved formatasbefore with theadditional but detailneeded allow adjustments to of theinformation flow within eachsubchannel. indicated, multiplexed As the output is formatted into 10-bitmaster frameswith 5 bits assigned eachsubchannel. to The frrst 3 bits in eachsubchannel eachmasterfoame of alwayscarrydatafrom therespective tributaries. fourthbit in eachsubchannel andCj specifywhether last The (C1 the bits (S1andSj carrydataor arestuffbits.WhenC1is a "1," a bit is stuffed; otherwise s 1carries tributarydata. Hence each ma$ter framecancarry3 or 4 bitsfromeach tributary.Il on average! eachtributarysends bits duringa ma$ter 3.5 frame,variations of +l4Voin thetributaryclockrates be accommodated. can An important point to noticeaboutan asynchronous multiplexer thattheoutput is framestructure unrelated theframeskucture thelower level inputs.As far as is to of thehigherlevelmultiplexer concemed, inprrtsignalis merelya serial stream is each bit with no particular structure assumed. Framing in thelowerlevelmultiplexsignals bits aretransmitted right alongwith the informationbits. After thehigherlevel signalis demultiplexed the tributaries unstuffed, and are framingof the lower level signals mustbe established furtherdemultiplexing. for Althoughpulsestuffingcanbeimplemented a varietyof higherlevelframing with formats, generally the mostdesirable features a pulse-stuffing of formatareidentified asfollows: 1. Theuseof fixed-length master frames with each channel allowedto stuff or not to stuff a singlebit in themaster frame

ffi
Figure 7.12 Two-channel multiplexer showing equal output data rates for each input,

7.2 TIMING INAccURACIES 353

I Frame

example. Figure 7.13 Simplifiedpulse-stuff,rng

2. Redundant$tuffing specifications 3 . Noninformation bits distributed acrossa masterframe quitesmall,soonly smalladjustments Timing offsetsaregenerally from a singleocstuff bit arerequired. of Thuslargenumbers tributarybits canbe combined casional into a master framewith one specificbit positionidentifiedasthe S bit. Nominally, one-halfof the master frarnes approximately containthemaximumnumberof informationbitsNM,andtheotherhalf contain - l information Ny bits. Thepurpose a pulse-stuffing of operation to prevent lossof datawhentwo ina is with other. terconnected to digitaltransmission links areunsynchronized respect each (or If singlebit errorscancause stuffbit to be interpreted information viceversa), a as of the basicobjectiveis lost. Furthermore, noticethat an erroneous interpretation a stuff codecauses lower level multiplexsignals loseframing.For these embedded, to reasons, interpretation C bitsmustbeencoded the of Underthe a$rtumpredundantly. tion that channelerrorsarerandom,the probabilityof misinterpreting stuff code a is

Po:rfti,';,-','
- p)' wherep = probability of a channelerror of n = number correctable stuff codeerrors(2n + I bits in a stuff code) framefor several reasons. Informationbits shouldbe distributed across master a First,by sepamting these asmuchaspossible, bits enorsin redundant $tuffingspeciIf bits ficationbits(C bits) aremorelikely to beindependent. thespecification aretoo closetogether bursterrorsareprevalent, redundant the is and encoding of little use. Second, distributingnoninformation bits, the irregularityof informationflow is by minimized. are a Whenhigherlevel multiplexsignals demultiplexed, clock for each rate individuallower level signalneeds be derivedfrom the irregularinformation to in each channel. of stable clocksynchronized theinformation to Generation a suitably rate is simplif,red informationburstsor gapsare minimized.Furthermore, if elastic storesneeded smoothout the informationratesare smallerwhen the length of into formafiongapsis minimized.

354

NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

M12 Multiplexer An example a higherlevel multiplexingformatis providedin Figure7.14.This is of theformatused 6.3l2-MbpsDsZ signals theNorthAmerican for in digitalhierarchy.* A DSz signalis derived bit interleaving DSI signals addingtheappropriby four and ateoverhead bits. A DS2master frameis 1176 long.Of these bits thereare1148 information (287 bits perchannel), I framingbits (I%, Mr, Fo,Fr), l2 stuffingconrrol (Cr, Cz,C:, C+), I bits 4 S bits (Sr,Sz,Sr, S+), an alarmbit X. Sincean S bit canbe a null bit or aninforand mationbit, eachchannel can send287 or 288 bits in a master frame.An S bit is designated an informationbit if all threeof the corresponding bits are0. The S as C bit is a null (stuff)bit if all threecorresponding bits are 1.obviously,thisencoding c procedure allowsfor singleerrorcorrection the stuffingcontrolbits. in The first level of framingis established the alternating F1,F0,. . . pattern. by F6, Noticethat exactly146bits separate Fs andFl bits.Anotherlevel of framingfor the identifyingthe C andS bits is established theMs andM1 bits.A fourthM bit (X) by is not usedfor framingand therefore be usedas an alarmservice can digit. Similar framestructures exist for otherhigherlevel digital signals. Figures7.15-7.18show thestructures DS3,DS4,DSIC, andtheE2 second-level for digital signalof theITU, respectively. Example7.3. Determine the minimum and maximum input channel rates accommodated an Ml2 multiplexer.Also determine rateof DSI misframes by the caused anerroneous by interpretation a stuffed Assume bit errorrateis 10-6. of bit. the Solution. The maximum information per channel determined rate is as 6.31?:?8s = 1.5458 Mbps lt76 Theminimuminformation per channel determined rate is as 6.312x287 = 1'5404 MbPs ffi6 Sincetherearethreepossible combinations two errorsin theC bits,theprobability of of misinterpreting S bit is closelyapproximated 3 x (10-6)2 x l0-r2. Thedu=3 an by rationof eachmaster = frameis 117616.312186Fsec. Thustherateof misframes per DSI sienal is
3 x 10-12

"#r":0'016x

per 10{ misframes second

whichis equivalent onemisframe to every2 years.

'DS2 signals are no longer transmitted as individual signals. They only exist as an intermediate level between 28 DSls and a DS3 sienal.

7.2 TIMING INAcCURACIES 355

+--'aE
ilC-*r-rO

Zgt-Bit1;btilffi /tB
Erulf bitr

f !

C1

F
l

E
E Figure 7.1C Frame format of DSZ digital signal. Stuffing occurs in channel i when the previous Ci bits = lll; X is an alarm bit that equals I for no-alarm condition. Framing is establishedby the F6F1F6. . . sequencewith 146 intervening bits.
T

7.3 Example demonstrates thetolerance a 1.544-MHz that of DSI clockis -3.572, to +1.796kHz. Thustherelativeaccuracy the between DSI andDS2 clocksmustbe I.79611544, only I part in 860. This relativelylarge timing tolerance much is or greater thanwhatis required reasonable for clockandline instabilities. timing adThe justment capabilities unsymmetric rangewerechosen of a desire out and tolerance to (l) minimizeDS2reframe times,(2) providea line clockthatis a multipleof 8 kHz, and(3) minimizewaitingtimejitter [20].
C8O blt ilbfrfile

E
t ll

$ E

Figure 7.15 Frameformatof DS3digitalsignal;P is evenparityoverall message in the bits previous master frame.Stuffingoccursin channeli whenthe previousCi bits = lll, The X (alarm)bits andthe P bits mustbe l l or 00 so the MoMrM6sequence identifythe endof can the masterframe.

356

NETWoRKSYNCHRoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT
Stuft bit

E
E g
o ti

tl o

Figure 7.16 Frame format of DS4: Ci bits = I l l implies stuff the eighth message position bit for channel i following the last ci; Pr is even parity over the 192 previous odd-numbered messagebits; P0 is even parity over the 192 previous even-numberedmessagebits.

ElastlcSlore Size Requlrements A functional model anMl ? multiplexer shown Figure of is in 7.19. Associated with
eachlower level (DSl) input is an elastic store to hold incoming data until it is transferred to the higher level (DS2) output. The elastic storesserve two purposes:to remove the arrival jitter of the incoming data and to hold data for the proper time slots. In addition to generatingframing, the control logic of the multiplexer monitors the

318 bir NUbfrEmG

rtro-i-c,-33-ro
5 ({

cr

Mr

tl o
6 q

Ml

E :E

Figure 7.17 Frame format of DSIC digital signal. Stuffrng occurs in channel i when the previous Ci bits = lll; X is an alarm bit that equals I for no-alarm condition. Framing is establishedby the FoFrFo. . . sequencewith 158 intervening bits.

7.2 TrMrNc rNAccuRActEs 357

21?Eitsblm
Fflri digffi$t rign|l

200ilmgr

blt

irBtff tffir8{8 bltr

Figure 7.18 Frameformatof second-level digital signalof ITU-T (E2), Stuffingoccursin i channel whentheprevious bits are lll. Ci

$toragelevel (which servesa$ a phasecomparator)of eachelastic store and initiates a stuffing operationwheneverthe elastic storeis lessthan half full. Conversely,no stuffins occurs when the elastic store is more than half full.

rate, Sincestuffingcanoccurat only certain timesandonly at a certain maximum the elastictltoremustbe at leastas largeasthe peakjitter (peakphase offset)of the jitter accumulates incomingsignal.As discussed the beginningof this chapter, at alongthe entirelengthof a repeatered transmission link. Thus longerlinks require largerelasticstores slipsareto be prevented. if As an example therelationship line of between length(number repeaters) and of numberof bits of elasticstorage referto Figure7;20. needed anM12 multiplexer, by This figurewassubmitted AT&T to the CCITT special studygrouponjitter [21]. by jitter analysis reference The analysis an extension the systematic is of of [3].

DS-l inputs

DS-Zoutout
Sdl6ctorcodtrol framing inrrtion dnd rtuffing

Framing gonaration Etuffing contfol

Storag6 l#el Eign|lr

of Figure 7.19 Functional diagram a Ml2 multiplexer

358

NETWoRKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

{ e
E

li o
o o o E

fl.
o cl o E
E o

e5

3.0

Jltur rlopq (kHr)

Figure 7.20 Maximumnumberof regenerative repeaters a functionof elasticstoresizeand as jitter slope; = number cellsin elasticstore. ,4 of The abscissaof Figure 7.20 is the maximum-phaseslope produced by a clock recovery circuit in the presenceof a worst-caseshift in datapatterns(worst-casesystematic jitter). Since phase slope is nothing more than frequency offset, the required elastic store size can be determined as the maximum phaseslope times its maximum duration. Since the total phase slope is proportional to the number ofrepeaters, Figure 7.?0 displays the maximum number of repeaters per storage cell in an elastic store versu$ the jitter slope of an individual repeater when making worst-case timing transition. As an example, f,ust-generation Tl repeater$ produce a worst-ca.se slope of 2.4 ktlz. Ml2 multiplexers allocate 5 bits of storageto input phasejitter (3 more bits are included for implementation easeand waiting time jitter). From Figure 7 .20 it can be seenthat the ratio of N-* to A is 56, which implies that N*"* = 56 x 5 = 280 repeaters.*

*The

performance of long Tl lines is not as much of a concem as it once was becausemost long-distance DSl circuits ate now embedded in frber links, which have much greater repeater spacing,

rNAccuRAcrES359 7.2 TrMrNc

7.2.3 WaitlngTimeJitter
a it to a Whendemultiplexing higherlevel TDM datastream, is necessary generate (or Because subchannels transfened transare the clockfor eachderivedsubchannel. Derivathe data mitted)asa synchronous stream, derivedclockmustbe continuous. datastreams of into TDM by clocksis complicated the insertion tion of subchannel gapsin the bit anival times.Inegularityin the dataanival overhead that create bits gapsis referred aswaitingtimeiitter. to ratecaused these by Mostof theoverhead (e.g.,framingbits,paritybits, stuffingcontrolC bits)ocbits by basis.The waitingtime jitter caused thesegaps cur on a regularandpredictable store (sometimes can easilywith anelastic referred asmappingjitter+) beeliminated to a from theincoming clock.For example, singlePCM line andanoutputclockderived Tl clock at 64 kbpscanbe derivedfrom a 1.544-Mbps line clockby multichannel jitter asit occurs a EI signal into in mapped plyingby I anddividingby 193.Mapping of . in an E2 signalis depicted Figure7.21 In this figure the phase the tributarydata (continuous) into the higherlevel signalis shownrelativeto an unmapped mapped of rate.Notice that the phase the tributary falls behind dataclock at the sameaverage the but up of thereference duringperiods datagaps catches duringdatafieldsbecause Nofields is slightly higherthanthereference. average datarateduringthese tributary tice furtherthat the fill level of an elasticstoredoesnot get perfectlyreconciledat the on a because, average, nonintegral ftame.This resultoccurs endof a singleE2 master calried in a masterframe. numberof bits of a tributary are by waitingtime jitter produced pulse to In contrast mappingdataratevariations, waitdifficulty arises because moredifficult to dealwith. The stuffingis significantly For this reason ing timesproduced stuffedpulses irregularandunpredictable. by are TDM line mustbe derived from a pulse-stuffed the subchannel outputclocksderived data-not from arrivalrafeof each channel's independently only fromtheaverage and thehigherlevelTDM rate! jitter-removing using elastic are Outputclocksfrom M12 demultiplexers generated output and stores, shownin Figure7.22.If laryeelasticstores very slowly adjusted as waitingtimejitter Unfortunately, clocksareused,mostof thejitter canbe removed. so down to zerofrequency the jitter (e'g', wander)can components hasfrequency to the neverbe eliminated entirely.However, jiner canbe conf,tned aslow a bandof Figure7.23depicts time elasticstore. by frequencies desired usinga largeenough as process. key point to The from thepulsestuffing-destuffing intervalerrorsresulting data dataclockandthemapped canocthe noticeis a full bit of offsetbetween source can cur at anytime but an adjustment only be madewhenthenext stuff opportunity occurs-hencethetermwaitingtimejiner. but are a Waitingtimejitter is basically functionof how oftenpulses stuffed, it is If alsodependent theratioof actualstuffsto stuffingopportunities. theinputclock on
"Some references include mapping jitter to include waiting time jitter. Here, mapping jitter is used to represent repetitive data rate variations that occuf when both the tributary and the higher level transport signals are respectively at their pre,ciserates. Thus, waiting time jitter only occurs as a result of frequency adjustments,

360

NETWoHKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAcEMENT

Phffi of tn'hrrsry m cmpositc

rig*t

rcl8tivc b tqFt EigFrl iD Ulg

X: otrcrtad lr& Frfio I; lfrffilrim bit pilidm fn I rrfrltry sr Tffig a{iahflr (.||d) blr poridn ' Ewy_@lpilh AM c*df, Zoj hfffi|timtir p* ffirieyftr wDoilftb rd,fdwlirftd|thf, til !H hhEyin m S bit poiria strpaftrg o r!.d.

Ftgure 7.21 Mapping of a CCITT in a CCITT sisnal. Jitter El E2

jitter peaks is jitter free,theoutput whenone-half theopporhrnities used. of are From thepoint of view of maximum tolerance clockoffsets, stuffingratioof { is ideal. for a To reduce waitingtimejitter, however, the stuffingratiosof approximately often {'are used. a thorough For analysis waitingtimejitter, see of reference t2zl. As anexample of waitingtimejitter dependence stuffing(iustification) on ratios,seeFigure7.24 obtainedfrom reference ofFigure 7.24represents ratio of stuffs [21]. The abscissa the to opporhrnities while theordinate jitter powerproduced a singlepulse-stuffing is by process. jitter poweris expressed decibels The in relativeto one slot squared (a slot is an olderterm for a unit interval,ul). curve A shows outputjitter prothe

Figure 7.22 Functional diagram Ml2 demultiplexer/desynchronizer, of

SYNCHRONIZATION 361 7.3 NETWORK

AdJurtuent thrcshold

Tlms iileffsl

rrorE

H
lnput clock phase produced adjustment waitingtimes. by Figure 7.23 Time intervalerrors
(dBl 0dB = t slotr

-12 E
o

E *rE .;
5

,A

'1 \
JE

E h

-h

B -20
o o

ol

0.4

05

0.6
ratio

0.7

0.s

cclTT.4773A 1.0 0.9

A : Tributsryjitter - 0.10 tlot r.m.r. B I TributEry iitter - 0.25 rlot r.m.r

Juttification

on Figure 7.24 Waiting timejiner dependence justification ratio.

the duced whentheinputjitter is -20 dB (0.t UI rms).CurveB shows outputjitter whenthe inputjitter is -72 dE (0.25UI rms).Figure7.24 showsjitterproduced esdata 122],a good order-of-magnitude by a singlemultiplexer.From measured by timateof the waiting time jitter accumulated N, tandemM12stuffing-destuffis ing operations

4=ffiruti'
7.3 NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION

(7.6)

link whenever digital transmission is cona in section, As discussed the preceding by to the nected a digital switch,it is desirable synchroniee two systems havingthe to

362

NETWoRKSYNCHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

transmission obtainits timingfrom theswitch. obvious link An exception thismode to of operation occurswhena digital kansmission is connected a digital switch link to onbothends. Generally, hansmission in anall-digitalnetwork a link derives timing its from just oneof the switches whichit is connected. theotherswitchis not synto If chronized thefirst in some to manner, unsynchronized an interface necessarily results. This section concemed is with networksynchronization a whole,not simply the as synchronization a singleinterface. of Basically,networksynchronization involves synchronizing switches the network.The transmission the of links canthenbe synchronizedautomatically deriving timing directly from a switchingnode. by Therearetwo basicreasons payingassiduous for attention the timing requireto mentsof a digital network.First, the networkmustpreventuncontrolled slips that couldproduce misframes, inadvertent disconnects, cross and connects. is generally It very difficult or very expensive prevent to slipsaltogether. Thusa second aspect a of networktiming plan requires establishing manimum a rateof controlled slipsaspafi of theend-to-end circuitqualityobjectives. Synchronizing private networks sometimes is difficult because network the topologiesarenot designed networksynchronization mind,andtheswitching with in equipment (PBXs) me not designedto provide synchronization other nodes. to Furthermore, privatenetworksoften interfaceto multiple cardersin multiple lothe cations. Determining which signals synchronize particularly a dynamic to to, on basis whena reference signalbecomes unavailable, exceptionally is difficult. Therearesix basicapproaches or considered use, synchronizing digiused, for in a tal network: 1. Plesiochronous 2. Networkwide pulse$tuffing 3. Mutual synchronization 4. Networkmaster 5. Master-slave clockins 6. Packetization 7.3.1 Plesiochronous A pJesiochronous networkdoesnot synchronize switches merelyuses the but highly accurate clocksat all swirching nodes theslip ratebetween nodes acceptably so the is low. This modeof operation the simplest implement is to sinceit avoidsdistributing timing throughout network. plesiochronou$ the A network, however, impliesthatthe smaller switching nodes carrythecostburden highlyaccurate redundant of and timing source$' a compromise, As largenetworks bedividedinto subnetworks timing can for purposes useplesiochronous and operations inter-subnetwork for synchronization and someother,morecost-effective, means providingintra-subnetwork of synchronization. As described section7.5, the public telephone in networkin the united states plesiochronous uses synchronization theupperlevels. at

7.3 NETWORKSYNCI{HONIZATnN 363 Plesiochronoustiming is also usedto synchronizeinternationaldigital network interconnections.In recommendationG.811 [23], the ITU has establishedthe stability objectives for clocks of all intemational gateway digital switches.The stability objective of one part in l01l implies that slips betweeninternational gateway switcheswill one clock is positive one part in 10lt occur at a rate of one per 70 days. (This assumes and anotherclock is negative one pafr in 1011.)

PulseStuffing 7.3.2 Networkwide

to If all internallinks andswitches a networkweredesigned run at nominalrates of processes, voicesigofthe voicedigitization all slightlyhigherthanthenominalrates nalscould propagate throughthe networkwithout slipsby stuffingthe information to rate.Noneof theclockswouldhaveto be synchronized rateup to thelocalchannel At couldbe tolerated. everyinterrelativelycoarse clock accuracies eachother,and the runningunderdifferentclocks,however, individualchanfacebetween systems nelswouldhaveto be unstuffed from theincomingrateandstuffedup to thelocal or rate.In essence, TDM linksof thenetworkwouldprovideTDM channels the outgoing beingabthroughwhich userdataflows at lower andvariablerates,the differences sorbed internalpulsestuffing. by whereall chanoperations higherlevelmultiplexers of ln contrast pulse-stuffing to imply operations nelsin a lower level digital signalarestuffedasa group,switching pulse-stuffing The mustbe stuffedindependently. needfor separate channel thateach two beingswitched is in operations illustrated Figure7.25,whichdepicts voicesignals is the into a common TDM outletlink. Obviously, bit ratert3of bothoutputchannels in originate portionsof the networkrunningunderdifidentical. the two channels If for mustbe madeseparately adjustments ferentclocksR1andR2,the pulse-stuffing at eachchannel. The complexityof stuffingand unstuffingevery64-kbpschannel whenthe digital netexpensive would havebeenextremely everynetworkelement work began takeshape. to

with different ratesonto a commonTDM output Figure 7.25 Swirchingtwo channels

364

NETWoFKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

Although the availability of low-cost logic could minimize the cost aspectof networkwide pulse stuffing, other problems would occur. First, the 64-kbps clocks for speechreconstruction would be required for each channel and would contain relatively large amountsof waiting time jitter. second, the network would no longer provide byte framing so the channel recovery processwould have to also include byte framing logic. Byte boundariesof PCM datacan be readily determinedfrom statistical data patterns in the bit positions (e.g., the polarity bit), but other applications for the channelsmay require explicit byte boundary identifiers.

7.3.3

Mutual Synchronizatlon

The two precedingsectionsdiscussmodes of operation for the network that do not involve synchronizationofindividual clocks. This sectionand the next two describenetwork timing plans that synchronizeeachindividual clock to a common frequency.The first method, mutual synchronization,establishes coilrmon network clock frequency a by having all nodesin the network exchangefrequency referencesas shown in Figure 'l .26.Each node averages incoming referencesanclusesthis for its local and transthe mitted clock. After an initialization period, the network clock normally convergesto a single stable frequency. under certain conditions, however, the averaging process can become unstable[24]. The main attractiveness a mutually synchronizednetwork is its ability to remain of operationalin spite of a clock failure in any node. The main disadvantages the unare cenainties of the exact averagefrequency and unknown transient behavior. Mutual synchronizationhas not been consideredfor the North American telephonenetwork. In Great Britain, however, a hierarchical timing structure was once consideredthat utilized mutual synchronizationwithin some portions of the network [25].

7.3.4 NetworkMaster
method singlemaster a clockis tranrtmifted all nodes to enabling themto lock ontoa common frequency. indicated, networknodes directlyconnected thenetAs all are to work master, implyingthe needfor a separate transmission networkdedicated the to

Another method synchronizing network shown Figure of the is in 7.27.with this

SN

Flgure 7.26 Mutual synchronization: SN, switching node.

SYNCHHONIZATION 365 7.3 NETWORK

node, synchronization: switching SN, Figule7.27 Network master paths also Reliabilityconsiderations imply thatalternate of distribution thereference. for timing netofcost considerations the separate to be provided eachnode.Because a with with reference distribution, networkmaster direct work andreliabilityproblems transmission eachnodeis undesirable. to networkis evolvingthroughthe use synchronized Something similarto a master for of Global PositioningSystem(GPS) satellites timing distributionto network networks the around world areusing of system$ telecommunications nodes. Switching their switchingoffice clocks.As the to GPSandothersatellite systems synchroniee dropin cost,moreandmore and oscillators costsof theGPSreceivers suitablystable source. Because beingtimed from this master(highly accurate) networknodesate systems lock to GPS,lowercostsynchronization also CDMA digitalmobilesystems stations lieu CDMA base in that developed obiainGPStimingfrom the havealsobeen receivefrom to of directly receivingGPSsignalsthat often requireoutsideantennas simultaneously. multipleGPSsatellites 7.3.5 Master-Slave Synchronizatlon in synchronization described the preceding as The main drawbackto networkma$ter Figure facilitiesto everynode. is and transmission for section its need separate reliable by reference way of that a 7.28 showsa networkconfiguration disseminatesmaster to is A frequency transmitted a few links themselves. networkreference themessage their clocksto After thesenodessynchronize higherlevel switchingnodes. selected the referenceand remove tansmission link-induced timing jitter, the referenceis digitallinks.Thenextlowerlevel passed to lowerlevelswitches wayof existing by on timin turn,synchronize anincominglink from thehigherlevelandpass to switches, digitallinks.Theprocess by way of theiroutgoing levelof switches ing on to another to "masfrom onelevel to thenext is referred as downward the of passing reference " ter-slavesynchronization. eitherdirectlyor indiin Sinceall switchingnodes the networkaresynchronized nominalclock rate.Thus slips reference, rectly to the same they all run at the same paths whichtimingis disthrough because thedifferent However, of should occur. not If somenodes' these frequency can short-term differences occurbetween seminated,

366

NETWoRKSYNcHRoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

Indlrcctly rynchronlrrd linkr

.---;_

Figure7.2t Master-slave synchronization. nodes synchronized are indirectly,asshown Figure7.28,infrequent in slipsmightoccur. Furthermore, reliability considerations imply that backupclocksmust be provided in all switches shouldthe clock distributionsystemfail. when this happens, slips become more likely, but only after relativelystablebackupclockshave had enoughtime to drift from the commonreference frequency. AT&T andthe united statesIndependent Telephone Association (usITA) originally selected master*slave synchronization the switched for digital networkin the united states[26]. Thereference ftequency locared Hillsboro,Missouri,from was in whichselected 4 ESSswitching No. centers received theirtimingby wayof dedicated transmission facilities.synchronization all otherswitches of occuned way of exby istingdigitaltransmission links.As discussed Section theoriginalplanhasbeen in 7.4, changed useplesiochronous to synchronization the highestlevel.Furthermore, at as mentioned the previou$ in section, availabilityof Gps timing sources leadingto the is moreandmorenodes thehigherleveland,consequently, at fewerandfewerslave nodes. 7.3.6 Packetlzation Thesynchronization discussions thefive preceding of sections haveassumed implicitly thata synchronous, circuit-switched networkwasbeingconsidered, prevailsince ing digitalvoicenetworks operate thatmanner. completeness, in For however, another form of networkmustbe mentioned-a packet-switched network. As discussed chapter 10,packet-switched in networksbreakup messages into identifiable blocks(packets cells)of data.In between blocks.thehansmission or the linkscarryeitheridle codes controlmessages. all messages or If (controlanddata)are separated a nominalintervalof idle transmission, by elasticstorescan be resetin preparation the nextblock.As long aseachblock is limited in length,theelastic for stores absorb can clock differences avoidlosses data.(In essence, occur and of slips in theidle codes.) 7.3.7 Network Timing Performance Measuremcnts After choosing synchronization a architecture a network,it is necessary be able for to to measure qualityof thetiming signals the within thenetworkto qualifyequipment,

367 7.s NETwoRK sYNcHRoNrzATloN or links, and performance margins, isolatefaulty equipment transmission determine of use possibly ANSI andITU standards theconcept time altematives. evaluate design An interval error (TIE) andmaximumtime interval error {MTIE) for thesepurposes' (TVAR). is measure clockperformance a time variance additional of Maxlmum Time lnterval Error A TIE is the differencein delay betweena timing signal and an ideal timing signal time period(i.e.,theerrorat the endof a time inmeasured the endof a particular at varjationin TIE valuesthat occur terval).An MTIE is the maximumpeak-to-peak in concepts illustrated Figure7.29.Figure are time interval.These within a specified but the a 7.29adisplays TIE that occurswhenmeasuring perfectlystable inaccurate test ofthe signalunder differsfromthereference the Because frequency timing signal. frequencyby a constanfvalue (A/), the TIE is directly propol'tionalto the measureand clockcyclesin both signals by mentintervalS.Theenor is determined counting the expressing differenceas the time requiredby the test signal to catch up (or fall by count.ThustheTIE produced a constant-frequency back)to thecurent reference offsetis

T''=T
_ s(/+4fl - s(/)

='H)

(7.7)

offset,and in A/is thefrequency difference clockcycles, whereAn is theaccumulated intervalin seconds. S is themeasurement with S,theMTIE andthe monotonically Because TIE in Figure7.294increases the produced a timing signal by Figure7.29bdepicts TIE the In TIE areidentical. contrast, instabilities offsetbut someshott-term frequency with no long-term fiitter andwanthe As througha network. indicated, was der)aswouldoccurif thereference relayed peak-to-peak difThe as TIE varies a functionof Sbut is bounded. MTIE is thelargest of interval S. The determination MTIE with ferencein TIE valuesin a measurement offsetsis alsoshownin Figure7.30,whereperiodicsamples frequency no long-term of time interval errorsaredepicted. the casewherethe signalundertestcontains Figure7.29cdisplays moregeneral of the offset.In ttriscase choice thevaluefor S is critical. bottrinstabilityanda frequency jitter will maskthepresence theoffset.If Sis too large,thefrequency of If S is too small, need Thus the offsetdominates TIE andMTIE measurement$. periodicmeasurements to the for be recorded a time historyto fully characterize timing imperfections. "perfect"reference with the in examples Figure7.29assume useof a Thefirst three "imperfect"reference used,meaningful is If which to makethe mea$urements. an than are measurements obtainedaslong astheTIE variationsaresignificantlygreater

NETWOHKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

PErfEGt Source

StablE lnaccilratG Sourcl

Time + PErfoct Soutcs

Time +

(d)

Timc-rF Tim6 -r>

s s

Figure 7.29 TrE andMTIE for variousclock imperfections: pureoffset;(D)purejitter; (a) (c) offset andjitter; (d) TE differencemeasuremenr.

369 7.3 NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION

example, time error 7,30 Maximum interval Figure two between the of Sometimes relativeperformance theimperfections thereference. to For a is timing signals of interest. example, PBX with Tl connections two different the (or between two transplaces carriers) moredependent thetimingdifferences is on the measuring performances. Figure7.29ddepicts missionlinks thanon the absolute are all relativeperforrnance two suchlinks.In thiscase, measurements meaningful, of whichcancause slipsbut is difficult or imposwander, evenarbitrarilylow frequency timing probindicate If in sense. relativemeasurements sibleto measure an absolute to measurements be needed isolatetheproblemsource. may lemsexist,absolute Time Varlance conveyany informationregardingthe freNeither TIE nor MTIE measurements jitter (otherthanthatconveyed themeasurement interval,f). by quency of content the thejitter representing characterization thejitter requires of A moregeneral statistical or as as magnitude a functionof frequency, equivalently, a functionof time between (TVAR) is sucha measure. are TVAR values deterThe TIE samples. time variance TIE that between samples differences of vaJiance second-order minedastheexpected to by areseparated a time t, wheret variesfrom zero(or somefractionof a second) in units measured period.TVAR values customarily are somemaximum observation TVAR val(e.g.,nanoseconds The squared). formulafor calculating of time squared = 1, . . . ,19 is uesfromTIE samples;;(i TVAR(I) = o:(r) :.tgltltt)tl
N*3n+l fn-r '2

-ffi-

r . -+ r L v ' ' r 3n L1)

I
Fl

lE

-zxv*k**r*) {"r*r"*o |

(7'8)

l lm period is Nto' where t = nto (to is the sampling interval) and the obserrvation The use of second-orderdifferencesremovesthe effect of a dc offset or of a linear phaseramp in the TVAR samples.Thus, there is no need to ulie a synchronizedrefer-

370

NETWoHKSYNCHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

enceto deterrninethe TIE samplesbefore determining the TVAR values.However, if TVAR values for long observationperiods T are to be determined,a stablereference is neededto preclude referencewander from influencing the measurement values.

Time Devlatlon Timedeviation (TDEV) measurements are merely square of theTVARmeasthe root urements. TDEVandTVARvalues thesame Thus, have relationship theclassical as
standarddeviation and variance of a probability distribution. TDEV is customarily measuredin nanoseconds.

7.4 U.S.NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION Theoriginal for synchronization u.s. network plan of the formulated theBellsysby temandtheu.s. Independent Telephone Association to usemaster-slave was syn-

chronization with a single master clock [26]. Due to the breakup of the network into multiple independentcompaniesand to difficulties in reliably distributing a highly accurate master,the synchronizationarchitecturefor the United Stateswas changedto a plesiochronous/hierarchical designin the lare l9g0s [13, lg, I g]. Although the hierarchical design is still in use,it is gradually changing to a ..flatter" design by incorporating top-level functionality in more and more nodes.

7.4.1 Synchronization Regions

As shown in Figure 7.31, the public network is partitioned into synchronization regions that are intemally synchronizedwith a master-slave timing hierarchy that establishesdifferent levels of timing quality: sffatum I to stratum 4. stratum I clocks have the highest quality while stratum 4 clocks have the lowest. Timing for each region is established a primary referencesource(pRS) at stratum l. stratum I clocks by are free-running clocks with inaccuraciesno greater than one part in 10il. Some regions may have their own PRS while others may use a synchronization signal from anotherparty (e.g., an interexchangecarrier such as AT&T). For the most part, the synchronizationregions correspondto LATAs. Every region must have at least one stratum 2 clock, which is typically associatedwith an access tandem switch. Toll offices within LATAs may also have stratum 2 clocks. All toll switches within AT&T network contain stratum ? clocks [13]. Except when they use a coilrmon PRS, the synchronization regions are independently syncfuonized. Thus connectionsbetween the regions (using interexchangecarriers like AT&T) are typically plesiochronouslytimed. within a single region nodesare synchronizedin a master-slave hierarchy as indicated. The accuracyrequirementsof the four levels of stratum clocks are provided in Table 7 .2. These accuraciespertain only to situations in which the nodes are operating in a free-running mode. Normally the nodes are synchronizedto higher level clocks so the long-terrn accuracyis haceableback to the respectivePRS. In addition to listing free-running accuracies,Table 7 .2lists accuraciesthat must be met durine holdover

o 0

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q i

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6 N

ti h

+ F
E

\
I
i

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371

572

NETWoRK syNcHHoNtzATtoN coNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

TABLE7.2 Stratum ClockAccuracy Requlrementa Level Stratum 1 Stratum 2 Stratum 3E Stratum 3 Stratum 4 Free-Run Accuracy +1 x 10-11 + 1 6x 1 0 + . t4.6 x 10+ f4.6 x 104 i32 x 104 24-HrHoldover Accuracy Notapplicable t1 x10-loperday (day1) +1 x 10-s < 255slipsin day1 Notrequired

states. holdover The modefor stratum and3 clocksrequires 2 these nodes gradually to transition thefree-running to statewhentheylosetheirreference signals.* stratum A 2 clock,for example, loses previously the established frequency therateof I x I 0-r0 at per day,implyingit would take 160daysto reachthe worst-case free-running accuracy'Stratum clocks, 4 however, haveno holdover requirements theyenterthefreeso runningstate immediately uponlosingtheirreference(s). Networksynchronization requirements specify also how thevarious nodes respond to degradation complete or failure of their references. Stratum2 and 3 clocksmust bridgeshortintemrptions thereference in with minimumspecified time-keeping errors [l9]. Stratum clocks, 3 whichtypicallyhavea primaryreference a secondary and reference, mustperforma very gradualswitchover the secondary to reference when theprimaryfails. Abruptswitchovers, oftenoccurin stratum nodes as (pBXs),can 4 cause phase transients the outputclock,which canin turn disruptsynchronization in in all downstream (e.g.,within a privatenetwork). devices 7.4.2 Primary Reference Sources TheANSI MTIE specification theaccuracy a primaryreference for of source shown is in Figure7.32.Noticethatjitter (instabilitythatcanbeobserved lessrhan0.05sec) in is not specified. wander,asmeasured 500-sec over time intervals. limited to 3000 is nsec. The asymptote long-termtiming errorscorresponds inaccuracies 1 x for to of 10*1r. In additionto beingdesigned with highly accurate (cesiumbeamor rubidium) clocks, all PRSsmust be continuously verified with universalcoordinated time (urc). such verificarion be achieved usinga UTC-based can by navigation sysrem suchasLoran-c or GPS.MCI uses Loran-c andGps to directlysynchronize pRS. its AT&T uses GPSto monitor(verify)thelong-term accuracy eachpRSnodeestabof lishedin NorttrAmerica.tThetypicalaccuracy these of nodes muchbetter is thanthe ANSI or ITU requirement [13].
operations are typically implemente<lby storing the last valid conection value (e.g., filtered phase detector output) and maintaining that value as an offset conection to a highly stable oscillator. *(temperature-compensated) 'Originally' AT&T had 16 PRS nodes. Subsequentlarge-scaleusage of GPS has led to the establishment of hundreds of PRS in the AT&T network. *Holdou-t

CONTROL 373 7.5 NETWoRK

........ MTtE aTrT, 10-il

105

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E'* t
t0?

(to-?s + X - 3000nsec (proritionrlly)

l0l

l0-l

104

10?
Ob86NationPBriod(sec)

periodat the outputof a primary reference MTIE versusobservation Figure 7.32 Permissible source.

7.4.3 1996 AT&T Synchronlzation Architecture ar' synchronization a in Beginning 1996AT&T began moveawayfrom a two-tiered with a sfiatum2 clock in everyoffice synchroto chitecture a single-levelarchitecture ofthis architecture are: features nizedto GPS[?7]. Significant networkhasbeeneliminated. distribution l. The synchronization of is 2. Synchronization independent the networktopologyso the traffic-carrying without affectingsynchronization. networkcanbe changed nodesand eachnodemonitorstwo 3. Eachnodeis monitoredby two adjacent performance verification' nodes adjacent for 4. Performance verificationinvolvesthe useof both MTIE andTDEV. from SONETopticalsignals. are 5. DSI timing signals derived

7.5 NETWORKCONTROL methods sectionrepresent procedures in described thepreceding The synchronization In systems. this section and transmission switching the for controlling timingbetween

374

NETWoBK$yNcHBoNIzATtoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

synchronizationis discussed a more generalsense. in Insteadofjust time or frequency control, the synchronizationconcept is extendedto higher level functions ofconnection control and network control as a whole. Fundamentalto the control conceptis the interactionbetweentwo processes (e.g.,the exchangeof information from one switching machine to anotherto set up or monitor a connection). A particularly useful meansof defining the interaction of two processes a state is transition diagram. The main purposeof the statetransition diagram is to abstractthe operational state$of a process and indicate what events causeffansitions from one $tateto another.when theseevents are messages (signaling tones or ccs messages) from another process,the statetransition diagram efTectivelydef,rnes how two communicating proce$$es interact.

processes 7.5.1 Hlerarchical Synchronization

included to demonstratethree distinct levels ofcontrol for a conventional telephone connection using digital transmission and multiplexing. The lowest level process shown in Figure 7.334 depicts nothing more than the clock synchronizationproces$ required to transmit and receive digital information. There are only two statesto the processin both the transmitterand the receiver.The purposeof clock synchronization is to causeffansitions between the two statesin the receiver to coincide with transitions in the clocking processof the transmitter. To accomplish this, a certain amount of transmissioncapacity is required in the form of line code transitions. Figure 7.33b depicts a higher level synchronizationprocessinvolving the framing of a time division multiplexer. Both processes representa modulo-N counter, where N is the number of channelsin the TDM frame. The two processes synchronized are (framed) by utilizing someof the transmissioncapacityto sendframing patterns. once the receiver acquiresframing, the counter in the receiver counts in synchronismwith the counter in the transmitterso that individual TDM channelsare properly identified. Figure 7.33c provides state transition diagrams of a somewhatmore complicated but easily understoodprocess.The figure depicts the connectioncontrol ofa conventional telephonecall. The statetransition diagram ofthe first processrepresents suba scriberplacing a call (going off-hook). The secondstatetransition diagram represen6 the sequenceof statesthe control element in the local switch goes through to set up the connection. As indicated, the processbegins by the originating subscribergoing off-hook and waiting for the dial tone. When the switch recognizesthe off-hook signal (current flow in the line), it connectsthe subscriberline to a digit receiver that returns a dial tone. The subscriberthen dials the addressofthe desiredtelephoneand entersanotherwait state' Upon receiving the last digit of the address,the switch control processes rethe quest.once the statusof the called party is determined,a busy tone or a ringback tone is returned to the originating subscriber.A busy tone prompts the subscriberto hang up (go on-hook) while a ringback signal causesthe subscriberto stay in the wait state until the called party answersor until the caller "times out" and abandonsthe call.

Asanexample amore of generalized concept synchronization, of Figure7.33has been

coNTRoL 375 7.s NETWoRK

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(a)

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(b) (a) processes: timing process; Figure 7.33 Statetransitiondiagramof synchronizatiQn process, (c) connection tiaming proce.qs; telephone

enter the connectedstateand comWhen the called party answers,both processes munication between the end users begins.The end usersthen get involved in yet an"synchronization." Voice telephone users begin by exchanging other level of "connection" betweentheir thought processes to greetingsand identities to establisha on a mutually understoodsubject.The messageexchangeprocessalso communicate requires synchronizationso that only one person talks at a time. Hence various forms "turn the line around." Although being somewhatsubof control signalsareneededto tle in nature, thesecontrol signalsrepresenttransmissionoverheadin the same sense as control signals within the network. A talker may indicate his end of transmission

376

NETWoRKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

by asking a question,by inflections in the voice, by the messageitself, or more com* monly by a pause. Data communicationsequipment goesthrough the samebasic proceduresin order to establishconnection$and exchangeinformation. In this case,the proceduresaredefined more formatly and, consequently,are more restrictive. The formal rules of communication between data communications equipment are usually referred to as a -'protocol." Data communications protocols typically include a definition of certain control codes,code interpretations,message framing, turn-aroundproceduresfor half_ duplex lines, error control, messagesequencing,fault control, and recovery. Automated fault control and recovery proceduresfor communications networks can becomequite involved and difficult to implement reliably. When individual voice circuits malfunction (e.g.,becomenoisy or disconnected), recoveryproceduresare the left to the users.They merely redial the connection and take up where they left off. However, Iarge trunk groups or switching systemsmust be designedfor higher levels of dependabitityand maintainability. The dependabilitycriterion ensuresthat failures or malfunctions rarely occur or that they are circumventedautomatically by protection switching' High levels of maintainability ensure that failures are repaired quickly when they occur. within switching systems,most of the instructions and memory words of the processorare dedicatedto hardwareand software performancemonitoring, recovery procedures,and maintenancediagnostics.

7.6 NETWORK MANAGEMENT

In addition to controlling individual connectionsand equipment, a communications network must also manageits facilities on more macroscopiclevels. The basic goal of network managementis to maintain efficient operations during equipment failures and traffic overloads.The main considerationsare routing conffol and flow control.

7.6.1 RoutingControl
Routing conffol refers to proceduresthat determine which paths in a network are assigned to particular connection$.If possible, connectionsshould use the most direct routes at the lowest levels of the network. The direct routes are obviously desirable becausethey use f'ewer network facilities and generally provide better ffansmission quality' However, economic considerations often limit the capacities of the direct routes so that alternate routes are needed to maintain suitably low blocking prob_ abilities between one switching machine and another. lf a t.unk group between two switching machinescontainsenough circuits to provide an acceptablylow blocking probability, a significant number of the circuits in the group are idle during averagetraffic loads.A more economicaldesign allocates a limited number ofheavily utilized trunks in the direct route and provides alternateroutes for overflow (alternately routed) traffic. In this manner the users are able to share larger portions of the network. chapter 12 presentsbasic examplesof how a network

377 7.6 NETWoHKMANAGEMENT can be engineeredto minimize the transmission facilities while providing a given grade of service (blocking probability). As discussedin Chapter l, the use of cenmalized control for the network, with common-channelsignaling, provides signiflcant efficiencies of operation in congestednetworks.

7.6.2 FlowGontrol
ln the precedingsection,altematerouting is discussedas one aspectof managingtraffic in a communications netwolk. Routing algorithms are concernedonly with the utilization of paths or directions of travel within a network. Another requirement of netWork management is to control the amount of traffic in a network' Managing the rate at which traffic enters a network is referred to as flow control. A network without effective flow control proceduresbecomesvery inefficient or ceasesto function entirely when presentedwith excessivelyheavy traffic conditions' The generalizedperformanceof a large, uncontrolled network is shown in Figure 7 .34 as a function of the offered traffic. As indicated, when light traffic conditions exhowever, ist, the network caffies all traffic requestspresented.As the load increases, is rejected becauseno appropriate circuits are available for some of the offered haffic particular connections;that is, blocking exists. As the input load increaseseven further. a network with no flow control eventually begins to carry less traffic than it does even more, the network If when Iighter loads are presented. the offered load increases may even ceaseto carry any tralfic at all. The reason that the volume of carried traffic decreaseswhen the offered traffic exceedssomecritical value is that partially completedrequeststie up network resources while trying to acquire other resourcestied up by other partially completed requests' Thus a form of dynamic deadlockoccurs.Prior to the developmentof centralizednetwork control, this situation would often arise on busy calling days (e.g., Mother's Day). In a network with distributed control all sourcesof traff,rcare serviced by successively seizing trunks to intermediate switching nodes until the destination is reached.If heavy traffic exists, request$emanating from all sidesof the network en-

,9

E
I

Figure 7.34

Traffic caffied versus traffic offered for a network with no flow contol.

378

NETWoRKsYNcHRoNIzATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

counter congestionsomewherenear the middle. At that time, the partially completed connections are tying up facilities neededby other requests.In the limit, when extremely heavy traffic exists, all network resourcesare held by partially completedrequestsand no complete connectionscan be established! Another exampleof the needfor flow control is automobilehaffic at a metropolitan intersection' Have you ever encounteredan intersection in which your lane of traffic was blocked by cross traffic backed up into the intersection?In essence. the driver blocking your direction of travel seizeda cornmon resource(the middle of the intersection) without being able to obtain the next resourcerequired (the other side ofthe intersection).Bumper-to-bumpertraffic in one direction can significantly degradethe throughput in other directions. With heavy traffic in all directions, total throughput can grind to a halt until the congestionis relieved from the periphery inward. The fundamentalprinciple demonstratedby theseexamplesis th;t efficient use of the common resourcesof a heavily loaded network requires some form of flow control. In the automobile example, smooth operation of an inter$ectiondepends on each driver looking ahead and not entering an intersection unless he can g*t ull tt * *uy across.A telecommunicationsnetwork must use the samebasic principle (it is hoped with more discipline). The control elementsat the periphery or ihe networt must be aware of the intemal status of the network and conhol the flow of haffic from its sources. More than one level of flow control is sometimesimplemented within a network. In a data communicationslink, some form of flow conhol is required to keep a source terminal from overloading the terminal at the other end of the link. The receiving terminal usesa reversechannel (sometimeswith a lower bit rate) to inform the source when to ceaseand when to begin transmissions. This level of flow control in a circuitswitched network involves the terminals themselvesand is of no concern to the network since the traffic flows within an establishedconnection. of more concem ro a circuit-switched network is how to control the flow of connectionrequestsinto the interior of the network. In setting up a long-distanceconnection, the first few circuits required should not be seizedunlessthere is a reasonable chancethat all ofthe circuits necessaryto complete the connection can be obtained. Partially completed circuits only degradethe network capacity by increasingcongestionwithout satisfying a serv_ ice request.Network flow control i$ greatly simplified with common-channel signal_ ing support for cenffalizednetwork control. The following paragraphs describebasic, uncentralizedflow control techniquesand how cenhalized conffol simplifies their implementation.

one-way trunks, on the other hand, can be seizedonly at one end. (Notice that this has nothing to do with the direction of message transferon established connections.which is always in both directions.) when one-way trunking is used,the trunk group is usually partitioned into one group that can be seizedat one end and one group that can be

Trunk Directional ization Theoperation tuunl< of circuits beclassified can according two different to ways of controlling seizures particular for calls. Two-way trunks beseized either can at end.

379 7.6 NETwoRKMANAGEMFNT seizedat the other end. Two-way trunk gfoups areobviously more flexible in servicing fluctuating traffic patterns, but they are more difficult to control since the possibility of simultaneousseizures(called glare) at both ends must be resolved' A useful feature to incorporate into two-way trunks is the ability to directionalize them by marking them busy at one end and effectively creating one-way trunks. With this mechanism,a distant,overloadedswitching node can be relieved of additional incoming traffic while providing it sole accessto the trunk group for outgoing traffic' Thus the overloadednode relieves its congestionwhile inhibiting new anjvals. When the network as a whole experiences heavy haffic loads, trunk directionalization can be used to reduce the flow of connect requestsinto the interior of the network while establishing one-way trunks from the interior to the periphery. Thus connect requests that manage to get to the interior have a much better chance of obtaining all facilities required for the complete connection'

Cancellation ol Alternate Routing by localizedoverloads transferringtraffic Alternaterouting of traffic accommodates routingis altemate however, overloads, routes. Duringnetworkwide underutilized to First, alternateroutesimply that a greaternumberof for undesirable two reasons. facilisame If for facilitiesareneeded a connection. these andswitching transmission the to be a.rsigned two or moredirectconnections, total numberof links per tiescould and call could be reduced the networkcould carry moretraffic. routedcall canacquireall the necessary probability that an alternately the Second, with a largenumberof farelativelylow. Trying to setup a connection is resources ofgettingall ofthe facilitiesis low (particularly ifthe probability cilitiesis undesirable ale requests pending)' tied facilitiesarefruitlessly up whilelessdemanding so,if some Code Blocking for Codeblockingrbf"rt to artificially blockingcalls intended specificdestination beforethey acquireinternal offltces codes.If the calls areblockedat originatingend are networkfacilities,the destinations relievedof incomingtraffic withouttying up areas. from the specified for requests facilitiesthatmaybe needed outgoing in times of naturaldisasters, The methodof flow conhol is particularlyuseful which typically stimulatelarge numbersof calls both into and out of the areaof the can a events networkcontrolcenter initiatecodeblockingfor all, or [n disaster. these to Theprincipleof givingpreference the of a largepercentage, thecallsinto thearea. there unless areseized First,no networkfacilities two callsserves pufposes. outgoing It is therunks into or outof of chance obtainingall facilities necessary. is a reasonable fiunks Onceoneof these arrea thedisaster thatarethefocalpoint of networkcongestion. codeblockingis Second, be can the is seized, restof theconnection probably established. callsareprobablymoreimpoftantthanincomingcalls. outgoing usefulbecause Centralized Connectlon Eontrol sei to previously designed eliminate are described All of theflow controlprocedures probability. has connection a low completion if resoulces thedesired of common zures

380

NETwoRKsyNcHHoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Becauseof the distributed natureof network control implied by theseoperations, these control proceduresare necessarilyprobabilistic. To maintain a certainamount of network efficiency, the network is purposely operatedat less than maximum capacity. A more desirablemode of operation,from a throughputpoint of view, is to allocate network facilities from a single centralized conhol node. Since this central node has accessto the statusof all network resources,no facilities are assignedto a pafiicular requestunlessall facilities neededfor the completeconnectionare available. Network hansmission links are assignedin a manner that is analogousto the assignment of in_ temal links of common control switches. Complete centralizecl confrol of a network as large as the public telephonenetwork is obviously infeasible from the point of view of maintaining statusoi all interstage links within end office switchesand from the point of view ofiurvivability of the ne1work when the control node tails. However, many aspectsof centralizedcontrol have beenimplementedin North America and around the world with common-channel sig_ naling (CCS)' For example, INWATS call requestsare routed ro a cenrral node that determinesif the destination is busy or not. If the destinationis busy, the originating end office is instructedto return the busy tone without any of the int#al mansmission links ever being seized'This mode of operationis particularly useful for 800 numbers oNwATS) that occasionally experiencevery heavy traffic flow becauseof national television announcemenrs. without ccs, the previous mode of operation was to return a busy tone ail the way through the network from the place at which the busy circuit or subscriber is located. Thus the path through the network was tied up during the time the busy tone was being returned' CCS allows the originating office to return the busy tone so internal network facilities can be releasedand reassignedimmediately upon detecting the busy condi_ tion.

REFERENCES
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 M. Decinaand U- deJulio,"International Activitieson NetworkSynchronization for Digital communication," IEEE Intematiotutl communications conference,lg7g, "synchronizing J. R, Pierce, Digiral Networks," Bel/ system Techntual rournal, Mar. 1969, 615-636. pp. "systematic c. J' Byrne,B. J. Karafin,andD. B, Robinson, Jitterin a chain of Digitar Repeaters," System Bell Technical Journal,Nov. 1963,pp.2679_27 14. "Digitally Dejirtering LaserDiscplayers,"IEEE Spectrum,Feb. 1990, 14. p. F. M. Gardner, PhaselockTechniques,2nd Wiley, New york, 1979. ed., E. D. sunde,"self-Timing Regenerative Repeaterc,,, system Bell Technical rournal, July 1957, 891-938. pp. D. L. Duttweiler,"The Jitterperformance phase-LockedoopsExtractrng of t Timing from Baseband Data waveforms,"BerI system TechnicalJournal, Jan. 1976,pp, 37-58. "carrier-to-customer Installation-DSlMetallic Interface," ANSI Tl. 403_l9gg, American NationalStandards Institute, New york, 19g9.

381 REFERENCES "synchronizationFailuresin a chain of PLL 9 H. Meyer, L. Popken,andH. R. Mueller, pp' May on Communicatiazs, 1986, 436-445' SynchronizersIEEE Transadions ," Artech House, Systems, 1 0 P. R. TrischittaandE. L. Varma,finer in Digital Transmission Norwood,MA, 1989. "The Accumulationof Pattern-Dependent Jitter for e l l P, R. Trischitta and P. Sannuti, June IEEE Transattions on Communications, Fiber Optic Regenerators," Chain of "No' 4ESS: B' 12 J, F. Boyle, J. R. Colton,C. L' Dammann, J' Karafin,and H' Mann, Interfacesand Toll Terminal Equipment,"Bell System Transmission/Switching Jountal,Sept.1977 pp' 1057-1097 Technical , C' A' R. r3 J.E. Abate,E. W. Butterline, A. Carley,P. Greendyk, M. Montenegro, D' Near' "AT&T's New Approach theSynchronieation of to and S.H. Richman, G. P.Zampetti, Magazine,April 1989' pp. Networks,"IEEE Communications Telecommunication 35-45. "The Effects of Slips on Data Modems," IEEE H. Drucker and A. C. Morton, 1987,pp. 12'4.I-12'4'3' on Communitations, International Conference ..Identification Digital Impairments a voicebandchannel,"IEEE in of t 5 J. F. Ingle, 1989,pp. I 2'3'I - I 2'3'5' nc InternationalConfere e on Communicarions, "The Effect of slips on Facsimile IEEE Transmission," l 6 J. E. Abateand H. Drucker, -32'3'4' 1 e Intemational Conferenc on Communicalions,988,pp' 32'3.1 "The switchedDigital J. t7 J. E. Abate,L. H. Brandenburg, c. Lawson,andw. L, Ross, pp. Joumal,Sept.1977, 1297-1320' NetworkPlan,"Bell SystemTechnital ..Digital synchronization Network Plan," Bellcore TA-M1,000436, Issue 1, Bell l8 NJ' Morristown, Nov' 1986. Research, Communications ,.synchronization for Digital Networks,"ANSI Tl. 101*1987' Interfacestandards 19 New York, 1987. Institute, NationalStandards American Technical staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission systems for NC' Winston-Salem' 197I' Laboratories, Bell Communications, Telephone ,,Impactof Jitter on the second order Digital Multiplex at 6312 kbit/s," AT&T zl to Submittal CCITT studygrouponjitter, GreenBook,Vol. 3, pp. 861*869' ..waitingTime Jitter,"Bell systemTechnical pp. Joumal,Jan.1972, 22 D. L. Dutrweiler, 165*207. Operationof InternationalDigital Links," CCftT Recommendation 23 "Plesiochronous 1976. Switzerland' Eook,Geneva, G.LLI, Orange "Performance a Systemof Mutually Synchronized Clocks," Bell of 24 J. P. Moreland, -MM' s Sy tem Tethnical Joumal, Sept.197l, pp. 2449 "synchronization theDigitalNetworkin theUnited of ZS p, A. MitchellandR. A. Bourler, Intemational conferences on communications, 1979, Kingdom," IEEE pp.l1.2.1-11.2.4. in 26 C. A. Cooper, "synchronizationfor Telecommunications a SwitchedDigital July on Communications, I9?9, pp' 1028-1033' Network."IEEE Transactions "AT&T Synchroniaadon Network Architectureand Operations," 2':. C. Olszewski, hesentation to 1999 NIST-TD{I Workshop on Synchronization in CO, March9-ll' 1999' Boulder, Systems, Telecommunications pp. 1988, 76r-765.

382

NETWoRKsYNcHRoNIzATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

PROBLEIT,IS
7.1 Determine sizeof anelastic the storeneeded accommodatevelocityshift of to a *10fi) km/hrthatlastsfor l0 secif thedatarateis l0 Mbps.(Thespeed light of is3xl08m/sec.) 7.2 How manybitsareneeded anelastic in store designed interface El digital to the signalof ITU-T to a digital switch?what is rhemaximumslip rateif the line clock andswitchclock differ by +50 to -50 ppm (themaximum recommended offsets)? 7.3 what is the maximum(ggvoprobability)phase offset(in signalintervals) pro_ duced ajitter powerof + I 0 dB relativeto I radz? by 7.4 Determine rateat which DSr signals a DS2 multiplexloseframing the in be_ cause stuff codes a DS2 signalareincorrectly of interpreted. Assume chan_ the nel BER is l0-3.Assume BER is 10-6 the 7'5 What wouldthe rateof incorrect DSZstuff codeoccurrences if a 5-bit stuff be codewereusedinstead the3-bit stuffcode? of Assume channel the BER is l0-3. 7.6 A digitaltransmission is to beused hansmit link to blocks(packets) datawithof out slips.If thetransmission is autonomously link timedwith,"spe"t to there_ ceivingterminal, whatis themaximum allowable blocklengthif theclocksvary by +50ppmeachandan elastic storeof 16bits existsin thereceiving terminal? Assume elasticstoreis initializedto half full between the eachblock. 7.7 Assume systematic from a single jitter the repeater produces symmeffic, a worst casephase slopeof 300 rad/sec I msec.what is the peak-to-peak for jitter in decibels relativeto a unit intervalat theendof a line with 200 suchrepeaters? 7.8 Repeat Example for DSZsignals a DS3. 7.j in 7.9 A jiuer powerof 20 dB relativeto I radzis observed the receiving at end of a digitalmicrowave link. Whatis theprobabilitythatthephase offsetwill exceed 14.0 symbolintervals? 7.10 Determine amount phase the of shift injected into a 2400-Hz carier signalby a slip of onePCM sample. 7.tl Determine the TIE and the MTIE at the end of a 10-secinterval produced

by a DS3 signal that has a constantoffset of one part in 106. 7.12 RepeatProblem 7. I I but assumea l -MHz jitter component is added that has a peak-to-peakamplitude of 8 uls. Assume the starting phaseof thejitter component is 0o.

7.13 Compare slip rateof $tratum with stratum3 clocksin holdover the 3E conditions. 7.14 what is theoscillator accuracy ppm)impliedby theholdover (in requiremenr of a stratum clock? 3

OPTIC FIBER SYSTEMS TRANSMISSION

network portionsof the public telephone The evolutionof the commonequipment with digitaltransmisand began ended to technology digitaltechnology from analog for trunksandfiber optic systems long-haul for Tl sionsystems: systems short-haul digitizationof thelongextensive had kunks.If fiber optic technology not emerged, coaxialcable as networkwould not haveoccurred rapidly.High-bandwidth distance and radiosystems, anareplace to are systems too expensive universally transmission log radiosare more efficient than digital radiosin termsof voice circuitsper pretechniques digitalmodulation Eventhough high-density bandwidth. viouslyavailable algorithmscanmakeup for the bandwidthinefvoice compression and sophisticated raof of ficiencies digitizedvoice,anyultimateadvantage digital radiosoveranalog radio of replacement the analog wholesale to diosis not nearlygreatenough walTant savon systems, theotherhand,providesuchdramatic Fibertransmission backbone. of deployment high-density coststhat wholesale and ings in equipment operational justified' was routeswith fiber systems economically patof "photophone," a Figure8.1shows diagram a interest, As a noteof historical for severaltechniques entedby AlexanderGrahamBeIl in 1880.BeIl developed of (thesun)so asto directlyvary theresistance a selenium a modulating light source The and cell detector therebycreateananalogelectricalcurrentfor the speaker- moduenergy by shownin Figure8.1 is a mirror thatis vibrated acoustic lation mechanism laterthat It to deflectmoreor lesslight to thereceiver. wasalmostexacfly100years practicalmadeopticaltransmission sources mediumandsuitable uansmission a suitable of characteristics optical fibers that makethem so useful for fransThe par"ticular EMI imcrosssection, smallphysical are missionsy$tems low loss,high bandwidth, andsecurity. munity, Fiber Attenuation begansearching scientists As a resultof the inventionof the laserin 1960,materials sysas thatcouldbeusefullyapplied a communication media for opticaltransmission laterin 1970 l0 practical opticalfiberwasannounced years of tem.Thefirst instance a 383

384

FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Apprntur for Bignrlhg rld 0onmulortll3,orlhl pLotopLoar.

t{o. ?3$rl9g. Frlrltrd D.c_ r_ rlrn

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Figure 8.1 Alexander Graham Bell's photophone. [l]. This announcementdescribeda silica-basedfiber with .,only" 20 dB/km attenu_ ation. In just a little less than l0 more years!commercially viable optical fibers with 0.2 dB/km attenuationhad been developed [2]. such remarkably low attenuation at_ tracted immediate attention becauseit meant intercity transmission links could be traversed with very few repeaters,implying a dramatic savings in equipment and maintenance. As shown in Figure 8.2, the attenuationof an optical fiber is very dependenton the wavelength of the light signal in use. Two wavelengthsthat experienceparticularly low attenuationin contemporaryfibers are 1300 and 1550 nm. Rlpresentative attenu_ ations at these wavelengths are 0.35 and 0.2 dB/km, respectively. with an easily achievablenet loss of 20 dB the latter attenuation value allows 100 km between re_ peatersor amplifiers. Because0.2 dB/km is close to the minimum theoretical attenuation at 1550 nm, additional reductions in attenuation cannot be realized without going to higher wavelengths.If fibers and associatedelectronicscan be developedto operateat higher wavelengths,much lower levels of attenuationmay be achieved in the future. The main application of such systemswould be in submarinecables where the avoidanceof repeatersis most desirable.

SYSTEMS 385 TRANSMIS$ION OPTIC FIBER

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18oo

Fiber attenuationver$uswavelength.

of media,thebandwidth an optical transmission to Whencompared elechomagnetic at fiber is mind boggling:a singleopticalfiber operating 1300or 1550nm of wavefor of bandwidth 20 THz (20 x totz Hz), which is enough 312 lengthhasa potential are sy$tems Bandwidthlimits of fiber optic transmission million 64-kbpschannels. by mostly determined the electro-opticdrivers and receiversor the electronicinter* fibershaveaninher8. in As devices. described Section I . l, multimode to faces these limitationis avoided limitation,but this particular bandwidth ent distance-dependent also have a distance-dependent fiber systems fibers. Single-mode in single-mode limitation.but this limitationis asmucha limitationof theopticalsources bandwidth asit is a limitation of the fiber. Small Physical Croee Sectlon is of One of the most beneficialfeatures Tl systems their ability to relieve overto pairscompared two-wireanaof I with a 12+o- savings copper cable ducts crowded with respectto Tl provide the sameadvantage Fiber systems log transmission. the cablehasapproximately same A degree. 25-paircopper only $ystems, to a greater pairsfor line-powered as crosssection a fiber cablewith 24 fibersand somecopper voice circuits.FurtherThe latter can easilycarry 100,000 or repeaters amplifiers. for by be can more,fibersy$tems sometimes upgraded morecapacity merelyinstalling or division multiplexing(WDM). Thus, after elecrronics wavelength higher speed is by coppercableis replaced a fiber cable,duct congestion unlikely to reappear greatlyexpands needfor fiber fathe services use unlessextensive of broadband cilities. Electromagnetic lnterference lmmunity pick up itself cannot the to glasshasa very high resistance electricity, f,rber Because to personnel transients harmful or damaging interferingsignalsor noiseor propagate crosstalkis also The at andequipment the endpoints. immunity to interference means

Bandwidth

386

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMIssIoN SY$TEMS

nota problem between multiple-fiber cables. systems In utilizingline-powered repeaters,however,someamountof copperis includedin the cableto carry power,implying that the immunity, particularlywith respectto hazardous voltages,is compromised. Theimmunityof fibersto external interference asnoiseandcrosstalk such implies thereis no crosstalk-induced from high powered limit transmitters moresensitive or receivers' Receiver sensitivity ultimatelylimited by internalnoisein thephotodeis tectors, and transmitpowerhastechnology limits due to spectrum spreading the in sources nonlinearities thefiber.Until these and in limits arereached, however, abthe sence crosstalk of between fibersallowsthecapacity transmission or distance a fiof ber systemto be increased merely upgradingthe electronics, the fiber. by not Althoughcrosstalk from one fiber to another nonexistent, is crosstalk arisebecan tweenseparate channels within WDM channels a singlefiber. of Security Because opticalfibersradiate energy, no noninvasive eavesdropping ofthe signalis impossible. Furthermore, invasivetapsaremorediffrcult to implementthanarewirelinetaps,whichmerelyrequire bridgingacross conductors a sufficiently the with high impedance removea usable unnoticeable to but amountof signalenergy. similar A process possible is with opticalfibers,but it requires bending fiber a veryprecise the amount allow a smallamountof energyto escape be amplifiedby a tap.Not to and only does process this allow passively tappinga fiber,but alsosignals beinjected can into thefiber throughsucha bend. This technique been has usedasa means locally of testingthe effectiveness a fiber spliceandhasbeenconsidered a means imof as of plementing distributed, passive tapsfor fiber distribution thehome[3]. to 8.1 FIBEROPTICTRAN$MISSION SYSTEMELEMENTS As shown Figure8.3,thebasicelements a fiber optictransmission in of system the are electrical-to-optical transducer thetransmitting in terminal, opticalfiter itself,the the optical-to-electrical transducer thereceiver, signalprocessing in and circuitryfor am_ plifitcation, clockrecovery, datadetection. and Regenerative repeaters require opticalto-elechical conversion the signalprocessing for functionsand conversion back to opticalfor transmission. Direct optical amplificationwith erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) areusedin lieu of repeaters, particularlyfor wDlftransmission links.

Flgure 8.3 Fiberoptictransmission system elements.

ELEMENTS SYSTEM TRANSMISSION OPTIC 8.1 FIBEH Jsket

387

Figure 8.4 Opticalfiber construction. The systemdepicted in Figure 8.3 is not necessarilya digital one. Although all of the fiber applications for telephony have utilized digital signals,analog hansmission is possible.Analog FM modulation of optical signalshas been successfullyapplied to feeder applicationsof CATV systems[4]. Furthermore, sy$temsthat carry 80 channels of AM video on fiber to residenceshave been developed, a capability that allows analog television set$to receive fiber-based cable TV without a digital video decoder.

8.1.1 OpticalFiberFundamentals in 8.4. fiberis shown Figure Boththecoreand of Thebasic construction anoptical
to the cladding aretran$parent the desiredlight signal but the cladding is designedwith a lower index of refraction, which causesmost light waves in the core to be reflected back into the core. As shown in Figure 8.5, whether or not a ray is reflected back into the core is dependenton the angle at which it strikes the sore-cladding boundary. If the angle is too sharp, the ray is not reflected but passesthrough the cladding and is absorbed by the opaque, protective jacket. The sharp angles can occur at two places; (l) near the sourcewhere all of the source'$output is not focusedinto the center of the fiber and (2) at bends, splices, or other imperfections in the fiber.

tllultimode Flbere to as signal energy possible thereas to desirable deliver much it Although is usually
ceiver. waves that reflect back and forth before reaching the receiver may be undesirable if they experiencetoo much delay with respectto the primary ray traveling down ttre center of the frber. An optical fiber that allows rays to arrive at the receiver via multiple paths is referred to as a multimode fiber. Multimode fibers have core diameters

Jack6t Chdding Core

Figure 8;5

Fiber with multimode propagation.

388

FTBER oplc rRANSMtsstoN sysrEMs

that are large comparedto the wavelengthof the signal.A typical multimode fiber will have a 50-pm core diameter and a 125-pm cladding diameter (such a fiber is designated as a 5oll25 fiber). The delayedrays causepulse spreadingreferred to as multimode dispersion.The significanceof the spreadingdependson the width of the pulse or, conversely,the datarate being used.Multimode dispersionthereforecreatesan inherent operationallimit defined as a bandwidth-di$tance product (BDp). The BDp of a typical step-indexmultimode fiber is 13 Mbps-km [5]. The previously describedmultimode fiber is referred to as a step-index fiber becausethe index of refraction in the core is constantwith a stepchangein the index occurring at the core-cladding boundary. Multimode dispersion can be significantly reducedby varying the index of refraction within the core so that a high value occurs in the center and a low value occurs at the edge.Becausethe speedof propagationof light is higher in lower indices of refraction, rays that reflect back and forth within the core ffavel at an average speed that is greater than a primary ray that remains entirely within the center. Thus, if the index of refraction is carefully graded wirhin the core, all rays can be made to arrive at the receiver with the same amount of delay. such a fiber is refened to as a graded-indexfiber. A representativeBDp of a graded-index fiber is 2 Gbps-km [6]. Notice that this is an improvement of more than two orders of magnitude over typical step-indexmultimode fibers. Example 8.1. Derermine the loss limir and the multimode dispersion limit of a graded-indexmultimode fiber systemoperatingat 820 nm and providing a bandwidth of 90 Mbps (enough ro carry two DS3 signals). Assume that the difference between the available output power from the source and the input power required by the receiver for an acceptablemaximum error rate is 42 dB. solution. From Figure 8.2, the attenuationof a multimode fiber operatingat g20 nm is approximately 3 dB/km. Thus,

.. 42 Losshmit=8.0=t+ttt't Using2 Gbps-km a typicalBDP of a graded-index as multimode fiber,themultimode dispersion distance limit is determined as

Dispersion = limit

= ZZ.2 km

Theresults Example arerepresentative of 8.I capabilities first-generation of fiber systems suchastheFT3c system AT&T [7]. In actual of practice, repeater spacing wouldbe lessthanthe l4-km losslimit to allow marginfor, for example, componenttolerances, splicing,andaging.The first FT3c system, which beganservice between New York city andwashington, in February DC 19g3, repeater had spac-

SYSTEMELEMENTS 8.1 FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION

389

ing of 7 km-the system.

location of repeatersin a coaxial cable system replaced by the fiber

Slngle-Mode Fibars in into were fiber As thefirst-generation systems beingbtought service thelongto advanced the point that deployhad network,opticaltechnology already distance of One systems underway. key technology thesecond was mentof second-generation fibers(SMFs)thatprovidetwo distinctadvangeneration theuseof single-mode was cores(8 pm typically)thatrestrictpropagadiameter First,SMFshavesmaller tages. Second, eliminatemultimodedispersion. modeandtherefore tion to a fundamental by the whichreduces attenuation about internal(Rayleigh) scattering, SMFshaveless at the of For 50Vo16,81. example, attenuation an SMF operating 820 nm is about2 fiber. to dB/km,asopposed 3 dB/kmfor a multimode involvedtheuseof longer $ystems of Another development second-generation key less significantly (1300nm), which,asshownin Figure8.2,experience wavelengths Use systems. usedin first-generation than attenuation the 800-900-nmwavelengths as and for newtechnology sources receivers, described required ofthesewavelengths 8.1.2 in Sections and8.1.3.

with and multimodedispersion usinga wavelength of The combination eliminating limitation referredto as anotherffansmission revealed muchlower signalattenuation ariseswhen a photonicsignalcontains dispersion Chromatic dispersion. chromatic propagate different at and the individual wavelengths more than one wavelength (also distortion ofphase equivalent is dispersion thephotonic Thus,chromatic speeds. levels Dispersion (wireline)propagation. in electromagnetic calleddelaydistortion) per per of by coefficient picoseconds nanometer kilometer' arequantified a dispersion km. is nanometers 16psec/nm A representative valuefor the SMF at 1550 is by dispersion minimized usingoneor moretechniques. Theeffectof chromatic abouta wavelengththat exhibits a small amountof First, operationcan be centerecl 15 produceapproximately Typical silica fibers,for example, dispersion. chromatic an nm.Second, opticalsource at dispersion 13fi) nm thanat 1550 timeslesschromatic (e.g.,hasa naffow spread of pureas possible that is as $pectrally shouldbe chosen (RZ) pulsescan be usedto preventinwavelengths). Third, nalrow retum-to-zero in fiber Fourth,a dispersion-compensating canbeincluded the interference. tersymbol to in slope opposition themainfiber.Whenjust paththathasa dispersion transmission BDPsof 250GHz-kmarepossible are [6]' thefirst two techniques used, limit of a Exampte8.2. Determinethe loss limit and the chromaticdispersion SMF optical fiansmissionsystemoperatingat 1300 nm and high-performance a Assume to providinga bandwidth 417Mbps (enough carry nine DS3 signals). of than the an output power that is 42 dB gteater $ourceis usedwith narrowband gainto be 42 dB). power(i'e., assume system the receive minimumacceptable

ChromaticDlsperaion

390

FIBEH oPTIc TRANSMISSIoN $YSTEMS

solution. As indicated in Figure 8.2, the attenuation of a single-mode fiber operating at 1300 nm is approximately 0.35 dB/km. Thus, .. 42 = 120km Lossllmit = 0j5 Using 250 Gbps-km as the BDp of a silica, single-modefiber,

Chromatic dispersion = limit

#:600

km

Whenthedispersion limit is muchhigherthanthelosslimit, asis thecase Exunple in 8.2,it indicates theopticalsources providinga niurowerspecffum that are thanis nece$sary. Thus,the system design couldbe changed uselessexpensive to sources the or poweroutputof the source couldbe increased get a longerlosslimit. (Increasing to thepoweroutputof the$ource may widenits spectrum thereby and reduce BDp.) the Thesystem parameters Example arerepresentative thesecond-generation of 8.2 of FT series systems G deployed AT&T [9]. ttre Fr series systems maximum by G had repearer spacing 48 km (29 miles),indicating of that theinitial systems couldbe installed with significant marginfor reliabilityandfutureupgrades. Many of theroutes were,in fact, upgraded 1.7Gbpswithoutchanging fiber tIO, I il. Evenat the to the higherdatarates, FT series routeshadsignificant the G lossmarginfor splicingand the insertion wavelength of divisionmultiplexers another as means upgrading of the system. wavelength divisionmultiplexing described section9.3. is in Example shows attenuation thelimiting distance 8.2 that is factorin 1300-nm systemsoperating low andintermediate rates.To operate at data with evenlongerdistances, Figure8.2 indicates that 1550nm shouldbe used.with typical silica fibers, thelimiting factorat 1550 wouldbechromatic nm dispersion. ouirco-" this limiTo tation,two othertypesof fiber havebeendeveloped; dispersion-shifted a singlemodefiber (DS-SMF)that hasminimal dispersion 1550nm and a dispersionar flattened single-mode fiber (DF-sMF) that haslessdispersion across rangeof a wavelengths. Figure8.6contrasts dispersion bothof these the of typesof fiberswith a conventional SMF' EventhoughFigure8.6indicates zerodispersion existsat 1300 nm on thesMF andat 1550nm on theDS-SMF,some affountof dispersion to be has assumed to fiber manufacturing due variations uncertainty the actualcenter and of wavelength produced a source. by valuesof l-3.5 psec/km aretypicallyusedas nm thedispersion coefficient the "zero"dispersion at points. 8.1.2 Electrical.to.Optlcal Transducers Two basictypesof semiconductor devices convertelectrical signals into opticalsignalsandcanhavetheoutputcoupled anopticalfiber:laser into (LDs)andlightdiodes emittingdiodes (LEDs).LDs generally providebefterperformance termsof higher in outputpower'Breater bandwidth, narrower and signalspectrum. LEDs, on the other

ELEMENTS391 sYsrEM oprc rHANsMlsstoN 8.1 FIBER

20
E t
J

Ero

.E 0
.t -to a
-20

(nml Wrydength Figure 8.6 Dispersion of SMF and DS-SMF fibers.

requireonly simpleinterfacecircuitry, afe moretolerantof hand,arelessexpensive, for ThusLDs areused long morereliable. and conditions, aregenerally environmental andinterface co$tsare and distances LEDs areusedwhenruggedness transmission moreimportantthanperformance. to it repeater$, is necessary minimize between To achievemaximumdistances formsof LDs havebeen Various sources. by dispersion usingnarrowband chromatic the pureoutput.Figure8.7shows a that developed comecloseto achieving spectrally "single-ftequency" devices: of typicaloutputspectrum onethemostpopulartypesof is laserdiode.Anothertype of diodewith a very nalrow spectrum a a Fabry-Perot of a Fabrythe LD diskibuted-feedback (DFB-LD). As indicated, dominantmode the To modes. maintain spectltantheadjacent Perotdiodeis typically10dB stronger environment to trum indicated,it is generallynece$sary tightly confol the operational modulation-dependent Otherwise, (biaspoints,modulation level, and temperature). modes shiftsthatprovery shoftduration the or broaden spectrum evencause effects

$
-2
D
d

E .E

l o + t + lrom Cenurwarbltngth (nml Wwsler|g8h Representative laser output $pectrum.

Ftgrrre 8.7

392

FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

parameters VarloueOpticalSources TABLE8.1 Repreeentatlve of Device Type Si LED Ge LED InGaAsP LED DFBLD DFBLD IUDFB LD (nm) Wavelength 850 1300 1300 1300 1550 1550 Launched Output (dBm) Power -16 -19 -10 -5 -5 +2 FWHM Spectrum Width'(nm) 50 70 120 1.0 0.4 0.8

ducea dominant modeat oneof theadjacent wavelengths. latterphenomenon This is referred asmodepartitionnoise[12], which cancause halvingof the BDp of a to a system Thespectral width of an opticalsource commonlyspecified thefull[6]. is as width at half-maximum(FWHM), which represents spreadbetweenthe wavethe lengths whichthe specrrum arhalf themagnitude thepeak. at is of To achieve greaterdistances loss-limited in systems, eithera more sensitive receiveror a higherpoweredsourceis necessary.* Laserdiodesprovidethe highest available powers, indicated Table8. l, which listsrepresentative as in parameters of various andLED source$. LD Systems aredispersion that limitedcannoibeimproved by higher output powersbecause intersymbolinterference the dominates imperthe fections thereceived in signal. The effectivetransmitpower depends the couplingefficiencybetween on the source the fiber. The couplingefficiencymay be aslow as l%o thecase an and in of unfocused LED connecred a single-mode to fiber. High-efficiency couplings 6ovo of arepossible with focused sources. launched The powervalues providedin Tableg.I includethecouplingefficiencies. Bandwi dth-Dlstance Prod ucte Thebandwidth-distance factorof a fiber system resulting from chromatic dispersion is determined from thefiberdispersion coefficient thespectral and widthof thesource. Themaximumacceptable amount pulsespreading of with an NRZ line codeis typically specified be one-foufth bit intervalT. Thus. to ofa DL AL!0.257 whereD = Z= A.l,= 7= dispersion coefficient fiber (psec/km of nm) (km) distance spectrum width of source(nm) duration a bit interval(psec) of (8.1)

Transmit power cannot tle increased arbitrarily without encountering nonlinear phenomena in the fiber itself. The optical power threshold where nonlinear effects begin to occur may bJas low as l0 mW [6],

THANSMISSION ELEMENTS 393 OPTIC SYSTEM 8.1 FIBER

Using the relationshipthat the bandwidth(B) is the reciprocalof the bit interval, the as BDP is determined NRZ-BDP=Bi

< 250 DAl.

Gbps-km

(8.21

because in energy oneinA50VoRZ line codeallowstwiceasmuchpulsespreading interval.Thus tervalis half a bit periodfrom energyin the next

RZ-BDP. #

Gbps-km

(8.3)

but prefened dispersion-limited in sy$tems areinfeTheRZ line codes obviously are pulse because receiver mustdetect systems the in rior to NRZ line codes loss-limited poweris heldconstant). (assuming peaktransmit with half asmuchenergy the Example8.3. Determinethe BDP of a 1550-nmSMF systemand a 1550-nm DFB LD source identifiedin Table8.1.Assume DS-SMF$ystem usingthe 1550-nm nm valueof 3.5psec/km to allow relaxed an NRZ line codeanda "zero" dispersion tolerances the fiber andthe sourceoperatingwavelength. for of coefficient an SMF fiber at 1550nm Solution, From Figure8.6,the dispersion is width of the source 0.4 nm. Thus, psecflrm FromTable8.1,the spectral nm. is 16

NRZ-BDP=ffi=39GbPs-km
Using the given mined as "zero" dispersion is value,the BDP of the DS-SMFsystem deter-

?qn

Gbns-km NRZ-BDP=5ft= 179

8.1.3 Optical-to-ElectrlcalTransducers to are Two basicfypesof photodetectors availableas transducers convertthe optical such energyat the receiverto electricalenergyfor amplificationandotherprocessing p-i-n diodes werethefirst photodeand Siliconbased asclockrecovery datadetection. diof in usingwavelengths 800-900nm. These tector$ be used, operating systems to Their major and reliable and provide good performance. odes are inexpensive wherefiber loss is minidrawbackis that they do not operateat higher wavelengths

394

FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

TABLE8.2 Rspresentative Parameters OptlcalDetectors(BER= 1g-tt1a of Device Type SipFn Si APD pr:n InGaAs InGaAs APD InGaAs APD InGaAs APD pr-n InGaAs InGaAs APD Wavelength (nm) 850 850 1310 1310 13 1 0 1550 1550 1550 (dBm) Receive Power -48.0 -58.0 -35.0 -43.0 -26.0 -37.5 -37.0 -33.0 DataRate(Mbps) 50 50 420 420 8000 678 1200 4000

aThedetectorsensitivities assume an NF|Zline code. The sonsitivities decrBaseby g dB for (S0%)BZ codes.

mized. Germanium devicesfunction at the higher wavelengthsand are more sensitive but are more temperaturedependentand less reliable. The secondbasic type of photoderectoris an avalanchephoto diode (ApD), which enhances receiver sensitivity because operateswith internal gain. (A p-f-n diode the it does not have internal gain and therefore requires all amplification to be externally applied, which raisesthe noise level.) The amplification inherent in the ApD's conversion from an optical signal to an electrical signal is useful becauseit meansthe ApD can be 10-15 dB more sensitivein detectinglow-level signals at a given error rate. A major drawback of an APD is ttrat it needsa high supply voltage to operateand is very sensitiveto temperature.APDs tend to have somewhatlower GBps thanp-i-n diodes, which restricts their use in very high data rate systems.Table g.2 lists various types of photodetectorsand provides representative performanceparameters each. for

6 E

,E

.E 6

-60L .001

.01

.1 .2.4 OEtrR{te (Gbm}

Figure 8.t

Receiver sensitivity versus datarate.

oPTICTHANSMISSIoN 395 8.2 LINE coDESFORFIBER

Bothtypes receivers utilizedirectdetection, whichmeans theymerelymea$that of Because of to higherdatarates urethepresence ab$ence opticalenergy detect or data. per imply lessenergy bit, the sensitivity decreases datarate.As a first approxiwith 3 mation,a doublingof the datarateimpliesthereceiver becomes dB lesssensitive. (in of Thegeneral formulafor determining change sensitivity decibels) a functhe as tion of a change thedatarateis in Ro Sensitivity = Sensitivity + R
where R = new data rate Ro = data rate at given sensitivity

tot"*,.[ftJ

(8.4)

Figure 8.8 plots the receiver sensitivity ofrepresentativep-i-n diode detectorsand APD detectorsas a function of the data rate for both NRZ and RZ line codes.

8-2 LINE CODESFOR FIEEROPTICTRANSMISSION (FOT)systems mustsatisfy same basicrethe Line codes fiber optictransmission for quirements theline codes electrical (wireline)transmission in described in sy$tems as previously. few line A 4. Chapter Somefiber systems the line codesdescribed use fbr here.Opticalsources codes specifically fiber applications described are developed gain modes operation with significant anddetectors primarilyused nonlinear are in of in andthreshold variations, which impliestheyarebestsuitedto operating only two Constates: or off. Hence, two-levelline code(on-off keying)is mostnatural. on a available, are sidering wide bandwidth multilevelline codes usuallyunnecessary the pencan andextratiming transitions be includedin theline codewithoutsignificant systems in alty.An exception theavailabilityof "free"bandwidth to occurs submarine where repeater is of maximum spacing achieved minimizingthebandwidth theopby the tical signal. systems typicallydispersion limitedbecause needfor ultraare These longevity. high reliabilityprecludes latestsingle-frequency lasers with unproven the is particularly of usefulproperty ofdirect detection opticalreceivers theabsence A any polarity ambiguity,which means transmitter receiverare inherentlydc the and so Even coupled differentialencoding unnecessary. thoughthe opticalsignalis inis beof herentlydc coupled, dc balance the line codemay still be a consideration the (particularly on APDs)is sometimes dependent the cause gain of somephotodiodes Furthermore, is usuallydesirable accoupleamplifier it to thedc levelof theline code. pulseamplitudes thedetecting electrical stages thereceivers at in [3], which means are constraints typi comparator$ dependent opticalpulsedensities. all, these are In on in so for cally easier dealwith thantheircounterparts wirelinesy$tems, line codes to generally of Noticethat,in fiber fiber systems amounts dc variation. tolerate Breater dc both a Manchester a CMI line codehaveunvarying levelsequalto and systems, pulseamplitude. numberof otherline codes A usedin fiber systems one-halfof the level.Because these are in variations controlled, allow some variation theaverage dc

396

FIBER rRANsMtsstoN opTtc sysTEMS

theline codes sometimes are refemed as"dc-constrained" codes opposed to line as to "dc-balanced" beingperfect near-petfect or line codes. dc variations do exist The that in these codes line eitheraretoo smallto cause problems areaccommodated proor by viding someform of dc restoration [14]. For applications do notrequire that maximum repeater spacing maximum or data ratestypically useManchester (diphase) cMI line codesbecause or both of these providestrongtiming content a completely codes and constrained level (502o dc on). An early example the useof cMI is a high-speed of intraofficelink developed by NTT of Japan [5]. Manchester CMI line codes and experience worstcase boththelosslimit and the of thedispersion limit. The worst-case limit arises loss because receiver the mustdetect opticalpulses with duration equalto half thebit interval(i.e.,with a sensitivity an of RZ code).The dispersion limit of a Manchester CMI line codeis actuallyhalf of or theNRZ dispersion limit because symbolrateis essentially the (Each indoubled. bit tervalis dividedin half, with the needto derecr pulseor no pulsein both halves.) a Thus,theManchester CMI BDP canbe determined or as

=# MC-BDP

Gbps

(8.s)

Fromtheprevious discussion canbe seen whenperformance moreimpoftant it that is thanlow cost,someotherline codeis needed. Threebasicline codes commonly are used:scrambled NRZ, scrambled or somevariationof a codereferred as an RZ, to mBnB line code,described below.Thechoice anNRZ or RZ line codeis primarily of based whether system losslimited or dispersion on the is limited.Loss-limited systemsuseNRZ line codes whereas dispersion-limited systems RZ codes. scramuse A bleris typicallyusedto enhance timingrecovery controldc wander a statistical and in (but sense not in an absolute sense). Often,overhead patterns thedatastream data in provides someassurance thedatastream that cannot exactlymatchthe scrambler sequence a ceftainminimumnumberof transitions assured. so are This is the casein SONET transmission systems described Section in 8.5. 8.2.1 mBnB Line Codee As an alternative relying on scramblers ensuring to for timing transitions, classof a line codes beendeveloped encodes binarydatabits into blocksofn binary has that rn line bits (mBnB),wherenr < n. Because only 2* datacodes mustbe selected from 2, codes eachblock,thereis codingflexibility for conhollingtiming anddc wander. in For example, m = 4 andn = 5, sixteen if datacodes mustbe chosen from the setof thirtytwo 5-bit line codes. specific A choiceof these codes providedin Tableg.3, is whichdepicts datacodes controlcodes the and selected thefiber-distributed fbr data (FDDD standard interface [6]. The significant a$pects thecodingassignments Table8.3 are: of in

g,z LINE oFTrc 397 coDEsFoRFIBEH TRANSMtssroN TABLE8.3 FDDI4BSB LlneCodee LineGode Decimal 0
1

Binary 00000 00001 0001 0 1 0001 00 001 01 001 00110 00111 01000 01001 01010 01011 01100 01101 01 10 1 01111 10000 10001 10010 10011 '101 00 10101 10110 10111 11000 11001 11 0 1 0 11011 11100 1 11 01 11110 11111

Symbol

Name
Quiet Violation Violation Violation Halt Violation Re$et Violation

Assignment Functional Linestatesymbol Oisallowed Disallowed Disallowed Linestate symbol Start delimiter Disallowed indicator Control Disallowed 0001 Datasymbol 0100 Datasymbol Datasymbol 0101 Disallowed Enddelimiter Datasymbol 10 01 Data symbol 11 01 Disallowed Start delimiter 1000 Datasymbol 1001 Dalasymbol Datasymbol 0 001 Datasymbol 1 001 1010 Datasymbol Datasymbol 1 101 Start delimiter indicator Control 1100 Datasymbol Datasymbol 101 1 1110 Data symbol 1111 Data symbol Datasymbol 0000 Linestate symbol

o
V V V H L V R V
1 4 5 V T
E -l

2 3 4 5 6 7
E

I 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Violation

Violation

K B
q

2 3 A B J S

Set Set

c
D E F

o
I
ldle

L The code spaceis used for control as well as data. 2. When transmitting data,the minimum pulse density is 40Voand there can never tre more than three intervals without a pulse. 3. The dc componentis constrainedto fall between a minimumof 40Vopulsesand a manimum af 60Vopulses, a range that is one-fifth of an unconstrained random data stream.

398

FIBER oPTIcTHANSMISSIoN SYSTEMS TABLE 8.4 Digital Blphaee (Manchester)lB2B Line Code

LineCode Binary 0
1

Functional Assignment
Disallowed Data symbol 0 Data symbol 1 Disallowed

2
e

00 01 10 11

The featuresofthe 4B5B line code describedabove are achievedat the expenseof a25vo inweasein the line data rate. By way of comparison,a digital biphase (Manchester)line code and the cMI line code describedin chapter 4 can both be representedas lB2B line codeswirh the coding assignments provided in Tables 8.4 and g.5, respectively.Notice that both of thesecodescome at the expenseof a lfi)7o increase in the line datq rate. Because 4B5B line codedefined for FDDI is intendedfor a specific application, the it contains codes for control as well as for data. The 5B68 codes given in Table 8.6 areintendedfor transmissiononly and thereforedo not allocatecode spacefor control. Notice that the 5B68 code assignmentsare made in such a way that the dc level is fixed at 507opulsesbut the maximum run length of no pulsesis 6. Thus, tighter control of the dc level comes at the expenseof increasing the worst-caseduration between pulses.5868 and TBBB line codeshave been used exten$ively in Europe. Examples of 7B8B usageare a 565-Mbps rerrestrial system developedby British Telecom [17] and a 280-Mbps NLI submarinesysremdevelopedby src of Great Britain [18]. The 4B5B and 5B6B examples use output blocks that are only I bit greater than the input blocks. considerably more coding flexibility is achieved when the ourput block is more than I bit longer than the input block. As an example, a 6B88 code allows all 64 input codesto be encodedwith an output code containing exactly four I's in every code. (The number of combinations of four I's in 8 bits is 70.) Thus dc wander can be maintained without having to altemate between low-density and high-density codesbut coding efficiency is sacrificed.

TABLE8.5 CodedMarkInversion (CMl)1B2BLineCode LineCode Binary 0 1 2 3 00 01 10 11 Functional Assignment Datasymbol (if 11 previously 1 sent) Data symbol 0 Disallowed Datasymbol (if00 previously 1 sent)

THANSMISSIoN 399 8.2 LINE OPTI0 coDE$ FoB FIBEH TABLE 8.6 5868 Line Code Aesignrnentss

58 lnput 00000 00001 0001 0 1 0001 00100 001 01 1 001 0 0011'l 01000 01 001 01010 01011 0 11 0 0 01101 01110 1 01 11

68 Output 011101/100010 101110/01 0001 01 11/1 000 01 01 1 0001 1 101 1/01 00 01 01 01 001 1 1 001 01 001110 110101/001010 01 1 001 01 1 1 0 0 010110 011001 1 01 010 011100 110110/001 001

5B Input 10000 10001 10010 10011 10100 10101 10110 1 0 11 1 11000 11001 11010 1 1 01 1 11100 11 1 0 1 ' 1 1 t1 0 11111

68 Output 01 111010/0001 1 10001 1001 01 100110 101001 101010 101100 0l1011/100100 110001 110010 110100 101101/010010 111000 110011/001 00 1 101101/0't0010 100111/01 000 1

aA code 1/code0 output must alternatebetweenthe code with four 1's and the code wlth two 1's to mainlain dc balanc.

An 8B 108 coding affangementfl 9, 201hasbeen defined asthe fiber channeltransmission standard(ANSI X3.230-1994). As indicated in Table 8.7, each input byte is separated into a 5-bit field and a 3-bit field that are respectivelyencodedusing a 5B68 and 3B4B algorithm. In some cases,two codewords are provided for encoding particular input data. The choice of one code in a pair (which are complementsof each other) is made to maintain dc balance.[f the previously transmitted unbalancedcode had more I 's than 0's, the code with fewer 1's is chosen.If the previously transmitted unbalancedcode had more 0's than I's. the code with fewer 0's is chosen.*

8.2.2 Bit InsertionCodes

The mBnB block codes in haveonesignificant disaddescribed theprevious section (In vantage: They aredifficult to implement very high speed on datastreams. lower speed decode memoryis trivapplications, logic or tablelookupin a smallread-only ial.) Very high speed links therefore another typeof codereferred asbit inserto use tion codes. areactuallyspecial cases mBnB codes of with n = m + 1 and These codes thecodes so selected thecoding/decoding logic is greatlysimplified. Thefirst bit insertion codeto beconsidered theMB lP code, is whichmerelyinserts anoddparitybit aftereveryrz bitsof source data.Oddparityensures at leastone that
*Two special cases exist that may alter the rule when 001 I I is 5B6B encoded or 0t I is 3B4B encoded.

400

FIBEBOPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

I is includedin theparity field of m + I bits.As a point of reference, noticethat the (Manchester) codeis a 18lP line code.An example theuseof digitalbiphase line of a 24BlP line codeis theTransPacificsubmarine (Tpc-3) put into servcable system icein December 1988 AT&T andKDD of Japan by [21]. An evensimplerbit insertion codedescribed engineers NTT in Japan by of [22] is the mB I c code,which merelyinsertsa bit aftereveryru source bits-the valueof whichis thecomplement theiilrmediately preceding Thus,theadded always of bit. bit forces datatransition is veryeasyto implement. obvious a and An disadvantage the of simplicityis thelossof performance monitorability overthefirst rn- 1bitsof a block. Againnoticethata diphase codeis a degenerate of an mBlc line codewith line case ru = L An example theuseof a l0BlC line codeis theF-1.6G of sysrem NTT in of Japan [23].

TABLE8.7 88108 FlberChannet Codtng 58 Input 0 (00000) 1 (00001) 2 (00010) 3 (00011) 4 (001 00) 5 (00101) 6 (0010) 1 7 ( 0 01 1 ) I (01ooo) I (01001) 1 0( 0 1 0 1 0 ) 1 1( 0 1 0 1 1 ) 1 2( 0 1 1 0 0 ) 1 3( 0 1 0 1 ) 1 14(01110) 1 5( 0 1 1 1 1 ) 38 Input 0 (000) 1 (001) 2 (010) 3 (01 ) 1 4 (100) 5 (101) 6 (110) 7(11) 68 Output 100111/011000 011101i1 0001 0 101101/010010 110001 110101/001010 101 001 011001 111000/000111 111001/000110 1001 01 01 1 1 0 0 110100 1 001 01 101100 0 111 0 0 010111/101000 48 Outout 0100/1 1 01 1001 01 01 1100/001 1 0010/1 101 101 0 01 0 1 0001/1 0 11 58 Input 16(10000) 1 7( 1 0 0 0 1 ) 1 B( 1 0 0 1 0 ) 1 9( 1 0 0 1 1 ) 2 0( 1 0 1 0 0 ) 2 1( 1 0 1 0 1 ) 2 2( 1 0 1 1 0 ) 2 3( 1 0 1 1 1 ) 24 (11000) 25(11001) 2 6( 1 1 0 1 0 ) 2 7( 1 0 1 ) 1 1 28(11100) 2e(11101) 3 0( r 1 1 1 0 ) 3 1( 1 1 1 1 1 ) 68 Outpul 011011/100100 10001 1 0 1 0 01 1 110010 001 1 01 101010 011010 111010/0001 01 11001 1/001 100 100110 010110 110110/001 001 001110 101110/01 0001 011110/100001 101011/010100

DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 401 8.3 WAVELENGTH

8.3 WAVELENGTHDIVISIONMULTIPLEXING usedto establish Wavelength division multiplexing(WDM) is the basictechnique on channels a singlefiber. The concept WDM is ilof multiple,independent optical (multiplexing) separate of sources a into in lustrated Figure8.9 showing coupling the (demultiplexing) the signals of the fiber. Prismatic reout of fiber andtheseparation fractionis depicted thebasiccouplingmechanism bothendsof thelink. Refracas at tion is usable only for channelswith relatively large wavelengthseparations. with channelspacing the on on Diffractive gratingdevices, theotherhand,canoperate of share commoncharacteristics being the orderof 1-2 nm [24]. All WDM devices purelypassive beingreversible anyparticular so devicecanperformeithermuland tiplexingor demultiplexing Otherthansome opticalinsertion andsome loss functions. are crosstalkfrom imperfectseparation, multiplexing/demultiplexing the operations channel The insertionlosses the diffraction of transparent the individual to signals. vs. gratingdevices varyfrom I to 7 dB depending fiber size(multimode single on can mode)andnumber channels of [24]. a WDM wa$not usedbecause single fiber routeswereinstalled, When the f,rrst pairs thanseparate high-speed wasgenerally expensive less transmitter receiver and Thus, and and WDM devices. of lower speed transrnitters receivers accompanying upgrade increase capacity the to WDM wouldtypically be installedasa subsequent the of a system without laying new fiber. For example, original 90-Mbps,820-nm in FT3C system corridorwasupgraded in installed 1983by AT&T in the northeast refer1984by addingan additional180Mbpson a 1300-nm carrier[25].In addition, increased how the FT Series canhaveits capacity G by ences[9] and [0] describe multiplexinga 1550-nmsystemonto an existing 1300-nmsystemand/oradding out higherspeed electronics withouttakingtheexistingsystem of service. for attraction someapplicapropertyof WDM devices a dominant is The passive tions suchasfiber to the home.Allocatingindividualfibersfrom a cenffaloffice to form of fiber sharing. outside The is impJying need some for each the home expensive, (-40-70"C) andtheneedfor remote powerfor activecomponents plantenvironment Theuseof WDM in this application imply thatpassive WDM devices prefened. are photonic loop (PPL) [26]. is sometimes referred asthepassive to (copper) electroFDM asused electrical or identical to on WDM is fundamentally (radio)transmission In allows systems. fact,usingthefollowingrelationship magnetic to wavelengths be related frequency: to v =,fl (8.6)

divisionmultiplexing. Flgure 8.9 Wavelength

4OZ FIBER rHANsMtsstoN oplc sysrEMs where y= velocityoflight,= 3 x 108 m/sec = frequency (Hz) ,f (m) L.= wavelength optical systems definedin termsof wavelength opposed frequency are as to because optical$ources traditionally are specified termsof thewavelengths theiroutputs. in of Nevertheless, systems with extremely closewDM channel (on spacing the orderof 0.04nm) aresometimes referred asFDM systems to [27]. systemsthat useelectronic multiplexingto produced electrical FDM signals for modulationof a singleopticalcarderarereferredto assubcarrier multiplexing systems. Because individualchannels thesesystems typicallyclosetothe of are gether frequency, hence wavelength, in and in passive separation usuallyinfeais sible. Example8,4. Determinethe differencein wavelengthof two optical signals separated 2GHz andcentered 1500nm. by at Solution. The frequency freespace) (in ofa 1500-nm signalis

f=#-=2oo,oooGHz 1500x l0-o Thusthe upperandlower frequencies determined 200,001 are as and 199,9g9 GHz, respectively. corresponding The wavelengths are 3xlOE = 1500.007 nm 199.999 l0e x
3x108

Ir=
^

n':

too.oot ^, ,t

= 1499'992 nm

andthediff'erence wavelengths 0.015nm. in is Example shows evenwhensubcarriers separated zGHz,the result8.4 that are by ing wavelength difference small-too smallfor passive is demultiplexing. Wavelength demultiplexing with passive diffuaction doesnot inherently causea lossof signalpowerin the individualchannels. altemative An approach demultito plexingis shownin Figure8.10,whichinvolves powersplittingof thereceived signal followedby wavelength filteringto extract individualchannels. approach pasThis is sive and functionallyidenticalto diffractive separation is wastefulof optical but power.Its mainadvantage thatpowersplittingcanbe implemented passive is as taps distributed alongthefiber roure. Thus,it is a usefultechnique applications in (like local areanetworks) wheredistances lessimportant are thanflexibility in networktopology.

DESIGN 403 8.4 FIBEH SYSTEM

Figure 8.10 WDM with powersplining/filtering.

DenseWavelengthDivisionMultiplexing primarily response in occurred thelate1990s, in MajoradvancesWDMtechnology in expand bandwidth theirfiber of the to theneeds common carriers dramatically of to
facilities for high-bandwidth data networking. In contrastto previous systems,which carried a small number of WDM channels,the newer systemscarried a large number of closely spacedwavelengths.Thesesystemsare generallyreferredto as densewavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems. An example of a first-generation (1996) DWDM systemis the MultiWave 1600 $ystemfrom Ciena Corporation. This systemprovided 16 channelsspaced0.8 nm apafr in the region of 1550 nm. DWDM systems are enabled by optical amplifiers (EDFAs) that transparently amplify all wavelengthsin the band and by fiber Bragg gratings fabricatedinto glassfiber for demultiplexing and filtering in a receiver. DWDM usefulnessis not confined to retrofitting of existing plant. DWDM may be systemopthe only possibleway to achieveextremely high bandwidths.A 4O-channel erating at 2.488 Gbps (OC-48) per channel provides an aggregatebandwidth of 100 Gbps-a difficult speedfor a single TDM channel,particularly on dispersionlimited fibers and with other high-speedlimitations such as polarization mode dispersion.An additional advantagesof DWDM is the inherent transparencyof individual wavelengths, which allows transmission and interoperability of mixed types of services. Yet another advantageof DWDM is the inherent reliability provided by separateelectronics for each wavelensth interface.

8.4 FIEERSYSTEMDESIGN of in sections highlightonly the mostbasicaspects fiber The examples the previous system-level provides for of This section considerations thedesign optictechnology. practicalFOT systems. is the casewith anytransmission the As technology, system is on availabilityrequirements costof mainteand design stronglydependent system f,rber to nance. the low endof these At are requirements easilyaccessible connections of individualworkstations within a singlebuilding.At theotherendof the spectrum to cables areobviouslyveryexpensive rereliabilityrequirements submarine are that pair. Repairs minimizedby usingonly ultrareliable Eventhoughsubcomponents. are with oceanic are they marinecables immuneto bacftfioes* gophers, mustcontend and
'Some outside plant enginecrsofthe telephoflecompanieswouldprobablynot be too surprisedifabackhoe could somehow get to a submarinecable.

404

FTBER rRANsMtsstoN oplc sy$rEMS

counterparts: fishing trawlersandsharks(which seern attracted electromagnetic to radiation). AT&T developed "seaplow" buryingsubmarine a for cables areas largein of scale fishingactivity[28].Abouttheonly advantage submarine that applications have in their favor is theconstant, relativelylow temperature environment repeaters/amfor plifrers. 8.4.1 Fiber Connectors and Sptices Three basic techniques ofjoining fibersareconnectors, mechanical splices, fusion and splices[29]. connector$ usedfor terminalconnectionrr, are patchpanels, otherinor stances whereloss(0.4-l dB) is lessimportant thanease maintenance reconof and figuration. Mechanical splices involvemechanical alignmeut clamping two adjoining and of fibers.Therearemanydifferenttypesof mechanical splicingequipment provide that various levelsof lossdepending thefiber size(multimode singlemode)andinon or stallation time.Splices bemade individualfibersor in bulk on fiber bundles can on or ribbons. Two basicsplicingprocedures possible: passive active. are or Passive splices arefasterbecause craftsperson the merelyplaces fibersin the alignment the sleeves andclamps fibersin place.Activealignment the involves passing signalthroughthe a spliceandmakingfine mechanical adjustments minimizethe lossbeforethe final to clampis applied. singlefiber splicedescribed reference provides average A in an [30] of 0'2 dB losswhenpassively installed 0.05dB losswhenactivelyinstalled. and The installation timesare5 and7 min, respectively. Fusionsplices providethelowestlosses because essentially they form onecontinuousfiber that is almostasgoodas a single-drawn fiber. In fact, submarine fibersare pretested the factory for tensilestrengthandfusedat the weakpointswherebreaks at occur[28].Thisprocess ensures thefiberscanwithstand tensile that the stress encounteredwhenlayingandrecovering fiber cablebut introduces the slightlyhigherlevels of average attenuation the fiber. For example, I 04-kmrepeaterless in the system installed between Taiwanandtheislandof PengHu has0.24dB/kmar 1550nm including all splices [28]. Fusion splicing equipmenris availablerhar is completely automated high-resolution used alignthefibersandestimate spliceloss with TV to the by measuring misalignment fusion[29].Fusionlosses varybetween the after can 0.01 and0.I dB. For undersea applications, values only closeto 0.0I dB areaccepted. 8.4.2 Protection Switchlng Protection switching within an FoT system basically $ame in otherhighis the as capacity transmission $ystems whereinonespare line, includingtransmitters, repeaters,and receivers, be switchedinto serviceif one of Nmain lines fails (l : N can protection). Thereare,however, few uniqueconsiderations protecting a for fiber systems, arisingprimarilybecause thehighcapacity thesy$tems. of of First,a system can be installed with lower cost(lowerperformance) optoelectronic devices with an upgradefor higher performance anticipatedat a later date.In this case,the protection

DESIGN405 8.4 FIBEH SYSTEM procedures packaging concepts upgrading switching and shouldallow one-at-a-time withoutdisrupting service of electronics [11]. fiber arises because switching A moresignificant difficult aspect protection and of of aggregations traff,rcthat routestend to carry large-traffic volumesrepresenting facilitieson $eparate route$. One-for-Nprobe would otherwise carriedby separate Protecis cuts tectionof mostfiber systems of no usewhena backhoe anentirecable. network-level routingdiversity,a facility requires tion from the lossof a complete feature a networkthattends disappear of to whenusingfiber andlargeswitchingsysmaximumeconomic advantage-large hubsfed by largetrunk groups. temsto their provides1 ; I routediversifyandno hub dependence a is A networkarchitecture that later SONETring described in this chapter.

8.4.3 System Galn of is The fust stepin determining repeater the spacing an FOT section to determine and the receive outputpower of a hansmitter the between launched the difTerence fashion thesame term to powerrequired a designated for minimumBER.In analogous gain. Notice is to introduced radio systems, parameter referred asthe system this for gainincludes couplinglosses theopticalsource opticaldetector. at and thatthesystem of gainmustbe greater in thanthesumof all thelosses thepath.Sources The system losses, bending fiber, splicing/connector of loss include inherentattenuation the if that and losses, WDM device losses, photonicswitchlosses any.Splicinglosses ocinto of intervals cur atregular duringtheinstallation thefiber areoftenadded thefiber parameter involvedin determining attenuation thereis only onedistance-dependent so gainandthesumof all thenomispacing. difference the The between sy$tem repeater the installation, lossmarginallowsfor is nal losses the lossmargin.In anyparticular powerpenalties to dispersion, unanticipated due tolerances, manufacturing equipment WDM upgrades. splices, component aging,andpossible gain,theBDP,thedispersionlimited repeater Example8.5. Determine system the data with the following parameters: FOT system and spacing, the lossmarginfor an = = = 565 Mbps, line code= 5BdB RZ, wavelength 1550nm, source -5 dBm rate spacing APD,repeater DFB-LD with 0.4nmFWHM, fiber= SMF,detector=InGaAs = = 65 km, andsplicinglo$ses 0.2 dB/km. = Solutinn, Theuseof the5BdBline codeimpliestheIinedatarateof 565(6/5) 67t from Figure8.8or Table for Mbps.Thereceiversensitivity 678Mbps is determined 8.2as-34.5 dBm.Thus. gain= -5 - (-34.5)= 29.5dB System an Because RZ line codeis in use.

406

FIBEH oplc rRANSMtsstoN sysTEMS

BDP: :;so?, =73.6Gbps-km BDPspacing =m: 17xO.4

= Pathloss= (0.2+ 0.2X65) 26 dB

l09km

=29.5- 26 = 3.5dB Lossmargin

Example is representative the565-Mbps 8.5 of system developed Fujitsuof Japan by for carryinganE5 digital signal(565.148 Mbps)[3 I ]. Thefactthattherepearer spacing is 607o theBDP limit impliesthatdispersion of penalties small(estimated are to be 1.2dB).

8.5 SONET/SDH Thefirst generations fiber opticsystems thepublictelephone of in pronetworkused prietaryarchitectures, equipment, codes, line multiplexing formats, maintenance and procedures. Some commonality with othersystems thenetworkcamefrom suppliin erswho alsosupplied digital radio system$. these In cases, multiplexingformats the andmaintenance protocols emulated counterparts theradio$ystems, in whichalsohad proprietary architectures. only thingin common The with all of theradioandfiber systemsfrom all of the supplierswasthat the interfaceto the networkwa$$ome number of DS3cross-connect signals. Proprietary multiplexing formats multipleDS3sigfor nalsevolved because therewasno higherlevelstandard compatible with theapplications. A DS4 signal, which is composed six DS3 signals,requirestoo much of bandwidth radiosystems carries largercross for and a (4032)than section channels of needed manyapplications. in TheRegional Bell operating companies interexchange and (IXCs),theuscarriers ersof theequipment, naturallywanted standards theycouldmix andmatchequipso ment from different suppliers. This became particularlyimportantas a result of competition among IXCs who desired the fiber interfaces thelocalexchange to carriers(LECs)but did not wantto necessarily from the same buy suppliers theLECs. as (It mightbe necessary an lxc ro interface for with a differentsupplier eachLEC.) at To solvethese problems, others, and Bellcoreinitiatedan effort that wa$latertaken up by the Tlxl committee theExchange of carriersstandards (ECSA) Association to establish standard connecting fiber system another theopticallevel a for one to at (i.e.,"in the glass").This standard referred asthe synchronous is to opticalnetwork (soNET) t32, 331. the laresrages thedevelopment this srandard, In of of ccITT becameinvolvedso thata singleinternational standard existsfor fiber interconnect between telephone networks different of counties. Internationally, standard known the is asthe synchronous (sDH) t341. digitalhierarchy ThesoNET srandard addresses rhe following specific issues: l. E$tablishes standard a multiplexingformatusingsomenumber 5l.84-Mbps of (STS-1)signals buildingblocks. as 2. Establishes optical signal standard interconnecting an for equipmentfrom differentsuppliers,

8.5 SONET/SDH 407

TABLE8.8 SONET $ignal Hlerarchy North Designation American Electrical Signal STS-1 STS-3
OpticalSignal

DataRate(Mbps) 51.84 155.52 622.08 1244.16 2488,32 4976.64 9S53.28

ITU-TDesignation STM.1 STM-4 STM-8 STM-16 STM-Sz STM.64

srs-12
STS.24 STS-48 STS-S6 STS-19?

oc-1 oc-3 oc-12 oc-24 oc-48 oc-96 oc-192

3. Establishes extensive operations, administrations, maintenance, and (OAM&P) capabilities partof thestandard. provisioning as 4. Defines multiplexing formats for carrying existing digital signals of the (DSl, DSlC, DSz, DS3). asynchronous multiplexinghierarchy (E1,E2, E3, E4). CCITT (ITU-T) digitalsignalhierarchy 5. Supports mapping formatfor DSI signals. 6. Definesa DSOidentifiable of other capable accommodating applications 7. Establishesflexiblearchitecture a rates. Wide-bandwidth with a varietyof transmission suchasbroadband ISDN (greater by concatenating multiple signals than5l.84 Mbps)areaccommodated is signalthat is STS-1signals. STS-3c A signal,for example, an 155.52-Mbps treatedby the networkasa singleentity. of The dataratesandsignaldesignations the SONEThierarchyareprovidedin Table trans* referred asthesynchronous to 8.8.At thelowestlevelis thebasicSONETsignal are to An port signallevel I (STS-I).Higherlevel signals referred asSTS-Nsignals. STS-1signals. opticalcounterThe STS-Nsignalis composed Nbyte-interleaved of partof eachSTS-Nsignalis atropticalcarrierlevel N signal(OC-N).Table8.8 also transfor includesITU nomenclature the SDH, which refersto signalsassynchronous port modules (STM-N).Because corlmon applications theITU signalhierarchy of N signal,thelowestlevel STM signalis a 155.52cailrot efficientlyusea 51.84-Mbps signal.* Mbps(STS-3c) is with AlthoughtheSONETspecification primarilyconcerned OC-Ninterconnect signalsr are electrical within theSONEThierarchy useful STS-1 STS-3 and standards, (e.g.,multiplexers, networkelements within a switchingoffice for interconnecting machines, cross-cormect systems) 361. switching and t35,
.A referred asa STM-O to SDH signal. STS-I SONETsignalis sometimes 51,84-Mbps TAnSTS-1electical signalusesa B3Zs line codeand a STS-3electricalsignalusesa CMI line code.

408

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMISsIoN SYSTEMS

44.738 Mbpe

51,84OMbpB

sTs-t
81"840Mbpl

Byte Interlosrrgd Mux

CEPT'4 139,?64Mhpr

Figure 8.11 Functional block diagram of SONET multiplexing.

8.5.1 SONET Multiplexlng Overview The first stepin the soNET multiplexingprocess (shownin Figureg.ll) involves generation a 51.840-Mbps of sTS-l signalfor eachtributary.The sTS-l signalcontainsthetributary(payload) trafficplustransport overhead. indicated rhefigure, As in a variety of tributary type$areaccommodated; 1. A single DS3 per srs-l that can be a srandard asynchronous DS3 signal generated anM13 or M23 multiplexer. by Asynchronous inputsarepassed DS3 transparently throughthe systemto a DS3 output.Because this transparent option exists, arry4.736-Mbps signal can be carried within the payload envelope. 2. A groupof lowerratetributaries suchasDSl, DSlc, DS2,or El signals be can packed into the STS-I payload. 3. A higher rate (wideband)signal can be packedinto a multiple numberof concatenated srs-l signals.Prevalentexamples higher rate signalsare of 139.?64-Mbps fourth-level multiplexes ITU or a broadband of ISDN signalat 150Mbps.Eachof these applications requires threeSTS-1signals concatenared togetherto form an sTS-3c signal.Higher levels of concatenation form (to srs-Nc signals) possible higherratetributaries. are for concatenared srs-l signals containintemalcontrolbytesthatidentifythe signalasa component of

8.5 soNET/$Dn tt09 data can be a higher speed channel so the integrity of the concatenated througha network. as maintained it passes l from N STS- signals aremuthat An STS-Nsignal created interleaving is bytes by (frequency) in generating is eachof All adjustment done tually synchronized. timing SONETnode that originatein another STS-I signals the individualSTS-I signals. with theequivalent ofbyte stuffdifferentfrequency rateadjusted are with a possibly (described clockof thelocalnode.No matter ing to later)to become synchronized the in of whatthenature thetributarytraffic is, all STS-I kibutaries a STS-Nsignalhave high-levelformatanddatarate. the same by the are Opticalcarrierlevel-Nsignals generated first scrambling STS-Nsignal signal (except framingbytesandSTS-IDbytes)andthenconverting electrical the for generated direct with the to an opticalsignal.Otherthanscrambling, OC-N signalis Thus,thedatarates, formats, framingof theSTSand to conversion anopticalsignal. N andOC-N signals identical. are of A SONET$ystem definedas a hierarchy threelevels-sections,lines,and is dedilevels overheadbandwidth paths-as indicated Figure8.12.Eachof these has in level. As indicated Figure in catedto administering maintaining respective and the provided functions within an STS-Nsignalinvolvescalcu* 8.11, oneof theoverhead paritybytefor theentireSTS-Nsignal. Parityis alsodelationandtransmission a of in as fined for theotherlevelsofthe architecture described the following section. 8.5.2 SONET Frame Formats frame each in signalis shown Figure8.13.As indicated, Theframeformatof anSTS-1 to The ofeachrow areallocated transof9 consists rowsof90 byteseach. first 3 bytes poft overhead with thebalance availablefor pathoverhead payloadmapping.The and

Path Terminating Equipment

Line Terminating Equipment

Scction Torminatirg Equipment

Sction Terminating Equipfiont

Line TBrminsting Equipment

PEth Terminating Equipment

Figure 8.12 SONETsystem hierarchy.

410

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMIsSIoN SYSTEMS

Tranrpon Ovshord Sction O\rrrhrld

sTs-l
lnformstionPayload

At 81 Dt
Hl 82 D4 07 D10 z1

ta. El 02
HZ K1 D6 D8 Dlt t2

c1 FT D3
H3 K2 D6 D9 D12 E2

J1 B3 c2
Gl Path F2 Owrhear H4 B
I Rowe

Llno Owrheld

z4 z5
87 Columns

3 Columns

Figure 8.13 STS-I frameformat. tran$port overhead is itself composed of section overhead and line overhead. Path overheadis contained within the information payload as indicated. The 9 rows of 87 bytes (783 bytes in all) in the information payload block is referred to as the envelopecapacity.Becausethe frame rate is 8 kHz, the compositedata rate of each STS-I signal can be represented the sum of the transportoverheadrate as and the information envelopecapacity: STS-1 rate = overheadrate + information enveloperate = 9 x 3 x I x 8000+9 x 87 x 8 x 8000

= I-728 106 50.112 106 x + x (8.7) The internalformatof theenvelope capacityis dependent thetype of tributarytrafon fic beingcanied.one aspect theenvelope of formatthatis common all types trafto of fic is the 9 bytesof pathoverhead indicated Figure8.13.The actuallocationand in purpose this overhead described thenexttwo sections. of are in As a specific example a higherlevel(srs-N) signal, of Figure8.14depicts dethe tailsof an srs-3 signalthatalsorepresents STM-I signalformatin rru terminolthe ogy. Transmission the bytesoccursrow by row andleft to right. Thus,the first 3 of bytesof an srs-3 framearethethreeframingbytesAl, Al, Al. Most of thesecrion andline overhead functions within an sTS-3 signalarecarriedin the srs-l number I overhead. Thusmanyof thecorresponding bytesof theothersrs-l signals unare used aresodesignated anasterisk. and with Notice,however, pathoverheacl inthat is cludedin theinformation envelope eachof theSTS-I signals. for After a frameof an srs-N signalis scrambled, paritybyte (BIp-8) is generated a thatprovides evenparityovercorresponding in all bytes thesTS-Nframe.This bits of paritybyte is inserted into the section overhead the first STS-I signalof the next of STS-Nframe. = 51.840 Mbps

8,5 SONET/SDH 411

Trunsport Overhead \ l A r A r A 2 A 2 A e C l C l C l 81 El FI D l * r D 2 D 3
HI 82 D 07 D 1 Hl 82 4 H2 H2 H2 r + t(1 S r r D D8 0 " D l l r * p 1 2 Hl 82 D H3 l(2 e D9 t H3

ST$"3 lnformrtlon Payload

Jl 83 c2 Gl F2 H4 z3 z4

Jl 83 c2 Gl F2 H4 z3 7A

Jl 83 c2 Gl F2 H4 23 24

H3

21
:1)

z1
(2)

21
(3)

zt
(1)

z2

22

E2
(1) (2) (3)

z5

z5

z5

(2) (3) I Columns

(1) (2) (3) (1) 261 Columns

(2)

Flgure 8.14 STS-3frameformat.

Adminietratlon, and Malntenance 8.5.3 SONET Operations,

The SONET standaldplacessignificant emphasison the need for operations,adminishation, and maintenance(OAM) of an end-to-endsystem.As shown in Figure 8.15, the OAM architecture is based on the section, Iine, and path Iayers described previously. OAM standardizationis a requirementfor mixing equipment from multiple vendors and easeof managementof all levels of a system(an individual repeatersection or an end-to-endpath).

SectlonOverhead in overhead eachSTS-1frame of Thefunctional allocation the 9 bytesof section

in shown Figure8.13are; Al Framing = Fd hex(l1110110) byte A2 Framingbyte= 28 hex (00101000) (1, STS-lwithin the Cl STS-l ID identifies STS-lnumber . . . ,1f)for each an STS-Nmultiplex parity byteprovidingevenparity overprevious STS-N B I Bit-interleaved frame after scrambling (localorderwire) PCM orderwire El SectionJevel64-kbps Fl A 64-kbps channel aside userpurposes for set D1-D3 An 192-kbps channelfor alarms,maintenance, daia communications sections control,andadministration between level (from at Thefactthatthereis sucha richness maintenance of support thesection needfor extensive to OAM faonerepeater another) indicativeof therecognized is technologyto provideit. cilities andthe availability of economical

a? $ (t

E
p u
h G

o F
rrl

ts

z,
(n ln od P
AD ll

412

8.5 sONEr/SDn 413

Llne Overhead Thefunctional in of allocation the l8 bytesof line overhead eachSTS-I frameshown in Figure8.13areasfollows: of Hl*H3 Pointerbytes usedin frame alignmentand frequencyadjustment payload of bytes defined detailin Section in data;thefunctions these are 8.5.4 82 Bit-interleavedparity for line-level error monitoring Kl, K2 Two bytes allocated for signaling between line-level automatic protectionswitchingequipment D4*D12 A 576-kbpsdata communications channelfor alarms,maintenance, conffol, monitoring,andadministration the line level at ZI.ZZ Reserved futureuse for for E2 A 64-kbps PCM voicechannel linelevel orderwire Notice that the line-level OAM facilities are similar to thoseavailableat the section levelwith the additionof theprotection switchingsignaling and channel Hl, H2, and H3 pointerbytesusefor payloadframing andfrequencyadjustment. Path Ovarhead includedin everyblock As indicatedin Figure8.I 3, thereare9 bytesof pathoverhead (9 x 87 bytes)of information payload. important is The aspect thisoverhead thatit of payloadenvelope is insertedwhenthe tributary dataarepackedinto the synchronous (SPE)andnotremoved (processed) thetributarydataareunpacked. Thus,it prountil netofthe paththrough synchronous the videsend-to-end OAM support independent work, which may involve numerousintermediatemultiplexers,cross-connect The of location these byteswithin thepay9 switches, add-dropmultiplexers. exact or in The on defined thenextsectron. functions loadenvelope dependent pointervalues is of the path overhead bytesare: Jl A 6a-kbpschannelusedto repetitivelysenda 64-bytefixed-length verify the integdtyof a terminalcancontinuously stringso a receiving path;thecontents themessage userprogrammable are of parityat thepathlevel 83 Bit-interleaved versusunequipped STS equipped CZ STS path signallabel to designate mapping the that and,for equipped signals, specif,tc payload STS signals in the to terminals interpret payloads mightbe needed receiving Gl Status byte sent from path-terminating equipment back to equipment path-originating equipment conveystatus terminating to of (received BIP error counts) andpathenor performance for F2 A 64-kbps channel pathuser needingframesthat arelongerthana H4 Multiframe indicatorfor payloads single STSftame; multiframe indicatorsare usedwhen packinglower (virtualtributaries) the SPE into ratechannels Z3-ZS Reserved future use for

414

FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

8.5,4 PayloadFramlngand Frequency Ju$tification

Payload Framing The locationofthe 9 bytesofpath overhead the sTS-l envelope not definedin in is termsof the srs-l transport framing.Instead, pathoverhead considered be the is to thefirst columnof a frameof datareferred asthespE, whichcanbeginin anybyte to positionwithin the sTS-l payload (see envelope Figure8.16).Theexactlocationof the beginning the sPE (byteJl of the pathoverhead) specified a pointerin of is by bytesHl andH2 of theSTSline overhead. Noticethatthismeans anSPE that typically overlaps STS-1frames. two Theuseof a pointerto definethelocationof the SPEframelocationprovides two significant features. First,SPEframes nothaveto bealigned do with higherlevelmultiplexframes. maybethatwhenfirst generated, SPEis aligned It an with theline overheadat the originatingnode (i,e., the poinrervalue is 0). As the frame is carried througha network,however,it ardvesat intermediate nodes(e.g.,multiplexers or crossconnects) havingan arbitraryphase with respect the outgoinghansportframto ing. If the sPE hadto be framealigned with theoutgoingsignal, full spE frameof a storage delaywouldbe necessary. and Thus,theavoidance framealignment of allows SPEs incominglinks to be immediately on relayed outgoing to links withoutartificial delay. Thelocation ofthe sPEin theoutgoing payload envelope specified setting is by theHl, H2 pointerto thepropervalue(0-782). The second advantage the pointerapproach framingspE signals realized of to is whendirectaccess subchannels asDSls is desired. to such Because pointerprothe videsimmediate access the startof an SPEframe,any otherpositionor time slot to within theSPEis alsoimmediately accessible. thetributaryuses byte-synchronous If a mapping format,individualchannel byteshave fixedpositions with respect thestart to of thesPE.This capabilityshould compared theprocedures be to required demulto tiplex a DS3 signal.In a DS3 signalthereis no relationship between higherlevel the framingandthe lower level DS2 and DSI framingpositions. essence, more In two framerecovery processes needed identifya DSOtime slot.Theuseof pointers are to
87 Columnr--+
.fl H;

Frame0 9 Row*

{ h
'Psth Overherd

Frame I I Eowe

=
87 Columnr

],".-

Figure 8.16 Representative locationof SPE.

415 8.5 SONET/SDH in the SONET architecture eliminates the need for more than one frame recovery procbyte-synchronouslower level signals. esswhen accessing

on FrequencyJ uetiflcatl to it intended SONET equipment synchronieed each be Although is generally that
mustbe madefor theinterworkingof SONET otheror to a cofilmonclock,allowances offsetsimply that an that with slighfly differentclocks.Frequency equipment operates SPEmay be generated with oneclock ratebut be carriedby a SONETtransportruna offsetis to accept ning at a differentrate.Themeans accommodatingfrequency of in Pointeradvariable SPEframeratesusingdynamicadjustments the SPEpointers. justments to to to overhead maintain allow SPEframes float with respect thetransport Figure 8.17 showsthe basic in a nominallevel of storage interfaceelasticstores. to of a means accommodatingslow incomingSPE.If the elasticstorebegins empty, positivebyte stuffingis invokedto skip oneinformation time slot (the slot immediincrementing pointertodelaythe the atelyfollowingtheH3 byte)andsimultaneously SPEframeby onebyte. an sending extra bytestuffing,to accommodatefastSPEclock,requires a Negative in to SPEbytewhenever elasticstorebegins fitl. As indicated Figure8.18,theH3 the dethe the slotcarries extrabyteof data,whichrequires pointerto be simultaneously the therebyadvancing SPEframeby I byte. To protectagainsterrorsin cremented, operations, need increment decrementpointer the or a misinterpreting to byte-stuffing for and is redundantly encoded,* the new pointervalueis transmiffed a minimumof This implies occurs. followingtheframein whichthepointeradjustment threeframes that a l-byte adjustment be madeonceeveryfour frames(onceevery500 psec). can pointers, refsee errorson SONETpayload For an analysis the effectsof channel of erence [37]. by Example 8.6. Determinetherangeof SPEdataratesthat canbe accommodated above. described thebyte-stuffing operation 4 Thus, nominallycontain x 9 x 87= 3132bytesof data. Solution. FourSPEframes Mbps.Whenpositivebytestuff,rng thenominalSPErateis 8 x 3132x 2000= 50.112 a is usedto accommodateslowincomingSPErate,313I bytesof dataaretransmitted rateis Thus,the lowest,slip-free in four frames. Mbps Minimum sPE rate= 8 x 3131x 2000= 50.096 a Whennegative byte stuffingis usedto accommodatefast SPErate,3133bytesof in dataaretransmitted four frames.Thus,the highest,slip-freerateis Mbps SPErate= 8 x 3133x 2000= 50.128 Maximum
.During the a jusrnent frame only, 5 even-numbered bits of the pointet value are invefied to indicate a negative stuff (data in byte H3). When a positive stuff occurs, 5 odd-numbercd bits of the pointer arc inverted,

416

FIBER oplc rBANSMtsstoN sysrEMS

STS-Frsme
-----l*-I I -

Strn of ST*t SynchronourEmretope

0p

Frlme z

FredGn + |

Pwlth 1 bi$ invtrted

Fromen + 2

Pffi

-P+

Ftlme n * 3

50Orr

Figure8.17 Positive I pointer justifi STScation operation. Example8.6 demonstrates the SONETclock accuracy that required maintaining for sPE datais 50.112 0.016Mbps-a very wide torerance f320 ppm.In comparit of son,a soNET nodeis specified maintain minimumtimingaccuracy z0 ppmif to a of it loses reference. its Thus, the frequencyof timing adjustments chosen was more from a desireto simplify theprocess thanfrom just assuring marginfor slip-free a operations. The useof byte stuffingto accommodate timing differences introduces waiting timejitter into SPE just payloads, asbit stuffingintroduces waitingtimejitter intoDSI signals beingasynchronously multiplexed DS2or DS3 signals. thespE is carinto If DSl traffic, the effectof byte sruffingat the spE rateis aboutone-fourrh a rying of bit intervalattheDS1rate.(Because SPJE is 32timestheDSI rate, duration the rate the of an sPE byte is one-fourth durationof a DSI bit.) Noticethat this amountof the

B.s $oNET/SDH
STS-l Framd

417

Poimgr V r l u e( P |

-l*

I Start of $TS-l

0rtg
Synchronous

Fremea

Frame il + I

Pwith D bits ifiYErtd

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Frerne r + 3

500 gr

justification operation. Figure8.18 Negative I pointer STSjitter is comparable the amount phase by to introduced bit stuffinga DS2 signalinto a DS3 signal. 8.5.5 Virtual Trlbutaries uses the of To facilitatethetransport lowerratedigital signals, SONETstandard subas to referred asvirtual tributary(VT) structures, shownin STS-I payload mappings or subframes dividestheSPEframeinto seven equal-sized Figure8.19.Thismapping (108bytes)in each. for account Thus,the subframes VT blockswith 12 columns (reserved bytes and columns 7 x 12= 84 columns with thepathoverhead two unused in R) accounting the remainder the 87 columns an SPE.The rateof eachVT for of is structure determined 108x I x 8000= 6.912Mbps. as

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418

S.5 SONET/SDH 419

TABLE8.9 SONET VirtualTributarles Tributary Type DS1 E1 DSlC D52

Numberof VT Designation Columnsper VT Numberin VT Group Maximum Numberin SPE

wl.5 w2.0 VTs.O VT6.O

3 4
b

4 3 2
1

12

28 21 14 7

ofsignals. to can TheVT structures beindividuallyassigned carryoneoffour types morethanonesignalmaybe caried Depending thedatarateof a particular on signal, within a VT structure a VT group.All signals within a VT groupmustbe of the as samet)?e, but VT groupswithin a singleSPEcanbe differenttypes.The particular lower ratesignals accommodated VTs arelistedin Table8.9.The lastcolumninas VT in how manyof thelowerrate$ignals carried a singleSPEif all seven are dicates groupsarethe sametype. fashionas VT-SPEpayloads allowedto float within an STS-I SPEin thesame are level.Thus,a second pointers SPEpayloads allowedto float at theSTS-1 level to are for Again,a floatingVT-SPEallowsfor miniof pointerlogic is defined VT payloads. justificationof VT-SPEs at nodes for frequency and mal framingdelays intermediate VT-SPEs accoillmoHigh-rate are transitions between timingboundaries. undergoing are VT-SPEs accomdatedby inserting information an byteinto V3 while slow-rate modatedby stuffing into the informationbyte immediatelyfollowing V3 when necessary. three formatfor a VTl.5 is shownin Figure8.20.EachVTI.5 uses The mapping 108 Therearefour suchpaycolumns datato establish bytesin a VT1.5 payload. of havefixed loadsin a l2-columnVT group.TheVl, V2, V3, V4 bytesof thepayload positions within theSTS-I payload. remaining bytes theVT1.5 signalconof The 104 to the stitutetheVTI.5 payload, startof whichis theV5 bytepointed by Vl andV2. 8.21depictstwo differentmappings a VTl.5 payload:an asynchronous for Figure mapping. and mapping a byte-synchronous Aeynchronous Mapping is deThe asynchronous operation identicalin concept the bit-stufflngoperation to into bits in is scribed Chapter TheDSI bit stream inserted the information (I) with 7. no relationship the VT-SPEframeor byteboundaries. indicated, As therearetwo to (Sr Thus,the in superframe. stuffingopporhrnities and52)available everyfour-frame VTl.5 superframe carries 773 information depending thevalueof bits on 771,772,or the stuff controlbits C1andC2.The nominalnumberof informationbits in eachframe in in frames is 193x 4=772. Nominal carryinformation 52whilestuffing 51. network, is with theasynchronous Because asynchronous the operation compatible of it is the formatusedin mostSONETapplications. majoradvantage the asynThe of modeof operation thatit provides totallytransparent is for fransmission chronous

42O

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMISSIoN $YSTEMS

l--fr4.l
rooooffi

eCoUmfiB

ilEeR.un
)offiool

nmootl0

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l) A Wl.f rm lhreemluffir of m SPE fr f 08 bytcain a j00 Dre. f,perFrffio. ?) Vl , V2, V3, V4 bytcr hsveffrfid locdiilB h I $ptsidmified by tho hf t$o b&BdH4. 3) Vt ed V2 poid' to V5 qftirh is rhe fr* tryteofba flocing WiJ Sff. 4) SEEoncrtod bl,tff V5, .E!,26, Z7 mr h idediaal rd*ive porilima of m SFE. Figure E.20 Superframe sffucture for VTI.S kibutaries.

ffin tr ffin tr

I Rorva

g Rorys

the tributary signal in terms of information and in terms of information rate. The major disadvantageof the asynchronousmode is that 64-kbps DSO charurelsand signaling bits are not readily extracted.

Eyte-Sy chronous Multip I exlng n

In contrastto the asynchronous mapping,the byte-synchronous payloadmapping shownin Figure8.21ballocates specificbytesof rhepayload specific to bytes(channels)of theDSI tributarysignal.Hence, modeof operation this overcomes main the drawback theasynchronous of modein that64-kbps DSOchannels signaling and bits within the payloadareeasilyidentified.In fact, whenthe DSl tributaryarises from legacyapplications, signaling the bits of a DSI aremovedfrom the leastsignif,rcant bit (LSB) of everysixthframeof respective channels placedin dedicated and signaling bit positions within rhevr-sPE. Thusbyte-synchronous multiplexingoffersan additional featureof converting from in-slot signaling out-slotsignaling DSI to for signals. Al important aspect thebyte-synchronous of formatshownin Figure8.21bis the absence timingadjustments thesource I signal. of for DS Thus,theDSI interface necessarily requires slip bufferto accommodateDSI source maybe unsynchrona a that ized to the local soNET clock.Althoughslipsin byte synchronously mapped DSI

s.5 soNET/sDn421

v5
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t"24 Eyteg 2 Byte8 24 BytEs 2 Eyteg 24 BytB 2 B!,toB 24q,tss 1(}{Bytee

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lga I bftB (246)

R P ^s r s " s " g , F R
DSOchannels (1-24

c.Go o o o I R
194 | bltl

z6

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No, oflixod informdim bils = 4(19?) +3(1, = 77 I $1,$1- Surfflinfrnuatim bitr Cr, c! -Sutrmgor*rot bits R bitc ffe SxEdrtlfftte (uupdcifiod) O bits arsrctcrved fm futurupurpo*e

Sr, Sr" $r, 8r - Chmel-asso+iEtrd sigtalingbiB P1,Ps= Si8nrlingphuc indicdsr bits F=DSl *aftinebit R bih $e ItuEdsrtrbitr (uspociffed)

(a)

(b)

Figure 8.21 DSI mappings in VTl.5 SPE: (a) asynchronous;(b) byte synchronous.

(e.g.,SONETgateway), slipscansignals mayoccurattheSONETnetworkinterface internalnodesrateadjustthe VT1.5 networkbecause not occurwithin the SONET payloads with pointeradjustments.-

El Mappinge used basicprocedures for DSls. with thesame into El signals mapped VT2 signals are of of As shownin Figure8.22,the VT2 signalis composed four columns bytesin an removing Vl, V2, V3, andV4 bytes, produce totalof 144bytes. the After l a STS- that EIs mapped andbytesynfor Formats asynchronously has theVT2 payload 140bytes. mapped areshownin Figure8.23.Noticethat thebyte-synchronous Els chronously signalingin slot 16-the El mappingfor a 30-channel carrieschannel-associated The same basic at into designed El signals theirinception. form of out-slotsignaling referredto as a signaling,which is sometimes format supportscommon-channel
' The original specifications for SONET included a locked timing format for VT-SPEs that eliminated the VT pointers so DSO channels could be identified directly within the STS-1. This mode of operation has since been abandoned,

422

FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

I H{-l
toooootr

4Columne

I Rorrs

noom0l

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)ffi|1

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n tr ffin il E ffiI n H
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gRUfYE

9RsrYs

eRorw

l) A VTz'|H fo|f oolumr o,fm $pE fu 144bytesitr r Jfi) rxe, speftfi. 2) Vl, VA V3, V4 byta havefi xedlocd,iqs in r SPEi.ft'niffd by th lrd two tfrs of H4. 3) Vl sd V2 psid' to Vi wtid is the fir* byAa ofihe f,o*hg Vfit $fB 4) SFEovcrfad b]ics V5, J2,26, Z7 ooon h iders,icnl rddilo porttime of m SpE . Superframe skucture for VTZ tributaries.

3l-channelEl format.In this case channel is theccs channel channels 16 and l-15 and 17-31 arethebearer channels. Thus,themultiplexmapping not changed, just is the nomenclature the channels the spE typedesignation the vr pathoverof and in headbyte V5. 8.5.6 DS3 Payload Mapping Theprevious section describes several alternatives packingvirtualtributaries for into an sTS-l envelope. when all seven vrs in an envelope vrl.Ss, a total capacity are of 28 DSls is provided-rhe same a DS3 signal.Thusonemethodof carryinga as DS3 signalinvolvesdemultiplexing into its consrituent it DSI (or DSZ signals) and packing the constituents virtual fributaries.This approach attractivein that the as is virtual tributaries individually accessible cross-connect add-dropmultiare for or plexersystems. theapplication If doesnot needto access individualtributaries. the it is simplerto packtheDS3 signaldirectlyinro an sTS-1,asindicated Figureg.24. in The payload mapping Figure8.24treatsthe DS3 signalsimplyasa 44.736-Mbps in datastream with no impliedintemalstructure. Thus,this mapping provides transparent transport DS3-rate of datastreams. Eachrow ofa nine-rowsPE envelope contains x 8 = 696bits, whichcancarry 87 621or 622DS3databits depending thevalueof theC bits.Noticerhatthisformat on

8.5 SONET/SDH 423

v5
R R R R R R R R 256| btts @6) R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

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R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
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256 | blte (ffi|
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alot Unusd 0 SaBytes t.91 Chanrtels R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

R R R R R R R R
C.GR R R R R q $tt I I I | | |

4Bytee

Unu*dstoto
flqB Channcls 1+1 R R R R R R R R

248| bltE (31)) R R R R R R R R

lgE1/0 B!/t68

No.offixed informdim btc : 4t256) -l - 1023 $r, Sr - Strffinfqfidiqr bits odrol bit$ Cr, Q = Stuffhrg R bits arcfillcd friffbiu (uspecificd) fm O bits arerBffved finm PuPocee

CA$bitgindund 16 bdiodor bits Pl, Po: SiEnrlinEFa$E R biteffcfixed *uffbttc (lE+Eifiod)

(a)

(b)

(b) (a) in Figure8.23 El mappings VT2SPE; synchronous;bytesynchronous' The hasfive C bits,whichallowsfor singleanddoublebit errorcorrection. pathover8.5.3. in head(POH)bytescarrythe9 bytesof POH asdefined Section at DS3rates left asanexercise the is of Determination theminimumandmaximum endof thechapter. 8.5.7 E4 Payload Mapping is mapping shownin Figure8.25for a 139.264of one example a soNET supenate (E4). This signalis packed into a 155-52-Mbps ITU-T signal Mbps fourth-level payload envelope only thesynchronous (or STM-I) signal. 8.25shows Figure STS-3c

424

FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

87(8) -096 Bit$

POH

8 R

c c

1
I

1 1 1 1 1 111 CCRBRRRR

l 11rr11 R

ccRRooRs I

POH POH: R; C: l: S; O;

CCRRRRRR

ccRRooRs I

Path overheadh^e I Fixed etuff bit (realed) 69 Stutf controt bit s lnformstion (paytoad) bit 621 Stuff opportunity bit l Ovsrheadcommunications bit 2 Totalbie 6S

NotF: $ contains information when CCCCC - 00000. S is a stuff bit whn CCCCC= fl 111. Figure 8.24 Asynchronous 44.736-Mbps (DS3) payload mapping.

l+87(3)=261

Bytes
Y

121

r2l

t2l

121

\
1 POH 131

121

12r

z z

tzl

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131
l 241 5 13 1 IEI

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121

POH: Prth ovrhead bVte t : Information (payload) byte X: CRRRRROO Y; R R R R R R R R Z: iiiiiisR

Toral bytec

o;

C: Stuft control blt R: Fixd stuff bit

Overheadcommunlcationsbir S; Stuff opportunity bit i: Infomation bit

Noto: S contslne informstion when CCCCC:00000. $ ie s atuff bit whon CCCCC* t1 tlt. Figure 8.25 Asynchronous 139.264-Mbps (E4) payload mapping.

B,s soNET/sDu 425 in (SPE-3c), the 9 bytesof section line overhead eachrow. Noticethat there and not The envelope. POH bytescarrythe 9 is only onecolumnof POH within the SPE-3c in 8.5.3. bytesof overhead defined Section as signala$a transpar* the Thepayload mapping Figure8.25treats 139.264-Mbps in enEachrow of a nine-rowSPE-3c with no impliedinternalstructure. entdatasfteam or whichcancarry 1934 1935databits depending 87 velope contains x 3 =261 bytes, on the valueof the C bits. Noticethatthis formatalsohasfive C bits, which allows for singleanddoublebit errorcolrection.

8.5.8 SONETOpticalStandards "mid-span-meet" $ONET equipof The optical interface standard [36Jdefinedfor of fibers.Generation the on mentallowsfor eitherNRZ or RZ line codes single-mode inFigure8.26.The shown a OC-N signalfromtheSTS-Nsignalrequires scrambleras the to to is scrambler synchronized eachSTS-Nframeby presetting shift register all the I's immediately after transmitting lastCl byte of the STS-Nsectionoverhead. A Thus,the framecodes(A1,A?) andSTS-I ID (Cl) codearenot scrambled. miniby is mum level of timing content assured the Al, A2, andCl bytesalongwith the sewith bits staticoverhead of theSTS-Nframethatareanticoincident thescrambler pointof everyframe, everybit poat quence. is the Because scrambler preset the$ame value.Thus,when static the sition in successive framesexperience samescrambler the is overhead "exclusiveored" with the scrambler, samedatavaluesarise.(The datainto a different patternof fixed data.) merelyconvertsfixed overhead scrambler of is The BER objective I x l0-I0 fbr opticalsections 40 km or less.Equipment with disfor manufacturers be freely interchanged applications can from separate joint engineering. (Transmitters and may up tances to 25 km. Longerdistances require suppliersmust be jointly specifiedto supportlonger disfrom separate receivers tancefr.) nm at wavelengths 1310 with with central to SONETsystems specified operate are sMF fibersor at 1550nm with Ds-sMF fibers.operationat l3l0 nm with Ds-sMF but fibersor at 1550nm with SMFfibersis not disallowed mustbejoinfly engineered. widthsis and tolerances maximumallowablespectral A rangeof laserwavelength
DEIEIn

Figure t.26 SONETscrambler.

4?;6

FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

TABLE8.10 Fepreeentative MaximumSpectrat Widthsof SONET Sources",0 SONET Source

Bate (Mbp$)

<25km 30nm 1Snm 1Onm Bnm

<40km 25.0 nm 1 0 . 0n m 7.5 nm 6.0 nm

oc-1 oc-3 oc-9 oc-12

51.84 155.5? 466.56 622.08

eThe spectral width of a $ource is determinedas the wavelBngthdif{erencebetweenth6 p6ak mod and the farthBstmode thet iB 10 dB b6low the peak. DThese specificationsare for lasBrsopratingwithin 10 nm of th6 cntral wavlBngths(1310 end 1550 nm). Lasef,swith greater deviation lrom the cntral wavelength are allowed but haG nariower spcrratwldth spcifications compensatetor oraterfibr di8perslon. to

specified both 1310and1550nm.Table8.l0 provides for representative values the of specifications. 8.5.9 SONET Networks A basicblock diagram a soNET networkis shownin Figureg.27.Gateway of network elements (GNEs)provideinterfaces external (asynchronous) to digital signals. Thesesignalsare mapped(synchronized) unmapped and (desynchronized) the by gateway usingtheappropriate mapping formar.At this point only bit stuffingis used to synchronize asynchronous the tributaries SONET.No pointera-djustments to occur in theGNE.As thesTS-Nsignals propagate tluoughthenetwork, pointeradjustmenrs in pointerprocessing (PP) interfaces nury be appliedat internalnetworkelements (NEs),but thelower level interface mappings occurat theGNEsareuntouched. that If a particular accesses payloads, payloads rhesame grouprharpass NE vr vr in vr throughthenodemayexperience pointeradjustments. vT otherwise, pointeradvlr justments not occur(onlythesTS-l levelsignals rateadjusred). fottowing do are The paragraphs summarize pointerprocessing aspects a SONETnetwork: of justificationevents I' Pointer (pJEs)neveroccurin an originating GNE. 2. A desynchronizer experiences continuouspJEs only as a result of a synchronization difference between originatingGNE and the terminating the

Figure t.27 soNET network elements:s, synchronizer;pp, pointer processor;D, desynchronizer,

8.5 soNEr/sDn 427 at differenceVfailures intemal nodesof a SONET GNE.* Synchronization get when pointeradjustments, these removed but continuous networkproduce source GNE. to througha nodethatis synchronized the the SPEpasses The reasons. first is a resultof a reference 3. PJEburstsoccurfor two possible localclockto alignit with of phase adjustment a node's switchanda subsequent Burstscanalsooccurasa resultof clocknoise of the phase the newreference. In pointeradjustments. orderfor producing near-simultaneous in multiplenodes gateway, of the all to theseadjustments propagate a desynchronizing to all of threshold.This can only path must be at the appropriate elastic storesin the behavior someabnormal if GNE haspreviouslyproduced happen the source of a or suchasa lossof a reference sustained ratherlargeamount wander. it A pointeradjustment the SPElevel doesnot affecta VT signalunless is at 4. haPpens adjustment to the passed a nodethataccesses VT andthatparticular to movement the VT level. Even when this occurs,the VT at causea pointer to pointeradjustment mustpassthroughthe network(withoutabsorption) the outgoingtributarysignal.On average' gateway affectthe to desynchronizing a at oneof every30 PJEs the STS-1levelproduces PJEat theVTl.5 level. circuit (PP)depictof Figure8.28showsa blockdiagram anSPEsynchronization (desynchronizes) SPEpaythe processing: half exhacts one ing two halves pointer of theSPEto thelocalSTS-I loadfrom a received signalandtheotherhalf synchronizes block extractsthe payloaddatafrom the reframe rate. The RX pointer processing blockmonistore. TX pointerprocessing The it ceivedsignalandpasses to theelastic to tors the fill level of the elastic store and makespointer adjustments maintain a to The nominallevelof storage. sizeof theelasticstoreonly needs be on theorderof 8 bytesin length,not a full frame.Theability to usea relativelysmallelasticstore(as network)is oneof thefeain elasticstores theasynchronous to compared frame-length are The architecture: payloads allowedto synchronization turesof a pointer-based respect theSTS-l frameboundaries' to float with Frequency of Palnter Justlllcation Events prito that If all NEsof a SONETislandusea timingreference is traceable a common clock (PRS), occuronly asa resultof distribution-induced PJEs source maryreference offset.Thus,whenall NEs aresynchrofrequency no that wander produces sustained of PJEsoccurat randomtimesandhaveequalnumbers nizedto the same reference, values positiveandnegative overthelongrun. NEs within failureat some PJEsoccuronly whenthereis a reference Continuous in to operate a plesiochronous designed a SONETislandor theislandis intentionally at failureoccurs someinternalnodeof the SONETisland,the mode.If thereference resultingPJHs removedat the next nodein the paththat is still lockedto the same are at NE. Thus,a tributarydesynchronizef a GNE mustdeal reference the gateway as
*This statement assumesthat the terminating GNE synchronizes incoming SPEs to a local clock before they urrive at the desynchronizer.

428

FIBEH oPTIcTRANSMIsSIoN SYSTEMS Odrr SPEe

Ovtrterd datr

Flgure t.28 Block diagram SPEsynchronizing of equipment: receiver; transmitter. RX, TX, with continuous PJEs only when there is a referencefailure in either the originating GNE or in the rerminating GNE.

widths to smooththe effects of (l) isolatedpointer adjustments,(2) continuouspointer adjustments,(3) pointer adjustment bursts, or (4) combinations of the latter two. A pointer burst is defined as the occurrenceof multiple pointer adjustmentsof one polarity occurring within the decaytime of the desynchronizercircuit (i.e., the reciprocal of the desynchronizerclosed-loop PLL bandwidth). Thus. it is ironic rhat as the clock recovery bandwidth is narrowed to smooth the effect of a burst, the probability of a burst occurrenceis increased(by definition only). Extremely nrurow pLL bandwidths are easiestto implement using digital filtering techniquescommonly referredto as bit leaking. Bit leaking is essentiallya mechanismfor converting byte-sizedpointer adjustments into bit- (or fractional-bit-) sized timing adjustmenrs. Figure 8.29 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor-controlledDSl desynchronizer. The microprocessoris used to perform long-term averaging ofphase ad-

SONETDetynchronizers soNETdesynchronizers are necessarily designed verylowclock with recovery band-

DSI ertrrctlon

Ml3 multlplerer

Figure 8.29 VTl.5 desynchronizer hardware functional components.

RINGS 8.6 SONET

425

largecounters wide word sizes and justments lieu of dedicated logic thatrequires in is DSPfiltering.Thefirst functionof thernicroprocessorto deterfor low-bandwidth adjustby offsetrepresented all frequency DSI payload frequency mine theaverage After and (bit mentevents stuffs,vT pointeradjustments, sTs pointeradjustments). that a is adjustment determined, stuff ratio valueis calculated frequency the average (TheM12 stage embedded theM13 is in into a DS3signalasshown. allowsinsertion in The multiplexer.) elasticstorefill level is usedfor very long term adjustments the and limits of theDSPcalculations for that outputfrequency arisefrom finite precision to in variations theDS3clock,whichis typicallynotsynchronized the accommodating line clock. SONET

8.6 SONETHINGS of earlierin this book,the development largeswitchingmaAs hasbeenmentioned has with extremelylargecrosssections impacted systems transmission chinesand levwith architectures a trendtowardfewerhierarchical network telecommunications on dependence the operaof this trendis increased consequence els.An undesirable paths.A SONET and fiansmission tional statusof individual switchingmachines that networkarchitecture specifiring, or moresimplya SONETring,is a self-healing ringsareshown of Two basictypes self-healing networksurvivability. cally addresses bering. Themaindifference ring in Figure8.30:a unidirectional anda bidirectional are of tweenthetwo typesof ringsis how thetwo directions a duplexconnection e$tablished. to ring In a unidirectional a singletimeslotof theentirering is assigned bothhalves As in of a connection. indicated Figure8.304,traffic is normallycarriedonly on the In path (unidirectional) workingpathwith thecounterrotating usedfor protection. the an STS-1(outof an OC-48)mightbe carrieddirectlyfrom A to B, but the example, ring, from B throughC andD to A. A bidirectional returning STS-1wouldbe carried overthe shortest ofthe duplexconnection both halves on the otherhand,establishes as pathin the ring. Thus,no fiber is identifiedasa pureworking fiber andanother a for provideshorter roundtrip delays rings pureprotection fiber.Because bidirectional modeof it is theprefened of and mostconnections allowreuse time slotson thering, do applications not access for operation interofficenetworks.Rings for subscriber carry muchtraffic betweenADM nodesand thereforearemore suitedto a unidirectionalmodeof operation. 8.6.1 Unidirectlonal Path-Switched RIng path-switched (UPSR)[38] transmits ring As shownin Figure8.31,a unidirectional the sameinformationfrom A to B in both directionsaroundthe ring. Normally, only a node;If a failureoccurs, nodecan$eby theworkingpathis accessed thereceiving of shownselection Noticethatin theexample channel. lectthedataon theprotection from A to B' pathfor theconnection protection pathactuallyleads a shorter to the

430

FIBEH oPTIcTRANSMISSIoN SY$TEMS

psth Protc{ion

(*)

(b)

Figure 8.30 (a) Unidirectionaland(b) bidirectionalrings.

8.6.2 Bldirectlonat Line-$witched Ring Bellcoredefinesrwo versions bidirectional of line-switched rings (BLSRs)I39l: a two-fiberBLSR anda four-fiberBLSR.on a two-fiberBLSRprotecrion provided is by reserving bandwidth eachof two counterrotating paths(Figureg.32).If all in fiber trafficis to beprotected, 507o only ofthe totalsystem capacity beused. can Undernormal conditions connections between nodes two utilize the shortest pathbetween the nodes'If a fault in eitherdirectionof hansmission occurs, nodes the adjacent the to faultperformring switches indicated. ring switchinvolves as A switching trafficfrom working channels thefailed facility to spare of channels theotherfacility on the side of of the nodeon which the fault occurs.The protection-swirched traffic propagate$ all theway around ring,beingignored intervening the by nodes, until it is switched back

8.6 SONET RINGS

431

Wofting Path

Path Protoction PathTerminatlon

protection swirching. FigureE.31 UPSR (inby to theworkingchannels the othernodenextto thefault.Noticethatall nodes in on working channels the same to cluding thenodesadjacent the fault) communicate mannerasthey did beforethe protectionswitching.That is, the pathterminationsare switchis anincrease path.Themainimpactof theprotection not partof theprotection datawhen the (and a momentary of exkaneous insertion in delay for affectedtraffic switchoccurs). for On a four-fiberBLSR(Figure8.33)two pairsof fibersareprovided eachdirecpair and anotherpair for protection tion of kansmission-one bidirectionalworking are of the first pair. Thus,working andprotectionchannels carriedon differentphysiof distance to usethe shortest are cal facilities.Again,connections normallysetup

ion Switches

.if:-*-

West nodes

Esst nodes

West nodes

East nodes

Figure 8.32 Two-FiberBLSR protectionswitches

432

FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Protgdion

*\ \ Prt""tion p"i,

Working Pair/

RlngProtsdlon$rritches

wo*ing e"ii

Figure 8.33 Four-Fiber BLSRprotection switches. Notethata ring switchanda spanswitch cannot coexistwithoutchannel switching a reduction capacity, and in travel for each side of a connection.If a failure occurs on only a working facility, protection switching occurs similar to "span switching" of a point-to-poini system:The traffic is merely switched to and from the protection facility by nodesadjacent to the fault. However, if a fault affects both the working and the proiection facilities, a ring switch is neededas shown. Again, protection-switchedtraffic propagatesall the way around the ring without being accessed intervening nodes.eil traffic accesses by still occur on the working channelseven though the sameinformation is passingthrough the nodesin the protection path. A four-fiber BLSR obviously requires more facilities rhar a two-fiber BLSR but has numerousadvantages. First, the protectedcapacity of the systemis twice as large. second, fiber failures on only the working pair can be accommodated a spanswitch by with minimal disruption to traffic. Third, multiple separate failures can tccur on working pairs and be accommodatedby multiple span switches.Fourth, the presence of a spare pair simplifies maintenancetesting and possible upgrading of facilities. For thesereasons,a four-fiber BLSR is generally favored.

REFERENCES
F' P. Kapron,D. B. Keck, and R. D. Maurer,"RadiationLossesin Glassopticar Waveguides," lied Physics App l*rrers, Nov. I g70,pp. 4Z34ZS. "urtimateLow-Loss T' Miya, Y. Terunuma, Hosaka, T. Miyashita, T. and singleMode Fibreat 1.55pm," Electronic l*tter.r, Feb.1979, 106-10g. pp. D. Large,"The Star-Bus Network:Fiber Opticsto the Home,"CED Magazine,Jan. r989. R. olshansky,v. A. Lanzisera, p. M. Hil, "subcarrierMurtiplexedLightwave and systems Broadband for Distribution," Journalof Lightwave Tethnilogy, sep-t. 19g9, pp. 1329-1342.

430 REFERENoES An in 5 T. Li, ,'Advances optical Fibercommunications: HistoricalPerspectle,"IEEE Apr. in Areas Communicatfons, 1983'pp. 356-372, Joumalon Selected "Lightwave pp' Dec' himet" IEEElourrutl of QuantumElectronics' 1985' 6 P. S.Henry, 1862-1877. 7 J. R. Stauffer, ',FT3C-A Lightwave system for Meffopolitan and Intercity Apr. Areasin Communications, 1983'pp. IEEE Journal on Selected Applications," 413-419. "Introduction LightwaveSyst'ems," in to 8 P. S. Henry,R. A. Linke, andA. H. Gnauck, Press, San Eds.,Academic l l, OpticalFiberTransmission S.Mitler andI. P. Kaminow; pp. Diego,1988, 781-832. "TenesnialIntercityTransmission in Systems," Optical D. C, Gloge and I. Jacobs, 9 hess, san Diego, II, Fiber Transmission s, Miller andI. P. Kaminow,Eds.,Academic 1988. D. L. Howells, "High Capacity Lightwave TechnologyComes of Age," AT&T l0 pp. No.4, 1988, l0*15' Technology,Vol.3, "FT Series Lightwave G N. M. Denkin,and K. Ogawa, 1l W. C. Mara, J. S. Linnell, Transmission system Architecture and upgrade capability," IEEE Digital pp. ions,1987, I 9B'3.I - I 98.3'5. InternationalConferenuon Communicat "Analysisof Mode Partition IEEE Systems,* Noisein LaserTransmission l2 K. Ogawa, pp' May 1982, 849-855. Electronrcs, of Quantum Joumal ..An OpticalRepeater InputAmplifrer,"Bell,$ystem with High-Impedance 13 J. E. Goell. pp. 629-&3' Joumal,Apr. 19?4, Technical "mBlC CodeandIts Performance an Optical in 14 N. Yoshikai,K. I. Katagiri,andT. Ito, Feb. 1984,pp. on, system,"IEEE Transactions communications, communications 163-168. "High-speedcMI optical Intraoffice and K. Aida, Y. 15 K. Hagishima, Kobayashi, Areasin IEEE Joumal on Selected DesignandPerformance," System: Transmission pp. 145 - 1457' I Dec. Comtnunications, 1986, "Overviewof FDDI: The FiberDistributed IEEE .lournalon DataInterface," 16 F. Ross. pp. Sept. in SelectedAreas Communications, 1989' 1043-1051. "A High-Reliability565 Mbit/s Trunk R. l7 P. Cochrane, Brooks, and R. Dawes, Dec. Areasin Communicatiorts, System,"IEEE Joumal on Selected Transmission pp. 1986, 1396-1403. "NLl Submarine /EEEfoumal on Selected System," l8 R. L. WilliamsonandM. Chown, Apr. in Areas Communications, 1983'pp' 454-458' "Byte-orientedDc Balanced(0.4) 88/108 and A. x. widmer, 19 P. A, Franaszek Dec. 4,488,'739, 4' 1984. Code,"U.S.Patent Block Transmission Partitioned Networks, and.I/OforComputer Fib GigabitCommunications 20 A. F. Benner, re Channel 1996. McGraw-Hill,New York, "The First Transpacific OpticalFiberSubmarine 21 Y, Niro, Y. Ejiri, andH. Yamamoto, June on IEEE IntemationalConference Communicafians, 1989'pp. CableSystem," 50.1.r-50,1.5. "Line CodeandTerminalConfiguration fbr 22 N. Yoshikai.S. Nishi. andJ. L Yamada, Areas IEEE Journalon Selecteil System," OpticalTransmission Very Large-Capacity pp. Dec. in Communicafians, 1986, 1432-1437.

434

FTBEH oplc rRANSMtsstoN sysrEMs

"F-1.6G 23 H. Kimura and K. Nakagawa, systemoverview," Review the Electrical of Communications LaboratoriesNTTJapan,Vol. 35,No. 3, I 9g7, pp. ZIV_ZZS. 24 s' s. wagner and H. Kobrinski, "wDM Apprications in Broadband Telecommunications Networks,"IEEE communications Magazine,Mar. 19g9,pp. 22_30. "Terrestrial 25 R. J. sanferrare, Lightwavesystems," Ar& T Technical Journal, Jan7qeb. 1987. 26 S. S. Wagner, L, Lemberg, Kobrinski,L. S. Smoot,andT. J. Robe,,.A passive H. H. PhotonicLnop ArchitectureEmployingwavelength-Division Multiplexing,',IEEE Globecom Proceedings, l gSS, 48.l, t -48.1.5. pp. 27 N. K. Dutra, "[I-v Device Technologies for Lightwave Applications,l'AT&z Technical Joumal,Jan./Feb. 1989, 5-l g. pp. 28 P. R. Trischitta D. T. s. chen, "Repeaterless and undersea Lightwave systems IEEE ,Communications Magafine,Mar. I 989,pp. I 6_2l. 29 s. c. Mettlerandc. M, Miller, "optical Fibersplicing,,,in optical Fiber Transmission I I ' s' Mller andI. P. Kaminow,Eds.,Academic hess, sanDiego,r 9gg,pp.263-300. ..Fiberin rhe 30 J. B, HaberandJ. W. Rogers, Loop," AT&T Technology, 3, No. 4, Vol. 1988, 2-9. pp. 31 N. Yamaguchi, Yarnane, T. Kihara,"565-Mbit/soptical Fiber Transmission K. and System," Fujitsu Science Technology and Journal,Mar. 19g9, 60_63. pp. 32 "Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)-Basic DescriptionIncluding Multiplex Structure, Rates Formats," and Tl.l05-lgg5, ANSI, New york, 1995. 33 "synchronousoptical Network (soNET)-payload Mappings,"T1,105.02-1995, ANSI, New York. 1995. 34 Recommendation G.707, "Network Node Interfacefor the synchronousDigital Hierarchy (SDH),"ITU-T, Geneva, Switzerland, Mar. 19g6. ..soNET Intra-office 35 N. B. sandesara, H. Jones, A. G. Edwards, T. and Interconnecr Signal,"IEEE Glob comp roce gs, I 9gg, pp. 30.5. _30.5.7. e edin I 36 "synchronousoptical Network (soNET) Transportsystems:common Generic Criteria,"GR-ZS3-Core, Bellcore, Morristown, Dec. 1995. NJ. 37 N. Zhang, K,-H. Liu, and E. c. posner,"Reriablepayroadpointer protocol for Synchronous Optical Network," IEEE InternationalCommunicatittns Conference Proceedings, I 989,pp. l4.Z.l-l 4.2.j. 38 "soNET Dual-Fedundirectionalpath swirchedRing (upsR) EquipmentGenedc Criteria,"GR-1400-Core, Bellcore, Jan.1999. 39 "soNET Bidirectional Line-swirched Ring Equipment Genenc criteria," GR-l230-Core, Bellcore, Dec.1993.

PROBLEMS
8.1 Determine tle attenuationg, in decibelsper kilometer such that the loss limit of a Sfi)-Mbps fiber system is exactly equal to the dispersion limit. Assume the transmitteroutput is 30 dB abovethe receiverthresholdfor the desirederror rate and that the systemhas a BDp of g0 Gbps-km.

PROBLEMS 435

with 2 dB/kmloss fiber system So-Mbps graded-index, multimode, 8.2 An 850-nm, the buslocalarea network.Assume in thefiber is to beusedfor a token-passing pair. a source-detector If in system usesthe first entries Tables8.1 and 8.2 as taps how manypassive with 0.4dB of loss theBDPof thefiberis 500Mbps-km, transmitters between the per withoutaffecting distance canbeinserted kilometer andreceivers. in limit (withouttaps)of thesystem hoblem 8.2if thedata 8.3 Whatis thedistance to rateis reduced l0 MbPs? at 8.4 A graded,multimodefiber exhibits 100psec/kmnm of chromaticdispersion nm of usingan LED having40 the 850nm. Determine BDP of a NRZ system width. specrral limited at both using 1300and 1550nm is dispersion 8.5 A WDM SMF system be of bandwidths the two $ources related? How mustthe spectral wavelengths. = nm') at = (AssumeD 3.5pseclkm at 1300nmandD 17'5psec/kmnm 1550 nm and mBlC line 8.6 What is the minimum and maximumpulsedensityof mBlp codes? that canoccurin mBlP andmBlC line 8.7 What is the longeststringof no pulses codes? havdatawith 6-bit line codes all4 bitsof source 8.8 A 486B line codecanencode codesare left ing exactlythreepulsesin everycode.How manydc-balanced overfor link control? mapped the 8.9 Determine minimumandmaximumdatarateof an asynchronously DSI signalthatcanbe caried within a VTI-5 envelope. mapped of datarates anasynchronously the 8.10 Determine minimumandmaximum within a VT2 envelope. El signalthatcanbe carried DS3 of datarates anasynchronous paythe 8.11 Determine minimumandmaximum within an STS-1envelope. loadthatcanbe carried the 8.12 Determine minimumandmaximumB[ dataratesthat canbe accommodated envelope. within an STS-3c all time of an STS-1signalassuming frameacquisition the 8.13 Determine average of bits nonframing haveequallylikely randomvalues 0 or 1' signal' L13 for an STS-3c 8.14 Repeat Problem (STM-1)signal. of capacity a STS-3c the 8.15 Determine payload

TELEPHONY MOBILE DIGITAL

by capacity dividing is ofa A basicconcept cellularsystem to provideever-increasing the reuse. frequency Unfortunately, cell sizes increase to and cellsinto smaller smaller for locations in to has divisionconcept proven be impractical termsof findingsuitable from govconstructionauthorizations and basestationantennas for gettingrepeated in for demand mobiletelephones theearly1990s The erningorganizations. explosive the stirnulate development in theUnitedStates elsewhere theworld helped and within have Two basicapproaches beenpurthe to accommodate demand. of new Sy$tems and the channelcapacityof existing$y$tems allocatingnew fresued:expanding utilize digital All quency to bands cellularmobilephoneservice. of thenew systems cellularsystems used FDM transmission by analog in lieu of theanalog transmission TAcs in GreatBritain,andNMT in scandinavia. suchasAMPS in North America, of the are viabledigitalcellularsystems enabledby availability lowCommercially in to to technology providesolutions problems several signalprocessing costdigital signalinto a low enough a to First,it is necessary compress digital speech key areas. penalty with respect a not does impose spectrum bit ratethatdigitalvoicetransmission haveadalgorithms compression 3, in Chapter speech As system$. discussed to analog efspectrum provideSreater point thatdigitizationcan,in somecases, vanced the to to of the Second, application digital transmission a ficiency than analogsy$tems. the to equalizer overcome effectsof dya requires sophisticated mobileenvironment of Third, the susceptibility the speech transmission impairment$. namic multipath error conection and algorithmsto channelerrorsrequiressophisticated compression archiand Lastly,the low-bit-ratevoicecoders the digital system controlmeasures. the whichimposes artificialdelayinto thevoicechannel, significant introduce tectures voice quality' for needfor echocancelers acceptable

9.1 NORTHAMERICANDIGITALCELLULAR Digital Cellular(NADC),alsoknownasUS Digital Cellular(USDC) NorthAmerican from the previouslydea or Digital-AMPS(D-AMPS),repre$ents digital upgrade referred to as AdvancedMobile Phone Service ployed analog cellular system 437

438

DIGITAL MoBILE TELEPHoNY

(AMPS).The D-AMPS sysrem designed be compatible is to with AMps. In fact. a D-AMPS $ystem installation coexistwith an AMPS installation, can thusallowinga gracefulmigrationfrom an all-analog service an all-digitalservice. analog_toto An digital migrationis supported a dual-mode by phonethat can operate an AMps as phonein onecall andasa D-AMPSphoneon thenextcall. D-AMpS is standardized by EIA/TIA asInterimStandards IS-54and15-136. 9.1.1 D.AMPSTransmlssion Format The most significanr aspect maintaining of compatibilitywith AMps is the needto adhere theAMPSFDM channel to structure. channel This structure 30-kHz-wide uses channels therange in 824-8g4MHz.within each 30-kHzFDM channel IS-s4defines six digitalchannels operating a timedivisionmultiple-access in (TDMA) modeof op_ eration, shown Figure9.1.Transmission as in from a base station themobiles acto is complished with a continuous TDM stream with six time slots.Transmission from eachof themobiles occurs databursts in thataretimedto arriveat thebasestation in separate, nonoverlapping slotssynchronized theoutgoing time to time slots.Associ_ atedwith eachburstfrom a mobileis a guardtime to prevent overlapandprovidea traxsmitter ramp-uppreceding data.The guardtime between the time slotsis minimizedby adjusting transmittime of the mobileswith controlmessages the from the basestation. These adjustments dynamicto accommodate are mobility. The TDMA digital transmission frameformat within each30-kHzchannel containssix time slotswith a total of l9zl4 bits. The repetition rateof eachframeis 25 frames second, per whichleads an aggregate rateof 49.6kbpsin the30 kHz of to bit bandwidth.The modulationformat is r/4 shifted,differentially encoded, quadrarure phase shift keying.This formatis essentially 4-psK modulation with two four-point constellations offsetfrom eachotherby nl4 radians. alternating By between constellations,a symboltransition at leastn/4 radians alwaysassured-a property of is that helpsin symbolclockrecovery. Full-ratevoicecodingutilizestwo time slotsin eachframefor the voiceinformation. Thus,the system capacity with full-ratevoicecodingis threetimesthat of an AMPS system sincetherearethreeTDM voicechannels within eachFDM channel.

Baee

station *-

ilrobiles

fJ

ff

f-J

+-

*-Fig're 9.1

r-f

f-r

l+E

TDMA transmission format of NorJh American dieital cellular.

CELLULAR 439 OIGITAL 9.1 NORTH AMERICAN

expansion will in voicecodinggetsimplemented the future,the capacity If half-rate be sixfold. 9.1.2 D-AMFS$peech Godlng (VSELP)coding linearpredictive is Thespeech-coding algorithm vectorsumexcited the 3. in which is described Chapter The D-AMPS VSELP algorithmprocesses [], is segment repreEachspeech of waveformin segments 20 msecduration. speech in by senred 159bits.Sincetherearetwo VSELPframes eachTDMA frame,theraw 5050 datarateof the voiceis 2 x 159x 25 = 7950bps.To the raw bit dateis added a and to for encoding errorcorrection detection produce composite, bpsofredundancy As data aggregate rateof 13 kbpsfor a voicechannel. shownin Figure9.2, thereare the bits 260 datachannel and64 overhead in eachtime slot.Table9.1 describes bits basicuseof eachdatafield within thetime slots, 9.1.3 D-AMPSControlGhannel the of expansion, digitalnature D-AMPS capacity to In addition providinga threefold in or provides that otheradvantages arenotpossible atleastdifficult to achieve ananato is suchasAMPS.The first of these useof theCDVCC channel ensure log system mobiles.AMPS utilizes a with intended connections that a basestationmaintains with supervisory audiotones(SATs).A SAT is a toneat 5970,6000' similarfeature for from theaudiosignalspecifically detectand or 6030Hz thatis inserted removed integrity.The availabilityof only threetones connection ing fadesand ascertaining these tonesare significalt and detecting, repeating and the complexityof inserting, limitationsof AMPS. the provided thedigitalnature D-AMPSinvolves of by advance A moresignificant is this in time slot.Because channel always embedded each useof theSACCHchannel information conkol and supervision present, is quite useful for communicating it uses advantageous ofthis contol chanSpecific, while speech activelyin progress. is It0

rs0
CDYCC

t2
HFVD

sYl{c

EACG}I

DATA

DATA

Brrt thtlon to Mobl|t

tt

n
DATA

t2
SACCH

12

lfr DATA

F G DATA 8YI{G

eDvcg

MobllotoBrrt sftd|on of digitalcellular. f igure9.2 Timeslotformat NorthAmerican

440

DtctrAL MoBtLE rELEpHoNy

TABLE9.1 DataFietdFunctions D-AMPS of TImeStots

CDVCC DATA

G R BSVD SACCH SYNC

codeddigilalv9rifhation colorcode.A unique codesentby a basestation and returned eachmobile basestation by for conlirmation connection of intogrity. Application bearer channel (voice data).can alsobe usedfor a fast bit$ or associated control (FAcc) whenthereis no activeapplication a channe_l or situation arises whenapplication transmission needs be usurped. to Guard time.Mobile transmitter off. is Ramp tim.Mobile transmitter ramps to assigned up power level. (unused). Reserved slowassociated control channel. continuous A channel usedto sendconhol andsuperuisory information. synchronization channel. Used synchronization, for equalizer training, time and slotidentification.

nel involve authentication, additional connection integrity, transmit power control, channelquality mea$urement reports,handoffs to a new cell, keypad depressions, and calling number identification. The SACCH control channelis also usedfor timing adjustments specific to the TDMA operation. A particular example of the usefulnessof the SACCH channelis its supportof mobile assistedhand off (MAHO). If a mobile with an establishedconnection moves from one cell to another,the processof handing the mobile off is performed with much more control and reliability than is possible in AMps. The MAHO processbegins by the base station telling the mobile to make channel quality mea$urements the curon rent chatrneland on candidatechannelsfor a potential handoff. Channel quality measurementsinvolve received signal power levels and bit error rates(BERs). The TDMA nature of D-AMPS facilitates measurements candidatechannelsby tuning to the of candidatefrequency during an inactive time slot. After each set of measurements the mobile sendsthe results to the basestation (via SACCH) whereuponthe basestation can determine if a handoff is justified.

9.1.4 D.AMPS ErrorControl

There are three mechanismsincorporated into D-AMPS for mitigating the effects of channelserrors: elror correction, error detection,and interleaving. Enor correction is implemented with a half-rate convolution coder for the perceptually most significant bits of the voice. There are 77 such bits out of a frame size of 159 bits. The half-rate convolution coding processthereforeadds77 more bits to the channel.Of the 77 bits, 12 are particularly important. A 7-bit CRC check sum is addedfor rhesebits to determine if any of these 12 bits are received in error. when a cRC enor occur$.certain critical parametersfrom the previous error-free frame are used to reconsg.uctspeech to avoid use of aberrant values. If several CRC errors are received in successive frames,the reconstructed speechis muted. The generalterm for theseoperationsis bad frame masking. The third error control mechanism involves separatingthe data in a single speech frame, interleaving it with datafrom adjacentspeech frames,and transmitting it in two

FoR sysTEM MoBtLE s.a GLoBAL coMMUNtcATloNS441 time slots. This processreducesthe possibility that a burst of errors will circumvent the error corection capabilitiesofthe convolutional coding. A drawback to interleaving is the delay it addsto the channel,which must be accountedfor in echo cancelers.

9.2 GLOBAL SYSTEMFOR MOBILECOMMUNICATION$ (GSM) [2] is a cellularmobilecommufor GlobalSystem Mobile Communications Teleconrmustandardized theEuropean by system afld nications developed Europe in worldwide (ETSI).GSM hassubsequently adopted been Institute nicationStandards beon GSM standardization Initial work astheintemational digitalmobilestandard. occuffed 1991. in ganin 1982. Thefirst field trial of a GSM system frequency spectrum Union (ITU) allocated Telecommunication The International (base station mobile)and890-915MHz for the to at 935-960MHz for thedownlink by wa$ Eventhoughsome thisspectrum beingused of station). uplink (mobileto base with the existing to therewasno attempt be compatible established analogsystems, countries analogsystems the variousEuropean in plan. (The incumbent frequency a otherandamaingoalof GSMwasto establish coflrmon with wereincompatible each so compatibilitywasnot a consideration.) standard backward 9.2.1 G$MChannelStructure with provided designers morefreeGSM system with anopen-spectrumplan Starting The to system thanwasavailable D-AMPSdesigners. mostsignificant domin design digital RF to difference GSM with respect D-AMPS is the useof 200-kHz-wide in EachGSM RF chanD-AMPSRF channels. asopposed the30-kHz-wide to channels in 6, As MbpsusingGMSK modulation. mentioned Chapter nel operates 270.833 at in as to fairly closelyrelated 4-PSKmodulation used D-AMPS. is GMSK modulation thantightly filtered4-PSIE however, requiremorebandwidttr GMSK modulation does, = informationdensityof 270.8831200 1.35bps/Hzfor GSM and asevidenced an by = formatof GSMprovides for 48.6/30 1.6?bps/Hz D-AMPS.TheGMSK modulation than RF signalthat is moreefficientfor RF powergeneration is a constant-envelope is by filtered4-PSKmodulation used D-AMPS.Thisefficiency mostimportant tightly for hand-held batterylife.. utilizesdigitalTDMA with eightfullAs shownin Figure9.3,a GSM RF channel by suppor.ted a single full-rate voicechannels in rate voicechannels, contrastto three more TDMA channelson a single D-AMPS RF channel.The ability to terminate (Thecostof a 270'833provides costadvantage GSM basestations. for a transceiver TDMA transof a 48.6-kbps kbps TDMA transceiver no differentthan the cost is ceiver.) in eightfull-ratevoicechannels 200 kHz of bandwidth, The GSM system carries to efficiencyidentical Euroa whichamounts 25 kHz per voicechannel, specffum to
*As discussed below, GSM uses Iess speech compression than does D-AMPS, which Ieads to a higher rate digital channel for voice and in tum requites more ftansmit power.

442

DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

Baee

r-l ff

+-

G l{-

Mobilee

Figure 9.3 TDMA transmission formatof GSM. pean analog FDM systemsof the time. Thus, the introduction of the GSM systemdid not provide spectrumefficiency improvementsas D-AMps did. A GSM systemdoes, however, provide cellular systemefficiencies in that digital transmission,in general, and strong error correction, in particular, allow operation at lower signal-to-noiseratios' Greater noise or interference tolerance leads to longer transmission distances and/or greateramounts offrequency reuse. The burst period of a GSM systemis l?0/26/8 = 15126 This burst period is dems. rived from a 120-ms superframe consisting of 26 TDMA frames and g bursts per TDMA frame' Twenty-four frames of a 26-friune super frame are allocated to traffic (e.g.' voice) transmission while one of the frames is allocated to a SACCH control channel for each traffic channel. The last TDMA frame of a superframe is reserved. A unique aspectof GSM, with respecrro D-AMps, is that a TDMA burst format is usedin both directions of transmission,as opposedto only on the uplink from the mobile to the basestation.The format of thesebursts is shown in Figuie 9.4, where it can be seenthat there are 148 bits ofdata and an idle guard time correspondingto the period of 8'25 bits. The burst transmissionrate of a taffrc channel can now be determined as 156.25/r5D6= 270.833kbps.The fields within the burst areidentified in Table 9.2. The use of multiple bursts in the downlink direction, as opposed to continuous ffansmission,is advantageous that it inherently allows tuming off the base station in transmitterduring idle channels,which in turn reducesthe total amount of interference betweencells in a widespreadand congestedinstallation. An advantageof continuous transmission,as used in D-AMPS, is the relative easeof implementation and greater performanceof the digital receiver in the mobile.

15/26=0.577msec

Figure 9.4 Time slotformatof GSM burst.

FORMOBILE 9,2 GLOBAL SYSTEM COMMUNICATIONS443 TABLE 9.2 Data Field Functlons of G$M Tlme Slot Flag Guard Tail TCH Train

A single usedto signify bit voice FACCH or content an associated field in TCH timing ldleperiod 8.25bitsinteruals margin bursts of between 3 "0"bitsfor equalizer training Fieldfor transporting dataor FACCH data bearer Fieldof fixeddatapattern usedto trainequalizers acquire dataclockfor and a theentire burst

9.2.2 GSM Speech Coding predictivecodingwith a long-term predictor regularpulseexcited-linear GSM uses in is is loop (RPE-LTP) TheRPE-LTPalgorithm described Chapter Speech di3. [3]. eachof which is encoded 260 bits, giving a total bit vided into 2O-msec samples, as rateof 13kbps.This is the original,full-ratespeech-coding An algorithm. enhanced full-rate (EFR) speech-coding algorithm has been implemented some North by qualityusing American operators. is saidto provide EFR improved GSM 1900 speech theexistingl3-kbpsbit rate. 9.2.3 GSM ChannelCoding and Modulation similarto D-AMPS.First of a]l. the 260 bits GSM utilizeserrorcontrolmechanisms frameatedividedinto threeclasses: of a speech ClassIa, 50 bits-most sensitive bit errors to Classlb, 132bits-moderately sensitive bit errors to ClassII, 78 bits-least sensitive bit errors to the Class bits havea 3-bit CRCadded errordetection. anerroris detected, for Ia If correctlyreceived versionof the previous frameis replaced a slighfly attenuated by (a Ia, frame.The50 Class 3 CRC, 132ClassIb, anda 4-bit tail sequence total of 189 for The encoder errorcorrection. outbits) areprocessed a half-rate by convolutional put of theconvolutional is encoder added the 78 Class bits to produce agto II an gregatespeech rate is frame of 456 bits. Thus, the redundantlyencodedspeech = 456tO.OZ022.8kbps. To furtherprotectagainst bursterrors, is The the each sample interleaved. 456bits are encoder dividedinto eightblocksof 57 bits, and of outputby the convolutional eightconsecutive slotbursts. time Since timeslotburst these a blocksarespread across samples. raf,fic from two differentspeech carries 57-bitblocks,eachburstcontains two 9.2.4 G$M Mobile Station (the of The GSM mobilestation(MS) consists themobileequipment terminal)anda personal smartcardcalledthe Subscriber IdentityModule(SIM). The SIM provides of to irrespective a spemobility,sothattheusercanhaveaccess subscribed services the the cif,rcterminal. inserting SIM cardinto another By GSM terminal, useris able

444

DIGITAL MOBILE TELEPHONY

to receive callsat thatterminal, makecallsfrom thatterminal, receive and othersubscribed services. The mobile equipment uniquelyidentifiedby the Internarional is Mobile Equipment Identity 0MEI). The SIM card containsthe Intemational Mobile Subscriber Identity(IMSI) usedto identifythe subscriber the system, secrer for authento a key tication,andotherinformation. The IMEI andthe IMSI areindependent, thereby allowing personal mobility. The sIM cardmay be protected against unauthorized use by a password personal or identitynumber. 9.2.5 GSM FrequencyHopplng Themobilestation inherently is frequency agile,meaning canmovebetween transit a mit, receive, monitortime slotwithin oneTDMA frame,all of whicharenormally and on differentfrequencies. GSM makes of this inherent use frequency agility to implementslow frequency hopping-the mobileandBTS transmit eachTDMA frameon a differentcarderfrequency. The frequency-hopping algorithmis broadcast the on broadcast controlchannel. sincemultipathfadingis dependent carier frequency, on slow frequency hoppinghelpsalleviate problem. addition, the In cochannel interferenceis morerandomthanwhenfixed-frequency allocations exist. 9.2.6 GSM Short Message $ervice (SMS)is an integrated ShortMessage Service bidirectional messaging service althat lows GSM cellularsubscribers, variousPCSofferings, sendandreceive and to data. Individualmessagerr GSM)canbeup ro 160bitsin length. (with Because sAccH the is usedfor sMS datatransmission, messages be received tran$mitted can or duringa voicecall. Initial applications SMSfocused alphanumeric of on pagingservices with fundamental differences: SMS is bidirectional and message deliveryis guaranteed. subsequent applications served sMS arevoicemail notification, by e-maildelivery, stockquotes, downloading/updating SIM cards. and of

9.3 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE.ACCESS CELLULAR The two digital cellularsystems discussed the previoussections, in D-AMps and GSM,utilizea combination frequency of divisionmultiplexing timedivisionmuland tiplexing+ a method partitioning blockof allocated as of a frequency spectrum ininto dividual communication channels. This section discussessystems with a fundamentally differentapproach channel to definition-code divisionmultiple ac(CDMA)-that belongto a class cess referred asspread to spectrum cornmunications systems The term spread spectrum refersto thefact thattransmission [a]. bandwidth
*Within a particular GSM cell it is conceivablethat a single FDM channel supportingeight TDMA channels is sufficient for sufficiently low traffic situations. Irr this case, the particular cell utilizes only TDMA. Nevertheless, the mobiles still suppott FDM operations so they can move to different cells and switch freouencies.

445 9.3 CODE DIVISIoN MULTIPLE.AG0ESS CELLUI.AR required by usedby anindividualchannel muchwiderthantheinherent is bandwidth havetraditionally themessage beingtransmitted. Spread systems beenused $pectrum where increased of in militaryapplications the complexity implementation justified is of by two particularfeatures. First, it is relativelydifficult to detectthe presence a is a spread signalbecause signalenergy spread the acro$$ wide bandandis spectrum oftenmasked background by noise.Second, is moredifficult to jam a spread it specjammingsignalenergy mustbe spread a wide bandas trum signalbecause across the to into opposed beingfocused a relafivelynarrowband.Theperformance a spread of to receiveris comparable the pelformanceof receiversfor traditional narspectrum knowsandcansynchronize rowbandsignals long asthe spread as receiver spectrum to themethod the beingusedto spread spectrum. Two general categories spread communications frequency-hopping are of spectrum system one systems direct-sequence modulation is and systems. frequency-hopping A in whichhansmission anyparticular is at instant confined a relativelynarow band to bandwidth themessage. of Instead of of frequencies commensurate theinherent with does, within oneparticular asa conventional communications system a staying band jumpsbetween of frequencies within a large frequency-hopping narrowbands system prescribed manner. mentioned theprevious blockof spectrum some in As in section, with frequency hopping(specifically, has a GSM cellularsystem theability to operate slowfrequency hopping). 9.3.1 CDMA Channel Establishment A contemporary cellular CDMA system,as developed Qualcommand standby rtpectrum in Interim Standard usesdirect-sequerce ardizedby EIA/TIA IS-95 [5], spreading. One particularmethod of implementinga direct-sequence spectrum is system shownin Figure9.5.In this system source the datais "exclusive spreading ored"with a relativelylong digital codeword. essence, "exclu$ive process In the or" while a 0 of thesource replaces I of thesource datais a datawith thegivencodeword n with thebitwisecomplement thecodeword. a codeword of If contains bits, replaced signalis n timesaswideasif thesource data theoccupied spectrum thehansmitted of
Chip Rste Clock

Oanier generation spread of signal. Figure 9.5 Direct-sequence spectrum

446

DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

were directly transmitted.Signals of other CDMA channelsoccupy the sameband of frequenciesbut do so with different speckum-spreadingcodes,which allows separation of the signals in the signal processingcircuinry of a receiver. The basic processof separatingCDMA channelsin a receiver involves correlating a received signal with each of the various codewords (i.e., channels)assignedto the cell. The correlation processproduces a correlation measurementby subtractingthe number of mismatchesin a codeword from the number of matches.Table 9.3 lists an example set of codewordswith particularly useful correlation properties.As indicated in the table, a codeword has sevenmatcheswith itself and no mismatchesfor a net correlation of +7. A sourcedata value of 0 producesno matchesand sevenmismatches for a net correlation of -7. The measurement weights for all other codewordsareeither + 1 or - I , dependingon the valuesof the sourcedata. If all sevenchannelsdefined in Table 9.3 are active in a single cell, the worst-caseinterferencebetweenthe codesproducesan interferencevalue ofeither +6 or -6. Thus, the desireddata can be recovered with a discrimination threshold of 0 for each channel. (The worst-casenet measurement valuesare +l for a I and *l for a 0.) Notice that samecorrelation propeftiesexist for all channel codeswith respectto the other codesin the table. Example basebandwaveforms for the seven-channel CDMA sy$temof Table 9.3 are shown in Figure 9.6. Notice the channel0 receivermeasurement positive, which is implies a data value of l. In this example interferencefrom the adjacentchannelsactually enhancedthe channel 0 measurement from an expectedvalue of 7 to 9. Discriminating between nominal measurementvalues of +7 for a desired signal and +6 for worst-caseinterferenceis obviously very tenuous,particularly because the individual channels will be received with different power levels. It i$ importanr ro note, however, that an interferencevalue of +6 can arise only if the data values of all intedering channelsdestructively coincide. on average,the composite interference hasan averagevalue of0. The length ofa spectrum-spreading code in IS-95 is actually 64 bits long, which meansthat the example worst-caseinterferencewould be 63 in relation to a desiredchannel value of 64. The chancesof destructiveinterferencefrom all 63 channels,or even a large number of channels,is astronomically small.

TABLE9.3 ExampleDlrect-$aquence Spectrum-Spreading Godesa

ChannelNumber ChannelCode

Number of Matches 7 3 3 3 3 3 3

Numberof Mismatches 0 4 4 4 4 4 4

Net Correlation

0 1 2 3 4
c

111 0 0 1 0 0111001 101100 1 0101110 0 0 1 011 1 100101 1 11 0 0 1 0 1

+7 -1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1

aspectrum-spreading code of dsirBdchannel: 1110010.

9.3 CODEDIVISIoN MULTIPLE-ACCESS CELLUTAR 447

Chf,nnloCdi
Chnffid Numbcr ftti Vf,hr$

(0)

(1) 0 fr) 'l

(3) 0 ({) o
"-.' 1

(5) 0
(6) |

*i--j

Clilnnl0 Mtsrruttffil

Figure 9.6

Example seven-channel CDMA encoding and decoding.

interference a 64-channel of Example9.1. Determine probabilityof maximum the CDMA system with 64-bit spreadingcodes. Also determine the effective powerratio of the same Assume channels signal-to-interference CDMA sy$tem. all powerlevelatthereceiver thatall channel and have operate thesame effective codes at a cro$s of+l bit. correlation interferers merelythe probabilityof is Solution. The probabilityof 63 destructive = = of occurrence 63 equallylikely binary events:prob(maxinterference) (0.5)63 of I x 10-1e. valueof a desired receivesignalis the autocorrelation a codeword The with itself andcanthereforeberepresented a valueof 64. The interference as level is with equallylikely values tl. Eventhough the sumof 63 binaryrandom numberrt of probabilitydistribution, sumof a a singleinterferer doesnot produce Gaussian the a large numberof independent randomvmiablesapproaches Gaussian a distribution (centrallimit theorem).The meanand varianceof an individual interfererareeasily The determined be 0 and l, respectively. meanandvariance a sumof 63 such to of ratio is now variables are 0 and 63, respectively.The signal-to-interference determined as

S I R =l 0 t o g r o t i = l s d B

F'42

As presented Chapter the 18-dBSIR resultof Example is quitesufficient in 6, 9.1 to supportan acceptable can elror rateif the effective powerlevel of all channels be

448

DIGITAL MoBILE TELEPHoNY

maintained to be equal. In actual practice, a CDMA deployment does not use all possible codesin a single cell, just as an FDM sy$temdoes not use all frequenciesin one cell. Thus, the amount of interFerence a cell is limited by the number of codes asin signed to the cell and a lesseramount of interferencefrom adjacent cells (assuming the adjacentcells do not use identical, synchronousspectrum-spreading codes).The effect of varying power levels in the interfering channelsis coveredin someproblems at the end of the chapter.

9.3.2 CDMA Multlpath Tolerance A primaryadvantage a CDMA transmission of system its robustness thepresence is in of multipathconditions. basicreason multipathtolerance be appreciated The for can by examining example the givenin Table9.3.Noticethateachcodeis a cyclic codes shift of all othercodes the table.Because selected in the codes havelow correlation with eachother,a delayed version anyparticular of codehasthesame correlation low with anundelayed version itself.Thus,theeffectof a multipath of delayof morethan one spread spectrum (referredto asa chip) is no morethanthe effect of the interbit ference fiom another cDMA channel, evenif thedelayed version at the$ame is power level astheprimarysignal. Theeffectof a multipath condition a D-AMPSchannel on maybemuchmoredeleterious. Because D-AMPS system a operates a relativelynEurow at bandof frequencies,it is possible a complete that fadeoccurs a particular for channel a particular at physical location. theusermoves If through physical the location, effectof thefade the is a momentary dropout. theuserdwellsat thelocation, connection be lost If the can unless handoffoccur$ a new frequency a (to and/oran adjacent cell). The slow frequency-hopping feature GSM ameliorates effectof a complete of the multipathfade to a greater degree, not aseffectivelyasa cDMA system. GSM theremay be but In momentary dropouts, theyarenot longenough cause dropped but to a connection and do not requirea handoff,evenif a userdwellsin a physicallocationwhereoneparticularfrequency totally lost.In essence, frequency-hopping is the process ofGsM is equivalentto repeated automatic and handoffsto different frequencies. Froma somewhat philosophical pointof view,thebasicintentof a GDMA system is to equalize performance all channels thesystem. a FDIvI/TDMAsystem the of in In it is likely thatsome channels operate with veryhighperformance whileothers operate at very low performance cannot usedat all. Theexistence high-performance or be of channels doesnot compensate the existence low-performance for of channels. Thus, a system that equalizes performance all channels a greater the of has total capacity. The primaryreason variablechannel for performance FDIWTDMA is multipath in fading.An FDM/TDMA transmitter typically operates with a certainamountof expowerreferred asfademargin. excess cess to The poweris notmuchof aproblem with adjacent-channel intetference because is relativelyeasyto isolateFDM channels it with frequency guard bands TDM channels time guard and with bands. cochannel in* terference from onecell to another the crux of theproblem. a particular is If channel

9.s coDEDrvrsroN MULTTpLE-AccEss cELLUIAR 449 power level, that channel cannot be reusedexcept at a rela' is operating at an exce$$ tively larger distance.

9.3.3 CDMAPowerControl
powercontrolof themobileunitsin a CDMA system botha reis Effectivetransmit quirement a benefit.It is a requirement and because mobiletransmitter is close a that to a base receiver othermobiles the same thatarefarther in station will obliterate cell powerlevaway.Thisis referred asthenear-farproblem CDMA. If thetransmit of to els of all mobilesin a CDMA sy$tem controlled be no higherfhanabsolutely are to necessary, channels be reused can moreoften.Althoughpowercontrolis usedin the it to FDM/TDMA systems, is not possible operate with bareminimumpowerlevels the the because system respond enough adjust powerlevelsfor fastmulto cannot fast tipathfades. sidebenefitof usingminimumpowerlevelsin a CDMA mobileis inA batterylife. creased The powerlevelsof a mobile are controlledin two ways;openloop and closed loop.In theopen-loopmode, its amobilecandetermine transmitpowerlevelby measpowerlevelundertheassumption transmission its received uring are that losses equal in bothdirections. This assumption reasonable a CDMA system not for a is for but FDM/TDMA systembecause latter aremuchmore$usceptible independent the to powercontrolinvolvesbasestafrequency-selective fading(multipath). Closed-loop powerandadjustments themobilepowerlevels tion measures mobilereceived of to with thecontrolchannel. in Powerconftolin IS-95CDMA is described references [6*8]. for Table9.4lists thebasicparameters theIS-95CDMA digitalcellularsystem of the 800-MHzcellularband.The speech compression algorithmusesQCELP(Quallinearprediction). first commercial The of commcodeexcited installation CDMA occurredin HongKong in 1995. 9.3.4 CDMA Soft Handoff reA uniquefeature a CDMA system the ability of a mobileto simultaneously of is ceive from more than one source. eachcell in a CDMA cellularnetwork Because
TABLE 9.4 lS-95 CDMA Moblle Telephone Sy8tem Parameters

Channel bandwidth Rate Voice-Coding overhead Errorcontrol Aggregate channel rate Codelength channel $preadspectrum rate format Modulation

1.25 MHz 9.6kbps(maximum) 9.6kbps(downlink) 19.2kbps(uplink) 19.2kbps(downlink) 28.8kbps(uplink) 64 chips 1.2288 Mbp$ to otfset to QPSK(base mobile), QPSK(mobile base)

450

DIGITAL MOBILE TELEPHONY

transmits in a common frequency, a common RF receiver inherently receives the spreadspectrumsignal from all adjacentbase$tations.Signalsfrom multiple basestation$ can then be acquired with multiple baseband code correlatorsor by time sharing a single correlator with the separate codes.In a soft handoff operation the samevoice signal is distributed to selectedcells adjacentto a currently active cell. An active mobile can then comparethe quality of the signals and switch to the best one before disconnecting from the establishedbase station. A "make-before-break" operation is not feasible in an FDIIfITDMA 'rystem wherein adjacentcells utilize separate frequenciesthat require separate receivers. RF FDIVf/TDMA system$ inherently usehard handoffs, which require disconnectingfrom one basestation before connecting to a new one. Notice, however, that a soft handoff operation in a CDMA system increasesthe background interferencebecauseof the multiple active signals for a single connection.

9.4 PEHSONALCOMMUNICATION SYSTEM A personal communication (PCS)is a cellularsystem system operating a bandof in frequencies 1.9GHz.Theoriginalconcept PCSincluded at for multiple,newfeatures andservices beyond thoseofferedby a basiccellularsystem. Someof theenvisioned features weresingletelephone number multipleservice$ for (voice,data, fax) anduser mobility for homeor office useandlocationdetermination. Althoughsome commercial PCSofferings providesomenew userfeatures, initial North American FCSsystem$afebasically cellularsystems utilizing a newbandof frequencies. when the FCC allocated PCSfrequencies the united states,they did so the for withoutstipulating whichtypeof system should deployed. be Thus,anyorganization that bids for andreceives franchisefor PCSspectrum free to choose a is whatever type of system want$for providingservice the public.As a result,North American it to PCS systems have beendeveloped with threedifferent transmission formats: D*AMPS,GSM,andCDMA. TheD-AMPSimplemenration followsEIA/TIA standard 15-136,which is basicallya revisionof IS-54 that incorporates digital control (IS-54defines useof an analogcontrolchannel compatibilitywith channels. the for AMPS.)

9.5 VOICE PBIVACYAND AUTHENTICATION Ensuring privacyofconversations preventing and fraudaretwo criticalaspects ofcellular telephone systems areaddressed completely thedigitalsystems that more in than in the originalanalogsystems. FDM analogsystem particularlyvulnerable An is to casual eavesdropping because relativelysimplescanner be usedto identify an a can activechannel andtune into the conversation. the scanner two receivers. If has the eavesdropper listento bothsidesofthe conversation, can assuming eavesdropper the is in a high enough locationor closeenough the activemobilethat it canreceive to theuplink signal.

e.6 rRtDruM 451 Digital signalsare inherently more complicatedto intercept because eavesdropan per may needto monitor the connectionestablishmentproces$and not just tune in after a conversation has started. Explicit encryption parameters for optional voice privacy is establishedduring call establishment,or pos$ibly during a conversation,by exchanging privacy control messages the control channel. An eavesdropper must in receive the relevant information $entin both directions before eavesdroppingis possible. Even without explicit encryption, an eavesdropper must be located somewhere near the basestation to properly receive both sidesof a TDMA conversafion.At other locationswithin a cell the eavesdropper will encounteroverlapping time slotsthat will inflict bit errors into the eavesdropper'sreceived data. A CDMA system produces a codesfrom two separate mosimilar effect when the phaseof two specffum-spreading biles coincide. in Authentication of a valid mobile stationis significantly $trengthened digital systems. A major problem in analog cellular systemsis the processof cloning, in which disreputable persons monitor call establishment handshakeprocedures to acquire valid mobile equipment electronic serial numbers (ESNs) and program them into counterfeit mobile units that are then used to place calls. Part of the improved fraud prevention involves maintaining a more up-to-date databaseof valid mobile ESNs. The strongestpnrt of the fiaud prevention involves determining authorization codes basedon past call history in both the base station and the mobile. The authorization code determined by the mobile and sent to the base station must coincide with the authorizationcode calculatedby the basestationbefore serviceis allowed. Additional stepsmay require entry of accesscodesby the user or, in the caseof GSM, the magnetic data card called the SubscriberIdentification Module (SIM).

9.6 lRlDlUM
Iridium is a satellite-basedsystem for telephone and two-way paging services.The satellitesystemis a Low Earth Orbit Satellite (LEOS) $ystem,which meansthat signal powers and antennasizescan be reducedwith respectto conventional geostationary satellites.(The Iridium sy$temorbits are less than 500 miles, versusthe 23,000 miles for geostationary satellites.) In addition to enabling lower power ffansmission, a LEOS avoids the propagationdelay of a geostationarysatellite, which is a minimum of 500 msec.A basic disadvantage a LEOS systemis the continuousmovement of of the satelliteswith respectto ground locations.Becauseof this, Iridium provides a large number of satellites(66) so continuous coveragefrom at least one satellite is always available. Iridium phones are dual-mode phones. A phone first makes an attempt to place a call over a terresffial cellular system*but will default to the satellite network if local cellular coverageis not available. When communicating through the Iridium system, a user first gets connectedto the nearestavailable satellite. From there the communication might retum to the ground or be relayed through multiple satellitesbefore re.Multiple versions of hanclhelds are available to operate on mMA, GSM, or CDMA cellular networks,

452

DIGITAL MoBILE TELEPHoNY

TABLE9.5 lrldlum SystemParameters Number satellites of Satellite orbit Orbitperiod Transmission protocol RFmodulation Speech datarate Radio frequency
66 485 miles (780 km) 1 0 0m i n FDMA/TDMA QPSK 2,4 kbps 1.6 MHz handheldto satellite 23 GHz satellite $atellite to 19 GHz uplinkto satellite 29 GHz downlinkfrom $atellite

turningto theground. groundlink mightbe directto another Thesecond Iridium user or it may involvea basestationwith interconnection a public telephone to network. System aspects theIridium system provided Table9.5. of are in

9.7 TRUNKEDRADIO The term trunkedradio generally refersto PrivateMobile Radio(pMR) communicationsnetworks. Originally,users PMR equipment of wereallocated specific operating frequencies dedicated each to user(or organization). Suchallocations wereobviously inefficientin termsof bandwidth utilizationwhenthe users not havecontinuous did needfor radiocommunications. Significant improvements efficiencyareachieved in whenthe$eparate channels placedin a groupandshared a largergroupofusers are by on anas-needed basis. Whena userof a trunked radiosy$tem needs service, radio the equipment accesses idle channel becomes an that temporarily assigned thatuser. to As soonastheusers a particular of channel cease transmit, channel to the becomes availablefor otherusers. Access a communications to channel utilizesa controlchannel anda centralized controller resource for allocation. A trunkedradiosystem not a cellularsystem doesutilize a centralnodereis but ferredto asa repeater. repeater The receives signalon onefrequency, a shiftsit to anotherfrequency, transmits signalon thenewfrequency. and the Thus,endu$ers not do communicate directlywith each other.* Transmission through repeater moreefthe is fectivebecause toweris located a highpointin thecoverage utilizinga relathe at area powerthatfacilitates tively high transmit communications between users end who are likely to not havean adequate between path them. In a general sense, trunked radiosystems PMR systems provideradiocomare that munications directly betweenuserswithout use of the public telephone network. However, distinction the between trunked a radiosystem a cellularsystem beand has
*$ome ffunked radio equipment does support a (special) two-way mode of operation in which the users cofiununicate directly with each other. This mode of operation is generally reserved for communication s in outlying areas where the rcpeater cannot prbvide seryice.

HEFERENCES 453

comeblunedwith U.S.offerings fromcompanies NextelandOeotek. like These companies utilize technology developed Motorolathat augments useof spectrum the by previouslyusedfor privateradio servicereferredto as Specialized Mobile Radio (SMR).SMR applications typicallyinvolvefleetoperations suchastaxi cabsanddelivery vehicles needof dispatch in services wherein multiplemobilessimultaneously heartransmissions a courmon on channel. SMRradiosutilizeanalog FM/FDM transmissionwith 25-kHzchannels. generically Thenewequipment, refened asEnhanced MobileRadio to Specialized (ESMR),upgrades analog SMR transmission digitalTDM transmission thesame to in protocols manner AMPS. ESMR transmission that D-AMPS upgrades allow for six in conventional digital TDM channels each25-kHzchannel. ESMR systems suppor"t applications othersimilarspecialized dispatch suchasprivategroupcalland $ervices ing. Most importantly, this chapter, ESMR system provideconnections can for an to the public telephone feature.With this feanetwork-referred to as an interconnect can ture,anESMR system functionasa cellulartelephone system. 9.8 CELLULAR DIGITAL PACKET DATA CellularDigital Packet Data(CDPD)[9] is a system designed providedataservices to The up to 19.2kbpsasan overlayof an AMPS installation. primaryservice concept fixedandmobiledataservices independent theneed upgrade AMPS of is to ofTer to an to sy$tem a D-AMPS system. CDPD usesAMPS channels that are not being used it multipleusers share single for voice.Because is a packet-oriented service, data a 30-kHzchannel-a significant savings spectrum in usage compared the use art to of connection-oriented chamelsfor data.Principalapplications CDPDare voice for mobileInternetaccess creditcardverification. and Access the shared is with to channel accomplished Digital Sense Multiple Access (DSMA/CD) which is similarto CSMA/CDof otherradio with CollisionDetection and LANs. CDPDuses GMSK modulation systems Ethernet with RS(63,47) forward errorconection.

REFERENCES
"Vector SumExcitedLinearPrediction (VSELP)7950Bit PerSecond Voice Coding Description, Illinois, Nov, 14,1989. Algorithm,"Technical Motorola,Schaumburg, "Overview of the GSM Systemand Protocol Architecture," IEEE M. Rahnema, Communications Magazine, pp. Apr. 1993, 92-100. "Speech Codec P.Vary, K. Hellwig,C, Galland, Russo, Petit,andD. Massaloux, M. J. in pp. for the European Mobile RadioSystem," IEEE GLOBECOM 1989,Nov, 1989, 29.8.2. R. Dixon,Spread with Applications, Systemt Commercial Spectrum Wiley, New York, 1994. "Mobile Station-Base Station Compatibility Standardfor Dual-Mode Wideband EIA/TIA./IS-95, Spectrum Spread CellularSystem," Washington, July 1993. DC,

454

DIGITAL MOBILE TELEPHONY "On the System A. Salamasi K. S. Gilhousen, and DesignAspects CodeDivision of (cDMA) Applied to Digital cellular andpersonal Multiple Access communications Networks," Praceeding the Forty-First of IEE VehicularTechnology Conference, May 1991, 57-62. pp. A, J. Viterbi and A. M, Viterbi, "Erlang Capacityof a Power Conrolled CDMA System,"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas of Comtnunitations, Nov. lgg3, pp. 882-890, K. S. Gilhousen, M. Jacobs, Padovani, J. Viterbi, L. A. Weaver,and C. E. L R. A. Wheatley,"On the Capacityof a CellularCDMA System," IEEE Transactions on Vehitular Technology,May pp. 1991, 303-312. "PacketData A. K. Salkintzis, overCellularNerworks: The CDpD Approach," IEEE Communications Magazine, June1999, 152-159, pp.

PROBLEMS 9-1 what is theavailable bearer of a half-rate rare digiralchannel a D-AMps sysin tem? 9.2 what is thedatarateof the slow associated controlchannel a D-AMps sysin tem? 9.3 what is theavailable bearer a full-ratedigitalchannel a GSM sy$tem? rare in 9.4 what is thedatarateof the slowassociated controlchannel a GSM system? in 9.5 Determine receiver the outputmeasurements channels and2 for theGDMA for I example Figure9.6. of 9.6 what is theeffective signal-to-interference of a singlecDMA uplinkchan ratio nel operatingat a distance that is twice asfar from the basestationas62 other channels? Assume codelengthof 64, crosscorrelations +1, andall transa of mitters operateat identicalpower levels. (a) Assumeall interferersare active. (b) Assume theinterferers half operate with a,25qo ratebecause no voice data of activity. 9.7 In a CDMA system with a codelengthof 64 determine signal-to-interference the ratioof a single uplinkCDMA channel thereare16active if interfering channels operating aneffective at receive powerlevelthatis 12dB higherthatthedesired channel.

10
DATA ANDASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODENETWORKS
Theprimaryfocusof this bookis to describe how andwhy digitalelectronic technolNaturally, digivoice,a fundamentally signal. the is usedto communicate analog ogy (data), only but inherently tal telephone networkcanaccommodate digitalinformation for if datacanaccept be adapted service to characteristics established voice.This or to chapter digitaltechnology networks directed supporting discusses and specifically describes how Ironically,thelaterpartof this chapter communications seruices. data networksareadapted carry voice. to the data-oriented (data) actually ancient practice. early In messages is an of Communication discrete greater rangeof the humanvoicewas thanthe over distances timescommunication (e.g.,heliographs, flags, signals, provided sightor sound discrete smoke by signals of useelectricity, system the to andhorns). Furthermore, first practical communication evolved from theoriginal,manually thetelegraph, inherently is digital.As telegraphy rebased to systems, developed whatarecommonly they into systems fully automated message is discussed in networks. Modem switching ferredto asme$sage-switching the first sectionof this chapter. it arose, wasonly natural As theneedfor modemelectronic datacommunications services. The that thepublictelephone networkwouldbe usedfor datakansmission shortcomings a networkdesigned of technical availabilityovershadowed numerous primarilyfor voicecommunications The services. maindeficiencies a conventional of are: telephone networkfor datatransmission (modems) analog access on lines 1. Needfor signalhansducers 2. Limited datarates network) 3. High errorrates(in the olderanalog 4. Inefficientcircuitutilizations so requirements increased, did thejustificationfor more As datacommunications datatransmisOne to solutions. solution reducing cost-effective communications data 455

456

DATAANDASYNcHHoNoUSTFANSFERMoDENETWoRKS

sion costswas to improve circuit utilizations through the use of packet-switchingnetworks. The technology of packet switching was pioneeredby the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the u.s. government. This agency developeda network referred to as the ARPANET []. In addition to ARPANET, which was used only by government, educational, and industrial research institutions, a number of public packetswitching networks were also developedin the United Statesand around the world. ARPANET developmentseventually evolved into what is now known as the Internet. A secondapproachto improving data communicationsinvolves developing separate networks specifically designedfor digital ffansmission (no analog circuits with modems).The first major enterpriseof this type in the United Stateswas a nationwide digital microwave network developed by Digital rransmission corporation (DATRAN). Becausethe data communicationsmarketplaceof the time could not support a separate, dedicatednetwork for data, DATRAN ran into financial difficulty and declared bankruptcy in 1977. Another, more successful,data-networking approach was the Dataphone Digitat Service (DDS) offering of AT&T. This serviceutilizes digital technology of the telephone network for strictly data applications.DDS circuits are dedicatedto data services, but the facilities and routes are sharedwith telephonenetwork facilities. A major hurdle for DDS is achieving digital accessto DDS circuits. If a subscriberis ourside the range of digital transmissionfacilities of a DDS serving office, a voiceband modem over an analog line is required. A fourth approachto satisfying datacommunicationsservicesinvolved developing meansfor directly accessingthe digital ffansmissionand switching equipment of the telephonenetwork. The first widespreadapproachof the telephonecompaniesfor providing universal digital accessis the Inregrated services Digital Nerwork (ISDN). ISDN provides digital access the digital facilities of the telephonenerwork for voice to or data services on a call-by-call basis. ISDN digital subscriber lines and other methods of digital accessto digital networks such as the Internet are described in Chapter I L

10.1 MESSAGE SWITCHING

As one telegraphsystemafter anotherwas installed in the countriesaround the world, nationwide communications networks evolved. A messagecould be sent from one point to anothereven if the two points were not servicedby a common telegraphline. In this case,telegraphoperatorsat intermediatepoints would receive a message one on line and retransmit it on another.When a telegraphoffice had severallines emanating from it, the processof hansferring a message from one line to anotherwas, in essence, a switching function. The processof relaying, or switching, a message from one telegraphline to another becamesemiautomated when teletypeswith paper tape punchesand readerswere developed. An incoming messagecould be punched automatically onto a paper tape by one teletypeand subsequentlyreadby anotherteletype for transmissionon the appro-

10.1 MESSAGESWITCHING457

priateoutgoing in line.Theprocess transferring message of a from oneline to another message systems switches. this manner to these led beingreferred astorn-tape to in switches automated 1963 wascompletely One of the world's largestme$sage when Collins Radio Companyof CedarRapids,Iowa, installeda computer-based This system themore switchfor theairlinecompanies NorthAmerica. of and me$$age direcfly paper incoming messages recent eliminate tapetransfers storing by successors into a computermemory(disk file) andforwarding themautomaticallyto the appropriateoutputline whenavailable. is Hence modeof operation oftenrefenedto as this message storeand-forward switching. is and routing Included an with eachmessage a header containing address possibly proce$sor each nodecandetermine whichoutputline to at information themessage so As in in to $witchthemessage. indicated Figure10.1,theprocessor eachnodemainqueues eachoutgoinglink. These queues normallyserviced on are for tainsmessage priority informationcan$ometimes infirst-served be basis.However, a first-come, or cludedin eachheader establish of therebyalto differentclasses, grades service, to at messages be placed theheadof a queue. lowing tirne-critical A message-switching networkis fundamentally differentfrom a circuit-switching networkin that the source anddestination not interactin real time. In fact, most do on basisif a destinamessage-switching coulddelivera message a delayed networks nettion nodeis busyor otherwise unableto accept traffic. In a message-switching a of nodebeforesendins the work thereis no needto determine status thedestination message, thereis in circuit switching. as

Figure 10.1 Message-switching network.

458

DATAAND ASyNcHHoNous THANSFER NETwoRKS MoDE

Message-switchingnetworks are also fundamentatly different from circuit-switching networks in their responseto traffic overloads.A circuit-switching network blocks or rejects excesstraffic while a message-switching network normally acceptsall traffic but provides longer delivery times as a result ofincreased queuelengths. Another importaxt distinction of a message-switching network is that the transmission links are never idle while traffic is waiting to use them. In a circuit-switching network, a circuit may be assignedto a particular connection but not actually carrying traffic. Thus, some of the transmissioncapacity may be idle while someuser$are denied service.In contrast,utilization of the transmissionlinks of a message-switching network is directly related to the actual flow of information. Arbitrarily high utilization efficiencies are possible if increased store-and-forwardqueuing delays are acceptable' Chapter 12 provides basic results of queuing theory that relate utilization efficiency to queuing delay.

10.2 PACKET SWITCHING

The circuit-switched telephonenetwork is ill-suited to interactive data traff,rcbecause it is fundamentally designed for less frequent service requests with comparatively long holding times (3-4 min on average).Neither the control elementsin the switches nor the capacity of the signaling channelsare capableof accommodatingfrequent requestsfor very short messages. The result is that connection setuptime may be many times greaterthan the holding time of a data message. Obviously, more efficient utilization of the network requires greater control channel bandwidth and increasedcall processingcapacitiesin the switches. Beyond this, however, interactive data traffic with low-activity factor$ requires a network operation that is fundamenta-lly different from a conventional circuit-switched network, The most appropriatemode of operation for traffic that comesin bursts is more closely related to a message-switched network than to a circuit-switched network. Figure 10.2 depicts both the conceptualstructure and the conceptualoperation of a packet-switchednetwork. A single message the sourceis broken up into ..packets" at for transmissionthrough the network. Included in each packet is a headercontaining addressand other control information. Each packet is relayed through the network in a store-and-forwardfashion similar to a message-switching network. At the destination node, the packetsare reassembled into the original contiguous messageand delivered. The main feature of a packet-switchingoperationis the marurerin which the tran$mission links are sharedon an as-needed basis.Each packet is transmitted as soon as the appropriate link is available, but no transmission facilities are held by a source when it has nothing to send. In this manner, a large number of relatively inactive sourcescan sharethe transmissionlinks. In essence, link utilization is improved at the exPenseof storageand control complexity in the nodes. A circuit-switched network ha$ conffol overheadassociated with connection setup but very little control thereafter' In contrast,packet-switching nodes must processthe headerinformation in each packet as it arrives. Thus a long message a packet-switchednetwork requires more in

459 ro,? PAoKETSWTToHTNG

fonsrrd nod*r

10.2 Packet-switching Flgure network. conhol overhead in network.Considering thanif it wereserviced a circuit-switched thedeclining costof digitalmemoryandprocessing, increased the controlcomplexity As later as advances. discussed in becomes andlesssignificant digitaltechnology less Transfer this chapter, one particularvariationof packetswitching,Asynchronous of hardware to support implementations conMode (ATM), is designed specifically thereby with low delay. trol intensive functions, supporting very hightraffic volumes networkincreases, average the transmisAs the traffic load in a packet-switched correspondingly. contrast, circuit-switched ln a networkeither sion delayincreases grantsservice rejectsit. Thereis no gracefuldegradation service. Conversely, or in circuit-switched network, networktransmuch whenonly a few circuitsarein usein a network,the missioncapaciry idle.Whenthereis a light loadon a packet-switched is benefitby shorter thanusualdelaytimes.Hencefrom a user'sgrade-ofactiveusers servicepoint of view, the two networktypesarefundamentally different. (ARQ error control,packet-switching networks request Using automatic repeat (e.g.,ARPANET)traditionallyprovidedessentially for error-free transmission each Thisprocess requires receiving transfer. the nodes monitorredundant to node-to-node if checkbits appended eachpacketto determine the packetwasreceivedcorrectly. to (message transeruors detected, retransmission requested NAK). Hence are a is When packets memoryuntil a positiveresponse musthold all transmitted in mitting nodes (message ACK) is retumedby the receivingterminal.Fufihermore,an entire packet is usuallyreceived checked errorsbeforeforwarding to another for it node. and packet by linesor dial-upconCustomers networks way of leased typicallyaccess nections. by users, linesarepreDial-upconnections used infrequent are while leased to higherdararates, possibly and ferredby heavyusers achieve availability, constant lower errorrates. a Despitethe similarityto a me$sage-switching operation, work is differentin two impodantre$pects:

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DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWORKS

l. The store-and-forwarddelay through a packet-switcheclnetwork is relatively short. Thus interactive communicationscan occur in much the samemanner as if a dedicated,end-to-endcircuit is established. 2. A packet-switchednetwork doe$not provide $torageof messages, except in an incidental manner while relaying packets from one node to another. The network is designedto provide switched communication between two nodes. both of which are actively involved in the communications process. A packet-switching network does not normally store a me$sage later delivery for to an inactive or busv terminal. One reasonfor breaking messages into packetsis to allow transmissionof the first segmentof a long messagewhile other segmentsare in transit. If the entire me$$age had to be received at each node befbre forwarding it to the next node (as in message switching), the delaysthrough the notlesmight be too large. Another reasonfor breaking the mes$ages into packets arises from operational simplifications derived from storing, processing,and transmitting smaller and possibly fixedJength blocks of data. In addition, if long message$ transmittedintact, short messages are experienceexcessive delays when queuedbehind long messages. Packetizationallows shon messages to get through a transmissionlink without waiting behind long messages. This same principle occursin multiprogrammed computers,which use time slicing to allow short jobs the opportunity of finishing before previously startedlong jobs. one more motivation for packetizationis that when a ffansmissionblock is too long, it is unlikely that the entire messagewill be received correctly. Packetizationprovides a means of retransmitting only those portions of a message that need to be retransmitted.

10.2.1 PacketFormats
The format of a packet in a packet-switchingnetwork can vary significantly f'rom one network to another. Some formats include numerou$ fields fbr control infbrmation while other system$rely more heavily on special control packetsto transmit control information. Generally speaking,the conffol information associated with a particular message link is included in the headerof a mes$age or packet.Less frequent,networkrelated control information is communicatedtlrough special control packets. As indicated in Figure 10.3, a packet contains three major fields: the header,the message,and the redundancycheck bits. some packet$may not contain a message field if they are being used strictly for control purposes.Although a variery of techniques for generating redundancy checks are possible, the most popular technique usescyclic redundancychecks (cRCs). Basically, a cRC is nothing more than a set of parity bits that cover overlapaing fields of message bits. The fields overlap in such a way that small numbers of errors are always detectedand the probability of not detecting the occurrenceof 2 large number of errors is l in 2M, where M is the number of bits in the check code. A headertypically containsnumeroussubfieldsin addition to the necessarv address field. Additional fields sometimesincluded in a headerare:

IO,2 PACKETSWITCHING /161

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Figure 10.3 Typical packetformat, (text) packet or I , An operationcode to designatewhether the packet is a message packet.In a sensethis field is a pat"tof the destinationaddress, with the a control addressspecifying the control element of a switching node.

z. A

source address for recovery purpo$es or identification of packets at a destination node that is capable of simultaneously accepting more than one message.

node,detect at numberto reassemble messages the destination 3. A sequence faults,andfacilitaterecoveryprocedures. size 4. A lengthcodeto indicate lengthof a packetwhenlessthana standard the packetis transmitted. Someprotocolsinsertspecialdelimiters(flags)at the end of a packetandthereforedo not usea lengthcount. 10.2.2 Statittical Multiplexlng chapters in The digital time divisionmultiplexingtechniques described theprevious The a providemultiplechannels periodically assigning time slot to eachchannel. by sources haveanythingto send. or time slotsareassigned whether not the respective basis, Channel assignments bealtered a connection-by-connection but for the may on Beto time slotis dedicated a respective connection. duration a "call" a particular of this of in cause thecontinuous manner whichtime slotsoccurfor eachchannel, form time to referred as synchronous divisionmultiplexing of multiplexingis sometimes (STDM).In this section describe variously referred form of multiplexing, we another time division time to as asynchronous divisionmultiplexing(ATDM)- or statistical of herebecause its multiplexing(statmux). This form of multiplexingis mentioned to closerelationship packet-switching techniques. Statmuxes operate with framingformatsthat arebasicallyidenticalto STDM framperiodically the ing formats. The majordifference that a statmux redefines length is of its framesto change numberof time slotsand,hence,the numberof channels. the permanently a Whereas STDM system an a assigns time slot to eachof its sources,
"Here and Il is alother context-sensitive of the termssynchronous asynchronous. the contextof d igital use "synchronous zed telephony, multiplexing" refersto combiningtributary signalsthat havebeensynchroni "asynchronous multiplexing" to each other as in upper layer SONET multiplexing. Corrospondingly, tributaries, refersto the useof pulsestuffing to accofimodateunsynchronized

462

DATAANDASyNcHHoNousTHANSFERMoDENETwoHKs

statmux assignsa time slot only when a sourcebecomesactive. A time slot is eliminated (the frame shoftened)when the respectivelrourcebecomesinactive. statmux $ystemshave been primarily used to provide line sharing for a multiple number of interactive terminals communicating with a host computer. when only a few sources(terminals) are active, each sourcehas a relatively high data rate channel available to it. As the number of active sourcesincreases,the frame length increases so individual channel rates decrease.some systems limited the number of active sourcesto ensurecertain minimum data rates. The purpose and performance of statmux systems are very similar to the purpose and performance of a packet-switching link. The main difference is that a packetswitching link hansmits larger blocks of data with a header included in each block. Each time slot of a statunux$ystem is shorter and contains only source data. Figure 10.4 contraststhe basic operation of messageswitching, packet switching, and statistical time division multiplexing. The message switch transmitseachmessage its enin tirety in a f,rrst-come, first-served manner. packet switching breaks messages to up allow interleaving of packets from other sources. Thus short mes$agesnever ger queuedbehind long messages such as file transfers.The statmux system breaks the messages into even finer blocks (words) of data and addsperiodic frame rlefinition up messages that receiving terminals can properly identify the individual time slots so and switch the incoming data accordingly. As indicated in Figure 10.4, a packet-switching operation becomesvery similar to a statmux operationif the size of the packetsis small. In fact, commercially available

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f igure 10.4 comparison of message-switching, packet-switching,and statistical multiplexing.

10,?PACKET swrTcHrNc 463 nettime divisionmultiplexers be usedto build up a packet-switching can statistical however, packet-switching nodeneeds suffiwork. In additionto the multiplexers, a it, cient storage accumulate entire packet,checkit for errors,process and to an it. doesnot accumulate entire retransmit Strictlyspeaking, statistical a multiplexer an Error control message packet. switches incomingdataasthey arereceived. It the or (redundancy for are befunctions and checking requests retransmission) implemented In a nodes. summary, statmux of of instead between tweenendpoints a "connection" multiplexA is strictlya multiplexer/demultiplexer.packet-switching nodeprovides and ing functions well asmessage-level networklevelconholfunctions. as 10.2.3 Routlng Control proceregarding have various Muchdiscussion experimentation beenundedaken and network to duresfor routing packetsfrom sources sinksthrougha packet-switching routing allowfor a certain of or amount adaptation alternate [2]. All routingtechniques in differ, however, how to circumvent line or nodefailures.The varioustechniques networkcongestion fasttheyrespond failuresandwhether not theycircumvent to or are aswell asequipment Thebasictechniques thefollowing: failures. l. Dynamicrouting 2. Virrual circuitrouting 3. Fixed-path routing in can Eachof thesetechniques be implemented a varietyof waysand can assume someofthe characteristics ofthe otherroutingcontrolprocedures. Dynamlc Routing nodes on examining basis with network Dynamicroutingis implemented a distributed packet determine appropriate outgoing to the ofeachreceived thedestination address processing to by locally stored information deterlink. The outgoinglink is selected pathprovidesminimum delayto the destination. mine which Therouting criteria are routinelyupdated includeboth the operational to status(health)andthe sizeof the queues the neighboring routingdecisions adjusted rapidly enough nodes. are in The packets a singlemessage follow dffirent pathsthroughthenetmay of thatindividual quicklyto changes networktoin work. Dynamicrouting,with its ability to respond for pology or traffic conditions,is one of the original featuresespoused packet inherent the in considered be to switching.In fact, dynamicroutingwas $ometimes network. definitionof a packet-switching in to attraction ofbeing ableto adjust rapidfluctuations trafIn spiteofthe obvious One routinghasa number significant fic patterns, dynamic of drawbacks. implication through netpackets a message follow different in routes the of allowingsuccessive to may arriveat a destination of sequence. out Althoughsequence work is thatpackets process compliproperly, reassembly is are the numbers usedto rearrange packets the

464

DATAANDASYNCHFIoNoUSTHANSFEFMoDENETwoFKS

cated, particularly since the destination does not know if a missing packet is merely delayedor lost entirely. Another drawback to dynamic routing is the possibility of oscillation occuring in the routing decisions.Ifthe bandwidth assignedto updating the routing control algorithms is too small, a lightly loaded node will attract more traffic than it can handle before neighboring nodes are informed of the change in the traffic flow. In this instance,a packet might even wind up at a node from which it has previously been sent. Purely distributed control, in general,and dynamic routing, in particular, also present difficulties with respect to flow control in a packet network. As mentioned in chapter 7, alternate routing in the switched telephone network is sometimes suspended when the network as a whole becomesoverly conge$ted(alternateroutes require more resources).obviously, the same principle applies to a packet-switching network' Flow control in packet networks is discussedin later sections. Dynamic routing is most appropriatefor small networks or in a military environment where survivability of the network in the presenceof muttiple-node failures is a requirement' A military network i$ typically more concernedwith reliable 4d timely completion of a few important messagesthan with achieving the highest possible throughput from a given amount of resources.

Virtual Circults
A virtual circuit network embodiessome of the basic aspects both circuit switching of and packet switching. The transmissioncapacity is dynamically assignedon an ,.asneeded"basis,but all packetsof a multipacket message follow the sarneroute through the network. Before interactive communication begins, a route is establishedthrough the network, and all participating nodesare informed of the "connection" and how to route the individual packets that follow. From then on, all packets flowing between the two end points follow the sameroute through the network. In essence, virtual cira cuit is a logical concept involving addresses and pointers in the nodesofthe network but no dedicatedtransmission facilities. At the end of a connection (or ..session"in datacommunicationsterminology), a virtual circuit is released a ..disconnect"me$by sagepropagating through the network. Except in the caseofpermanent virnral circuits, separate connections,or sessions, involving the sametwo endpoints do not necessarilyuse identical paths thrcugh the network' Each virtual circuit is establishedduring the call establishmentphase depending on the traffic pattern$at the time. Thus a virtual circuit network can respond to network failures or changing traffic patterns,but in a longer time frame than a dynamically routed network. When virtual circuits are changedfrom one connectionto the next, the mode of operation is sometimesreferred to as a switched virtual circuit networkby direct analogy to conventional circuit swirching. Virtual circuits can be establishedusing either distributed or cenffalized conffol. when distributed control is used,the call establishmentmessage propagatesthrough the network with eachnode making a local decision as to which outgoing link should be selected.

10.2 PACKET swtrcHtNc

465

As discussed Chapter7 concerningconventionalcircuit-switched networks, cenin tralized call establishmenthas the basic advantageof being able to setup circuits with a networkwide view of network statusand traffic patterns.The TYMNET network of the United States[3] and the DATAPAC network of Canada[4] are examplesof virtual circuit, packet-switchednetworks with centralizedconffol. phaseofa virtual circuit represents excessiveoverhead Sincethe call establishment for single-packetme$sages, virtual circuit mode of operationis obviously most usea or ful when a network servicesa relatively large number of multiple-packet messages Thus a dual-mode network is suggestedrequiring vittual circuits for longer $essions. messages and immediate transmission with dynamic routing for single-packetmessages.In this instance, the single-packetmessagesare usually referred ta as datagrams. One of the main advantagesof a virtual circuit operation is its ability to provide more orderly control of packet delivery. If a node in a virtual circuit never forwards a packet pertaining to a particular connection until the previous packet has been acofa virtual circuit knowledged,packetscannotarrive out oforder. A secondadvantage individual packets.Once a virtual circuit has is the reducedaddressing requirementsof been established, are complete destinationaddresses no longer neededin the packets. virtual circuit identifiers can be used that are local In place of destination addresses, in to each link. In essence, virtual circuit identifier$ are pointers to memory addresses the call processorsof the packet-switching nodesor to look-up tables in ATM nodes. contain the pertinent information conceming the The designatedmemory addresses actual source,destination,and routing of the packets.Another important feature of a viftual circuit operationis its inherent ability to aid in flow control, as discussedin the next section. The main disadvantageof a virtual circuit operation is the possibility of greater transmission delays. When a path for a virtual circuit is established,it is chosen to minimize the delay through the network under the traftic pattems at that time. If the traffic pattems change,packets pertaining to a particular virtual circuit may experiencelong queuing delays on some links while alternatelinks are more lightly loaded. Yum and Schwartz [5] report that analysesof routing techniquesfor severalsmall network configurationsindicate a packetdelay improvement of lA-ZlVa is possiblewhen adaptiverouting is used in lieu of a fixed routing rule. of might seemto be a disadvantage a virWhen first considered,call establishment require sometype tual circuit network. Actually, however, flow control considerations mes$ageto determine the statusof the destination nodes before a of query/response $ourceis allowed to begin sendinga packet $trearn.Thus the control overheadand the "connection" is usually a fundamentalrequirement, with settingup a delay associated even in a dynamically routed network.

Fixed-PathRoutlng exbasic circuitnetwork concepts a virnral of Fixed-path routing embodies same the use between twoendpoints always the ceptsuccessive any connections,sessions, or

466

DATAANDAsyNcHRoNousTHANsFEBMoDENETWoRKS

samepath' In essence fixed-path network is one that assignspemanent virtual cira cuits to eachpair of endpoints. One attractive f'eatureof a fixed-path network is the absenceof the call establishment phaseof a virtual circuit network. However, unlessthe necessary resources are perrnanently allocated, a "clear-to*transmit" messageis needed before sending packets.Inactive virtual circuits do not tie up network resource$in the samemanner as conventional circuits, but each virtual circuit does require transmission capacity and store-and-forwardbuffers in a probabilistic sense.If minimum gradesof service (delay times) are to be guarauteed, network mu$t limit the number of virtual circuits a existing at any particular time. Hence clear-to-tranrrmitsignals are neededbefbre a fixed-path circuit becomesactive. of course,a network can provide two modesof operation: permanentlyactive (hot line) virtual circuits and virtual circuits activatedand deactivatedas needed. An obvious disadvantage a purely-fixed-path network, as describedso far, is its of vulnerability to node or link failures. To circumvent this problem, a network control centerusually assignssemipennanent pathsthrough the network that arechangedonly when necessaryfor failure survivability or maintenance.Some older message-switching networks were implemented with fixed-path routing in the strict sense.This mode of operationwas more appropriateto merrsage-switching networks becausemessage delivery was less time critical and could be deferred while repairs were undertakenfor inoperative equipment.

10.2.4 Flow Control

As discussed ChapterT concerningconventionalcircuit-switched networks, routing in and flow control are two closely related operationalrequirementsof any communications network. The same basic principlb fbr controlling the flow in circuit-switched networks also appliesto packet-switchednetworks. Namely, wheneverthe network is experiencingexcessivesffess,either from a loss ofcapacity due to failures or from an abnormally heavy demand fbr services,new service requestsmust be blocked at the periphery of the network before they tie up common reriources and compoundthe congestion. In a packet-switchednetwork, the common resourcesare store-and-forward buffers and transmissionlinks. Flow control in a packet network is primarily concernedwith buffer managemenr. For example, if all store-and-forwardbuffers in adjacent nodes become filled with packetsdestinedto eachother, the nodesare unable to receive additional packets,and a deadlockexists.Recall that, in pure packet switching, a node doesnot releasea buffer as soon as it transmits a packet.The buffer is releasecl when an acknowledgmentis returned from the adjacentnode. If a receiving node has no availablebuffers, it cannot accepta new packet and thereforecannot acknowledgeit. (Framerelay anclATM net_ works describedlater do not provide node-by-nodeerror control so they do not save copies of messages internal nodesof the network.) in Flow control requirementsimply that interface nodesin a packet-switchednetwork are aware of overload conditions and refusenew requestsfor service until the conges-

10.2 PACKET SWITCHING467 tion is relieved. A parficularly attractive feature of a virtual circuit network is that the call establishmentphaseprovides an automatic meansof determining whether or not a particular requerttshould be serviced.If no path through the network can be established becausethe interior nodes are too conge$ted,the request is rejected. On the other hand, if a virtual circuit is established,there is reasonableexpectation that the entire requestwill be serviced in a timely manner. Unless network nodes are very conservativein acceptingrequest$for new virtual circuits, the ability to set up a circuit does not guaranteethe avoidanceof excessive congestion or deadlocks.A node acceptsa new virnral circuit based on an expected load and its capacity to service that load. If the tratfic volume and pattems happento exceedthe expectedload, excessivedelay or congestionis possible. Virtual circuits are an effective means of conrolling the flow of multiple-packet mes$ages, they representtoo much overheadfor single-packetor datagramflow but control. If a virtual circuit network must supporta significant number of single-packet and forego the call mes$ages, can allow immediate transmissionof thesemes$ages it phase. In terms of transmission overhead, a datagram is not much establishment greater than a call establitrhmentpacket. Thus, from this point of view, the packet might as well be sent immediately and be consideredits own circuit setup message. is In terms of store-and-forwardbuffers, however, a single-packetmessage much different from a call establishmentpacket.A call establishmentpacket requiresa certain amount of storage and processing by the call processor of each network node it reaches,but it does not compete for store-and-forward buffers as does a me$sage node, can packet. Ifnecessary,a call establishment message be ignoredby an overloaded and the originating node times out waiting for the network respon$eand reissuesthe request.The time out should be long enough that the network has had a chanceto rela,r. packet is ignored by an overIn confrastto call establishmentpackets,if a message loaded node,congestionmigratesto the node that last transmittedthe packet,sincethis node is holding a copy of the rejectedpacketin a buffer. The buffer cannotbe released cannot be allowed to enter the until an acknowledgmentis received.Hence datagram$ exists.When the network is network unlessa reasonable chancefor complete passage heavily congested,attemptsto set up virtual circuits might also be suspended. A conventional circuit-switched network is unconcerned with flow control bethe tween the endpoints of a connection since, once the circuit is established, activity or inactivity ofthe endpointshas no effect on other connectionsor on the network as a whole. End users necessarily administer flow control between themselves so the sourcedoesnot overrun the receive buffers of a sink. Theseproceduresconcern only the endpoints. In contrast,the very nature of a packet-switching network implies direct involvement with endpoint activity. If a sourcepumps excessivetraffic into a network, other users experiencedegradedperformance.Hence interfacesto a packet-switching network necessarilyinclude flow control for respecfivesources.Source flow control establishesa maximum data rate for a network, If a sink acceptsdata at a lower rate for period of time, this fact must be communicatedto the network node serva sustained ins the sourcein order to slow the sourcedown.

468

DATAANDAsyNcHRoNoUsTRANSFEHMoDENETwoRKS

store-and-forward buffers of a packet-switching network are neededfor communications purposesand are not used as a storagemedium for messages. a packetIf switching network also provides message-switching services, message srorage functions should be implemented separatelyfrom the communications buffers. Then. the packet-switching network is used to transfer data to the message$toragefacility. Another implication of maximizing store-and-forwardbuffer utilization is the need to wait until a sink is ready to acceptdata before a sourcebegins sending.Ifa sink is not ready, packetsget stuck in store-and-forwardbuffers at the far end of a network and cause congestion. Thus some form of request-to-transmit/clear-to-transmit sequence is needed before messagetransmission begins. This requirement is independentof the routing algorithms employed in the network. Hence,in actual practice, the setting up of a virtual circuit may not representa time penalty. single-packet meri$ages (datagrams)can be an exception. If they are ffansmitted without a clear-to-transmitsignal, they may be discardedat the destinationnode if the sink is inactive or has no receive buffers available.The destinationnode then needsto return a rejection messageto the sourceindicating the statusof the sink. In this manner, the message itself is a requerrt-to-transmit signal. The ARpANET useda flow conhol strategy wherein single-packetmessagesserye a$ their own requestsfor buffer storagebut multiple-packet messages require preallocatedbuffers in groups of eight at the destination[6, 71. Flow control in TYMNET is implemented in a different mannerbecauseof its exclusive use of virtual circuits for all messages. Before any node in the network can send a packet to a neighboring node, it must receive a clear-to-transmit signal from the neighboring node for the particular virtual circuit. The clear-to-transmit signal is an indication that a specified number of store-and-forwardbuffers are being held in reseryefor that particular virtual circuit. After a node sendsthe specified number of packets,it sendsno more until anotherclear-to-transmitsignal is received (indicating the previous packetshave been forwarded or more buffers have been allocatedto the virtual circuit). By using the samenode-to-nodemethod of flow control at the interface betweenthe network and the users,a very solid end-to-endflow control strategy is established. The TYMNET flow control strategyis somewhatconservativein that it may allocate store-and-forwardbuffers to one virtual circuit while another virtual circuit has more use for them (possibly causinga decrease line utilization). This conservatism. in however, provides a number of useful features: l. Networkwide flow control is established automatically by the flow control within each virtual circuit. 2. Under light traffic conditions, packet flow within each virtual circuit adjusts automatically to the maximum rate that the sourceand sink can support.If only a few virtual circuits exist, a relatively large number ofbuffers can be assigned to each circuit, allowing the retum of more frequent clear-to*transmitsignals. 3. If a sink stopsacceptingpacketsfor somereason,this condition propagates back to the sourceby way of cessationof clear-to-transmit signals. Thus the source

SWITCHING 469 10.2 FACKET

is whenall allocated buffersarefuIl. This principleof operation stopssending to sometrmes referred asbackpressure. its lockups 4 . As long as a nodeneverovercommits buffers,store-and-forward buffers data, $tore-ard-forward the cannot occur.Ifseveralsinksstopaccepting to assigned the particularvirtual circuits get filled and becomeunavailable. throughtheir own can Othervirtual circuits,however, maintaintransmission buffers. assigned 5 . The mechanism is fail-safe in the $ense that positive indications (clear-to-transmit signals) are needed before packets are forwarded to flow nodes. Whennetworklinksareoverloaded, controlbandwidth neighboring packet requirements minimal. If flow control signals stop altogether, are transmission stops.

10.2.5 X.25
a in protocolestablished 1976for accessing public packetX.25 is an ITU standard procedure balanced switchingnetwork.The datalink layer of X.25 is link acce$s protocol (LAPB) usinghigh level datalink control(HDLC). HDLC is a bit-oriented (SDLC)established Data defined Synchronous Link Protocol based thepreviously on (SNA) networks. HDLC hasbeconte NetworkArchitecture by IBM for Synchronous The applications. data thedatalink protocolof choicefor numerous communications operationbetween two endsof the aspect LAPB refersto a peer-oriented balanced of the a modeof operation primarynodecontrols link for one thelink. In anunbalanced nodes. or moresecondary packets As in is Thebasicformatof anHDLC packet shown Figure10.5. indicated, between by aredelimited a staflingandan endingfiag (01I I I I 10).The datastream algoflag from includinganinadvertent by azerobit insertion the flagsis precluded by a rithm. Whenever stringof five ls occurin thedatastream 0 is inserted the source a after a node.The receivingnoderemoves 0 occurringafterfive ls. If a 1 is present not five ls, it mustbe the sixth I of a flag andis therefore removed. of in Theaddress is typically8 bitslongbutcanbeextended increments 8 bits. field typiThe information field canbe anynumberof bits long,but specificapplications in cally define a maximumlength.The informationfield is nonexistent a conhol a packet. Theframecheckfield contains l6-bit CRCbut canbe 32 bits long in some

Fleg

AddruE$

Control

lnformation

I Frums ch6ck

Flag 0 11 11 1

01111110

N(S)

rtf

N(R)

l-forffat mntrol fi6ld

Figure 10.5 HDLC frameformat,

47O

DATAANDASYNCHHoNoUSTFANSFER MoDENETWoRKS

applications.The control field is 8 or 16 bits long. Informarion in the control field is formatted in various ways dependingon whether the packet is an information packet or a control packet.control formats are designatedby a leading l. Figure 10.5 shows the format for a information packet (I-format) as designatedby the leading 0 in the control field. The P/F field is a single bit used for polling. The N(S) and N(R) fields contain sequence numbersusedfor both error conffol and tlow control. The length of N(s) and N(R) is 3 or 7 bits dependingon the size of conhol field in use.* For illusftative purposes,the following discussionassumesthe use of 3-bit fields. Every time a source sendsa packet containing information, it increments N(S) modulo 8. When a destination receives a packet with a valid check sum and the next expectedsequence number, it returns that sequence number to the source in its outgoing N(R) field. Thus, a sourcenode knows that the destinationhascorrectly received every hansmitted packet up to and including the packet with the sequence number N(R) in its incoming packets.If one or more packetshave been received in error, the value of N(R) returnedto a destinationdoesnot changeuntil the sourcetimes out and reffansmits the packets beginning with the last received N(R) value plus I. [All packetsafter a lost or comrpted packet are retransmittedbecausethe destination ignores packetswith an out-of-sequencevalue in the incoming N(S)]. with a 3-bit length for N(s) a sourcecan have a maximum of sevenpacketsoutstanding at any particular time. (A particular sequence number cannot be reuseduntil an acknowledgmentfor the previous one has been received.) Beyond the maximum number of outstandingpackets determinedby the length of the sequence fields, particular applicationsmay be configured for a smaller number of outstandingpacketsfor flow control and reducing the amount of memory neededby a sourceto hold copies of unacknowledgedpackets.Whateverthe value of the maximum number of outstanding packets is, a destination is expectedto be able to receive that number as a burst. The destinationdoesnot have to immediately acknowledgea valid received packet if it is congestedand wants to free up rerrources before receiving more packets.If a system is configured with a maximum number of outrrtanding packetsthat often exceeds the capacity of a receiver,the systemworks but the sourcespendsa lot of time retransmitting packets that were discarded by the destination becauseit had no resources (memory) to store them, x.25 permits a user on an x.25 network to communicatewith a number of remote locations simultaneously. connections occur on logical channels of two types: switched virtual circuits (svcs) or permanentvirtual circuits (pvcs). svcs require a connection establishmentprocessbefore data can be transferred.A PVC is similar to a leasedline in that the connectionis permanently establishedby network administration. Therefbre, data can be sent without connection setup. To establish a connection on an svc, the originator sendsan x.25 call request packet, which includes the addressof the remote destination.The destinationdecides whether or not to acceptthe call (the call requestpacket includes the originator's address and possibly other information that the destination can use to decide to accept
-Use ofHDLC on high-speedfiber links has led to the use ofeven larger sequence numbers becausea large number of frames can be in fiansit on the link.

SWITCHING 471 10.2 PACKET

packetor rejected returning by by the call). A call is accepted returninga call accepted packet. a clearrequest 10.2.6 Frame Relay functions evolvedto providedataprocessing networks file $ervers and As local area LANs at separate became sites somemeims interconnecting of within a corporation, LAN interconnection threewaysof accomplishing Figure10.6illustrates necessary. utilizesa public network(WAN). Thefust method widearea a to implement colporate between LANs. This approach the (X.25)packet-switching networkto relaymessages interconnectof is a usefulonefor limitedamounts inter-LANtaffic. It alsofacilitates tokenrings,or tokenbuses)LANs (suchasEthernets, ing two or moredissimilar

Public packet network

(a)

LAI{ I

Lsasd digital lire (b)

LA}-I2

Frame relay network

(c)

methods:(a) through x,25 packet-switching Figure 10.6 LAN-Io-LAN interconnectron line; (c) tfuoughframerelaynetwork. leased netowrk;(b) through

472

DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWoRKS

becausethe X.25 interface of each LAN acts as a data link layer protocol converter. The main drawback is the cost and slow responsefor high-bandwidth ffansfers. The secondapproachof interconnectingthe two LANs is to use a leasedline. obviously this approachis more cost effective if large amountsof dataare transferredbetween the two locations. The LANAVAN interface equipment used to connect to the leased line will vary depending on the nature of the individual LANs and how the LANs and WAN are administered.Functional possibilities for the LAN-WAN interface are bridges, routers, or switches.The speedchosenfor the leasedline inevitably requires compromising performanceobjectives with cost. The third method of interconnectingthe LANs is to use a frame relay service of a common carrier. Framerelay serviceswere developedspecifically to addressLAN in_ terconnection and are available from all major common carriers. Frame relay is a packet-rtwitchingprotocol but is faster than traditional X.25 networks because does it not provide error control. Error control at the data link layer (e.g., HDLC of x.25) requires receipt of an entire packet before it can be forwarded from one link to another. Frame relay also supports shortenedaddressprocessingwith a data link connection identifier (DLCI) field in rhe headerwhich identifies a pvc. The frame relay prorocol is defined by the ANSI Tl.618 standardand ITU Recommendation e.922. The PVC feature of frame relay permits the functional equivalent of a leased-line connection but much more cost effectively for high-rate, bursty traffic. Furthermore, a single frame relay accessdevice (FRAD) can achieve connectivity to multiple remote LANs by using a different DLCI for eachremote LAN. Frame relay nodescan processthe simpler addressformat and switch an incoming messagedirectly to an outgoing line as it is being received. The elimination of error control- at the datalink layer of a network protocol reflects the fact that the underlying transmissionfacility, fiber, is essentiallyerror free. In this environment it is more efficient to move effor control to a higher level (e.g., an application layer). when infrequent errors occur, the application can invoke error control as appropriate to the application. Example 10.1. Determine the amount of transmission capacity required to refransmitframesof1000bitsof datainanetworkwith l0tandemlinkseachof which has bit error probability IO"t. (a) Assume link-by-link enor conrrol. (b) Assume end-to-endenor control. (c) Repeatthe calculationsfor a bit error probability of l0-5. Solution, (a) with link-by-linkerrorcontroltheprobability abit errorin of a frameis 1000 x

10-8= l0*s. Theexpected number bits of transmission of capacity required to rerransmir l0-5 x 1000= 0.01bit/link. is (b) with end-to-end error conffol the probability of a comrpted frame is 10x tO-s = l0+. The expected retransmission capacityrequiredis lO-a x = 1000 0.1biilink.

CRCsareincludedin framesof framerelay data,but a framerelay nodedoesnot request retransmission a if an error is detected.

10.2 PACKET SWITCHING 473

(c) With a bit enor rare of 10-5, the respective calculations are 10 bits/link for link-by-link conffol and 100 bitsflink for end-to-endcontrol. Example 10.I illustrates that with very Iow bit error probabilities both forms of error conffol require insignificant amounts of transmissioncapacity for frame retransmissions.Thus, from a transmissioncapacity point of view there is no reasonto use linkby-link effor control. On transmission links with higher rates, a$ in Tl lines with marginal error perfbrmance,link-bylink error control is obviously desirable,pruticularly in a packet network where packetsmight be larger than 1000 bits. 10.2.7 TCP/IP

The original networking protocol of the ARPANET was designatedNetwork Control the Protocol (NCP). While this protocol addressed needsof a single network, it could communicating from one network to another.The desireto not be usedas a meansof develop a protocol that would allow communication from a node in one network to a node in another network led to the eventual development of Transmission Control Protocolflntemet Protocol (TCP/IP) [8]. TCP/IP replacedNCP in ARPANET hostson I, January 1983. TCP/IP is a protocol that can be used within a network, but more importantly, it hetween two netwOrks'"Thus, the Internet can be used as a prOtocolto Communicate is composedof many networks that communicatewith eachother using TCP/IP. Foremost among these many networks are LANs. The Internet is yet another way for interconnecting LANs. ftr conftast to fhe creafion of a corporate WAN using frame relay, LAN interconnection via ttre Internet is primarily intended to crossco{porateboundaries. As defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), TCP/F usesvariablelength packetsthat are processedwith basically one class of service:best-effort routing. A user datagramprotocol (UDP) replacesTCP when real time servicessuch as voice or video are carried. UDP has no reffansmissions.Before Voice on the Infernet (VoIP) can be realized for somethingapproachinguniversal service,the routers must be extencled support a new class of service: one with controlled delay, delay varito A ation, and delivery guarantees. first attempt to addressthe quatity-of-service issue was a propo$edmodification of TCPIP with a Reservation Protocol (RSVP). This was ap-proac:h determinedunsatisfactorybecauseit required changing all nodes in a "differentiated service" network simultaneously [9]. A more practical approachis a (DiffServ) enhancement TCP/IP. to When considering the viability and expected quality of service of packetized between IP telephony and Internet speech,it is worthwhile to consider the difTerence telephony. IP telephony refers to carrying packetizedspeechin an IP network. Ifthis network is wholly containedwithin one organization,commonly referred to as an intranet, it is more likely that a relatively high level quality of service can be provided. Packetizedspeechcarried over the Internet that traverse$multiple, autonomou$net*Th" m,r*t *pp*unt aspectof TCP/IP to a uscr is the Universal ResoutceLocator (URL), with the following The address.tld (.top level.domain) identifies a location on format: filetype://www.address.tld/resource. the web while everything after thc back slash identities a resource(e.g., a frle) inside the location.

474

DATAANDASyNcHRoNousTRAN$FEHMoDENETWoHKS

works is much more difficult to rnanage,particularly when economic considerations for allocation ofcosts and revenuesare considered.For a description ofmany ofthe technical considerationsforpacketized voice seereference [10].

10.3 ASYNCHRONOUS THANSFERMODE NETWORKS In contra$t TCP/IP,theAsynchronous to Transfer Mode(ATM) networkarchitecture incorporated features supporting for real-time traffic suchasvoiceandvideoin theinitial implementation. principalaspects ATM directed real-time$uppofi The of to are short,fixed-sized packets (cells),shortheaders, no link-byjink errorcontrol.* and ATM is a standardized architecture packet-oriented of transmission switching and originallyproposed a Broadband for Integrared servicesDigital Network(BISDN). ATM hassincebeenexpanded scope supporta wide varietyof seruice in to types; wideband, narrowband, bursty,non-reartime,andrealtime.The synchronous TDM (circuit-switched) networkthatevolved primarilyfor voiceservices supports same the services with external adaptations, theadaptations but comefrom u u*i"ty of suppliersnecessitating need multiple,nonintegrated, the for nonsiandardized equipment and support.ATM standardizes wide rangeof services definingquality-of-service the by re_ quirements variousnaffic qrpes. fbr The quality-of-service pu*-rt ru specificallyin_ tended voiceservices maximumdelay,delayvariation, cell losi probability. far are and 10.3.1 ATM Cells TheATM transmission formatconsists fixed-size of cellsof 53 byteseach. shown As in Figure10.7, therearefive overhead byteswithin eachcell, wtrichteads 4g bwes to of payloadper cell' The useof fixed-sized cells for all applications facilitates hardware-only implementations switching of functions (queuing transfer;. and Cell Loss Prlority Thecell losspriority (CLP)bit in thecell header usedto identifyrwo basicclasses is of service with respect discarding cellswithin a network. to of when a cell with a cl-p valueof I arrivesat a heavilycongested networkelement, cellcanbediscarded that to relievecongestion higherpriority traffic (e.g.,cellswith cl-p = 0). cells with a cl-p for valueof 0 areneverdiscarded unless cellswith lowerpriority areaheady atl discarded. 10.3.2 ATM Service Gategoriee ATM services categorized theATM forum Il l, 121) thefollowing caregories are (by into related the statistical to nature thedataraterequirements therespective of of sources and thequalityof selvice(Qos) thatthenetworkcanprovidefor those$ervices:
-TCP/IP also defets eror control to the application but has variable-sized packets and a relatively complicated header format.

NETWOHKS 476 MODE TRANSFER 10,3 ASYNCHRONOUS

Bits 5 4

Floru Control VirtualPath tdentifier

ldentifier VidualPath

ViduafChar ldentifier rnel Type Payload HeaderEnorCheck Payload CLF

3 4 5 I Byr"*

Payload

5S

CLP,cell lossprioriry' FlgureI0.7 ATM cellformat; (CBR) services Constant-bit-rate (VBR) services Variable-bit-rate Availablebit rate(ABR) services bit Unspecified rate(UBR) services Con stant-Bit-Bate Servl cee datarateassuming a is a An application requesting CBR service guaranteedspecified (i.e.,ttrenetworkcanpreallocate sufficientresources is request accepted the service TDM service. CBR is Thus,a CBR service similarto a synchronous for therequest). fo are services specificallydesigned emulatecircuit switching.A CBR application send rate cannot the exceed specified (i.e.,thepeakcell rate)but neednot necessarily are CBR services differentfrom synchronous rate.In this sense, dataat the specified of has TDM services-if a source periods time in which thereareno dataavailable, for may be released otherapplications' capacity the channel Va riable-Eit-Rate Se rulcee real into VBR services separated two distinctcategories: time (rt-VBR) andnonare with are (fft-VBR). Thert-VBR services for burstyapplications tightly conrealtime sqchasvoice or video.The main QoS delayvariationrequirements strained delayand

476

DATAANDASyNcHRoNousTRANSFEFMoDENETwoRKS

parameter an rt-vBR service the maximumcell transfer of is delay(maxcTD).The nIt-VBR services for burstydatatransmission are applications with no particular deIay requirements. wheneveran rt-vBR or nrt-vBR service request accepted, foltowingthree is the parameters agreed are uponfor source transmission statistics: Peakcell rate(pCR) Sustainable rate(SCR) cell Maximumburstsize(MBS) As long asthe sourceadheres the abovestatisticalparameters, networkis comto the mitted to carryingthe traffic. Avallable Blt Rate Serulces ABR services intended non-real-time are for applications operate that between minia mum andmaximum dataratespecified a minimumcell rate(MCR) parameter by and a PCRparameter' essential An aspect ABR services theneed feedback of is for signals within thenetworkto controltheflow of datafrom theABR sources. networkdvThe namically allocates additional resources ABR services to (beyond those MCn,up_ for port)whentheadditional resources available soinformstheABR sources are and with thefeedback mechanism. Unspeclfled Blt Rate Seruices UBR services inherently are intended non-real-time for applications whereinno ripecific qualityof service desired implied.Neitherdelayparameters cell lossrais or nor tios (cLRs) are specified. a networkbecomes If overly ctngested, cells from uBR applications discarded the network(asopposed confrollingthe flow of the are by to UBR source)' when a UBR application negotiates connection, pcR parameter a a valuemay be providedby the network,whichprovides application the with an indicationof thethroughput canbe expected. followinginoicates that The whicheos pa_ rameters relevant theATM classes service. are to of

QoSParameter Gelllossratio(CLR) Celltransit (CTD) delay Celldelay (CDV) variation Peak rate(PCFI) cell Sustained rate(SCR) cell Burst (BT) tolerance Flowcontrol

CBH

N-VBH

nrt-VBR

X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X

477 10.3 ASYNGHHONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWORKS

10.3.3 ATMGonnectlong
mustmakea rewhich means that a source oriented, are ATM networks connection aroutethrough Networkcontroldetermines cells. before quest service transmitting for in (in a statistical probabilistic sense) response or resources thenetworkandallocates mode in a connectionless LANs typicallyoperate In reque$t. cOntrast, to eachservice theneedarises' whenever data unconskained to a destination sends whereina $ource (VCCs)and connections virtualchannel ATM supports typesof connections: two repretwo (VPCs).A VCC is a virtualcircuitbetween user$ virtualpathconnections two of a senting singlestream cells.WhentherearemultipleVCCsbetween common netas of a endpoints, VPC canbecreated a bundle VCCs.Theuseof VPCssimplifies nodesof an ATM networkbeof and management the operations intermediate work to as a cause VFC is processed a singleentity as opposed individualVCCs.Thus,a network' groupin a circuit-switched to VPC is analogous a trunk 10.3.4 ATM Switching cellsarrivingon one fabricis to transfer of Thebasicrequirement an ATM switching beforean mustbe processed incomingheaders link. Because physical link to another an througha switchand because outgoinglink is incomingcell can be fiansferred alwaysprovidesomeamountof delayin the switchlikely to bebusy,ATM sffuctures in functions provideboth space time switching and Thus,ATM switches ing process. 5. in described Chapter as manner TDM circuit switches a similar of and A significantdifference, complication, an ATM switch servicingstreaffr ATM cellscanarto videois that,in contrast TDM channels, traffic suchasvoiceor the greatlyincreases likelihood that a parphenomenon rive at irregularintervals.This The network. link interstage of a switching blockingon a shared ticularcell encounters queue blockedcellsuntil for basicsolutionto this problemis to addcell buffersa$a are path is free. Simplefirst-in, first-out (FIFO) queuingoperations the necessary disif networkefficiencyoccurs theFIFO but in readilyimplemented hardware better ablocked with anopenpathto bypass ciplineis modifiedto allow a cell in thequeue are implementations desirable. hardware Thus,morecomplicated ennl fl3, 141. of The principalaspects an ATM switchthat are differentfrom a TDM circuit switchare: to needs be information incomingtime slot soheader t . Thereis no preassigned incomingcells' to and extracted processed know whereto transfer slot for outgoingcells so the delay outgoingtime 2. There is no preassigned with queuing delayassociated waiting cellsis a variable involvedin transferring until theoutgoinglink is idle. differentthanwhat is informationin an outgoingcell is generally The header informationinto thetraffic header insertappropriate so received theswitchmust stream.

478

DATAANDAsYNcHHoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETwoRKs

economical design onein which all traffic is writteninto anareadfrom a cornmon is memory.In additionto the switchingfabric,a high-speed ATM switchmustimple_ mentothercell processing functions hardware. in These functions header acare e*t tion,header errorchecking, tablelookupfor routeinformation usingreceived virtual pathindicator(VPD or vcc, recording traffic usage of statisti"r,""ll queuing/rejec_ tion, insertion outgoing of vpl/vcc, andoutgoing checksum generation. Example10.?. Determine memoryspeed the requiredfor an ATM switchfabric using a shared-memory archite*urein supportof 12 srs-3 (oc-3) bidirecrional ports' Also determine numberof voice connections the that can-becarriedby this switch.Assume anactivevoicesignalrequires kbpsandthattheactivity that 12 factor is 40Vo. solution. Exceptforthegbytesofpathoverhead, byres alr ofan srs-3 payloadcan be usedfor ATM cells. Thus, each srs-3 input rink provides 260 x g/s3 44 cells/frame. partialframeis not carriedsocell boundaries be alignedwith (A can the startof thesrs-3 payload.) a S3-byte-wide If memory used storing cells,rhe is for the total access for l2 bidirectional rate porrsis 12x z x,44 xg000 = g.++t rralt. sinceeachATM cell provides bytesofpayload,the numberofvoice connec_ 4g tionsthatcanbe supported onesTS-3 is a4 x 4g x g x g0fi)/12,000/0.4 by = 2g,160 connections. totalcapacity the switchis 337,g20 The of voicecalls. It is interesting compare results Example10.2with a circuitswitch to the of design for 64-kbpsvoicechanners. using a standard soNET multiprexing format,a single srs-3 caniesthreeDS3 signals (2016voicechannels). sirnitarty,*a srs-3 (e.g.,an srM-1) carries singleB$ signalwith 1920voicechannels. eithercase, a In thecapac_ ity of each ATM link is over10timesthecapacity theconventional of circuit-switched architecture usingthe samedatarate.The advanfege comesfrom a combination of compressing speech takingadvantage voiceinactivity. the and of A memoryswitchfor 12x 2016= z4,rgzchannels requires access of 3g7 an rate MHz, whichis muchgreater thantheg.44g-MHz access of theATM switch,even rate though totalcapacity muchless. reason thehighaccess ofthe circuit the is The for rate switchis thatonly 8 bitsarebeingswitched a time.rr muttiptebyteswereaccumuat latedand switched througha wider memory,asin the eru case, access of ttre rate the circuit switchwouldbe reduced accordingly. circuit switches havenot beenim_ plemented with wider ffansfers preventthe insertion extracircuit delay.Voice to of interfaces ATM networks to necessarily require echocanceler accommodate an to the delay. Example10'?is a nonblocking switchasfar asinternal operations theswitchare of concerned' However, a largeburstof kaffic arrivesat oni particular if outputport, it maybe thatsome cellsarediscarded because queue thatparticular the for port is full.

ATM ltlemory Switch As is thecase TDM circuitswitches, of ATM switches memory use switching the to maximum po$sible. longasthememory extent As speeds support traffic, most the the

4Ig 10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWORKS

ports,otheroutgoingportsareoperating for Noticethat if traffic is beingqueued some belowtheircapacity. The amountof variationin the traffic flow on outgoingATM links is a directfuncinvolvedin settingup concontrol(CAC) process admission tion of the connection arrival VPCshaverelativelyconstant are If nections. all connections VPCsandthese channels variable-rate the data rates(because aggregate rateof multiple, independent of resources thenetworkwill beefficientlyutilized the is fairly constant), transmission (and largerqueues queue If thetraffic arrivalsarehighly variable, sizes. with modest link to achieve high transmission utilization. largerdelays) required are consequently typesaregivenpriority so Whenthereis a mixtureof traffic types,the time-critical cells. to are cell lossandlong delays confined non-real-time-critical Spac*Memory Switch The implementationof large ATM switchesrequiresmultiple stagesof spaceand that manner largetime divisionswitches timesswitching(e.g.,buffering)in the same involves usefularchitecture One 5 in described Chapter areimplemented. particularly aS outputqueues' shown switchfollowedby separate TDM busasa $pace front-end a (S/P) to Theinputbusis synchronized series-to-Parallel circuitsofthe in Figure10.8. cell. Thus,thebusmust for everyreceived input portssothat a time slot is assigned via is Eachheader decoded a table of at operate rhetotal speed all incomingsignals. cellsfor restore only outputsotheoutputmemories look-upto select appropriate the outputports. spective shownin Figure architecture The main attractionof the multiple-output-memory broadcasting Furthermore, to 10.8is its ability to scale a largerangeof switchsizes. simullogic enable decode by andmulticasting easilysupported havingtheheader are does this Unfortunately, architecture notdo much writesinto multiplebuffer$. taneou$ the only to problems. Outputaccesses need support outputport speed to solvememory time mustsuppofrsuccessive slotson the bus. rate, transmission but input accesses acting caches with high-speed alleviated restrictions be somewhat can Memoryspeed in shown Figure the between busandlarger,sloweroutputbuffels,as buffers asspeed ofcell losswhen a Thecaches notaddmuchcell delaybutdorepre$entsource do 10.9. outputline' of onefills up because a burstto therespective

bufferATM swirch. Figure 10.t Input bus/output

480

DATAANDASYNCHBONOUS THANSFEH MODENETWORKS

Figure 10.9 Inputbus/output bufferATM switchwith caches.

coming cells are available to all output ports via separatepaths for each input. Each input path in each output port module is terminated in a separate cell buffer. Associated with each buffer is a table look-up function that selectsonly those cells destined to the respectiveoutput port$. Output data are selectedfrom the $eparate buffers as a cornmon queue,thereby pedorming a spaceswitch function. The main advantageof the configuration shown if Figure I 0. I 0 is that all data paths and memories operateat the external link speed.The basic disadvantageis the need for AP buffers (and AP headerprocessors),where N is the number orplrts. cell loss occurs when an incoming cell encountersa full buffer. The probability of this occurring is conkolled by how much traffic for a particula-r output is accepted from a particular input. The use of multiple, individual queues leads to smailer group sizes, which leadsto more total memory for a given cell loss probability. However, because the memories operateat relatively low speeds,the cost impact is minimizea. Notice that delay probabilities are determined by the total traffic ur.*pt-d for an ourput port in the samemiutner as previous con_figurations.*

Memory-SpaceSwitch Another version a two-stage switch shown Figure of ATM is in 10.10 wherein inall

ATM switcharchitectures singlestages space memoryswitchingareimwith of and practicalin termsof speed and/orhardware requirements whenvery large$ysrem$ are desired. is thecase As with circuit-switching architecture$, practic-aVeconomical more structures requiremultiple memorystages multiple space or stages-or both. one such architecture a counterpart a TST switch, the memory-space-memory is to (MSM) implementation shownin Figure10.I L Theinpurmemorystage anMSM of bufferscomplete cells of informationthat arequeued transfeithroughthe space for stage thenbufferedagainfor transfer and from the outputmemory.successive cells of aparticular connection notnecessarily are transfened through space thi smge any at palticularpredetermined time. As eachcell is received into an inpui buffer,a queue entryis madefor rheappropriate transferthrough space the stage. Support ormuitiple
*This assumesthat the separatebuffers associated with each output link are managed as a single FIFO queue for output purposes.

Mem ory-$ pace-l,ilem ry Switch o

481 10.3 ASYNCHFONOUSTBANSFERMODENETWORKS

ATM Flgure10.10 Multiple-memory swirch. (usuallysharing coilunonmemory a multipleinput queues reqUire of classes service element). the stage, dethroughthe space Beforea cell in an input buffer canbe transferred outputmemoryis busy, for mustbe available input.If the desired siredouput stage If cell blockingoccurs. another in the and the cell carnotbe transferred head-of-line cellsareblocked, whenoneor moreof the head-of-line can input queue be selected in are the impactof the blockingis minimized.Suchoperations ea$yto implement swirchesbut must be implementedin hardstore-and-forward computer-controlled to ATM switch. An altemativeapproach determiningif ware in a large,high-speed cellsthrough switch the is beforea hansfer madeis to blindly fransfer blockingexists andhaveblockedcells reenteran input polt though a recirculationpath,asshownin is of lossperformance sucha system very the Figure 10.12.Determining delay/cell on and complicated dependent theprobabilityof blocking andthenumberof cellsthat buffer(s). canentertherecirculation

ATM switch. Figure 10.11 Memory-space-nremory

482

DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTRANSFEFM0DENETWoRKS

Figurel0.l? Memory-space_memory withrecirculation. switch For bestperformance, inputcellsfrom all input linesof anMSM switchshould the be distributed across input buffersusing a front-endshuffledistributionswitch all decorrelates enhiesin an input queue [15]' This process the from the cell arrivalsof anyoneparticular input line. Recallthat a similaroperation advantageous TST is in switches reduceblocking probabilities individual channels a busy trunk to for of group. Thedesign a space of stage anMSM switchmatrixcanfollow anyoneof a vafor . riety of approaches, includinga single-stage square matrix or a multipie-stage clos network,asdescribed chapter5. with eitherof these in designs probabilityancl the treatment outputblockingcanbe minimized runningthe space of by stage fasterthan the cell rateof the extemalports(i.e.,with the MSM equivalent time expansion). of The existence expanded of opporhrnities space for stage transfers reduces probthe abilityof contention anoutput for bufferandminimizes delaywhencontention the occurs.A very significant consideration the space in stage design the complexityof is hardware control logic, particularrywhen multiple service Irioriti", and multiple pathsthroughthe switch areaccomrnodated. Banyan Network Swltch one approach implementing to modularspace stagestructures a banyan is network in U6l. As indicated Figure10.13, abanyan nerwork implemenred inrerconnecris by ing 2 x 2 switching elements multiple,recursive in stages. Noticethatthe g x g skuctureis implemented two 4 x 4 structures anadditional as and front-end srage select to eitherofthe two 4 x 4 structures from each input.Repeated replications first-stage and additions allow implementation arbitrarysizednetworks. of A banyan networkprovides accessibility thatanyinputcanbe connected full in to anyoutput. Noticethatthereis a unique pathbetween inputandanyoutput. any How-

483 10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFEFMODENETWORKS

-l-

r-t
Slraight
(a)

-Et*
Cross

(b) (b) statesl element connection network:(a) 2 x 2 switching Figure 10.13 Banyanswirching 8 x I network.

to If are ever,thenetworks not nonblocking. thefirst inputis connected thefirst outto put,for example, second the inputcanonlybeconnected oneofthe bottomfouroutinvolves network of puts.Onemethod overcoming blockingaspects thebanyan of the netto referred asBenes what aregenerally to tWo cascading suchsections produce of if networkis strictlynonblocking rearangement connections works[17]. A Benes a of is utilized.Anotheraugmentation a banyannetworkis to concatenate Batcher the orders Thefront-end sortingprocess a banyan network. sortingnetwork[18] with Anothermodiblocking. the through switchwithout cellssotheycanall betransferred is blockingproblems to addparallelnetworks networkto address ficationto a banyan referredto as switch planesto provide more pathsto an output.This latter approach in switchdescribed Chapto stages a multiple-stage to is identical addingmorecenter pathrouting. the compromises simplicityof unique this ter 5. Unfortunately, approach networkis the modularsimplicityof its control. of The basicattraction a banyan prothroughthe network,the table look-up process When a cell it to be transferred Thefirst bit defines the routingthrough network. ofbits for internal a sequence duces the of The bit element. second deflnes selection thesectheselection thefirst-stage of the front of the cell and to ond stageand so on. The routing information is appended at the is through switchonestage a time,with leadmessage transferred thecomposite networkutilizesdirectprogressive ing bits deleted they areused.Thus,a banyan as in switch,described Chapter step-by-step of controlreminiscent anelectromechanical to 5. Unfortunately,modificationsto the basicbanyanarchitecture provide multiple control. of pathscompromises simplicity anddistributedaspect the hardware the and havebeenproposed develvariety of otherATM switch architecfures A wide oped[19-23].

484

DATAAND ASYNcHRoNoUS THANSFER MoDENETWoHKS

10.3.5 ATMApplicarions
Although the basic ATM architectureis primarily directed to servicing data communications, the ATM architectureincludes provisions for other servicessuch as voice, video, and multimedia. Supportfor the various servicesis included in various versions of ATM adaptationlayers (AALs). service adaptationoccursat the periphery of a network in edgesswitches.Internal nodesof an ATM network (core switches)are unconcerned with the nature of the traffic other than supporting the eos objectives of the generalclassesof service.The role of AALs are shown in the functional layers of Figure 10.14 of the (ATM) Multi-service switching Forum (MSF) The generat [?4]. classesof service and the adaptationlayers to support theseservicesare identified as follows: AALI: Transport of cBR rraff,rc (program audio, video, and emulation of TDM-basedcircuits (i.e.,DSl, El). AAL2: Protocol standard for low-bit-rate and time-dependentvariable-bit-rate (VBR-rt) connection-orientedtraffic (compressed voice anclpacketizedvideo). AAL3/4: Protocol standard for supporting both connectionless and connection-orientedvBR traffic [primary application, switched Multimesabit Data Service(SMDS)1. AALS: Transport of vBR traffic anclsignaling messages (packet data, Ip, frame relay, LAN emulation).

CircuitEmulatlon Serulces A circuit emulation service (cES)t25lis used transport to TDM-based channels such asDSO, DSl, or El signals. processed cESsare according anAALI protocol. to A Applications Gontrol plf,ne Switching plane Adaptation plsne

Extemel interfaces
Figure 10.14 ATM functional implementation layers.

485 10.s ASyNcHFoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWoBKS

clock at the egress critical aspect a CES serviceinvolvesrecoveryof the source of depictsthreedifferentclock recoveryscepoint of the ATM network.Figure 10.15 The nariosdependent the natureof the networksynchronization. mostdesirable on in is situation shownin Figure 10.154, which the entirenetwork,includingthe data the primaryreference clock (PRC).In this case is to source, synchronized a common value output dataclock is derivedfrom the PRC andthereforehasthe sameaverage cell asthe source. long astheATM networkmeets delayvariation(CDV) criteria, As and cell absorbs arrivalvariations no AALI equipment the cell buffer in the egress data CDV requirements, slipsmayoccur. exceed dataarelost.If cell arrivalvariations to of the As is the casein TDM networks slipsshouldbe controlled consist integral data(e.g.,193bitsfor DSI or 256bitsfor El) to of of numbers frames theunderlying circuit. preclude of framingin the underlying loss whereinthe ATM networkis synl0.l5b showsa networkconfiguration Figure is PRCbut the datasource timedfrom someotherreference. chronized a common to (SRTSs). residual time stamps utilize synchronous ATM networks For this situation, at overhead cell datastream an ingress ofa into the inserted are SRTSs periodically by the data AALI candetermine average rateof thesource dividing AALI. Theegress by SRTSs thetimeintervaldesuccessive between data theamount source received of on and depends the ingress egress Noticethatthe useof SRTSs finedby the SRTSs. to PRC. equipment beingsynchronized a common and egress casein which the ingress Figure 10.15c depictsthe most undesirable (PRCI andPRCZ). this case, In adaptive references by nodes controlled separate are dataclock. Adaptiveclockinginvolvesa clockingis utilized to recoverthe source measphase-locked (PLL) with the fill levelof thecell bufferprovidinga phase loop fill average filter is usedto determine long-term the A very low bandwidth urement. outputclock of the VCO. Jitterin the the establishes recovered level,which in tum and hy derivedclockis easilycontrolled usinga large-cell-buffer narrow-bandwidth (wander) caused irregularcell arby variations clock low-frequency PLL. However, on clock.Depending the appli to ransferred thederived rival timesareunavoidably problems. a DSI signal,for If downstream cation,thewandermay or may not cause to no into demultiplexed analogsignals, impairments voice is example, immediately (beaffected maybe adversely modems voiceband channels arisebut high-speed will passed is phase). theDSI signal instead If reference to cause impairments thecarrier of interface store to contribute slipsin theelastic machine, wandermay the to a switching comrptvoicebut of theswitch.Again,slipsdo not impairvoicesignals significantly banddata. LAN Emulatlon the applications, ATM and with LAN protocols established To providecompatibility how EthForumcreated protocol,calledLAN Emulation(LANE), which defines a overanATM datacanbecarried and ernet(IEEE802.3) tokenring LAN (IEEE802.5) LAN-to-LAN connecFigure10.16 showhow anATM networkcanprovide network. (ATM to thedesktop). conThe directlyto workstations tivity aswell asconnectivity LANs is simulatedin a manner that first nectionless nature of contemporary

DATAANDASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODENETWOFKS

(a)

(b)

lPRcTl
.;

(c) Figure 10.15 Synchronization circuitemulation of (a) services: fully synchronized network; (D)unsynchronized (sRTsderived source clock);(c) unsynchronized ATM gateways (adaptive clocking).

487 10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWOBKS

EnterpriseLAtl

usingATM LAN emulation. Figure 10.16 LAN interconnection

(SVCor PVC)to an addressed If station exists. so, already if determines a connection and Otherwise, SVCis first established then an is anATM message sent thestation. to in client (LEC) is established everyLAN atthe message sent.A LAN Emulation is are typesof LAN Emulationservers usedto tachment the ATM network.Several to and LAN functions$uchasmulticast providecontemporary configure LECsand the broadcast services. Low-Bit-Rdte Voice greatsavings in PCM channels a CESmode, as Althoughvoicecanbecarried 64-kbps voice. Transportof comby in bandwidthare achieved transmittingcompressed to for pressed appropriate ffansmission andfrom digital cellular voiceis particularly Similarly, or to compressed about becompressed. wherevoiceis already basestations PBXsof a ptivatenetwork between voicechannels transport a groupof compressed of can individualvoicechannels be serviced in As is advantageous. shown Figure10.17, (AAL2) switched circuitsby packingmultiple framesof low-bitvirtual as VBR-rt shownin Figure 10.17assumes example rate$peech ATM cells.The particular into voicecomStructured AlgebraicCodeExcitedLPC (CS-ACELP) G.729Conjugate puts4.8 processing pression ftame.Noticethatcell packing with 80 bits per lO-msec by the ACELPframes into anATM cell,whichincreases voicelatency asmuchas40 of msecin eachdirection transmission. by The voice latencycanbe reduced forming a trunk groupandpackingmultiple A voicepackets individual48-byte payloads. singlecell canthen into cell compressed packets a frameandnot adda lot of delayto the inin carry four lO-byteCS-ACELP

488

DATAANDAsyNcHRoNoUsTRANsFEHMoDENETwoRKS

Ftgure 10.17 Packing low-bit-rate intoATM. voice dividualchannels. This approach particularly is usefulfor fixed networktransport of digital cellulartraffic, which inherenflyinvolvesmultiple connections and from to basestations. Example10.3. Derermine probabilirythat the delay of an ATM voice cell the exceed$ msecif the cell is carriedon a DSI access l0 link to an ATM network. Assume access is 907o the link utilizedon averase. solution. The solutionto this problemutilizes queuingtheory as presented in chapter12 wheremoreproblems this typeareprovided. involvesdetermining of It . theprobabilitythattheDSl acce$s queue contains enough cellsto represent msec l0 of transmission time. Assuming but the framingbit of the DSI signalis usedto all carryATM cells,theservice time (f.) of a singlecell is determined as 53x8 = 276 t = Psec rgt; Booo Therefore, msecof delayrepresents l0 lo/0.2j6= 36.2cell times.Equation12.25 of Chapterl2 is usedto geta solution: P(>t)= Ps-(l*P)t/rn : p(>10msec) (0.9)e(14'e)36'2 = 0.025 Example10.3indicatesthat2.5vo the cellswill be delayed morethan l0 of by msec' Tenmilliseconds delayon anacce$s is quiteacceptable of link considering there arepresumably only two access links in a connection. Delaysof this magnitude are not acceptable internallinks of an ATM network,but the internallinks havevery on highbandwidths assuchvery shortservice and timessoqueuing delayof voicecells

489 10.3 ASYN0HHONOUSTRANSFEHMODENETWORKS

priority andthe is not muchof a consideration-aslong as voicecellsget adequate CAC limits thenumberof voicecallson a link. The The solution ExampleI0.3 involvesa coupleof simplifyingshortcuts. first to times for service is whichis intended exponential of these the useof Equation12.25, in timesimpliedby fixedJengthcells.As discussed to services as opposed constant not for analyses generally appropriate ATM cell are 12, Chapter constant-service-time A dutraffic because cellsarenot statistically the independent. Iargefile or extended to a variablea ration talkspurtcreates burst of cells that havean effect comparable time model. service the lengthmessage-hence useof an exponential of A second simplification the solutionof Example10.3is an assumption hoof well bemogeneous are traffic-all voicecells.Multiple voice sources reasonably point of view because one source produce an no can havedfrom a traffic statistics Whena mixtureof traffic typeswith instantaneous of cellsascana file transfer. burst prioritiesexist,theanalysis quiteinvolved is a mixtureof arrivalstatistics service and (as analytical solutions). to simulation opposed time-honored andtypicallyrequires discipline(priare size,thequeue Otherfactors thatinfluence analyses thequeue the and algorithms, flow controlalgorithms, the oritiesandorderof service), discard cell of disto CAC algorithm(whatpercentage a link is allocated realtime versus specific to of research beenundertaken analyze has amount traffic). An extensive cretionary Referand algorithms. theperformance various of ATM switchstructures processing ences [26-28] aresomegoodexamples. in The conditionof 907oloadingof voice channels Example10.3is requiredto is loadingof voicechannels attempted, achieve controlled of a amount delay.If 700Vo queuing The can delayis unbounded. channel 10.2, average asimpliedby Example the is non-real-time traffic. The if still be 1007o loaded theadditional107o discretionary, discrevoicetraffic to be givenpriority in a manner neversends that requires solution Otherwise, discretionary the if tionarytraff,rc thereareany voicecellsin the queue. (e.9.,besteffott) Cell lossfor thediscretionary traffic impacts queuing the analysis. at if haff,rc will be significant a link is allocated closeto 100%of capacity. Traffic Shaping nodeso of the Traffic shaping a termusedto denote controlof $ources an access is (e.g.,SCRandPCR).Traffic thattheyconformto a panicularsetof traffic statistics for may involveflow controlfor sometypesof fiaffic or cell discarding othshaping is of of ers.Because statistics a groupof sources lessvariablethanthe statistics the can with individualsources, haffic shaping be implemented lessimpacton individual (VCC$)arepacked into a groupandshaped a as traffic streams a groupof sources if process access thesources theindividualVCCs(e.g., of has to VPC.If a VPC creation possibilities traffic shaping In for occur. this 64-kbps additional PCM voicechannels), processes theindividualVCCscanbe controlled achieve for to compression case the qualitydegradation each distributed across composite ratewith speech data a constaflt to as of thechannels opposed degradation as to occurring an individualconnection a of of resultof cell lossor excessive delay.For a description othertechniques traffic and ofdelay andcell lo$s,seereferences and30]. shaping an associated analysis [29

490

DATAAND ASYNCHHONOUS THANSFEFMODENETWORKS

TABLE10.1 Uncompressed Ratesof Dlgltlzed Blt Standards $tandard

NTSC PAL HDTV

Pixels/Line LineVFrame Frames/sec

pixels/sec 9.216 16.675 62.208

Mbps 221 400 1493

640 s80 1920

480 575 1080

30 50 30

This principle can also be applied to MpEG-z video encodingof multiple, real-time video signalst3l, 321.Maintaining a constantcompositedatarate of multiple independent channels complicates the multiplexing process becausea figure of quality most be preparedand comparedacrossthe multiple sourcesto determinewhich source is least affected by a lower bandwidth allocation. Undoubtedly, this processalso adds delay to the channelssince double-passencoding may be required.

Video
Tablel0' I identifies threemajortelevision standards thebit rates and required digito tally encode themwith no compression using24bitsperpixel.Thethreestandards and areNTSC for North Americanbroadcast PAL for European TV, broadcast and TV, high-definition (HDTV). TV Two ver$ions digital compression of encoding havebeendefinedby the Motion Pictures ExpertGroup:MPEGI andMPJG2. MPEGI is intended vHS-quality for videoandaudio.MPEG2addresses higherqualityrequirements broadcast-quality of videoand audioaswell asHDTV. Because the encoding of complexity, MpEG2 is primarilyused broadcast in applications where encoding is shared the cost across mul(MPEC2decoders relativelyinexpensive.) tiple destinations. are Dataratesarevariabledepending thenature thesource on of (amount movement). mean material of The bit rateof MPEG-I is I.544 Mbpswhile MpEc-? hasa meanbit rateof 5 Mbps. The ATM Forumhasdefinedhow MpEG-2 TS packets to be packed are into a AALS-CBR frame.The useof AALI layeris advocated the rru oru-T J.gz). by However, ITU-T hasagreed incorporate to ATM Forumdefined AALS-cBR packing into its document. Accordingto the ATM Forum,AALS services adequate are for MPEG-2streams because MPEG-2includesa prograrn (FCR) and clock reference therefore doesnot needthe SRTSs providedby AALI.

10.4 INTERNETPROTOCOL TRANSPORT The Internetevolvedfrom a packet-switching networkconsisting hostcomputers of connected with leased linesto IntemetProtocol(IP) routers that were,in turn,interconnected with leased lines.As this evolutionoccurred, high-speed digital networks alsoevolved.FigureI 0.I 8 depicts situation the wherein these developments two have cometogether various in ways.Whatis shown five differentmeans providingIp is of transporJ usingvariouscombinations networks: of ATM, soNET, framerelay,and directphysical layerfiber.

10.4 TNTEBNETpnoTocoLTHANSpoRT491

| " , l
lAtl4 I

I tr

ll

ll

I
p I

Am,,I llF'-".t'yll f sotrEr@ lsoltEr/spHll

Fiber plant physical layer
F'igure 10.18 Intemet transmissionlayer altematives.

Other than IP transport directly over fiber, IP over SONET [33] is the most etficient. The most inefficient situation is IP on top of ATM. A straightforward approach to reconciling the two protocol layers is to use a relatively static configuration for the ATM network with permanentvirtual circuits. ln this manner the IP network thinks it is using leasedlines. An AAL5 interfaceconvertsthe IP packetsinto fixed-length cells and ships them through the ATM network to an ATM destination node. At the destination node the packet is recon$tructed and passedto the IP layer. Ifthis IP node is the destination,all is well and good. More often than not this is not a final destination final becausea direct virtual connectionbetween all nodesin a large network is very difficult to manage.(Tl1enumber of paths grows arrthe sguareof the number of nodesand nodes are constantly being added and removed.) When the,first ATM node is an intermediatenode, the IP packet is passedback down through an AALS interfaceto get back into the ATM network. and so on. An altemative procedureinvolves having the ATM network set up SVCs for each packet so the ATM destinationcoincideswith the IP destination.This approachavoids the multiple trips up and down the adaptationlayersbut introducesan extremeamount of control overheadwithin the ATM network. To minimize IP over ATM problems, Cisco systemshas developeda networking procedurereferred to as "tag switching" that mergesIP and ATM protocols. A tag is essentiallyan ATM destinationaddressthat gets attachedto eachpacket (addressand is all) at a tag edgerouter. The compositemessage passedthrough the ATM network, which provides tag switching, until it gets reconstructedand delivered to the destination where the tag is removed. The simplification occurs becausea tag is easier to processthan IP adfuessingand routing. The IETF has standardized basic concept the of tag switching as multiprotocol label switching (MPLS). As indicated on the far right of Figure 10.18, the overheadof multiple network layers is avoided by directly connecting one IP node to anotherIP node with a dedicated fiber link. There are, however, limitations with direct connections.lP networks have been traditionally implemented with leasedcircuits that are managedand maintained by a common carrier. These leased-line services include provisioning, performance monitoring, and protection switching. Common-carrier provisioning allows rearrang-

492

DATAANDASYNcHRoNoUsTEANSFERMoDENETWoHKS

ing networkinterconnections performance usingSONETcross-connect equipment. monitoring allowsautomated identification isolationof faulty or marginal and equipment.Physical layerprotection switchingassures application an with a reliableconnection despite equipmentfailures or cable cuts. when direct physical layer interconnect used,the IP application is mustimplement application layerprotection switchingto circumvent transmission failures. link possibly Another, moresignificant limitationwith Ip "overglass"is thepotential for a lackofcarrier-$upported signal regeneration. Althoughtransparent opticalhansmission(on fibersor wavelengths) a seemingly is atmactive service offering,a transparentchannel, its definition,cannot supported by be with regeneration. cariers The could offer transparent opticalchannels limited distance for applications, longbut distance applications throughopticalmultiplexingand switchingsy$tems cannotbe realized withoutregeneration. Regeneration whatallowsa telephone to "hear is user a pin drop."

HEFERENCES "Resource-sharing I R.E,Kahn, computer communications Network proceedings s," of IEEE, Nov.1972,pp. 1397-1407. 2 H. Rudin and H. Miiller, "More on Routingand Flow Control,"National Telecommunications Conference, pp.34.5. 1979, l-34.5.9.
3 J' Rinde,"RoutingandControlin a CentrallyDirectedNetwork,"l{afional Computer Conference, 7, pp.603-608. 197 4 s. c. K. Youngandc. I. McGibbon,"The control systemof the Datapac Network," Inte i ona Confe e on Communicatio lg76, pp, I 37- I 4 I . rnat I rent ns, 5 T. s' Yum and M. schwartz,"comparisonof Adaptive Routing Algorithms for ComputerCommunications Networks,"National Telecommunications Conference1 9 7 8p p . 4 . 1 . 1 - 4 . 1 . 5 . , 6 F, E. Heart,R. E. Kahn, S. M. Omstein,W. R. Crowther,and D. C. Walden..'The Interface MessageProcessorfor the ARPA computer Network," spring Joint Computer Conference, 1970, 551-556. pp. "Principles 7 L. Kleinrock, proceedings and l,essons Packetcommunications," in of IEEE,Nov, 1978, 1320-1329. pp. I Internetstandard3, "Requirements InternetHosts: IETF RFC 1122," Internet for Engineering TaskForce,lg9B. 9 J' McQuillan, "Beyond 'Best-Effort' Routing," Business communitationsReview, May 1998. l0 M. Hamidi, O. Verscheure, p. Hubaux,L Dalgic, and p. Wang, ..VoiceService J. Interworking for PSTN and IP Networks," IEEE communicationsMagazine, May pp. 1999, 104-111. I I TheATM ForumTC, "Traffic Management specification version 4.0," April 1996. 12 N. Ghani,s. Nanukul,and s, Dixit, "ATM Traffic Management considerations for FacilitatingBroadband Access,"IEEE communications Magazine, Nov. 199g,pp. 98-105.

REFERENcES 493 P. Newman,"A FastPacketSwitchfor the IntegatedServices Backbone Network," IEEE Joumal on Selected Areasof Corununications, Dec. 1988. "The Bypass L4 K. Sarkies, on Queuein FastPacketSwirching,"IEEE Transactions pp. Communications, 1991, 766-7'74. May 1 5 F. M. Chiussi, G. Kneuer, V. P. Kumar,"Low-CostScalable J. and Switching Solutions for Broadband Nefworking; The ATLANTA Architecture and Chipset," IEEE Communicationsagaline,Dec. I 997,pp.44-53. M t 6 S. C. Knauer and A. Huang, "STARLITE: A WidebandDigital Switch," IEEE
IJ

Glohecom, Nov. 1984.

t 7 V. E. Benes,Mathematical Theoryof Connecting Networks, AcademicPress, New

York, 1965. "SortingNetworks TheirApplications," r 8 K. E. Batcher, Proteedings SpringJoint and of Conference, 1968, 307-314. pp. Computer "The KnockoutSwitch:A Simple, l 9 Y-S. Yeh, M. G. Hluchyj, and A. S. Acampora, Modular Architecture for High-PedonnancePacket Switching," IEEE Joumal on pp. Selected Areasof Communications, 1987, 1274-1283. Oct. "Architectures ATM SwitchingSystems," 20 E. W. Zegura, IEEE Communications for 2l Magazine, Feb.1993.pp. 28-37. "Nonblocking A. Pattavina, IEEE Communicatians Architectures ATM Switching," for Magazine, pp. Feb.1993, 38-48. M. de Prycker,Asynchronous Transfer ModeSolution BroadbandISDN,Prentice for Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995. R. Y. Awdeh andH. T. Mouftatr,"Surveyof ATM SwitchArchitectures," Computer pp. and Networks ISDNSystems, 27, 1995, 1567-1613. Vol. "MultiserviceSwitchingForumImplementation 24 Agreement," msf-architecture-Ol.00, ATMForum,Nov. 1998. 25 CircuitEmulation Interoperabiliry SpecificationVersian2.0, af-vtoa-fi)?8.000, Senice ATM Forum.Ian. 199'7. 26 B. Steyaert,Y. Xiong, and H. Bruneel, "An Efficient Solution Techniquefor TrafFrc,"InternationalJoumal of Dirlcrete-Time QueuesFed by Heterogeneous pp. Communications ,9ystens, Mar./Apr.1997, 73-86. 27 A. Ia Corte, A. Lombardo,and G. Schembra,'?nalysis of Packet Loss in a Continuous-Time with Multimedia Traffic Stream," Intemational Finite-Buffer Queue pp. fournal of Communitations, Mar./Apr.199'1, 103*115, for 28 J. ChoeandN. B. Shroff,"A Cental-Limit-Theorem-Based Approach Analyzing on QueueBehavior in High-SpeedNetwork," IEEE/ACM Transactions Networking, pp. Oct. 1998, 659-671. K, Sriram, G. Lyons,andY, T. Wang,'AnomaliesDue to DelayandLossin AALZ T. Packet VoiceSystems: Performance ModelsandMethods Mitigation,"IEEEfournal of on Selected Areas Communications, 1999,pp.4-17. in Jan. K. Sriram and Y, T. Wang, "Voice over ATM Using AAL2 and Bit Dropping; Performance Areas in and Call Admission Control." IEEE Joumal on Selected pp. Jan. Communications, 1999, 18-28.

494
3l

DATA ANDASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFEH MODE NETWOHKS

S. Gringeri, K. Shuaib, R. Egorov, A. L,ewis, B. Khasuabish, and B. Basch...Traffic shaping, Bandwidth Allocation, and Qualilty Assessmentfor MpEG video Distribution over Broadband Networks," IEEE Nen+ork,Nov./Dec. 1g98. 32 M' Krunz, "Bandwidth Allocation strategiesfor Transporting variable-Bit-Rate video Traffic," IEEE CommunicationsMagazine, Ian. 1998, pp. 40*46.

33 J. Manchester, Anderson,B. Doshi, and S. Dravida, ..Ip over SONET." /EEE J. Communications Mag,azine, May I998, pp. 136-142.

PROBLEMS
l0.l Determine average the transmission capacity required rehansmit to 50-kbyte mes$ages theyaretransmitted if intactacross singletransmission with a a link bit errorrateof 10-6.what is the average retransmission capacity required if themessages packetized ?-kbyre are into (Ignore sizeof thepacket packets? the headers.) Repeat Problem10.1with 2 bit errorprobabilityof l0-a. Determinethe total numberof bits in an HDLC frameif an informationfield contains nothing morethan4 bytesof all 1's. Assume minimumsizefor all the fieldsof overhead. Includetheopening closingflag in thecalculation. and Determine number 2 xz switching the of elements a 32 x 32 banyan in switch matrix. Determine transmission the efficiencythat resultswhen a singlechannel of G.723.r compressed voice is packedinto ATM cells and transmitted with minimal delay.G723.1utilizes30 ms processing frames. Assume higher the of the two standmd rates(6.3 kbps).How muchdelayis addedro rhe voice channel theATM cellsarepacked if with closeto l00zoof capacity? (Ignore speech activityconsiderations. )

10.? 10.3

10.4 r0.5

11
DIGITAL ACCESS SUBSCRIBER
By theearly1990s publictelephone networks theworldhadconverted digital the of to technology virnrallyall of the internaltransmission switchingequipment. in and Towardthe latterhalf of the 1990s new digital applications traditionalanalog for technologyfocused providingcustomer to acces$ the digital network.The Integrated on Services Digital Network(ISDN) digital subscriber loops,definedin themid 1980s, represent approach digitalaccess. one to AlthoughISDN hasbeendeployed many in penetration variousreasons. chapter markets, hasnot achieved it widespread for This contrasts for the ISDN access with altemate approaches accessing digitalnetwork. technologies in providing used Broadlyspeaking, therearefour basictransmission local digitalaccess: wire pairs,fiber,coaxialcables, wireless. accopper and Copper cess wire pairsby replacing ffansmission digitaltranswith utilizestelephony analog mission for both voice and data (e.9., ISDN), adding digital transmission onto (e.9., voicetransmission conventional analog in ADSL), or carryingdigitalsignals the existinganalog The loop usingmodems. rapidadvancement modems realizing of for transmission ratesof 33.6kbpsin a V.34 voiceband modemor roughly56 kbpsfor a V.90 modemis a mainreason lessthanexpected ISDN usage. for pairsinstalled analog POTSservice is Wide-bandwidth transmission copper on for complicated several by factors. First,loadingcoils on longerloopsmustbe removed. performance. Second, maybe necessary remove it to bridgedtapsfor adequate ISDN basicrateacces$ bridgedtap removal, newerapproaches such typicallyrequires but as ADSL utilize more sophisticated channel techcharacterization equalization and niquesto accommodate and bridgedtaps.Crosstalk interference high frequencies at areotherconsiderations. few wire pairsin a cablecancar4ithehigh-frequency A signals,but if a largenumber pairstry to be activeat thesame of time,crosstalk becomes a significant limitation.Interference from external suchasAM radiostations sources (e.g.,I MHz). Some is a consideration higherfrequencies at higherrateaccess systems aredesigned detect to interference maskit out. and narrowband involvesaddingdatatransmission Coaxialcableaccess onto unused frequency bandsof a cableTV system. Fiber access the potentialfor providingvery wide has bandwidths requires but installationof new transmission facilitiesdedicated the to new services. Wirelessaccess involvesmicrowavedistributionsvstems like mul4S5

496

DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER AccESs

tichannel multipoint dishibution (MMDS)andlocalmicrowave service distribution (LMDS) satellite-based system or services asDSS. such 11.1 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK
In addition to the digitization of the internal portions of public telephonenetworks, a lesserknown but also significant changeinvolved the development of common-channel signaling (CCS) for network control. Both the digitization and the use of CCS srafred at internal portions of the network and migrated toward the periphery. Except for some special data service offerings and a few network-basedfeaturesderived from the signaling network, thesefacilities provided no direct benefit to the end users.As shown in Figure I I . I , ISDN i s a serviceoffering that extendsaccess both of thesefacilities to to the end user. Access to the digital transportfacilities occurs on 64-kbps bearer (B) channelswhile accessto the signaling network occurs on l6- or 64-kbps signaling (D) channels.Major featuresor benefits made availableby thesechannelsare listed in Tables 1l.l and 11.2,respectively. Two levels of digital access the ISDN network havebeenstandardized: to basic rate accessand primary rate access.As shown in Figure I1.2, the (worldwide) basic rate interface (BRI) $tandardis also referred to as a 2B + D interface. In North America. the primary rate interface (PRI) standard is sometimes referred to as 238 + D while the ITU-T counterpartis 30B + D. The North American pRI is fundamentally a L544Mbps DSI signal with the D channel replacing one of the 24 messagechannels(usually the last one). To achieve a 64-kbps clear channel capability, a BSZS line code is used to eliminate one's density requirementsand common-channelsignaling frees up the signaling bits so the full 64-kbps bandwidth is available for user data. The ITU-T

-----

f-ffiif-

-*

ISDN AccEte Line

-----.-/ Figure 11.1 Integrated Services DigitalNetworkaccess circuits, to channels, leased lines,and common-channel signaling.

11..I INTEGRATED NETWoRK DIGITAL SERVICES TABLE 11.1 Features of ]SDN B Channels

497

1 . End-to-end four-wiredigitalcircuits:no loss or echoesfor voice circuitsusingdigital 2. 3. 4. 5.

o.

instruments $hared network access for voice, data, and leased lines Flelativelyhigh bandwidthdata channel$ (64 kbps) Lower error rates than typical voiceband modems performance In"seruice monitoring Possible expansionof speechbandwidth becauseelimination tandemencodings of allows greaterone-timequantization Brrors

PRI is a 2.048-Mbps El digital signal with the D channel occupying the signaling channel (time slot 16). Becausea single D channel can support more than one PRI, 248 and 3lB interfacesare allowed for additional PRIs in a group of PRIs.

11.1.1 ISDNBasicRateAccessArchitecture
An ISDN basic rate accessline is a standardcopper pair that has been specially conditioned to support a bidirectional 160-kbps aggregatedata rate. Transmission technology required for basic rate accessis generally refened to as the digital subscriber loop (DSL). Complications arise when using existing analogpairs. The principal considerationsare bridged taps and wire gaugechanges,both of which causereflections that impact higher speeddigital signals.To allow flexibility in the selection and deployment of the DSL, the ITU-T basicrate specification I I ] doesnot define a two-wire transmission $tandard.Instead. it establishesan interface standardthat assumesthe presenceof a network termination module that converts any chosentransmissionsystem to the standardinterface.In the interestof supportingderegulatedcustomerpremises equipment, the Exchange Carriers Standard Association in the United States establisheda basic rate transmissionstandard[2] so CPE equipmentcould connectdirectly to the transmissionlink or select network termination modules f,rom alternate vendors. Figure 11.3 depicts the architectureand associatedterminology of a North American BRI.

TABLE11.2 Features ISDND Channels of

1 . Signaling connections simultaneous active with 2. Calling identification number 3. Far-end superuision 4 . User-to-user message transfer 5 . Telemetry firealarms, for reading, meter etc, $ecurity, A Access packet-switching to network 7. $upport nelwork for such numbers one $eruices as multiple directory sharing or moreB group channels, trunk blocking and of number statistics, identificationcalling for or abandoned blocked calls

498

DIGITALSUBSCHIBEF ACCESS

Prim8ry Rete Accgrs

B I B l . . . l Bl D
238+D
ISDN N6twgrk

-rTpT

BTil
2B+D
Ba$ic Rate AccBBB

Figurell.2

Basic and rarc primary access ISDN. rate to

ModuleDefinitions NTI : A networktermination modulefor layer I functions physical thatprovides and electricaltermination the transmission only. In essence, NTI of link the isolates userfrom thetransmission the technology doesnot demultiplex but or process channel D messages. NTZ: A second levelof networktermination implements that functions associated with layers and3 of theosl protocolstack. 2 Thus,NTZequipment extracts and processes channel pBXs, D messages. Representative equipment NTZ includes multiplexers, LAN gateway$. or TEl: Type I terminal equipment suchasa digitaltelephone complies that with the ISDN S interface recommendation. 714.'Terminaladapter usedto convertfrom an arbitrary(R) interfaceto the ISDN S interface. TEZ: A non-ISDN terminal that requiresa terminal adapterto interfaceto the ISDN S interface.Prevalentexamplesof a TE2 equipmentare analog telephones asynchronous (RS-232) or dataterminals. Reference Points U; Interface thetwo-wiretransmission to line.

ISDN Network

Figure 11.3 Basic rate interface architecture.

111 TNTEcRATED DrcrrAL sEnvtcEs NETWoHK 499

T: CCITT ISDN interface defined in RecommendationI.430. S; Interface to NTZ equipment identical to a T interface. R.' A non-ISDN interface such as an analog tip and ring. 11.1.2 S/T Interface The S/T interface definedin ITU-T recommendation is 1.430to be supplied netby (NT2A{TI). It is intended customer premises work termination equipment instalfor protection prescribed.) mostsignificant is lationsonly. (No overvoltage The aspects of the S/T interfaceare; 1 . Four-wirefacility (onepair for eachdirection) 2. Onekilometermaximum distance required J - Alternate inversionline code(whichis the inverse an AMI line code: space of see Figurel l.4) 4 . Point-to-point point-to-multipoint or configurations 5 . Datarateof 192kbpswith 48 kbpsof framing,control,andsynchronization
The frame rttructureat referencepoints S and T is shown in Figure 11.5.As indicated, each 250-msecframe contains 48 bits. Thirty-eight of thesebits are cornmon to both directions of transmissionand are defined as follows: 16 bits in first B channel(Bl) 16 bits in secondB channel (82) 4 bits in the D channel I bit in the framing channel F I bit in the auxiliary framing channel F4 The remaining l0 bits are assigneddifferent functions dependingon the direction of transmission.From the TE to the NT all remaining 10 bits are defined as L bits, which are used to maintain dc balance.The definition of the 10 bits from the NT to the TE are: 2 L bits for maintainins dc balance

l r l o l o l o l t l o l r l o l

-l_r _ J L _ _ n _---Lr _ 1rFigure 11.4 Altematespace line inversion code.

500

DIGITALSUBSCHIBER ACCESS

48 Bits ln 260

F L Brrr tl gr Br tr Brrr E D A F^r E?tt!tt2B? |2r?t2 f, u H !t rl rl rt rr

NT to TE

BtB2t0LFt.

LtttlllllllllllllLoLr^LlrttBt!2828282!lL0LBlElEtltrlElBluLDL12ultit12uu|0LDttL

FJ._J._J
Figure 11.5 S/T framestructure,

lr-

4 E bits that echo D bits received from the TE(s) I A bit for activation I N bit, which is the complement of the Fo bit I M bit far multiframe identification 1 S bit for S channel Figure I I.5 indicatesthat the framing bit F is always a binary 0. Even though a positive voltage level is indicated, either a positive or negative voltage is allowed so the receiversare not sensitiveto wiring polarity. A transmitter always producesthe same level, however, so the receiver always receivesthe samepolarity in every framing bit. As an aid in rapid acquisition of the framing pattem, the framing bit always represenm a line code violation (it is the samepolarity as the previous 0). To maintain dc balance, an L bit with the opposite polarity of the F bir always follows the F bit. The first 0 in a data block following the L bit is encodedwith the samepolarity as the L bit, which implies another line code violation. Direct-current balancing of this violation is the purpose of the L bit at the end of each data block, which also assuresthat the next (fixed-polarity) F bit producesa line code violation. The reason for the additional L bits in the frame from the TE to the NT arises becau$emore than one TE can be connectedto the S intedace as a passivebus (Figure I 1.6). Becausethe TEs transmit independently of each other, each individual transmission (D channelbits and B channelbytes) is individually dc balanced. Passivebus operationsare also the reasonfor the existenceof the NT-to-TE E bits. Multiple station access the D channelis controlled by having a terminal wait for an to idle code on the NT-to-TE D channelbefore hansmitting on the TE-to-NT D channel. when a terminal begins D channeltransmission,it monitors the incoming E bits. If an incoming E bit does not match the previously transmitted D bit, that terminal stops transmitting and waits to seize the channel at a later time. Two levels of priority are defined for accessingthe D channel. signaling informarion is the highest priority

11.1 INTEGHATED DIGITAL SERVICES NETWORK 501

s
TEl

a a
I

u
NTt

TET

TEl

J
Ftgure ll.6 S-bus connections.

while userpacket messages thelowerpriority.All terminals a passive have are on bus equalprioritieswithin eachlevel. Example 11.1. Determine distance the limit imposed theneedto echoE bits in by a BRI S/T inteface.Assume speed transmission a signalon a pair of wires the of of is one-third speed light in a vacuum. of the Ignoretransmitter receiver and filter delays in andassume appreciable no delays theNT logic circuitry. Solutian. From Figure I I.5 it can be seenthat the minimum delay betweena a terminalhansmitting D bit andreceiving backin the followingE bit is seven it bit times(thisis theTE to NT D bit followingthefirst 82 byte).At a 192-kbps dararare the duration a bit is 5.2 psec.Thus,the total round-trippropagation of time is 7 x 5.2 = 36.4p sec.Assuming appreciable no circuitrydelays the NT, in = Maximum wire length (36.4x 10*6) + (3 x 108) x m Because propagation round-trip involvesbothdirections transmission of = Maximum distance ] x 3.64= 1.82 Lrn Example1l.I showsthatthe BRI standard a fundamental has distance limitation thatis not far above minimumtransmission the distance specification 1 km. of 11.1.3 ISDN U Interlace Prior to the e$tablishment a standard interfaceby the Exchange of U CarriersStandardsAssociation NorthAmericaa number basicratetransmission in were of sy$tems developed telephone suppliers by equipment the around world andput into service.

504

DrcrrAL suBscHtBER AccESS

one of these involves useof timecompression the multiplex(TCM).TcM, developed by NEC in Japan[3], provides full-duplextransmission a singlepair of wiresby on alternately transmitting bursts datain each of direction. thisreason is sometimes For it referred as"ping-pong"tralsmission. to one big advantage rCM transmission of is thatnear-end crosstalk avoided is because station neverreceiving a is while transmitting' Thebig disadvantage thattheburstdataratemustbe morethantwicethe deis sireddatathroughput. AT&T in the united statesalsodeveloped BRI transmission a system the for No. 5 ESSend office switchingsystem available with generic releases 5E4 and 5E5 t4l. This system a 160-kbps rateutilizinga 50zo has dara dutycycleAMI line code.Full-duplex transmission achieved simultaneous is by transmission both in directions usinghybridsandechocancelers (ECs)to separate two signals, the as indicated FigureI I.7. Beginning in with generic 5E6theNo. 5 ESSsupporrs both the AT&T (Lucent) u interface(referued as a 5E4l5E5 u interface)and the ro ANSI U interface. Like the 5E4l5E5 interface, ANSI U interface U the usessimultaneous ffansmissionin bothdirections with echocancelers a datarateof 160kbps.Themajordifand ference the useof a four-levelline codereferred as2B1e (two binarydigits in is to onequaternary digit).Thus,thesymbol(baud) rateon theline is 90,000 symbols/sec. Because line codeitself doesnot preventdc wander, restoration necessary. the dc is Reference describes implementation adaptive an with quantized [5] feedback being as thebestapproach. 2BlQ line codewaschosen A primarilybecause lower symbol the rate minimizesthe two dominanttransmission limitationsin this application; intersymbol interference near-end and crosstalk [6]. The frame format and superframe structureof the ANSI U interfaceareshownin Figure11.8.Eachframeconsists 240bits containing framingbits, 216payload of lg bits (12 fieldsof I I 2B + D databits),and6 overhead Because framerateis bits. the 667frames/sec datarateis 160kbps.The6 overhead areorganized a block the bits as of 48 bits in an eight-frame superframe. Functions includedin the overhead are bits 24 bits of embedded operations channel, activation I deactivation I far-end I bit, bit, block errorbit, l2 cRC bits, and9 fixed I bits. All bits exceptthe framingbits are scrambled transmission. fbr

Figure 11.7 ISDN DSL TX/RX blockdiagram.

11.2 HIGH-DATA-RATE SUBSCRIBER LOOPS DIGITAL

503

t8

18 28+D 28+D 28+O 28+D 28+D 28+D 28+O 28+D

18

3 4 5 6 7 E

rsw sw svv sw
SW svlf

sw sw

28+D 28+D 28+D 28+D 28+D 2B+D 28+D 28+D

28+D 28+D 2 8 +D 2E+D 28+D ?B+D 28+D 28+D

Mr-M" Mr-M. Mr-M" Mr-M. Mr-M. Mr-M" Mr-M" Mr-Mt

= S W- S y n c o r d + 3 + 3 - 3 * 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 + 3 + 3 W I S W : I n v w u d$ W = - 3 - 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 - 3 2 B + D * l B , l B " l D l ( l 8 l 8 f2 ) Mr-M" * Ovdrlrosd bitr Data encoded 0O= -3. 01 = -1, 11 : +1, 10 = +3 ar as structure. Figure 11.8 ANSI U interfaceframe and superframe

11.1.4 ISDN D Channel Protocol protocolis definedin two separate series ITU-T recomrnendations; of TheD channel in theI series theQ series. datalink layer(LAPD) is defined L441or Q.921. and The except This protocolis similarto LAPB of theX.25 standard Q.921allowsmorethan "connections" existfor signaling, packet netseparate can onelogicallink. (Therefore sework, or far-endterminals.)The main functionsof the datalink layer aremessage quencing,error checkingand retransmission, data layer link recovery.The and protocolis definedin I.451 or Q.931 This layerpro. networklayerof the D channel of routing,andrelease ISDN calls.Whena B channel videsconnection alerting, setup, state. accessespacket the network, X.25 protocolis usedwhile in theconnected a

LOOPS DIGITALSUBSCRIBER 11.2 HIGH.DATA.RATE data loop providesan aggregate, bidirectional A basicrateISDN digital subscriber transmission describes several rateof 160kbpson a singlepair of wires.This section newtechon wire pairs.These techniques allow muchlargerbandwidths copper that digital signal by niquesare enabled the availabilityof low-cost,high-performance lineshavebeendevelprocessing. digital subscriber versions high-speed of Several to TableI 1.3). referred asxDSL (see are oped.Thevariousversions collectively 11.2.1 Asymmetric Dlgital Subscriber Line and to ADSL allowsfor high dataratesto the subscriber moderate low dataratesfrom as was ADSL technology originallyconceived a means the subscriber thenetwork, to loop [7], whichobviously overa copper of delivering switched digitalvideoservices did high datarates Althoughvideoapplications not from thesubscriber. do notrequire

504

DIGITAL SUBScFIBEH AccEsS

TABLE11.3 Verslone DlgltalSubscrlber of Lines

DSL ADSL HDSL SDSL VDSL

Digital Subscriber (ISDN Line basic rate) Asymmetric (9 Mbpsdownstream, kbpsupstream)d DSL 640 High-bit.rate (T1lE1service two pairs) DSL on Single-line (T1/Elservice onepair) DSL on VeryhighbitrateDSL(52Mbps downstream, Mbpsupstream)d 2.8

'Listd data rates ere maximum posslblevalues. Downstreamls toward the subscriber.Upstr6emis toward the network.

materialize,the asymmehic datarate is also suitedfor Internet access. The philosophy behind the asymmetric data rates is that subscriberstypically need to reieive highbandwidth data (for lntemet file downloads) but normally need to rransmir (query) at a relatively low data rate. The subscriber'sreceive data rate on ADSL varies between 1.5 and 9 Mbps while the subscribertransmit rate varies between 16 and 640 kbps.* The specific data rate utilized dependson the transmissionquality of the particular wire pair. In contrastto ISDN channels,which representextensionsofthe digital facilities of the public switched telephone nerwork (psrN), ADSL channelsare separated from the public nerwork at rhe line inrerface of the psrN. As shown in Figure I l.g, ADSL lines terminate at a telephonecompany central office (or remote terminal) where the data streams are forwarded to and received from a facility that is separatefrom the telephone network. Transmission between the line interface and an intemet service provider, for example,is typically provided with an ATM connection. ADSL has two major advantagesover IsDN access.First, ADSL data rates provided to the subscriberare significantly higher than the lZg-kbps ISDN basic rare. second, ADSL piggy backs digital transmissionon a standard*atog telephonewire pair. Thus, existing analog telephonesare retained on ADSL but are either replaced by digital phonesor are connectedthrough conversiondeviceswhen ISDN is utilized. Two versionsof ADSL transmissionlinks have beendeveloped:carrierlessamplitude and phase(CAP) modulation and discretemultitone (DMT) modularion. CAp is the first version deployed but DMT has been selectedas the standard [g]. Because DMT makes more intensive use of Dsp, a DMT implementation typically requires more power-a significant considerationfor remote terminal deployment. cAp, on the other hand, its not generally considered to be as flexible as DMT in achieving maximum data rateson some wire pairs or in some interferenceenvironments.For a thorough comparisonof the two alternatives,seereference[9].

DMT lmplementdtion
Basicparameters the standard of ADSL DMT implementation provided Table are in I 1.4.A block diagramof an end-to-end DMT implementation shownin Figure is I I.10. As mentioned chapter6, a DMT implementation in utilizesan inverse FFT as
*A less ambitious vetsion of ADSL rcferred to as G.Lite only attempts to achieve 1.544 Mbps clownstream and 384 kbps upstream.

11.2 HIGH.DATA.RATEDIGITALSUBSCRIBERLOOP$

505

P$TN metrix Switcl't Lineinterfaces

multiplexer

loops Subscriber Splitters

volce volCc

Figure 11.9 ADSL networkconfiguration.

Paramters TABLE11.4 AD$L DMTlmplementatlon

Subchannel $eparation Maximumbits/$ubchannel Numberof subchannelsa FFT sample size Cyclic prefix Total numberof samples Sample rate FFT frame duration Pilot frequency

4.3125 kHz 15
Downlink 255

512samples 32 samples s44 (512+ 32) MHz(51?x 4312,5) 2,208 x x 246.377 10a sec (5,+4/2,208106) 64) 276kHz(subchannel uplink 31 64 samples 4 samples 68 (64+ 4) 276kHz(64x 4312.s) x x ?46.977 104 sec(68/0.276 1Oo) 16) 69 kHz(subchannel

Numberol subchannels FFTsample size Cyclicprelix Totalnumber samples of $amplerate FFTframeduration Pilot frequency

dBpendson the amount of matgin tor PoTS filterlngand the number of subchannFl8 on choice of echo canclingor FDM to isolatethe two directionsol transmission.

506

DIGITAL sUBscRIBER AccESs

a modulator and an FFT as the correspondingdemodulator.The following paragraphs identify the basic funcrion of eachblock in Figure I I . 10: PRSsource: A pseudorandomsequence generatorprovides a prescribedsequence for characterizing the channel during a training period. Characteristicsof the channel that are determined during the training periorl are attenuation and phase distortion across the band, noise/interferencelevels across the band. and the information capacity of individual subchannels. Channel Allocation: Provides assignmentof data bits to individual subchannels according to the subchannelcapacity determinationsobtained during training. FEC: A combination of Reed-solomon and convolutional coding. IFFT QAr4 Modulation: conversion of data values to quadraturechannel signal amplitudes and conversion to a time-domain waveform using an inverse FFT. D/A : Digital-to-analog conversion. TX Filter: Bandpassfilter to preventinterferenceinto the voicebandand to smooth the discreteDSP samples. POTS Splitter" Used at both ends of the line to separate analog voice from the the data.(Simpler versionsof ADSL incorporatethe splitter function in the modems to simplify installation.) AGC.' Automatic gain control to adjust overall receive level. sktpe/Delay Equaliption' A front-end equalizerro partially flatten the frequency responseand equalizeextreme delay variations in the chaanel [10]. ,4./D.' Analog-to-digital conversion.

Source data

Wire pair

Figure ll.l0

ADSL DMT block diagram

11,3 DIGITAL CAFHIEB LOOP SYSTEMS 507 FFT QAM Demodulation: FFT conversion of time-sampledwaveform to frequency domain where data values are related to amplitudes of quadraturecarriers. Clock Recovery: AID sample timing obtained by locking to pilot frequency. The desired sampling rate is eight times the pilot frequency so 1-of-8 phase ambiguity has to be determined by monitoring framing/synchronization bit integrity. Frequency-Domain Egualizer: Multiplication of complex (quadrature) frequency $pectrumby amplitude and phaseequalization pararnetersobtained during training period. Data Detection and Interleaving: Slicing of quadrature amplitude values to generationof compositestreamidentical to original decodedata and subsequent sourcedata.

11.2.2 VDSL evenhigherbandwidths paron VDSL is an expanded versionof ADSL to achieve of from remoteterminals fiber to the curb ticularlyshortlinesaswouldbe available distribution HDTV signals. of systems. primarymotivationfor VDSL is potential A for techniques havebeenproposed VDSL, a differentmodulation Althoughseveral to DMT versionrieems be favored[11].

11.3 DIGITALLOOP CARRIER$YSTEMS of in 1, As discussed Chapter theprimarypurpose a digitalloopcarrier(DLC) system pairsfiom a centraloffice to the vicinity of a group is to reduce eliminate or copper link to of subscribers. Eventhoughthetransmission from the centraloff,rce theDLC from theremote terminalto thesubterminalis digital,thetransmission links remote of loops.Thus,themainpurpose a DLC is are analog scribers typicallyconventional (particuprovidedigital subscriber someDLC systems Nevertheless, access. not to provideoptions T1, ISDN, or xDSL digitalinterfor larly fiber-based systems) DLC faces. Moreover, the fact that fhe DLC remote terminal is relatively close to the (A dropfrom facilitates useof these the interfaces. shortcopper subscriber locations and and has theremote terminal low attenuation crosstalk is lesslikely to haveloading Althougha DLC taps, multiplesections wire with varyinggauges.) of or coils,bridged throughISDN or xDSL digital services is a naturalmechanism provideenhanced to reprepackaging powerconsiderations these of interfaces and interfaces, mechanical with respect strictlyPOTSapplications. to sentuniquerequirements 11.3.1 Universal Digltal Loop Carrier Systems As shown FigureI1.11,a universal in digitalloop carier (UDLC) system [12] canbe between local the or interfaced anyswitchingsystem: to analog digital.Theinterface

508

DtetrAL suBscRlBER AccEss

Customer loops COT RT

Figure 11.11 Universal digital loop carrier system.

switching system (end office) of the public network and the central office terminal (coT) involves individual circuits (e.g., individual analog rip and ring connections). The multiplexed digital transmissionlinks between the COT and the remote terminal (RT) can be wire pairs or fiber. Each interface of a COT is paired with a corresponcling subscriberintetface at the RT so the use of a UDLC is transparentto both the switch and the subscriber.In its simplest mode of operation,the uDLC usespure multiplexing betweenthe COT and the RT so that there i$ a one-to-onecorrespondence between a particular TDM channel and the coT/RT interface pair. some systemscan also be configured with concentration wherein the Cor/RT pairs are dynamically assigned transmissionchannels.If the number of requestedconversationsexceedsthe number of channels,blocking occurs. The possibility ofblocking introducesnontransparency and implies that some means of returning a reorder tone (fast busy) is neededin the RT. UDLC installations are configured to match eachparticular interface of the central office switch with a complimentary interface in the RT. A fully capablesystemmust provide a wide variety of interfaces such as loop-start line, ground-start pBX trunk, foreign exchangelines, and coin telephoneinterfaces.In someearly systemsthe confrguration processinvolved nothing more than physically installing matching interfacesin respectiveequipment slots of the CoT and RT. More recent.systems typicatly utilize line units with multiple-service capabilities. These systemscan be configured electronically (i.e., no straps)with either a local or a remore manasementinterlace.

11.3.2 Integrated DigitatLoop CarrierSystems

Whenever universal a digitalloopcarriersystem interfaced a digitalswitch,obis with viousinefficiencies occurin termsof back-to-back demultiplexing-multiplexing and D/A-A/D conversion. shownin Figure 11.12,an integrated As digital loop carier eliminares inefficiency directlyconnecring DLC TDM link the 0DLC) system by the to the digital matrix. Typically rhe direct digital connections eitherDSI or El are crorts-connect signals. Thus,a fiber-based DLC system will typically interface with theswitchthrough multiplexing/demultiplexing equipment some as number digital of crostt-connect signals.

LOOP SYSTEMS 509 11.3 DIGITAL CARRIEH

Customer loops

loopcariersystem. Figure11.12 Integrated digital

was From a functionalpoint of view an earlyIDLC systems nothingmorethana interfaces the switcharemovedto whereinsomeline of distributed switchingsystem providesucha capabilityMost cenfialoffice switchmanufacturers remote locations. line that for sometimes simplyasusingchannel as banks analog interfaces canbecolocatedwith the matrix or remoted.Central office switch vendorsalso offer remote switchingmoduleswhereinsomeportion of the matrix itself is remotelylocated. for provideremote concentration efficientuseof theconnecting These configurations moduleso pmvidelocal switching theremote in transmission and,in some link cases, por"ts a remote link. of moduledo not usethetransmission connections between two (If remote between portsof a remote two a localswitching notprovided, connection is link.) modulerequires channels thehansmission two of Remotemodulesof a particular switching systemvendorare often implemented processes preclude of DLC equip' use that with proprietarysignalingandmanagement the mentfrom othervendors(exceptwhena DLC vendordevelops ability to emulate In of IDLC appliswitchvendor'sremote modules). the interest opening a particular an referredto as cationsto competingvendors,Bellcore established IDLC standard (possibly in mustsupport vendors GR-303[13, 14] that compliantswitchingsystem additionto a proprietaryIDLC capability).Includedin the GR-303specificationare provisioning, and testing,alarmsurveillance, performance definitionsfor signaling, monitoring. LEC local loop services GR-303hasassumed Due,in part,to a moveto unbundle inBecause GR-303 a capability thanjust anIDLC application. a muchbroader scope a cludesbeingableto defineandadminister myriad of switch interfacetypes,theGRsuchas xDSL 303 $tandard be usedfor interfacingother typesof equipment can (ITU) for ETSI has established similar IDLC standard intemational a equipment. refenedto asa V5 interface switchingequipment [5, 16]. 11.3.3 Next-GenerationDigital Loop Carrler Syetems within the digital loop carrier (NGDLC) hasbeenadopted The term next-generation fhat to industry to refer to DLc sy$tems adhere GR-303andprovide additionalconan Thereis no precise definitionof whatconstitutes figurationoptionsandinterfaces. are to NGDLC system. Four basicattributes adherence GR-303,opticalfiber trans(e.g.,SONET/SDH), generally largerline sizes, an ability to and missioncapabilities alarms,and supportsystem diagnostics, for interfacewith a cenhaloffice operational

510

DIGITAL SUB$CRIBER AccESS

Figure ll.l3

Next-generationdigital loop carrier.

remote provisioning commonly [l4]. other aspects available NGDLC systems in are depicted FigureI 1.13. in The mostimportant aspect an NGDLC $ystem of from a services point of view is theavailabilityof new services suchascopper fiber digitalsubscriber or interfaces in additionto theconventional POTSinterfaces. mostdesired The digitalinterfaces are Tl/El, primaryrateandbasicrateISDN, ADSL, andvDsL. other digitalinrerfaces mayalsobe provided services broadband anddigitalvideo.Althoughthe for like data diversityof interfaces beliesuseof a singlemultiple service line intedacefor total electronicprovisioning,the systemmust report inconsistencies betweeninstalled hardware the elechonicdatabase. particularly and A desirable feature the system of shownin Figure I l. I 3 is drop-and-insert capability, which allowsdistributed access to a singlebackbone digitalroute.GR-303identifies configurations, star linearADM distribution, ADM ringsasdesirable and topologies. NGDLC sysrems support thar advanced interfaces topologies or necessarily a COTto separate thespecial use out servicesfrom thePors. In essence, cor performs the cross-connect operations groom to anddistribute various typesof traffic.

11.4 FIBERIN THE LOOP Fiber in the loop (FITL) is a genericterm that refersto oneof threemore specificdescriptions the useof fiber for local distribution. of The flrst category fiber to the is cabinet fiber to the neighborhood. or These systems ofteninstalled local teleare by phone companies partof thefeeder as portionof theirlocaldistribution facilities.Traditional copper pairs for voice service extend from the cabinet to subscriber residences. Because relativelylong copper a pair is usedfor ,.thelastmile,,'they do not providemuchopportunity enhanced for service offerings. Theiruseandjustification arestrictlybased reducing cosrof pOTSdisFibution. on rhe The second caregory FrrL is a fiber-to-the-curb of (FTTC) system. the name As implies,these systems designed reach are to within 1000 of a subscriber feet residence. An FTTC system generally is intended provideenhanced to services suchasvideoor high-speed usingADSL or VDSL. Distribution theenhanced data of services from rhe "curb" location is caniedover wire pairsor coaxialcable.These systems essenare tially identicalto advanced DLC sysrems with opticalrransport. Thethird category FITL is f,rber thehome(FTTH).These of ro sysrems obviously off'er oppornrnities extremelylarge bandwidthsto the homebut havesignifircant for

11.s HYBRTDFTBERcoAXSYSTEMS 511

is in neighborhoods expensive First,installation established bedeployment obstacles. and underground installations(understreets driveways)arenormally required. cause providingnetworkpowerto subscriber is equipment a majorproblem.The Second, but lack of power for enhanced serviceapplicationsis not much of a consideration power to telephones Local exchange carriersgo to great effotts to ensureindeis. pendence powersystems boththeiroffice switching systems and from commercial for (A the connected subscribers. centraloffice typically maintainsenoughbatteriesto poweris lost.If poweris out for longer up keepa system for ?4 hoursif commercial than this, dieselgenerators available.)A further complicationof providing teleare phoneservice to for overFTIH is the needto converta digitalvoicechannel analog telephones-anadditional and expense powerproblem. interfacing conventional to but Batteriesareoften offered asan alternativeto line poweredtelephones logistical if problemsremain;who maintainsthe batteryand what happens the batteryis dead poweris lost andsomeone wantsto diat 911? whencommercial

11.5 HYBRIDFIBERCOAX SY$TEMS with downThe cableTV systems installedaroundthe countrycan be augmented utilizing to by datatransmission subscribers merelyadding"cablemodems" strearn Upstream transmission from the subor TV unused displaced channelbandwidth. scriberto a cableTV headendis muchmoredifficult. Although manycableTV systransmission an option, the as tems were designedand installedwith upstream is limitedandoftensubject to to bandwidth available theupstream channels generally transmission limitationscan be levels.Upstream very high noiseand interference telephone connection voiceband with by somewhat alleviated utilizinga conventional is modemconnection usedin modems datarates to 28.8kbps.Thetelephone up with as the upstream channelof an ADSL while relativehighthe samebasicmanner of on bandwidth downstrearn arecarried thecable.The disadvantages this soludata of telephone line, the cost of largenumbers tion includethe needfor a subscriber provider, theneed coordinate dialand to into channel connection$ a service telephone users. with particular cablechannel up telephone comections in is Thebasicconfiguration a hybridfiber coax(tFC) $ystem depicted Figure of are as portions CATV system$ configured tree-and-branch of I 1.14. coaxial The cable signal. Amthe multichannel broadcast receiving same, topologies with all customers low plifiersarein$erted wherever signallevelgetsunacceptably from attenuation the in undertheasBidirectional amplifiers shown Figure11.14 are andbranching loses. In sumptionthat this sy$tem an applicationwith a returnpath from the residences. is sethe TV-only applications returnpath(if thereis one)is usedfor premiumchannel the lection.In expanded applications returnpathcarriesvoice or datawith fre$ervice quency in divisionmultiplexed cablemodems a bandfrom 5 to 42 MHz. portion of an HFC sy$tem repre$ents replacement a The optical fiber transmission For amplifiers. this reawith numerous of relativelylong haulcoaxialcablesections and are to analogsigson,theopticaltransmitters receivers designed carrya wideband (anywhere by nal. Noticethat the opticallinks areshared a largenumberof cu$tomers

512

DIGITAL SUBS0RIBER AccEsS

Fiber node

Figure 11.14 Hybrid fiber coaxsystem configuration. from 100 to 1500). upgrading an IIFC system for new $ervices typically requires Sreaterpenetrationof the optical frber portions so that fewer householdsare connected to a common coaxial cable segment.In the limiting situation, wherein eachhouseholdis connectedthrough a dedicatedcoaxial cable, an FIFC systembecomesan FTTC system. Downstream digital servicescan utilize cable modems that typically pack 30-40 Mbps into a 6-MHz analog TV channel. 64-eAM modulation is commonly used.In newer FIFC system.s, new downsfieam digital servicescan be canied at fuquencies above 450 MIJZ while the band from 54 ro 450 MHz is reservedfor haditional analog Tv. A major impediment to upgrading an IIFC systemfor return channelservicesis the shareduse of a coaxial cable segmentcommon to some number of households.The network termination within eachhome is passiveand bidirectional, which meansthat all noise and interferencewithin a home is passedonto the cornmon cable to all other homes.Thus, a single sourceof interferencecan disrupt the signal to all other homes served by the common coaxial cable. Furtherrnore,the noise and interferenceof all householdsare additive, indicating the needto limit the number of householdsserved by a single coax segment.An additional drawback of the sharedcable is the need for some form of encryption for content security. TDMA return channelshelp minimize the interferenceproblem by blocking all output energy from a residenceexcept when an allotted time slot occurs. using an HFC systemfor POTS hasthe samebasic drawbacksas an FTTH sy$tem in that there is no inherent facility for line powering rhe telephones. Thus, FIFC might not be used for primary ("lifeline") POTS distribution but could be quite effective in providing secondarytelephoneapplications.The main attribute of HFC for enhanced servicesis the ability to provide dynamic assignmentof high-rate digital downstream channelsand relatively low rate full-period upstreamchannels.

11.6 VOICEBAND MODEMS

voiceband modem technology improved dramatically in the early 1990swith the culmination of 33.6 kbps becoming standardwith ITU recommendationv.34 [17]. The

11,6 VOICEBAND MODEM$ 513

performance dueto two primaryfactors; the rapidadvance voiceband of was modem canceling the and for DSP technology equalization/echo availabilityof economical from quatityof thenetworkin termsof lowernoiseanddistortion resulting improved In implementation, an all-digital network the only significant the near-all-digital noiseofthe analog-to-digital conversion. ofnoise is thequantization source Example 11.2. Determinethe theoreticalmaximum data rate of a perfectly a modem undergoing singleA/D andD/A conversion. equalized voiceband 3 ratio Solution. The signal-to-quantizing-noise (SQR)is derivedin Chapter to be to on the orderof 36 dB, which conesponds a powerratio of 3981.Usingthis value yields capacity a channel of in Shannon's theorem thetheoretical for C= lVlogz(l + SNR) = 3100 logr(l + 39Bl) = 37 kbps wherethe channel limited by the transformer coupling,60 Hz eliminationfrlters, is from 300to 3400Hz. filters to extend andD/A smoothing bps

11.6.1 PGM Modems

As the previous problem indicates,a V.34 voicebandmodem provides data rates that arenearthe theoreticallimit imposedby quantizationnoise alone.Recognition that the principal sourceof noise in the end-to-endconnectionis the quantizationnoise of the A./D convertersleads to alternative modem implementations that directly utilize the digital 64-kbps channel and eliminate the quantization noise [18]. Thesemodems are commonly referred to as PCM modems. As shown in Figure 11.15, a V.90 PCM modem relies on the digital network to carry an unaltered digital signal from a digital source to a digital-to-analog conversion device (codec)at an analog subscriberinterface.The codecconvertsthe PCM codewordsto PAM samplesthat are detectedby the receiving customerpremisesmodem and convertedback to the original PCM data. Successfuldata detection requires the receiving circuitry to adequately equalize the combined distottion of the D/A smoothing filter and the transmission link, to know the quantization levels of the codec,and to becomesynchronizedto the D/A conversionclock. The equalizationand quantizationrequirementsare determinedduring an initialization proce$$while clock synchronization requires processing of data transitions in the multilevel received waveform. It might seemthat a PCM modem could provide a data rate of 64 kbps. However, severalfactors restrict the data rate to something less than 64 kbps. The first of fhese is the bandpass filter in the D/A codec (for 60 Hz elimination and samplesmoothing). A secondconskaint is the possibility that the digital path through the network might

514

DIGITAL SUBSCHIBER AccEsS

Tl or ISDN digitatlnterface Dlgital network

m1orrm 10mfi0010t10011

Subscrlber loop

+'*.-.H* mlor roo 1fiI}l roo 1oltmii

Figure 11.15 Downstream V.90 modem concept.

include a digital pad for changing the signal level of rhe assumedanalog signal.* A third constraint is rhe possibility (in North America) that robbed bit signaling might be in use on one or more of the digital links. The fact that the overall bandwidth of the channelis slightly over 3kHz implies that the maximum, intersymbol, interference-freepulse rate is just over 6 kHz. Thus, the actual sample rate of 8 kHz implies that some amount of intersymbol interferenceis inevitable (assumingthe PCM samplesare independent). The lack of a low-frequency transmissionresponseis accommodatedby V.90 modems by utilizing every eighth pcM sample soreryfbr dc restoration.Thus, the maximum data rate is 56 kbps. If robbed bit signaling is present,its effects are minimized by determining, during initialization, which frames in the six frame sequences sigare naling frames and then using only 7 bits per samplein thoseframesund g bits p*r ru*_ ple in the nonsignaling frames. Digital pads can be accommodatedby detectins their presenceand modifying the digital codewords according to the particular amolunt of attenuationbeing insertedby the pad. The v'90 uplink direction is implemented as a convenrional (v.34) modem. thereby implying asymmetry in the data rates. It is conceivable that pAM signaling could be usedin both directions,but the uplink is more complicatedto implement and is often unnecessary becausemost applications (e.g., Intemet access)are inherently asymmehic in the dataratesrequired. It is also possibleto utilize analog PAM on both
-Dgital Ievels.

pads are often included in the codecsfor digital setting of gain levels to desired voiceban d sigflal

DISTFIBUTION SEHVICE 515 11,7 LOCAL MICHOWAVE

(as are to endsof the connection opposed just one end),but theseimplementations morecomplicatd 20]. considerably [19, datarate is Themain attractionof PCM modems that theyprovidealmostthe same treator in but changes theline interfaces special asanISDN B channel do notrequire of loop (e.g.,theelimination bridgedtaps). Whenthecustomer mentof thecustomer loop is a shortdrop from a remoteterminalof a digital loop carrier,themaximumdata rateof 53-56 kbpsis assured.

SERVICE 11.7 LOCAL MICROWAVE DISTRIBUTION frequency microwave for TheFCC hasallocated separate bands digitalradioactwo is MultipointDistribucommunications The services. first of these Multichannel cess (MMDS), whichoperates 2 GHz.MMDS is essentially wireless at a cable tion Service Reverse commuchannel only one-way transmission. and,as such,provides sy$tem network. through telephone the nications dial-upmodemconnections rcquires (LMDS) operates 28 GHz andprovides at Local MicrowaveDistributionService with LMDS aredependBandwidths available two-waycommunications. cell-based, plansprovide provider'sfrequency plan.Typically,these ent on a particularservice bandthe on bidirectional rate$ theorderof 1.5-50Mbps,although totalallocated data rates to or width of almost1 GHz canbe partitioned providehigherrate$ asymmetric of havebeenmadein a range 25-31 GHz. International LMDS allocations if desired. Systems Thesesystems also refbrredto as Local Multipoint Communications are (LMCS) in Canada Brazil. and by Theprincipalapplications supported LMDS arevoice,video,andhigh-bandwidth The is amount bandwidth available the main attraction. major data.The immense of Thus,after radioequipment. thesubscriber is with costof anLMDS system associated costsareincurredonly assubscribers begin additional the cell sitesareestablished, payingfor service. facilitiesthatreThis situation in contrast is with newfiber-based The mostimmediate quire major,up-frontinvestment are beforerevenues realized. to digitalleased linesfor for opportunity LMDS is to offer an alternative high-speed are High-speed Internet and access HDTV to individualresidences seconbusinesses. daryopportunities. line-of-sight The major disadvantages LMDS are the needfor FCC licensing, of poin limits of 2-3 miles,extreme attenuation heavyrainfalls, transmission, distance andthe bands, in otherservices suchas satellites the same from tentialinterference (telephone) sites.Fademarginsor dynamic needfor local power in all subscriber rainfallrates. powercontrolon the orderof 40 dB overcome but themo$tsevere all station means a single that base canTherequirement line-of'-sight tbr transmission in or in maybe WestTexas theAusnot communicate all locations a cell (except with are but coverage, somelocations Overlapping cellsprovidegreater tralianoutback). can Line-ofreflectors beinstalled. unless sureto be in theshadow ofall base stations or of can by sighttransmission befurthercompromised theappearance buildings trees initial deployment. after

516

DtctrAL suBscRtBER AccESS

11.8 DIGITALSATELLITESERVICES Direct SatelliteService(DSS)hasrecentlybecome viablealternative cableTV a to services. Because DSS system the utilizesdigitaltransmission its TV channels, for it is straightforward a DSSproviderto offer datacommunications for services theTV to subscribers. However,because DSS is a one-waycommunications service, dial-up modemconnections throughthe telephone networkare requiredfor two-way data communications. is alsolimitedro thetoralbandwidth DSS (400MFIz)of thesatellite transponders, which mustbe shared the Tv ffansmissions any allocated by and data channels. In contrast DSS,whichuses to geostationary satellite orbits,Low Earthorbit satellitesoflridium andTeledesic provideopportunities lowercost,bidirectional for user terminals. mentioned Chapter Iridium is primarilyoriented relativelynarAs in 9, to row bandapplications suchasvoice,messaging, paging.Teledesic, the other and on hand,is oriented wide-bandwidth applications. to data

REFERENCES
Recommendation I.430 ISDN user-NetworkInterface;Layer I Recommendations, Fascicle IlL9,CCITTBlueBook,1988, lll- 240. pp. AmericanNationalstandards Telecommunications,,.Integrated for servicesDigital Network-Basic AccessInterface use on Metallic Loopsfor Applicationon the for Network Sideof theNT-Layer Specification," I ANSI TI.60l-1988. R. Komiya, K. Yoshida,and N. Tamaki,"The Loop coveragecomparisonbetween TCM andEchocancellerundervariousNoiseconsiderations,"rEEE Transactions on Communications, 1986, 1058-1067. Nov. pp. sESs@. switch ISDN BasicRateInrerface programIssue specification, 5E5 Generic I.00,AT&T, Dec.1987, II-B-t/15. pp. s. sugimoto' K. Hayashi,and F. Mano, "Design of 2Ble rransceiverfor ISDN subscriber Loops,"IEEEIntemationalconferenteon communication,Iune pp, 19g9, 8 . 1r.- 8 .1 . 5 . "Line codes for J. w. Lechleider, Digital subscriber Lines,"IEEE communications Magazine, Sept.1989,pp.25-32. w' chen andD. waring, "Applicability of ADSL to supportvideo Dial rone in the CopperLttop,"IEEE Communications Magazine, May 19g4, 102_109, pp, "Networkand customerInstallation Interfaces-Asymmetric Digital subscriber Line (ADSL)MetallicInrerface," ANSI Tl.4t3-1995, Aug. 1995. B' saltzberg,"comparisonof single-carrierand Multitone Digital Modulationfor ADSL Applications," IEEE Communications Magasine, Nov. 199g,pp. ll4_lLL. w. Y. chen, DSL simulation Techniques standardsDevelopment Digital and for publishing, subscriber Line,sysferns, MacmillanTechnical Indianapolis, l9gg. J. M. Cioffi, V. Oksman, J. Werner, polletr,p. M. p. Spruyt, S. Chow,andK. S. J. T. J. Jacobsen,'-very-High-speed Digital subscriber Lines," IEEE communications Magazine, Apr. 1999,pp.72-79.

r0
n

PROBLEMS 517 Criteria for Digital Loop Carrier Systems," Technical ft.eference, TR-NWT-000057, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ, Jan. 1993. "Integrated Digital Loop Carrier System Generic Requirements, Objectives and t3 Interface," Generic Requirement, GR-NWT-000303, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ' Dec' I 998. "Generic 14 Operations Interfaces Using OSI Tools; Information Model for Integrated Digital Loop Carrier and Fiber in the l,oop Systems," Generic Requirements, GR-NWT-002833, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ, Dec. 1996' 12 "Functional

r5
l6

t7
l8 19

G.964 (06194),"V-Interfaces at the Digital Local Exchange Recommendation Network(AN)' of (LE)-VS.l-Interface (Based 2048kbiVs)for theSupport Access on ITU, GenevaSwitzerland, Recommendation G.965 (03/95)-V-Interlaces at the Digital Local Exchange Network(AN). (Based 2048kbit/s)for the Support Access of (LE)-VS.2Interface on ITU, Geneva, Switzerland. "The V'34 High-Speed G. D. Forney,L. Brown, M. V. Eyuboglu,and J. L. Moran, pp' Dec. 1996, 28-33. Maga4ine, IEEE Communications ModemStandard," B. Townsend, "High Speed CommunicationsSystem for Analog Subscriber l, Sept. 1998. 5,801,695, Connections," Patent U.S. "TheCapacity PCM Voiceband Channels," of I. Kalet,J. E. Mazo,andB. R, Saltzberg, pp. 1993, 507*51l. Conference. IntemationalCommunications "High Speed E. Ayanoglu, G. Golden, R. Jones, J, Mazo, and D. Shaw, Quantization-Level-Sampling Modem with Equalization Arrangement," U.S. Patent
June 18, 1986. 5,528,625,

PROBLEMS system utiltransmission loop lengthof a ping-pong 11.1 Determine maximum the the Assume vein of izing 8-kHzdatabursts 50 psecduration eachdirection. the of is locity of propagation one-third speed light. by theoretical ratethatcanbe achieved a voicedata the ll,2 Determine maximum digital passing the through publicnetworkanda singleuniversal bandmodem in thereare no signalimperfections the digital Assume loop carriersystem. poftionsof thefacilities.

r1-3

Determine the range of data rates achievable with a V.90 modem passing "robbed bit" signaling. through six Tl facilities with 11.4 Assume a multipair cable systemis used to carry bidirectional high-bandwidth AMI signals and that near-endcrosstalk coupling from one pair to another is IVo (-2O dB). If the systemis crosstalklimited, determinethe maximum num ber ofactive pairs for a bit error rate of 10-6.

marginfor noiseandotherimProblemI1.4 with a 3-dB interference 11.5 Repeat perfections.

t',t#Fi

It#t",*"
x h't

\t'l\\

12
TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
of networkis composed loops,a telephone and Exceptfor stationsets theirassociated interstage call suchas digit receivers, processors, a variety of commonequipment designed switchinglinks, andinterofficetrunks.The amountof commonequipment that not all usersof the network under an assumption into a network is determined is required unpreequipment of at needservice onetime.Theexactamount common Networks conceivably requests. of of because therandomnature the service dictable all to commonequipment instantlyservice requests wifh enough couldbe designed peaks. this solutionis However, of exceptfor occurrences very rareor unanticipated is duringnormalnetequipment unused muchof thecommon uneconomical because for is work loads.The basicgoalof traffic analysis to providea method determining of of thecost-effectiveness varioussizesandconfigurations networks. beof networkrefersto theaggregate all userrequests Traffrc in a communicatrons reque$ts the by ing serviced the network,As far asthe networki$ concerned, service times.The fluststepof trafservice arriverandomlyandusuallyrequireunpredictable of is fic analysis thecharacterization traffic arrivalsandservicetimesin a probabilistic in of framework.Then the effectiveness a network can be evaluated terms of how loadsandhow often the haffic volume it muchtraff,rc carriesundernormalor average the exceeds capacityof the network. categories: loss can Thetechniques oftraffic analysis be dividedinto two general analysiscategoryfor a particularsystem The and fiystems delay systems. appropriate overload traff,tc traffic.In a losssystem treatment overload of on depends thesystem's trafficis heldin a queue overload In withoutbeingserviced. a delaysystem is rejected circuit switchingopit. to available service Conventional until the facilitiesbecome withouta reffy and traffic is blocked not serviced sinceexcess erates a losssystem as "lost" callsactually represent lossofrevea instances on ttrepartofthe user.In some by nueto thecarriers virtueof theirnot beingcompleted. the or message packetswitchingobviouslypossesses basic Store-and-forward operation however, packet-switching a Sometimes, characteristics a delaysystem. of and siees virnralcirLimited queue of canalsocontaincertaina$pects a loss$ystem. networks Circuit-switching duringtraffic overloads. bothimply lossoperations cuits ofa delay naturein additionto the loss operation incorporate certainoperations also 519

520

THAFF|c ANALysts

of the circuits themselves. For example,access a digit receiver,an operator,or a call to proce$soris normally controlled by a queuing proces$. The basic measureof performancefor a loss systemis the probability of rejection (blocking probability). A delay system, on the orher hand, iJ measured in terms of servicedelays' Sometimesthe averagedelay is desired,while at other times the probability of the delay exceedingsome specified value is of more interest. some of the analysespresentedin this chapter are similar to those presented . in chapter 5 for the blocking probabilities of a switch. chapter 5 is concerned mostly with matching loss-the probability of not being able to set up a connection througir a switch under normal or averagetraffic volumes. This chapter, however, is mostly concernedwith the probability that the number of active sourcesexceedssome specified value' Typically, the specified value is the number of trunk circuits in a route.

12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION
Because theratrdom of natureof networktraffic,thefollowing analyses involvecertain fundamentals probabilitytheoryand srochastic of pro""r*r*. L tni, heatment only the mostbasicassumptions resultsof traffic analysis presented. and are The intentis to provideanindication ofhow to applyresults ofhaffic analysis, to delve not deeply into analytical formulations. However, few basicderivations presented a are to acquaint userwith assumptions themodels theycanbeappropriately the in so applied. In the realm of applied mathematics, where thesesubjectsare nlatea more formally, blockingprobabilityanalyses referredto as congestion are theoryanddelay analyses refenedto asqueuingtheory.These are topicsarealsocommonlyreferred to astraffic flow analysis. a circuit-switched In network, ..flow" of messages not the is so much of a concernas are the holding times of cornmonequipment. A circuitswitched networkestablishes end-to-end an circuitinvolvingvariousnetworkfacilities (transmission links andswitching$tages) areheldfor the duration a ca1l. that of From a networkpoint of view, it is the holdingof these re$ources is important, that not theflow of information within individualcircuits. on theotherhand,message-switching packet-switching and networks directly are concerned with the actualflow of information, sincein thesesystems traff,rc the on transmission links is directlyrelated the activityof the sources. to As mentioned Chapter circuitswitching in 7, doesinvolvecertain aspects traffic of flow in theprocess setting a connection. of up connectrequests from thesources flow to the destinations acquiring, holding,andreleasing certainresources theprocess. in As wasdiscussed, controllingtheflow of connect requests duringnetworkoverloads is a vital functionof networkmanagement. Theunpredictable natureof communications traffic arisesasa resultof two underlying random processes: arrivals holdingtimes.An arrivalfrom anyparticular call and useris generally assumed occurpurelyby chance betotallyindependent to and ofar_ rivals from otherusers. Thusthenumberof arrivalsduringanyparticulartime interval is indeterminate. mostcases In holdingtimesarealsodistributed randomly. some In applications element randomness be removed assuming this of can by constant hold-

521 tz.t rBAFFtc cHAHAcrEFlzATloN to packets). eithercase traffic loadpresented a netthe In ing times(e.g.,fixedJength of on dependent both the frequency arrivalsandthe average work is fundamentally in situation which a holdingtime for eacharrival.Figure12.1depicts representative The are the arivals andtheholdingtimesof 20 differentsources unpredictable. both while the top displays of eachindividualsource activity bottomof the figuredepicts are that total theinstantaneous of all activity.[f we assume the20 sources to be conof the nected a hunk group,theactivitycurvedisplays number circuitsin useat any to number circuitsin useat anyonetimeis of particular time.Noticethatthemaximum terms,thetrunks utilizationis a little underI I circuits.In general 16 andthe average group' and arereferredto asservers, a trunk group is a serYer Traffic Measurementg overa periodof time. is of Onemeasure networkcapacity thevolumeof traffrccarried the sumof all holdingtimescarriedduringtheinterval. Traffic volumeis essentially undertheactivitycurve(apin Thetraffic volumerepresented Figure12.1is thearea proximately call minutes). 84 of A moreusefulmeasure traffic is the traffic intensity(alsocalledtraffic flow). of by Trafficintensity obtained dividingthetrafficvolumeby theIength timeduring is activityduringaperepresents average the Thustraffic intensity whichit is measured. dimenriod of time (10.5in Figure12.1).Althoughtraffic intensityis fundamentally afterthe in (time dividedby time), it is usuallyexpressed units of erlangs, sionless (century) seccall A. pioneer tlaffic theorist K. Erlang,or in termsof hundred Danish erlangs CCSunitscanbe derived (CCS).Therelationship and between ondsperhour that by observing thereare3600secin anhour:

Es
I

E.E !s
E E t

Tims lfiinu$rl

Flgure 12.1 Activity profile of networktraffic (all callscanied).

522

TRAFFICANALYSIS

I erlang= 36 CCS Themaximum capacity a singleserver of (channel) l erlang, is whichis to saythat theserver always is busy.Thusthemaximum capacity erlangs a groupof servers in of is merelyequalto thenumber seryers. of Because traffic in a losssysLmexperiences infiniteblockingprobabilities whenthetrafficintensity equal thenumber servis to of ers,theaverage activityis necessarily thal thenumber servers. less of similarly,delay rrystems operate lessthanfull capacity, average, at on because infinite delaysoccur whentheaverage loadapproaches number servers. the of Two importantpalameters usedto characterize mafficarethe average alival rate L andtheaverage holdingtime t*. If thetrafficintensity is expressed erlangs, l, in then

a =fu*

(12.1)

whereI' andf* areexpressed like unitsof time (e.g.,callsper second seconds in and per call,respectively). Noticethat traffic intensityis only a measure average of utilizationduringa time periodanddoesnot reflectthe relationship between arrivalsandholdingtimes.That is, manyshortcallscanpraduce same the traffic intensity a few longones. many as In of the analyses follow the resultsaredependent that only on the trathc intensity. In someca|tes, however, results alsodependent theindividualarrivalpattems the are on andholdingtime distributions. Publictelephone networks typicallyanalyzed termsof the average are in activity duringthebusiest hourof a day.Theuseof busy-hour trafficmeasurementsdesign to andaralyzetelephone networks representrrcompromise a between designing tle for overallaverage utilization(whichincludes virtually unused nighnimehours)anddesigningfor short-duration peaks that may occurby chance *, u resurtof rv como, mercialbreaks, radiocall-inconte$ts, soon. and Busy-hour trafficmeasurements indicate anindividualresidential that telephone is typicallyin usebetween and l0zo ofthe busyhour.Thuseach 5 telephone represenm a traffic loadof between 0.05and0.l0 errangs. average The holdingtime is between 3 and4 min, indicating thara typicartelephone involvedin oneoi two phonecalls is duringthe busyhour. Business telephones usuallyproduceloadingpatterns differentfrom residential phones' First, a business phoneis generally utilizedmoreheavily.second, busy the hourofbusiness traffic is oftendifferentfrom thebusyhourofresidential traffic.Figute 12.2showsa typicalhourly variationfor both sources traffic. The trunks of of a telephone networkaresometimes designed takeadvantage variations calling to of in patterns from differentoffices.Toll connecting trunksfrom residentialareas often are busiest during eveninghours,and trunksfrom business areas obviouslybusiest are duringmidmorning midafternoon. or Traffic engineering depends only on overall not traffic volumebut alsoon time-volumetraffic patterns within the network. A certainafirount caremustbe exercised of whendetermining total traffic load the of a system from theloadingof individuallinesor trunks.For example, sincetwo tele-

12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTEFIEAT|0N523

:
I

rillAr'r2

l0 ll

l2H I

ftuq ol dof I t oti(|;uomrdi*ia ofi* . *.ll.,ttot or'i"

on Figure 12.2 Traffic volumedependence time of day. phonesare involved in eachconnection,the total load on a switching systemis exactly one-half the total of all traffic on the lines connectedto the switch. ln addition, it may be important to include certain setupand rcleasetimes into the averageholding times of some common equipment. A lQ-sec setup time is not particularly significant for a 4-min voice call but can actually dominate the holding time of equipment used for Common equipment setup times also become more significant short data messages. presenceofvoice traffic overloads.A greaterpercentageofthe overall load is in the represented call attempt$since they increaseat a faster rate than completions. by An important distinction to be made when discussingtraffic in a communications network is the difference between the offered haffic and the carried traffic. The offered trffic is the total traffic that would be carried by a network capable of servicing all requestsas they arise.Since economicsgenerally precludesdesigning a network to immediately cany the maximum offered traffic, a small percentage of offered traffic typically experiencesnetwork blocking or delay. When the blocked calls are rejected by the network, the mode of operation is referred to as blocked calls cleared or lost blocked calls are assumedto disappearand never return. This calls cleared.In essence, assumption is most appropriatefor trunk Broup$with alternateroutert.In this case a blocked call is normally serviced by another tnrnk group and does not, in fact, retum. The carried traffic ofa loss system is always less than the offered traffic. A delay system,on the other hand, does not reject blocked calls but holds them until the necessaryfacitities are available. With the assumptionthat the long-term averageof offered traffic is less than the capacity of the network, a delay system caries all offered

524

TRAFFIc ANALYSIS

ffaffic. If the number of request$ that can be waiting for serviceis limited, however, a delay system also takes on properties of a ross system.For exampre,if the queue for holding blocked arrivals is finite, requestsarriving when the queueis full are cleared.

12.1.1 Arrival Distrlbutione The mostfundamental assumption classical of traffic analysis thatcall arivals are is independent. That is, an arrivar from one sourceis unrelatedto an arrival from any othersource. Eventhoughthis assumption may be invalid in someinstances, has it general usefulness mostapplications. those for In cases wherecall arrivalstendto be correlated, usefulresults still be obtained modifyinga random can by arrivalanalysis. ln this mannerthe randomarrival assumption providesJmathematicalformulation that.catr adjusted produce be to approximate solutions problems areotherwise to that mathematically intractable. Negatlva Exponenilal lnterarrlval Timeg Designate average arrivalratefrom a rargegroupof independent the call (subsources scriber lines)as1,,Usethefollowing assumptions: l. Only oneanival canoccurin anysufficientlysmallinterval. 2. The probability of an arrival in any sufficiently small iriterval is directly proportionalto the length of the interval. (The probability of an arrival is l" lr, whereAr is theintervallength.) 3. The probability of an arrival in any particularinterval is independent of what hasoccurred otherintervals. in It is straightforward to showthatrheprobabilitydisnibutionof interarrival [1] times is
P()(I"t) = e-M

(r2.2)

Equation l?'2 defines probabiliry no arrivalsoccurin a randomlyselected the that intervalt' This is identicalto theprobability that f seconds elapse from onearrival to the next. Example12.1. Assumingeachof 10,000subscriber lines originateone cail per hour,how oftendo two callsarrivewith lessthan0.01secbetween themt Solutinn. The average anival rateis l, = 3600/10,000 2.78arrivals/sec = FromEquationlZ.z,theprobabilityof no arrivalin a O.0r-sec intervalis

525 12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION = PoQ'0215): e4'o?78 0.973 2.7Voof the arrivats occur within 0.01 secof the previous arrival. Since the arrival rate is ?.78 arrivatsper second,the rate ofoccurrence ofinteranival times lessthan 0.01 secis 'lhus

2.78x0.027 = 0.075times/sec arrivaldistriexponential madein derivingthenegative Theflrst two assumptions howThe butioncanbe intuitivelyjustifiedfor mostapplications. third assumptron, First, that of ever,impliescertainaspects the sources cannotalwaysbe supported. to the might stimulate sources breaks, commercial as Such televiSion certainevents, distrithe exponential time.In this case negative placetheir callsat nearlythe same butionmay still hold but for a muchhighercallingrateduringthecommercial. the involves numarrivalassumption of A moresubtle implication theindependent of Whentheprobability ananival in any not berof sources, just theircallingpattern$. of small time intervalis independent other arrivals,it implies that the numberof If is requests constant. a numberof arrivalsoccurimmesources availableto generate become busyandcansome thesources of in diatelybeforeanysubinterval question, arrivalrate. the is requests. effectof busysources to reduce average The not generate largerthan whatEquation12.2preThusthe interarriva'ltimesarealwayssomewhat of dicts themto be. The only time the arrival rateis truly independent sourceactivity exist. of is whenan infinite number sources activityis relativelylow, busy is If the numberof sources largeandtheir average an consider endoffice the reduce arrivalrate.Forexample, $ources notappreciably do Normally,thereare with subscribers 0.1 erlangof activityeach. thatservices 10,000 Ifthe numto new available generate artivals. 1000activelinks and9000subscribers activelines,thenumber to by increa$es anunlikely 507o 1500 berof activesubscribers Thusthearrivalrateis relaof to reduces 85fi), achange only 5.6Vo. of idle subscribers the of activity.Whenever arrivalrateis fairly overa widerange source tively constant assumptron constantfor the entirerangeof normal sourceactivity, an infinite $ource is justified. in 5 havealready beendiscussed Chapter Actually,someeffectsof finite $ources of blockingprobabilities a switch.It is pointedout that Lee graph when analyzing of because, somenumber interstage if analyses overestimate blockingprobability the links in thegrouparelesslikely links in a groupareknownto bebusy,theremaining solutionto produces morerigorousandaccurate a analysis to be busy.A Jacobaeus analyis Accurate particularly whenspace expansion used. theblockingprobability, are These includedin the are sesofinterarrivaltimesfor finite sources alsopossible. to blockinganalyses follow. Poisson Arrlval Dlstributlon of the of provides means determining distribution interarrival a Equation1.2.2merely informationof how times.It doesnot, by itself, providethe generallymoredesirable

526

TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

manyarrivals beexpected occurin some can to arbitrary timeinterval. using thesame assumptions presented, however, probability arrivals aninterval, canbede_ the ofj in termined as []

=p r,{M)

r-u

(12.3)

Equation12.3is thewell-knownpoisson probabilitylaw. Noticethatwhenj = 0, the probabilityofno arrivalsin an intervalr is ps(r),asobtained Equation in 12.2. Again,Equation12.3assumes arrivalsareindependent occurat a givenaverand agerate1,,irrespective the numberof arrivalsoicuning just prior to an interval of in question' Tfius the Poisson probabilitydistributionstrouldonty be usedfor arrivals from a largenumber independent of sources. Equation l?.3 defines probability experiencing the of exactlyjardvals seconds. in, Usuallythereis moreinterest determining probabilityofj or morearrivals in the in r seconds;

p=Itu) =Er,fUt
ej ./:l

: r -Er,flrt
r'{

= I _p*lftf) whereP;(l,r)is defined Equation12.3. in

(r2.4)

Example12.2. Given a message-swirching that normally experiences node four arrivalsper minure,what is the probabilitythat eight or more arrivals occur in an arbitrarilychosen 30-sec interval? solution, Theaverage number arrivalsin a 30-sec of intervalis

Lr=x#=? a
Theprobabilityof eightor morearrivals(whentheaverage 2) is is

=i P>8(2) ",,r,
r=8

I2.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION 7

527

=t-Lr,(z)
r{

=r-a{r
= 0.0011

) " *' {'r!

Exampte12.3. What is the probability that a 1000-bitdata block experiences link overa transmission with alit enor rate exactlyfour errorswhile beingtransmitted (BER) of l0-5? assumption many on errors (a questionable Solation, Assuming independent links), we canobtainthe probability of exactlyfour errorsdirectly from transmission the Poisson distribution. The average number of errors (arrivals) lut= x 101 tO-s= 0.01.Thus

= P4(0.01) = prob(4errors) ry

x 10 e-{'or 4.125 16-

An alternativesolutioncanbe obtainedfrom the binomial probability law:

: prob(4errors)oo*Jtt t - p)ee6 [t
= 4.I01x 10-10 wherep= lfl-s

Thecloseof the As canbe seen, two solutions Example12.3arenearlyidentical. probabilitydistribution is reflectsthe fact that the Poisson nessof the two answers it Because is probabilitydistribution. often derivedasa limiting caseof a binomial to is as distribution oftenused anapproximation a binoa to easier calculate, Poisson mial distribution' 12.1-z Holdlng Time Distrlbutions holdin 12.1is theaverage as Thesecond factorofffaffic intensity specified Equation needs beknown to of cases average theholdingtimesis all that ing time tr-.In some the or in in blockingprobabilities a losssystem delays aboutholdingtimesto determine probabilitydisribution of to In it a delaysystem. othercases is necessary know the This sectiondescribes two most the results. the holdingtimesto obtainthe desired holdingtimesandexponenconstant holdingtime disnibutions: commonlyassumed tial holdingtimes.

528

rRAFFtc ANALysts

ConstantHoldlng Times
Althoughconstant holdingtimescannot assumed conventional be for voiceconver$ations,it is a reasonable assumption suchactivitiesasper-callcall processing for requirements, interofficeaddress signaling, operator assistance, recorded and -*ssag" playback'Furthermore, constant holdingtimesare obviouslyvalid for transmission timesin fixed-length packetnetworks. when constant holding time messages in effect,it is straightforward use are to Equation12.3to determine probabilitydistribution activechannels. the of As$ume, for thetimebeing,thatall requests serviced. are Thentheprobability channels ofj be_ ing busyat anyparticular time is merelytheprobabilitythat; arrivalsoccurred the in time intervalof lengthr* immediately preceding instant question. the in sincetheaveragenumberof activecircuits over all time is the traffic intensityA = l,f*, the probability ofj circuitsbeingbusyis dependent on the traffic intlnsity: only P;(i.r-) = Pj(A)
a =N7- " where l, = arrival rate fm = constflrltholding time A = traffic inten$ity (erlangs)

(12.5)

ExponentlalHolding Tlmes
The most commonly assumedholding time distribution for conventional telephone conversationsis the exponential holding time distribution: P(>t) = s-t/t^

(12.6)

holdingtime. Equation12.6specifies probabilitythat a yhere r* is the average the holdingtime exceeds valuer. This relationship the can-be derived fro* u few simple assumptions concerning natureof thecall termination the process. basic justificaIts tion, however, in thefact thatobservations lies ofactual uoice"onuersations exhibit a remarkably closeconespondence an exponential to distribution, Theexponential distribution possesses curiousproperty the thattheprobabilityof a termination independent how longa call hasteen in progress. is, no is of Thai matter how long a call hasbeenin existence, probabiliry the ofit Lsting another seconds r is definedby Equation12'6.In this sense exponential holdingtimesrepresent most the random process possible. evenknowledge Not ofhow longa call hasieenin progress provides information to whenthecall will terminaie. any as combininga Poisson arrivalprocess with an exponential holdingtime process to obtainthe probabilitydisribution of activecircuitJis morecompilated thanit was for constant holdingtimesbecause callscanlast indefinitely.rhe final result,however'proves be dependent only theaverage to on holdingtime.ThusEquation 12.5is

12.I TRAFFIC CHARACTERIZATION529

holdingtimes(or anyholdholdingtimesaswell asfor constant valid for exponential for The repeated emphasis; probEquation12.5is therefore ing time distribution). a arrival ability of j circuitsbeingbusy at any palticularinstant,assuming Poisson is are immediately, process thatall requests serviced and

PIA)=fte-A

(r2.1)

This resultis true for any distributionof whereA is ttretraffic inten$ityin erlangs. holdingtimes.

to Example12.4. Assumethat a tnrnk group has enoughchannels immediately process with an arrival rateof onecall carry all of thetraffic offeredto it by a Poisson of holding time is 2 min. What percentage the per minute.Assumethat the average total traffic is carriedby the first five circuits, andhow much traffic is carriedby all remainingcircuits? (Assumethat the haffic is always packedinto the lowest numbered circuits.) I thesystemisA= x2=2erlangs. Solutinn. Thetrafficintensity(offeredload)of Thekaffic intensitycarriedby I activecircuitsis exactlyi erlangs.
Hence the traffic carried by the fust five circuits can be determined as follows;

+ +2Pr(2)+ 3Pr(2)+ 4Pa(2) 5Pr(?) As = 1Pr(2)

=e

^ +Z x z ?. - 3 i z 3.-4 x-z a, s x z s) z. * 3 x _* T

zl

st )

= l.g9 erlangs All of the remainingcircuits carry 2-1.89=0.llerlang returns the as the Theresultof Example12.4demonstrates principleof diminishing percentage$ greater greater offered and ofthe is to capacityofa system increased carry of traffic. The first five circuitsin Example12.4carry94.57o the traffic while all re95 of mainingcircuitscarryonly 5.5Vo theftaffic. If thereare 100sources, exka cirto cuitsareneeded carrythe5.5Vo.

530

TRAFFICANALYSIS

12.2 LOSS SYSTEMS Examplel2'4 provides indication theblockingprobabilities arisewhenthe an of that number servers of (circuits) lessthanthemaximum is possible traffic load(number of sources). example The demonstrates g4.5%o the traffic is carriedby only five that of circuits'Theimplication thattheblockingprobability, only five circuitsareavailis if ableto carrythetraffic,is 5.svo. Actually,Example12.4is carefullywordedto indi_ catethatall ofthe offeredtraffic is carried thatonly thetraffic carried thefirst but by five circuitsis of interest. There a subtle important is but distinction between probthe ability that six or morecircuitsarebusy(ascanbe obtained from Equation12.7)and theblockingprobabiliry thatarises whenonly five circuirsexisr. Thebasicreason thediscrepancy indicatecl Figure12.3,whichdepicts for is in the same trafficpattern arising from z0 sources is shown as previously Figuretz. t. nlgin ure l2'3, however, assumes only l3 circuitsareavailable carryttretraffic.thus that to thethreearrivalsat t = 2.2,2.3,and2.4 min areblockedandassumed haveleft the to system. totalamount traffic volumelost is indicated theshaded The of by area, which is thedifference between trafficbeingserviced it arriverand all as trafficbeingcarried by a blockedcallscleared system with l3 circuits.Themostimportant feature noto tice in Figure I2.3 is that the call arrivingat r = z.g is not blocied, eventhoughthe originalprofile indicates it arriveswhenall 13circuitsarebusy.Thereason is that it not blockedis thatthepreviously blockedcallsleft thesystem therefore and reduced thecongestion subsequent for arrivals. Hence percentage time thattheoriginal the of traffic prof,rle at or above13is not the $ame theblockingprobabilitywhenonly is as 13circuitsareavailable.

gs
E.E
Efi
.tE
P E

= E
G

Tim6 (rninutEl Figure 12.3 Activity profile of blocked calls cleared ( I 3 channels).

SYSTEMS 531 12.2 LOSS

12.2.1 Loet CallsCleared

for calls in the fully andaccurately theeffectof cleared The first personto account we was of calculation blockingprobabilities A. K. Erlangin 1917.In this section Erlang'smost often usedresult;his formulationof the blocking probdiscuss RecallthatthePoisson arrivals. with Poisson system ability for a lostcallscleared This resultis variouslyreferredto as infinite sources. implies arrival assumption the Erlang'sformulaof the first kind, El,y(A); Erlang-Bformula;or Erlang'sloss formula. to and aspect Erlang'sformulation, a key contribution modern of A fundamental statistical equilibrium. Basically, process is of theory, theconcept statistical stochastic (numstate beingin a particular impliesthattheprobabilityof a system's equilibriunr of ber of busycircuitsin a trunk group)is independent the time at whichthe system equilibrium, longtime mustpass(seva to is examined. a system be in statistical For until it is again from whenthe $ystem in a knownstate is eralaverage holdingtimes) groupfirst begins accept to traffic,it hasnobusy examined. example, For whenatrunk the is circuits.For a shorttime thereafter, system mostlikely to haveonly a few busy equilibrium.At this point the the reaches however, system circuits.As time passes, is of mostlikely state the system to haveA = I'rr busycircuits' is a Whenin equilibrium, $ystem aslikely to havean arrivalasit is to havea terA, above average de' the to of mination. thenumber activecircuitshappens increase If Similarly,if the numberof activecircuits partures become morelikely thanarrivals. Thusif a system to happens dropbelowA, an arival is morelikely thana depadure. to perturbed chance it from its average state, tends return. is by complicated, is notpreit is formulation notparticularly AlthoughErlang'selegant The interapplication the results. of in herebecause aremostlyinterested we sented ofthe result: is reader invitedto seereference or [3] for a derivation ested [2]

B=Erl,A)= Mffi
(channels) N where = numberof servers \,t^ ,4 = offeredtraffic intensity, (erlangs)

(12.8)

with randomarrithe Equation12.8specifies probabilityof blockingfor a system The blocking arbitraryholding time distributions. infinite source and vals from an plottedin Figure12.4asa functionof offeredtraffic probabilityof Equation12.8is presentation Erof of An intensityfor variousnumbers channels. oftenmoreusefUl utilization the whichpresent$ outputchannel is in lang'sresults provided Figure12.5, utilizationp repof The and for various blockingprobabilities numbers servers. output resents traffic carriedbv eachcircuiu the

g s - U g T
= ! t
F E @ =

o t r F o . E b o L ' t r .it X q
cl P HO tl

J E

? E

6 t

E . E
H b
=
X H

g ^rilHrqod 0sHoolg

\ \ \ \

l \\
\

\\ \
i
q

\
I
I

\'

\ \ \ \
JT

8 d
U o C

r
' i

h H u E
q = i !

\ \ \ \ \ \

\ \
rr

t r H r E ; =
t

(
$

J
!

r
E

o
d
t

t
\
Jt
_Q

(\
aj a '
$ \

a , H rlr .5 . a =
L

\ \ \ \
O i

i\

E v

f t r t t
(

le
\ \ \ \ \ \

14.'

EJ

\ \ \ \

\ \

\
I

U?
ol
Fi

P b0

\ \ \ \

l-,

,r\ \ \ \

o ( ' tr e h t q ou lo r ot t o ' ? t o ! - 1 j c o o

(uotterilrrn lndtno)d tauueqc

TRAFFICANALYSIS

P=-F
whereA N B (l -B)A
offered traffic number of channels blocking probability carried traffic

(1-B)4

(12.e)

Blockingprobabilities alsoprovided tabularform in AppendixD. are in Example 12.5. A Tl line is to be usedasa tieline trunkgroupberween pBXs. two How muchhaffic canthe trunk groupcany if the blockingptouuuitityis to be 0.1? What is the offeredtraffic intensitv? Soluti'on- From Figure 12.5it can be seenthat the outputcircuit utilization for B = 0.I andN = 24 is 0.8.Thusthecarried traffic intensity 0.g x24 = 19.2erlangs. is sincetheblockingprobabilityis 0.l, themaximumlevelof offeredtraffic is

A=ffi=2l.3erlangs
Example 12.6. Fourclusters dataterminals to beconnected a computerby of are to way of leased circuits,as shownin Figure 12.6.In Figure lz.6athetraffic from the clusters usesseparate group$of shared circuits.In Figure lz.6b thetraffic from all clustersis concentrated onto one commongroup of circuits.Determinethe total numberof circuits requiredin both caseswhen the maximum desiredblocking probabilityis 57o,Assume that 22 terminals in eachclusterandeachterminalis are activellVo of thetime. (Usea blocked callscleared analysis.)

lq?

Figure 12.6 Dataterminalnetworkof Example10.6:(a) four separate groups; all traffic (b) concenfrated onegroup. into

1a.aLosssYsrEMS 535 Sincethe Solution. The offeredtraffic from eachclusteris22x0.l =2.2 erlangs. an averagenumberof active circuits is much smaller than the numberof sources, of can UsingTableD.l, thenumber circuitsrequired infinite source analysis be used. is of for B = SVo a loadingof 2.2 erlangs 5. Thusthe configuration Figure 12.54 at requires totalof 20 circuits. a is of Thetotalofferedtraffic to theconcentrator theconfiguration Figure12.6b of to the From TableD.1, l3 circuitsarerequired support given 4 x2.2 = 8.8 erlangs. traffic load. into of Example12.6 demonstrates consolidation smalltrafficgroups onelarge that Large group can provide significant savingsin total circuit requirements. traffic it groupsare more efficient than multiple small groupsbecause is unlikely that the arriindependent overloaded the sametime (assuming at small groupswill become group.Thus groupcanuseidle circuitsin another trafficin one vals).In effect,excess traffic peaksbut arenormally idle are thosecircuits that areneeded accommodafe to is is into onegroup.This feature the,traffic combined utilizedmoreefficientlywhen voiceanddatatraffic in Chapter for integrating 10 mentioned oneof themotivations in co$tsis most significant into a commonnetwork.The total savings ffansmission low. Henceit is the peripheralareaof a netwhenthe individual traffic intensitiesare work that benefitsthe mostby concentrating traffic. the The greatercircuit efficiency obtainedby combiningtxaffic into large groupsis This efficiencyof circuitutiliof oftenreferred asthe advantage largegroupsizes. to of Instead interconstructures. motivation forhierarchical switching zationis thebasic groupsbetween eachpair, it nectinga large numberof nodeswith rathersmall trunk is moreeconomical combineall traffic from individual nodesinto onelarge trunk to node.Figure12.7contrasts a groupandroutethetraffic througha tandem switching nodeat thecenter. centralized switching Obviously, mesh a versus starnetworkwith a justifiedwhenthesavings totalcircuitmiles in switchbecomes thecostof thetandem is largeenough.

(a) Flgure 12.7 Use of tandem switching to concentrate ffaffic:

ft) (a) mesh; (b) star.

536

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

Example 12.7. what happensro rhe blocking probabiliries in Figure rz.6a andb discussedin Example 12.6 when the traffic intensity increase$ 50va? by soluti.on. If the traffrc intensity of eachgroup increases from z.zto3.3erlangs, the blocking probability of the configuration of Figure 12.6aincreaserr from 5Zoto almost l4Va. In the configuration of Figure 12.6b a 507oincreasein the traffic intensitv causes a 400Voincreasein the blocking probability (from 5 to ZOVo). Example 12.7 demonstrate$ some important consideration$ network design. As in indicated, blocking probabilities are very sensitive to increasesin traffic intensities, particularly when the channelsare heavily utilized. Becauselarge trunk groups utilize their channelsmore efficiently, they are more vulnerable to traffic increasesthan are a number of smaller groups designedto provide the same grade of service. Furthermore, failures of equal percentages transmissioncapacity affect the performanceof of a large group more than the performarce of severalsmall groups.In both cases vulthe nerability of the large group$ arisesbecauselarge groups operatewith less sparecapacity than do multiple small groups. A secondaspectof blocking analysesdemonstrated Example l Z.7 is that the calin culatedresultsare highly dependenton the accuracyofthe traffic intensities.Accurate valuesof traffic intensitiesare not always available.Furthermore,even when accurate traffic measurements obtainable,they do not provide an absoluteindication of how are much growth to expect.Thus only limited confidence can be attachedto calculations of blocking probabilities in an absolutesense.The main value of theseanalysesis that they provide an objective meansof comparing various network sizes and configurations' The most cost-effectivedesignfor a given gradeof serviceis the one that should be chosen,even if the traffic statisticsare hypothetical. If a network is liable to experience wildly varying traffic patternsorrapid growth, thesefactors mustbe considered when comparing design alternatives.A network with a somewhat larger initial cost may be more desirableif it can absorbor grow to accommodateunanticipatedtraffic volumes more easily.

12.2.2 Lost Catts Returning In the lost callscleared just analyses presented, is assumed unserviceable it that requests leavethe system neverretum.As mentioned, assumption mostapand this is propriate trunk groups for whose blockedrequests overflowto another routeandare usuallyserviced elsewhere. However,Iostcallscleared analyses alsousedin inare $tances whereblockedcalls do not get serviced elsewhere. manyof thesecases, In blockedcallstendto returnto the system the form of retries.someexamples in are subscriber concenhator systems, corporate linesandpBX trunks, tie callsto busytelephonenumbers, access WATS lines (if DDD altematives not used). and to are This

1z.z Loss sYsrEMS 537 derivesblockingprobabilityrelationships lost callscleared section for with systems retries. random involvesthreefirndamental assumptions regarding naThefollowing analysis the tureof theretumingcalls: l. All blockedcalls return to the systemand eventuallyget serviced, even if multiple retriesarerequired.
The elapsed times between call blocking occurrencesand the generation of retries are random and statistically independentofeach other. (This assumption allows the analysisto avoid complications arising when retries are correlatedto each other and tend to cause recurring traffic peaks at a particular waiting time interval.) The typical waiting time before retries occur is somewhat Ionger than the averageholding time of a connection.This assumptionessentiallystatesthat the $ystem is allowed to reach statistical equilibrium before a retry occurs. Obviously, ifretries occur too soon, they are very likely to encountercongestion "relax." In the limit, if all retries are since the system has not had a chanceto immediate and continuous, the network operation becomes similar to a delay system discussedin later sections of thi$ chapter. In this case, however, the system does not queuetequests-the sourcerldo so by continually "redialing." When consideredin their entirety, theseassumptionscharacterizeretries as being statistically indistinguishable from first-attempt traffic.* Hence blocked calls merely add to the first-attempt call arrival rate. Consider a system with a first-attempt call arrival rate of 1,.If a percentageB of the calls is blocked, B times L retries will occur in the future. Of theseretries, however, a percentageI will be blocked again. Continuing in this manner, the total arival rate l,i after the systemhas reachedstatisticalequilibrium can be determinedas the infinite series

l,' = l, +Bl,+ R7"+B37r-. . . L

I-B analysis with traffic inwhereB is the blockingprobabilityfrom a lost callscleared ten'tityA' = l,'fm. Equation12.10relatesthe average arrival ratel,/, including theretries,to the firstattemptarrival rate andthe blocking probability in termsof l,'. Thusthis relationship not l,' each expressed terms in does providea directmeans determining or d since is of by of the other.However,the desired resultcan be obtained iteratingthe lost calls
*First-attempt traffic is also referred to as demand traffic: the service demands assuming all arrivals are serviced immediately. The offered haffrc is the demand traffic plus the refries,

(12.10)

538

THAFFIc ANALysts

clearedanalysis of Equation 12.8. First, determine an estimateof B using L and then calculatel,'. Next, use l,' to obtain a new value of B anclan updatedvalui of 1,,.continue in this mamer until values of l,' and B are obtainecl. Example 12.8. what is the blocking probability of a pBX to a central office trunk group with I 0 circuits servicing a first-attempt offered traffic load of 7 erlangs?What is the blocking probability if the number of circuits is increased 13?Assumerandom to retries for all blocked calls. solution. It can be assumedthat the 7 erlangs of haffic arise from a large number of PBX stations.Thus an infinite sourceanalysisis justified. The blocking probability forA = 7 erlangsand N= l0 serversis about 87a.Thus the total offered load, including retries, is approximately 7.6 erlangs. with N = l0 and,4'= 7.6, the blocking probability is llvo. Two more iterations effectively produce convergenceatA, = g erlangs and B = lTvo.rf the number of circuits in the trunk group is increasedto 13, the blocking probability of a lost calls clearedsystemis 1.57o.Thus a first approximation to the retuming traffic intensity is 7/0.985 = 7.1 erlangs. Hence the blocking probability including all retuming traffic increasesonly slightly above the l.5Zo. Example l2'8 demonstrates that the effect of retuming traffic is insignificant when operating at low blocking probabilities. At high blocking probabilities, however, ir is necessaryto incorporate the efTects ofthe returning traffic into the analysis.This relationship between lost calls cleare{ and lost calls retuming is shown in Figure 12.g. when measurements made to determine the blocking probability of an outgoare ing trunk group, the measurements canxot distinguish betweenfirst-attempt calls (demand traffic) and retries. Thus if a significant number of retries are contained in the measurements, fact should be incorporatedinto an analysisof how many circuits this must be addedto reduce the blocking of an overloadedtrunk group. The apparentoffered load will decrease the number of serversincreasesbecausl the number ofreas t.0
.5

E .100 E .080 {

.F .om
J

E .010

t E .oot

u. I

tt,z

0J u.ir

0.,0 u,+

0.[ u.[

0.8 o.o

0.7 0,7

0,9

Of|rttd tilffh Inrfirlry Frrctunrd (ritfigll Of|rttd rilftTo Inrfirlry Frr ctunrut (ritfigll

Figure 12.8 Blocking probability of lost calls reruming.

12,2 LoSSSYSTEMS 539

tries decreases. Thus feweradditional circuitsareneeded thanif no retriesarecontainedin the measurements. 12.2.3 Lost Galls Held In a lostcallsheldsystem, blocked callsareheldby thesystem serviced and whenthe facilitiesbecome necesrrary available. Lost callsheldsystems distinctlydifferent are from thedelaysystems discussed in oneimportant later respect; totalelapsed The time includingwaitingtime andservice of a call in the system, time,is independent the of waitingtime.In essence, arrivalrequires each for periodof time service a continuous andterminates request its independently its beingserviced not.Figure12.9demof or the onstrates basicoperation a lostcallsheldsystem. of Noticethatmostblocked calls get eventually someservice, only for a portion of the time that the respective but sources busy. are Althougha switched networkdoesnot operate a lost callsheld manin telephone ner,some generally system$ Lost callsheldsystems do. arisein real-time applications in whichthe sources continuously needof service, in or are whether not thefacilities are available.Whenoperating underconditions heavyftaffic, a lostcallsheldsystem of typicallyprovides for source active. seryice only a portionof thetime a particular is Eventhough conventional circuitswitching not according thetheodoes operate to reticalmodelof lost callsheld,Bell System traffic engineers haveusedit to calculate for blockingprobabilities trunkgroups A lostcallsheldanalysis produces always [4]. a largervaluefor blockingthandoesErlang'slossformula.Thusthe lost callsheld produces conservative design for analysis that helpsaccount retriesandday-to-day a

E,:

Es gG E E -

Figure 12,9 Activity profile sf lost callsheld,

540

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

variations in the busy-hour calling intensities. In contrast, CCITT recommendations [5] stipulateErlang-B formulas should be used in determining blocking probabilities. One example of a system that closely fits the lost calls held model is time assignment speechinterpolation (TASD. A TASI sy$temconcentrates somenumber of voice $ourcesonto a smaller number of transmissionchannels.A sourcereceivesservice(is connectedto a channel) only when it is active. If a source becomesactive when all channels are busy, it i$ blocked ard speechclipping occurs. Each speechsegment starts and stops independenfly of whether it is serviced or not. TASI systemswere originally used on analog long-distancetransmissionlinks such as underseacables. More modern counterpartsof TASI are referred to as digital circuit multiplication (DCM) systems.[n contrast to the original rASI systems,DCM systemscan delay speechfor a small amount of time, when necessary, minimize the clipping. In this to case,a lost calls held analysisis not rigorously justified because total time a speech the segmentis "in the sy$tem" increase$as the delay for service increases.However, if the averagedelay is a small percentage the holding time, or if the coding rate of deof layed speechis reduced to allow the transmissionchannel time to "catch up," a lost calls held analysisis stilljustified. Recall that controlling the coding rate is one technique of traff,rcshaping used for transporting voice in an ATM network, Lost calls held systemsare easily analyzedto determinethe probability of the total number of calls in the systemat any one time. Since the duration of a source'sactivity is independentof whether it is being serviced,the number in the systemat any time is identical to the number of active sourcesin a systemcapableof carrying all traffic as it arises.Thus the distribution of the number in the systemis the Poissondistribution provided earlier in Equationl2.3. The probability that i sourcesrequestingserviceare being blocked is simply the probability that i + N sourcesare active when N is the number of servers.Recall that the Poissondistribution essentiallydeterminesthe desired probability as the probability that i + N arrivals occurred in the preceding f. seconds. The distribution is dependentonly on the product of the averagearrival rate l" and the averageholding time tm. Example 12.9. what is the probability that a talk$purt experiencesclipping in a TASI system with l0 sourceriand 5 channels?with 100 sourcesand 50 channels? Assume that the activity factor of each talker is 0.4. (Ignore finite sources..l solution, For the first case, the clipping probability can be determined as the probability that five or more sourcesare busy in a poisson processwith an averageof A = O.4x l0 = 4 busy servers.Using Equation 12.7,

: f, r,r+) , prob(crippingl / ,#* # * +.#.fr l: o.ru ="*l

Fi l,"' )

With 100sources, average the number busycircuitsis,4 = 0.4 x 100: 40.A speech of segment clippedif 50 or moretalkersareactiveat once.Thusthe clippingprobis ability canbe determined as

1z.a LosssysTEMs 541

99

= prob(clippingl f, rr{+O)= 0,04 'Fso Example12.9demonshates TASI system$ muchmoreeffectivefor large are that groupsizes thanfor smallones.The 36Vo clippingfactoroccuningwith 5 channels produces unacceptable voicequality.On the otherhand,the4Vo clippingprobability for 50 channels be tolerated whenthe line costsarehigh enough. can In reality,thevalues blockingprobabilities for obtained Example in 12.9areoverly pessimistic because infinite source assumption used. an Thesummations not was did includethecase all sources of beingactivebecause thereneeds be at leastoneidle to source create arrivalduringthetimecongestion. moreaccurate an to A to solution this problemis obtained a latersection in usinga finite source analysis. 12.2.4 Lost Calls Cleared-Finite Sources previously, fundamental As mentioned assumption the derivation thePoisson a in of arrivaldistribution, consequently and lossformula,is thatcall arrivalsoccur Erlang's independently thenumber activecallers. of of Obviously, assumption bejusthis can tified only whenthenumber sources muchlarger of is thanthenumber servers. This of sectionpresents relationships determiningblocking probfor some fundamental abilitiesof lost callscleared systems whenthe numberof sources not muchlarger is thanthe numberof servers. blockingprobabilities these The in are case$ alwaysless thanthose infinite rtource for system$ sincethearrivalratedecreases thenumber as of busysources increases. Whenconsidering finite $ource systems, traffictheorists inffoduce anotherparameter of interest calledtime congestion. Time congestion the percentage time that is of that all servers a grouparebusy.It is iderticalto theprobability all server$ busy in are times.However, at randomlyselected time congestion not necessarily is identicalto blockingprobability(whichis sometimes refenedto ascall congestion). Time congestion merelyspecifies probabilitythatall servers busy.Beforeblockingcan the are occur,theremustbe an arrival. In an infinite lrource system, and time congestion call congestion identical are because percentage the ofarrivals encountering servers all is exactlyequalto the busy (Thefact that all servers busyhasno bearing whether not time congestion. are on or an arrivaloccurs.) a finite source In however, percentage arrivalsensystem, the of is because countering congestion smaller fewerarrivals whenall occurduringperiods (blocking are probability) $ervers busy.Thusin a finite riource system, congestion call is always lessthanthetime congestion. anextreme As example, equalnumconsider bersof sources servers. time congestion theprobabilitythatall senersare and The is busy.Theblockingprobabilityis obviouslyzero. basictechniques by The same introduced Erlangwhenhe determined lossforthe for infinite sources beused derivelossformulas finite sources Usmula for can to [3].

542

TRAFF|c ANALysts

ing these techniques, find theprobabilityof n servers we beingbusyin a system with M sources N servers and is

( 1 2 . 1)

wheret is the calling rateper lzle source f* is theaverage and holding time. Equation 12.1I is knownasthetruncated Bernoullian distribution alsoastheEngset and dishibution. settingn = N in Equation12.1 produces expression thetime congestion: 1 an for

rL[Y)rrr-r'

(r2.r2)

using the fact that the arrival ratewhenN servers busyis (M -M)/r4 timesthe arare rival ratewhenno servers busy,we candetermine blockingprobabilityfor lost are the callscleared with a finite source follows; as

t)t^"-r u= [t" ELF,I-tlrrrJ'

(12.13)

t'')

which is identical to P1,, (the time congestion) for M - I sources.

Equations l2.ll, 12-12, 12.13areeasilyevaluated termsof theparameters and in ir,'andt-. However,Ll andr. do not, by themselves, speci$,the average activity of a source' a lost callscleared In system with finite sources effectiveofferedloaddethe crease$ the blockingprobabilityincreases as because blockedcallsleaveanddo not retum' When a call is blocked,the average activity of the offering sourcedecreases, which increases average the amountof idle time for that source. The net resultis that U decreases because amountof idle time increases. the average the If activity of a source assuming traffic is clearedis designated p = It*, the valueof l/t canbe no a$ determined as

} j r"*': = * - j I - P(l-B)

(r2.14)

12.?LosssysTHMs543 whereB is theblockingprobabilitydefined Equation by 1?.13. The difficulty with usingthe unblocked activity factorp to characterize $ource a $ource's offeredloadis now apparent. valueof li t* depends B, whichin furn The on depends l"'I*. Thus someform of iterationis needed determine whenthe on to B sources characterized p (aneasilymeasured parameter) are by instead il. If thetotal of offeredload is considered be Mp, the carriedtraffic is to
A"*ie*l =MPI - B)

( I 2.1s)

is A tableof traffic capacities finite sources provided AppendixD.2, where for in the offeredIoadA =Mp is listedfor variouscombinations M, N, and8. Someof of theresults plottedin Figure12.10, are wheretheycanbe compared blockingprobto (Erlang-B) abilitiesof infinite source systems. expected, As infinite $ource analyses areacceptable whenthenumber sources is large. of M Example12,10, A groupof callers generate request$ a rateof f,rve callsperhour at pertelephone (including incoming outgoing and calls).Assuming average the holding time is 4 min, whatis theaverage idle source? callingrateof each How manycallers can be supportedby a l2-channel concentrator/multiplexer the maximum if acceptable blockingprobabilityis lVo'! Solution, Sinceeachcalleris typicallyactivefor ?0 min ofevery hour andplaces anaverage five callsduringthe40 min of inactivity,thecallingratefor idle $ources of = M = 5l4O 0.l?5 callsperminute. Theofferedloadfor M sources, assuming traffic all is carried, 0.33M. TableD.2 mustbe searched find thelargest suchthat0.33 is to M M is lessthanor equalto the maximumofferedloadfor B = lVo andN = 12.Using interpolation M = 2l reveals for 7.11erlangs B = LVo. that 12 servers support can at = 6.93is theofferedload,2l sources an acceptable Since2I x 0.33 is solution. 22 If

! 5

c o E
C

ffi

0.6 0.8 0,7 0.4 (orlangBl traffic prrErvsr Offered

0.9

0.9

Figure 12.10 Blockingprobabilityof lost callscleared with finite sources.

544

THAFFIo ANALysts

sources used,the offeredload of 7.26 erlangsis higherthan the 7.04 erlangs are obtainable from interpolation TableD.2 asthemaximumofferedloadfor B = lvo. in It is worthwhilecomparing resultof Example12.10to a resultobtained the from aninfinite source (Erlang-B). a blockingprobability lvo,TableD.l reanalysis For of veals themaximum that offered loadfor 12servers 5.88erlangs. is Thusthemaximum number sources be determined 5.88/0.333 t/.94. Hence this case inof can = as in an finite source analysis produces resultthatis conservative l5Vo. a by 12.2.5 Lost Calls Hetd-Flnlte Sources A lost callsheld system with finite sources analyzed thesame is in basicmanner a as lost callsheld $ystems with infinite sources. all timesthe numberof calls"in the At system" definedto be identicalto the numberof callsthat wouldbe serviced a is by strictlynonblocking group.ThusEquation server 12.11 used derermine probis to the ability thatexactlyn callsarein the system:

(1,'t-)"

r%[Y)rr,t-r'

[y),",-,
ql + l"'r*)tr

(r2.16)

Becauseno calls are cleared,the offered load per idle sourceis not dependenton B:

r,,*=*h=f;

(12.r7)

combining Equationsl?.16 and 12.17produces more usefulexpression the a for probabilitythatn callsarein the system:

+=[f;)ot'-p)M-n

(12.18)

If thereareN servers, time congestion merelythe probability that N or more the is servers busy: are

Pr* EP,
n4'l

(12.19)

12.2 LOSS SYSTEMS 545

The blockingprobability, a lost callsheld sense, theprobabilityof an arrival in i$ encounterins morecallsin the svstem: try'or f ,prob(anival lru sources busy) are
average arrival rate

ff^ Br,=

=iU
wherep = offeredloadper source M = number sources of N = numberof servers

t)o'ct - p)Mr-'r

(12.20)

Exampte12.11. Determinethe probability of clipping for the TASI systems in described Example12.9.In this case, however, a lost callsheld analysis use for finite sources. Solution, In this exarnple areconcemed we only with theprobabilitythata speech utterance clippedfor someperiodof time until a channel is Thus becomes available. Equation12.20providesthe desired answerusing p = 0.4 for the offeredload per source. the first case, In with 10 sources 5 channels, and
9

=o.z7 = Bn E | ] lto.+fto.o)%n
,=s(-/ In thesecond with 100sources 50 seryers. case and

/rt\

6)ee-'= . =,1f;)(o'4)n(0 o'023

Theresults Example12.11showagainthata TASI system of largegroup requires sizes providelow clippingprobabilities. to Whencompared theresults Example to of 12.9,these results indicate that an infinite source analysis overestimates clipping the probability bothcases (0.36versus in 0.27and0.04versus Noticethattheper0.023). centage errorin the infinite $ource is analysis almostidenticalfor the IO-source systemand the l0O-source system.Hencethe validity of choosingan infinite sourcemodelis more dependent the ratio of sources servers on to thanit is on the numberof sources.

546

TRAFFTc ANALYSIs

F
.s o .s g
o .E 4 o

E
E I
ll
5

.t o

s
s E o
g L

$ource activlty(erlangsl F'igure l2.Il Clipping probability and clipping duration of TASI. that a speech segment encoun-

Example I2. I I merely determines the probability

ters congestionand is subsequently clipped. A complereanalysisof a TASI (or DCM) system must consider the time duration of clips in addition to their frequency of occuffence. In essence, desired information is represented the amount of traffic the by volume in the clipped $egments. weinstein [6] refers to the clippert $egments "fracas tional speechloss" or simply "cutout fraction." This is not the silne as the lost traffic, since a conventional lost calls held analysisconsidersany arrival that encounterscongestion as being completely "lost"-even if it eventually receives some service.The cutout fraction is determined as the ratio of untransmittedtraffic intensitv to offered traffic intensitv:

iz.g NErwoFrKBLocKtNc pFroBABtLtlES

547

n",:i.E(,-1v)P"
n=N+l

(r2.21)

M where = number sources of A = ofTered load,= Mp N = number servers of (Equation 18) Pn= probabilityof n callsin thesystem 12. Example12.12, Determine average the duration a clip in thetwo TASI systems of of Example 12.11. Assume average the duration a speech of is $egment 300 msec. (Theaverage lengthof a speech is on segment dependent theactivitythreshold, which alsoinfluences activityfactorp.) the Solution. In thefirst case,

a,,=II

:0.05e tn- s)f1,0.)(0.4r(0.6)10-n

n+t \-/

Thus,on average, 5.9Va, 17.7msec, every300-msec ot of segment clipped. speech is Since?7%othesegmentsexperienceclipping(Example l of 12. l),theaverageduration = of a clip for clippedsegments 0.059/0.27 22Vo, 66 msec-an obviouslyintolis or erable In amount. the second for case 100sources 50 channels. and

- 50) =0.00r u",:+,*E,,n fifl),r.-t*.6)rtx]Thusin thiscase only 0.1%of all speech clipped, is whichimpliesthatwhenclipping occurs, x 0.001/0.023= msec thesegment lost. 300 13 of is Example12.12showsthat largegroupsizesnot only greatlyreduce clipping the probabilityof TASI systems alsoreduce duration theclips.Therelationship but the of of clippingprobabilities clippingduration(fractionalspeech and loss)to groupsize andsource activityis provided FigureI ?.I l. As shown, clippingprobabilityis in the sensitive s(turce extrcmely activity(offered to load).For a discussion theeffects of of quality,seereferences and[8]. clippingon speech [7]

100

12.3 NETWORKBLOCKING PROBABILITIES In thepreceding sections basictechniques ofcongestion theoryarepresented deterto mineblockingprobabilities individualtrunk groups. this section of In techniques of calculating end-to-end blockingprobabilities a networkwith morethanoneroute of

548

TBAFFIcANALysts

betweenendpoints considered. conjunctionwith calculatingthe end-to-end is In blockingprobabilities, is necessary consider interaction raffic on various it to the of routesof a network.Foremost amongtheseconsiderations the effectof overflow is ffaffic from onerouteontoanother. followingsections The discuss simplifiedanalyses only. More sophisticated techniques morecomplexnetworks be obtained for can in references t101, I l]. and t9l, 12.3.1 End-to-End Blocking Probabilities Generally, connection a througha largenetworkinvolvesa seriesof transmission links, eachone of which is selected from a set of alternatives. Thus an end-to-end blockingprobabilityanalysis usuallyinvolves composite series parallel a of proband abilities.The simplest procedure identicalro the blockingprobability(marching is loss)analyses presented chapter5 for switchingnetworks. example, in For Figure I 2.I 2 depictsa representative of alternative set connections througha networkandthe resulting composite blockingprobability. Theblockingprobabilityequarion Figure12.12 in contains severar simplifyingassumptions. First, the blockingprobability(matching loss)of the switches not inis cluded.In a digital time divisionswitch,matching losscanbe low enough that it is easily eliminated from theanalysis. otherswitches, In however, matching may the loss not be insignificant. when necessary, switchblockingis includedin the analysis by considering a source it ofblocking in series with theassociated ffunk groups. when morethanoneroutepasses throughthe sameswitch,asin nodec of Figure 12'12,propertreatment correlation of between matching losses an additional is complication. conservative A approach considers matching to be completely the loss correlated. this case matching In the lossis in series with thecommon link. On theother hand,an optimisticanalysis assumes thematching that losses independent, are which impliesthattheyarein series with theindividuallinks.Figure12.13 depicts rhese two approaches includingthe matching for lossof switchc into theend-to-end blocking probabilityequation Figurel2.r2.In rhiscase, link from c to D is thecommon of the link.

1 - qz{t

B=pr11-qpqsl Figure 12.12 hobability graph for end-ro-endblocking analysis.

12.3 NETWoRK BLoGKING PRoBABILITIES 549

l
E/

-wfl"@-q\
\0,

1 -q+

fr%d
g=1-{rofig

ffito'
-Q2fte) B= 1-(1-slSsxl

; bo"o ,o,

Qr*= 1- (1 -0r9")Q

Figure 12.13 Incorporating swirch*matching into end-to-end loss blocking analysis:(a) independent switchblocking;(b) correlated switchblocking.

A second simplifyingassumption usedin derivingtheblockingprobabilityequation in Figure12.I? involvesassuming independence theblockingprobabilities for of the trunk groups.Thus the composite blockingof two parallelroutesis merelythe productof the respective (Equation probabilities im5.4). Similarly,independence pliesthattheblockingprobabilityof two paths-in series-is I minustheproductof (Equation5.5). In actualpracticeindividual blocking the respective availabilities probabilities nevercompletely are independent. is particularly This truewhena large amountof traffic on oneroute resultsasoverflow from anotherroute.Wheneverthe first routeis busy,it is likely thatmorethanthe average amount overflowis being of route.Thusan alternate divefiedto thesecond routeis morelikely to bebusywhena primaryrouteis busy. In a largeprrblic network,trunksto tandemor toll switchesnormally carry traffrc to manydestinations. Thusno onedirectroutecontributes overwhelming an amount group.In thiscase of overflowtraffic to a panicular trunk independent blockingprobabilitieson alternate arejustified.In some publicnetwork, routes instances the of and oftenin privatenetworks,overflow traffic from oneroutedominates traffic on tanthe dem routes.In thesecases failure to accountfor the conelationin blockingprobabilitiescanleadto overlyoptimisticresults. Example 12.13. Two trunk groupsare to be usedas direct routesbetween tws switchingsystems. The first group has 12 channels and the secondgroup has 6 AssumeI0.8 erlangsof haffic is offlered the l2-channelgroup and channels. to groupwhenthefirst groupis busy.Whatis the overflowsareofferedto the6-channel blockingprobabilityof thefirst group,andhow muchtraffic overflows the second to group?Using the overflow traffic volumeasan offeredload, determine blocking the probabilityof the second kunk group.What is theprobabilitythatbothtrunk groups this arebusy?Compare answer the blockingprobabilityof one t8-channel to tunk group.

550

THAFFI0 ANALysts

solution. using a lost calls cleared analysis with an infinite source, we determinethatblockingofthefirsrgroupis l|vo(A= l0.B,N= 12).Thereforethe overflow traffic is 10.8x 0.ltsI.62 erlangs. The blocking probability (assuming random arrivals?) of the secondgroup is o.Svo(A = 1.62, N = 6). The probability that both trunk groups are busy simultaneously can be determined (assuming independence?) as

B=0.15x0.005=0.00075 In contrast, correct the blockingprobabilityof an l8-channel trunk groupwith an offeredloadof 10.8erlangs is B:0.013 Thequestion marksin the solution Example12.13 of pointto two sources error of in the determination the first blocking probability value.one error is the assumpof tion ofindependence ofblockingin thetwo trunkgroups. second A errorresults from the useof an analysis predicated purely random(poisson)arrivalsfor over{low on trafficinto thesecond trunkgroup.Resolution ofthis erroris discussed thenextsec* in tion. separating 18channels Example12.13 two groups anobvious the of into is artifice. This example usefulin thatit demonshates extreme is an case correlation of between blockingprobabilities two trunk groups.when correlation of exists,the composite blocking probability of a direct route and an alternate route shouldbe determined as follows:
B = (8,) (8211) where 81 = blocking probability of group I B2ll = blocking probability ofgroup 2 given that group I is busy In the artificial caseof dividing a trunk group into two subgroups,the conditional blocking probability can be determined as

(12.22)

Brll =B(MN1) ; prob (N servers busywhenN, areknown to be busy) are _1V -! p -n=Nr'n P* _aN -\ r un=71;An/nl) AN/NI

(r2.23)

wherePnis theprobabilityrhatexactlyn of N servers busy(Equationl?.3). are

pRoBABtLrrES 551 la.s NETWoRK BLoCKTNG

that Evaluating Equation12.23for A = 10.8,Nr = 12,andN = 18 reveals the appropriate probability Thusthecomposite B2ll for Example12.1 is 0.033. 3 conditional blockingprobabilityper Equation12.22isB = 0.15x 0.033= 0.005.The remaining (0.005versus inaccuracy 0.013actually) dueto nonrandom is characteristics ofoverflow trffic. Equation 12.23is valid only for the contrivedcaseof an altemateroute carrying however, a worst-case as overflowtraffic from only oneprimaryroute.It canbeused, solutionto situationswhereoverflow from oneroutetend$to dominatethe traffic on an alternate route. between blockingprobabilities individualroutesarisebeof The correlations the congestion on on overflowsthat tendto cause congestion onerouteproduces cause Extemalevents stimulating networkwide overloads cause blockalso the otherroutes. blocking Thusa third assumption theend-to-end in ing probabilities be correlated. to probabilityequation Figure 12.12is that traffic throughout networkis indethe of pendent. fluctuationsin the traffic volumeon individual links tendto be conelated If (presumably of events commercials, etc.),signifibecause extemal suchastelevision in results. cantdegradation overall performance 12.3.2 OverflowTratfic an analysis oferror in Example12.13occurred because Erlang-B The second source usedthe averagevolume of overflow traffic from the first group to determinethe traffic trunk group.An Erlang-Fanalysis assumes blockingprobabilityof the second Howarrivalsarepurelyrandom, is, theyaremodeled a Poisson that by distribution. erroneous assumption the traffic offered for ever, a Poissonanival distributionis an to the second trunk group.Eventhougharrivalsto thefirst groupmay be random,the groups these of themon to the secarrivalsandpass overflowprocess tendsto select groupoccur the ofbeing random arrivalsto thesecond ondtrunk group.Thusinstead a in whichportray$ typical in bursts. This overfloweffectis illustrated Figure12.14, group, randomardval patternto onehunk groupandthe overflow patternto a second If a significantamountof the traffic flowing onto a trunk group resultsas overflow from othertrunk groups,overly optimistic valuesof blocking probability arisewhen all of thetraffic is assumed be purelyrandom. to The mostcornmontechnique dealingwith overflow traffic is to relatethe overof flow traffic volume to an equivalentamountof randomtraffic in a blocking probis For if of ability sense. example, the 1.62erlangs overflowtraffic in Example12.12 equated 2.04erlangs randomtoaffic,a blockingprobabilityof LSVIis obtained of to for the second trunk group.(This is the correctprobability of blocking for the second groupis busy.) groupsincebothgroups busyif andonly if the second are randomthemethodof treatingover{lowtraffic is refenedto astheequivalent This overflowefare the ory [12]. Tables traffrccapacity available of [3] thatincorporate fectsdirectlyinto the maximumofferedloads.The Neal-Wilkinsontablesusedby The comprise suchsetof tables. Neal-Wilkinsontaone Bell System traffic engineers the bles,however,alsoincorporate effectsof day-to-dayvariationsin the traffic load.

552

THAFFIC ANALYSIS
AfflYrh to flil trunk gru.rp

Drprturd frotn llnt tunk $uup frprclty of fim mrnk ero{F

Olnrflofr rtylnh to rmnd trunk Foup

l i l l

Figure 12.14 Bursty characteristic overJlowtraffic. of (Forty erlangson one day and 30 erlangs on anotheris not the $ameas 35 erlangson both days.) These tables are also used for trunk groups that neither generatenor receive overflow traffic. The fact that cleared traffic doe$not get serviced by an alternate route implies that reffies are likely. The effect of the rehies, however, is effectivelv incorporatedinto the value of B by equivatentrandomness.

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS
The secondcategoryoftelefaffic analysisconcern$systemsthat delay nonserviceable requestsuntil the necessaryfacilities become available. These systemsare variously referred to as delay systems,waiting-call systems,and queuing system$.call arrivals occurring when all serversare busy are placed in a queueand held until servicecommences. The queue might consist of storage facilities in a physical sense,such as blocks of memory in a message-switching node, or the queuemight consist only of a list of sourceswaiting for service.In the latter ca$e,storageof the messages the reis sponsibility of the sourcesthemselves. using the more general tnrm queueingtheory, we can apply the following analyses to a wide variety of applications outside of telecommunications.Some of the more coiltmon applications are data processing, supermarket check-out counters. aircraft landings, inventory control, and various forms of service bureaus.These and many other applicatronsare consideredin the field ofoperations research.The foundations of queuing theory, however, rest on fundamentaltechniquesdevelopedby early telecommunications traffic researchers. fact, Erlang is credited with the first solution In to the most basic type of delay system.Examplesof delay systemanalysisapplications in telecommunicationsare messageswitching, packet switching, statisticaltime division multiplexing, multipoint data communications,automatic call distribution, digit receiver access,signaling equipment usage,and call processing.Furthermore, many

12.4 DELAY$YSTEMS 553

acce$$ corporate linesor WATS lines.Thus allowingqueued to PBXshavefeatures tie somesystems formerlyoperating losssystems as now operate delaysystems. as (fransmission a ln general, delayoperationallows for greaterutilization of servers befacilities)thandoesa losssystem. Basically, improvedutilizationis achieved the peaks thearrivalprocess "smoothed" thequeue. by Eventhougharrivals cause in are regulararrivalpattern.Theeffect to thesy$tem random, $ervers a somewhat are the sse queuingprocess overload in is illustrated Figure 12.15. This figure of the on traffic patterns presented the same in FiguresI2.1,12.3,and I2.9. In displays earlier traffic produce overload trafficis delayed available thiscase, however, until callterminations chamels. to that it In mostof thefollowinganalyses is assumed all traffic offered thesystem gets is of eventually serviced. implication this assumption thattheofferedhaffic One intensity is lessthanthenumberof servers EvenwhenA is lessthanN, thereare A N. traffic.First,some two cases whichthecaniedtraffic mightbelessthantheoffered in the and the Second, casources mighttire of waitingin a longqueue abandon request. pacityfor storingrequests befinite.Hence be requests occasionally rejected may may by thesystem. is exist.In a assumption the following analyses that infinite $ources in A second in but theremay be a finite number sources a physical of sense an infidelaysystem, sense nitenumber sources anoperational of in because source each mayhaveanarbi(e.9., a packet-switching node).There are outstanding trary numberof requests conis but instances whicha finite source in analysis necessary, notin theapplications here. sidered An additionalimplicationof servicingall offered traffic ariseswhen infinite Even source$ exist. This implicationis the needfor inJinitequeuingcapabilities.

Ee
E E.E gs
E C

F G - + - - r - + - - - '

(13 Figure 12.15 Activity profile of blockedcallsdelayed servers).

554

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

though the offered traffic intensity is less than the number of servers,no statistical limit exists on the number of arrivals occurring in a short period of time. Thus the queue of a purely losslesssystem must be arbitrarily long. In a practical sense, only finite queuescan be realized, so either a statisticalchanceof blocking is always pr+ sent or all sourcescan be busy and not offer additional traffic. When analyzing delay systems,it is convenientto separate total time that a rethe quest is in the sysrem into the waiting time and rhe holding time. In delay systems analysisthe holding time is more corlmonly referredto as the servicetime. In contrast to loss systems,delay systemperformanceis ggnerally dependenton the distribution of servicetimes and notjust the mean value Im.Two servicetime distributions are consideredhere;constantservicetimes and exponentialservicetimes. Respectively,these distributions representthe most deterministic and the most random servicetimes possible. Thus a system that operateswith some other distribution of service times performs somewherebetweenthe performanceproducedby thesetwo distributions. The basic purpose of the following analysesis to determine the probability distribution of waiting times. From the distribution, the averagewaiting time is easily determined. sometimes only the average waiting time is of interest. More generally, however, the probability that the waiting time exceedssome specified value is of interest.In either case,the waiting times are dependenton the following factors: I. Intensity and probabilistic nature ofthe offered traffic 2. Distribution of service times 3. Number of servers 4. Number of sources 5. Service discipline of the queue The service discipline of the queue can involve a number of factors. The first of these concerns the manner in which waiting calls are selected.commonly, waiting calls are selectedon a first-come, first-served (FCFS) basis,which is also referred to as first-in, first-out (FrFo) seryice.sometimes,however, the serversystemitself does not maintain a queuebut merely polls its $ources a round-robin fashion to determine in which onesare waiting for service.Thus the queuemay be servicedin sequentialorder of the waiting sources.In some applications waiting requestsmay even be selectedat random. Furthermore, additional service variations arise if any of these schemesare augmentedwith a priority discipline that allows some calls to move aheadof others in the queue. A secondaspectof the service discipline that must be consideredis the length of the queue.If the maximum queuesize is smaller than the effective number of sources, blocking can occur in a lost calls sense.The result is that two characteristicsof the grade of service must be considered: the delay probability and the blocking probability' A common example of a system with both delay and loss characteristics an is automatic call distributor with more accesscircuits than attendants(operatorsor reservationists).Normally, incoming calls are queuedfor service. under heavy loads,

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 555

however, blockingoccurs beforethe ACD is evenreached. Reference contains [4] and with finite queues finite $ervers. an analysis a delaysystem of queuingtheoristshave To simplify the characterization pafiicular systems, of adopted concise notation classifying for varioustypesof delaysystems. This notaa to by letterabbreviations identifyaltion, which wasintroduced D. G. Kendall,uses listed.Althoughthediscussions thisbookdo not in ternatives eachof thecategories in so can the rely on thisnotation, is introduced used it and occasionally thereader relate queuing The interpretation each theorymodels. of following discussions classical to in letteris specified Figure12.16. represents extension formatpresented Figure12,1 actually an Thespecification in 6 of the formatcommonlyusedby mostqueuingtheorists. Thusthis formatis sometimes abbreviated eliminating the last one or two entries.When theseentriesare by a eliminated, infinite case specifications assumed. example, single-server sys* are For tem with random exponential seryice timesis usuallyspecified as input andnegative queue Mll,lUl. Both thenumber sources thepermissible and inof lengthareassumed finite. 12.4.1 Exponential Servlce Times to is with randomarrivalsandnegative The simplest delaysystem analyze a system a randomarival distributionis one Recallthat exponential servicetimes:M/IVI/I.{. of notation queuexponential interarrival times.Thusin the shorthand with negative (an ing theorists, letterM always to exponential distributions M is the refers negative purelyrandom memoryless). because a distribution is used

Input rfclflcttlon

Gonffrl {nqs$urhpt;ofi;

{;
Gl

rrndom Purely
Gcnlfd {no ffiumptiofil

ServlcetimE distrihrtiorl

Mr ;{egltiw rxponintirl D: Corltrnt

Numbtr of *rrrot

N:

Flnlte number

Numbffof rourcdJur

rinittnumuer

I
I | or*" | r"r$fi {

L*
L' L*'

Inrinitc
Flnitelensrttr Inflnitclefisth

t t

l2l 3/4/E
Figure 12.16 Queueing $ystemnotation.

556

THAFFIo ANALysts

In the IM/lvVl systemand all other systemsconsideredhere,it is assumedthat calls are serviced in the order of their arival. The following analysesal$o assumethat the probability of an arrival is independentof the number of requestsalreadyin the queue (infinite sources).From theseassumptions, probability that a call experiences the congestion and is thereforedelayed was derived by Erlang:

(r2.24)
where = number servers N of A = offeredload(erlangs) B = blockingprobabilityfor a lost callscleared (Equation system l2.g) Theprobabilityof delay p(>0) is variously refenedro asErlang'ssecond formula, Ezn(A);Erlang'sdelayformula;or the Erlang-c formula.For single-server $ystems (N= l) theprobabilityof delayreduces p, whichis simplyrheoutpururilizationor to traffic carriedby the server. Thusthe probabilityof delayfor a single-server sysrem is alsoequalto theofferedloadl,t- (assuming < l). fu. Thedistribution waitingtimesfor randomarrivals, of randomservice times.anda FIFO service discipline is
p(>t) : p(>0) "-{N-A)t/to,

(r2.?5)

wherep(>0) = probability of delay given in Equation 12.24 fm = flYrfl8oservice time of negative exponential service time distribution Equation 12.25definesthe probability that a call aniving at a randomly choseninstant is delayed for more than t/t^ service times. Figure 12.17 presentsthe relationship of Equation 12.25by displaying the traffic capacitiesof various numbersof serversas a function of acceptabledelay times. Given a delay time objective r,/f., Figure l2.l7a displaysthe maximum traffic intensity if the delay objective is to be exceeded only for lovo of the arrivals. similarly, Figure lz,.r7b displays the maximum traffic intensity if the delay objective is exceededfor only lzo of the arrivals. Notice that atp(>r) = 0.01, the serversystemsdo not approachtheir maximum capacity (number of servers) unlessthe acceptabledelay is severaltimes larger than f*. By integrating Equation 12.25 over all time, the averagewaiting time for all arrivals can be determinedas

;f = - P(>O)r,n N_A

(12.26)

NoticethatTistheexpected delayfor all arrivals. Theaverage delayofonly those ar.

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 557

E
I

B .B
F

OF

1,0
(t)

1.6

2.0

aE

It/t-l

$
o !

u o E

r.0 ,rrr.u

2.0

e.s

(yr-l

with exponential Figure 12.17 Traffic capacityof multiple-server delay systems service times;(a)probabilityof t,p(>t)=lVo. exceeding exceeding LpFt)=10To;(b) probabilityof rivals that get delayedis commonly denotedas
* - t *

(r2.27)

v-N-a

Example12.14. A message-switching network is to be designedfor 95Vo distributedmessage utilization of its hansmission links. Assumingexponentially per waiting lengthsand an arrival rate of 10 messages minute, what is the average 5 time,andwhatis theprobabilitythatthewaitingtime exceeds min? network uses a single channel Salutinn. Assumethat the message-switching for and Thusthereis a singleserver a singlequeue each between eachpair of nodes. link. Sincep is given to be 0.95 and l, = 10 arrivalsper minute,the transmission

558

TRAFFIc ANALYSIS

average service time can be determined f* = 0.g5l10= 0.095min. The averase as waitingtime (notincludingtheservice time) is easilydetermined as ;= o'q5x-q:095 = l.Bo5min I - 0.95

UsingEquation 12.25, candetermine probability thewaitingtimeexceeding we the of 5 min as - 0.068 p(>5)= (0.95)e-tt-o'sr)5/0.0es Thus6.87o themessages of experience queuing delays morethan5 min. of Example12.15. Derermine number digit receivers rhe of required support1000 to telephones anaverage with callingrateof two callsperhour.Assume diatingtime the is exponentially distibutedwith anaverage service timeof 6 sec. Thegrade service of objective to returndial tonewithin I secofthe off-hooksignalfor 99Zo is ofthe call attempts. comparethe answer obtained from a delay system analysis an answer to obtained from a losssystem analysis B = lVo If theblockingprobability lessrhan at . is l%o, fewerthanlVoof thecallsaredelayed. Solution. The calling ratel, andthe offeredhaffic intensiry,4areeasilydetermined as0.555callsper second 3.33erlangs, and respectively. sincethenumberof servers N cannot solvedfor directlyfrom theequations, be Figure lz.ljb is usedto obtaina valueof eightservers t/t^=t. for Examination TableD.1 revealsthatgg.Svo the call attempts be serviced of of can immediately thereateninedigit receivers. if Thusin thiscase abilitv to delavservthe ice provides savings a ofonly oneserver. Example12.15demonstrates a blockingprobabilityanalysis rhat produces approximately same the resultsasa delaysystem analysis whenthe maximumacceptabledelayis a smallpercentage theaverage of service time.Thetwo results almost are identical because, a digit receiver not imrnediately if is available, thereis only a small probabilitythatonewill become available within a shorttime period.(With an averageservice time of 6 sec,theexpected time for oneof eightdigit receivers be reto leased 6/8 =0.75 sec. is Hence delayoperation thiscase the in allowsa savings one of digit receiver.) Because digit receiver a mustbeavailable within a relatively shorttimeperiodafter a request generated, receiver is digit groupsizingis oftendetermined strictlyfrom a blockingprobabilityanalysis. fact thatdigit receiver The access actuallyoperated is asa delaysystem impliesthe grade service alwaysbetterthanthatcalculated. of is 12.4.2 Constant Service Timee Thissection considers delaysystems random with arrivals, constant service times,and a singleserver(IWD/I). Again,FIFO service disciplines infinite $ources asand are

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 559

sumed. case multipleservers beensolved but is tooinvolvedto include has The for [3] in of service systems with constant timesareavailable here.Graphs multiple-server reference [5]. waiting time for a singleserverwith constantservicetimes is deterThe average minedas
Pf'= ze*p)

(r2.28)

p utilization.NoticethatEquation l2,28producesan average where =,4istheserver asingle-server systemwithexponential waitingtimethatisexactlyone-halfofthatfor Exponential averagedelays becausethere servicetimes causegreater servicetimes. increatingthedelay.Inbothtypesofsystems,dearetworandomprocessesinvolved the With exof laysoccurwhena largeburstof arivals exceeds capacity theservers. service ponential of long delays alsoarisebecause excessive service times,however, (Recall thisaspect conventional message-switching of that timesofjust a few arrivals. in up is systems one of the motivationsfor breakingmessages into packets a packetswitching network.) (M/D/l) is compared time system with service If the activityprofile of a constant (lWIWl), theM/D/l $ystem service time system theactivityprofile of anexponential is seento be activefor shorterandmorefrequentperiodsof time. That is, the Ivl/ii{,/l activity systemhasa highervanancein the durationof its busyperiods.The average is, equalto the server utilizationp. Hencethe probability of both system$ of course, with constant timesis identicalto that for system service of delayfor a single-server times:p(>0) = l"t . exponential service for Theprobability of congestion largerN is relatively closeto that for exponential forp(>0) for can as times.ThusEquation 1?.25 be used a closeapproximation service time distributions. multiple-server with arbitraryservice systems holdingtimes,the probabilityof delay with constant For single-server systems greaterthanan arbitraryvalue f is p(>r)=p[>(ft+ r)t*l
k

=t_(1_p)E
I4

pili - t/t^1itP$-t/t^)

=1-(l-p)er'ieff
whereft = largestintegralquotientof t/t* r = remainder t/t^ of = serverutilization, = fuP

(r2.2e)

560

THAFFIc ANALysts

Comparisons the waitingtime distributions single-server of for systems with exponentialand constant servicetimes are shownin Figure l2.lg. For eachpair of curves' upperoneis for exponential the service timesandtheloweroneis for constant service times.Sinceall otherservice timedistributions produce delayprobabilities betweenthese extremes, Figure12. provides directindication therange possi18 a of of bledelays. Example 12.16. A packet-swirching node operates with fixed-length packets of 300 bits on 9600-bps lines.If the link utilizationis to be 90%,whatls the averase

q E o o

x o g o

E
o &

.E

DElaytime. r/r-

Figure 12.18 Delayptobabilities ofsingle-server (exponential constant $ystems and service times).

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 561

of encounter morethan0.35 secof What percentage packets delaythrougha node? delayif theofferedloadincreases 107o? by delay? Whatis theaverage lengthsof 300 bits anda datarateof 9600bps imply that the Soluti,on. Message = the fixedJengthservice time is 300/9600 0.031sec.FromEquation12.28, average waitingtime is

0.9x 0.031 f = F = 0-. 1 4 2(1 0.e)

sec

processing, is obtained adding by delay excluding Thetotalaverage through node, the

the average waiting time to the service time:

+ delay= 0.140 0.031= 0.171sec Average whenthewaitingtime is time is 0.031sec,0.35secof delayoccurs Sincethe service = = FromFigure to times. Thiscorresponds0.319/0.03110service 0.35* 0.031 0.319. 0.12.Thus lZVoof the 12.18, probabilityof delayfor t/t^- 10 is approximately the in packets of of than0.35 sec.An increase 10Vo the traffic experience delays greater the intensityimpliesthat the new offeredloadis 0.99erlang.From Equation1?.30, average waitingtime becomes

f =-:=

x 0.99 0.031

2(t-o.ee)

1 . 5 3s e C

the delaythrough node Thuswhentheoffered loadincreases only l0%, theaverage by + 0.03I = I .56sec increases ninefoldto a valueof 1.53 ! for characteristic heavilyutilizeddelaysysthe ExampleI 2.16demonstmtes same to is The for temsthatwasdemonstrated losssy$temsr performance very sensitive inflow controlis a critical in 10, Thus,asdiscussed Chapter creases traffic inten$ity. in particularly delivery operation, whentherearereal-time aspect a packet-switching of objectives. 12.4.3 Finlte Queues presented far haveassumed anarbitrarilylarge so that analyses All of thedelaysystem this in In couldbe placed a queue. manyapplications asnumberof delayed request$ havesignificantlylimited sumption invalid. Examples systems sometimes is of that and queue$izesare store-and-forward nodes(e.g.,packetswitches ATM swirching input/outPut deswitches), automatic distributors, varioustypesof computer call and on vices.Thesesystems treatarrivalsin threedifferentways,depending the number "in the $vstem"at the time of an arrival:

562

TRAFFIo ANALYSI$

I . Immediate service if one or more of N serversare idle 2. Delayed service if all serversare busy and less than 1-requestsare waiting 3. Blocked or no service if the queueof length Z is full In finite-queue systemsthe arrivals getting blocked are those that would otherwise experiencelong delays in a pure delay system. Thus an indication of the blocking probability of a combined delay and loss sy$tem can be determined from the prob-_ ability that arrivals in pure delay systemsexperiencedelays in excessof some specified value. However, there are two basic inaccuraciesin such an analysis.First, the effect of blocked or lost calls clearedis to reduce congestionfor a period of time and thereby to reduce the delay probabilities for subsequent anivals. Second,delay times do not necessarily indicate how many calls are "in the system." Normally, queue lengths and blocking probabilities are determinedin terms of the number of waiting requests,not the amount of work or total service time representedby the requesd. with constantservicetimes, there is no ambiguity betweenthe size of a queueand its implied delay. with exponential service times, however, a given size can represent a wide range of delay times. A packet-switching node is an example of a system in which the queue length is mo$t appropriatelydeterminedby implied servicetime and not by the number of pending requests.That is, the maximum queue length may be determined by the amount of store-and-forwardmemory availablefar variablelength messages not by some and fixed number of messages. For a system with random input, exponential service times, N servers.an infinite source,and a maximum queuelength of z (wMlNl*lL), the probability ofj calls in the svstemis

PrA)=hni
0<j<N

(12.30)

INIriwhere 4 = offered load (erlangs), = f/* N = number of servers I = maximum number in the queue

N<jsN+L

Here, Pq(A) is chosento make the sum of all p,(A) = l;

"',o)=[=i#.,-1,,---tl

=[-i#.#]#J

(12.30a)

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 563

Thetime congestion, probabilityof an arrivalbeingdelayed blocked, be or can or foomEquation 12.30as determined

N+L

P(>o)=EPIA)=Pru(A)++ l-P
j=w

(r2.3r)

wherep =A/N is the offeredloadper server. is Theloss,or blockingprobability, determined as

P^(A)AN*L "'

B=P-,(A)=

' N!N"

(r2.32)

(I to reduce thoseof It is worthnotingthatif thereis no queue = 0), these equations (12.8). t is infinite,Equation reduces Erlang'sde12.31 theErlanglossequation If to formulation that lay formula, 12.24. representgeneral a Equation Thusthese equations produces purelossandpuredelayformulas special as cases. the The waitingtime distribution is [3]
GI

p(>r):PN(A) I \ ) xte-*dx i+"'u'/'* from which the average delay can be determined as lp(>O) -Pff+r(A)lt*

-n,I

(12.33)

(r2.34)

N_A

(L 12.26 aninfinite 12.34 identical Equation for Equation is to Again, {ueue = m). Equations Single-Server involve the most applications single-server configurations, previous Because queuing
equationsare listed explicitly for N = l: , Prob(7 calls in system)(12.30):

ntG):rn(P)d

(r2.3s)

P.$) =[,

' p+p*"I'=[E,'l'

(12"36)

564

TRAFFIG ANALysts

Probability delay(12.31): of p(>0): Probability loss(12.32): of

o_{t-p)pal

Po(p)p(l p*t)

p(l

I-p

(r2.37)

u----=-:-

l-p*" Average delay(12.34):

(12.38)

tp(>o) Pr*,(p)Jr* p(l - pz)rl-p ( t _ p X l_ p L r z )

(12.3e)

The blockingprobabilityof a single-seryer system(N = 1) is plottedin Figure 12.19. when usingFigure12.19, keepin mindthattheblockingprobability (Equation 12.38) determined thenumber waitingcallsandnot by theassociated is by of service time' Furthermore, $ince curves Figure12.19arebased exponential the of on service times,they overestimate blockingprobabilities constant the of holdingtime system$ (e.g.,fixed-length packet networks). However, fixed-length if packets ariseprimarily from longer,exponentially dishibutedmessage$, arrivalsare no longer indethe pendent, theuseof Figure12.19(or Equation 2.38)asa conservative and t analvsis is moreappropriate. ATM Cell Queues Analysisof queuingdelaysandcell lossin an ATM switchingnodeis complicated. Thecellshavea fixed lengthof 53 bytessoit wouldseem a constant that service time analysis wouldbe appropriate. assumption valid for voicetraffic inserted This is onto wide-bandwidth signalssuchas 155-Mbps sTS-ls. In this caserhe servicetime is muchshorter theduration a speech that of burst(e.g.,2.7 psecversus several tensof milliseconds). Eventhoughcorrelated arrivalsoccurfrom individualsources. arthe rival times are separated many thousands servicetimes so they appearindeby of pendent. WhenATM voiceis carriedin CBR trunk groups, differentsituation a results. In this case service the timesof thevoicecellsmaybe only slightlysmallerthantheintervalbetween voicecell generation, theaverage and delaywouldindicate two or that morecellsfrom the samesource could be present the queue onetime. Thus,a in at queuing analysis assumes that exponentially distributed service timesis moreappropriateeventhough variable-length spurts broken into fixed{engttr the talk are up ciffs. Example12.17. A 64-kbpscBR virtual path in an ATM networkis to carry lg voicesignals arecompressed 7.25kbpsduringvoicespurts. that to Assuming speech a activityfactorof 407o, determine eachof thefollowing;

I2.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 565

1.000
f, I 2 3 5

tt o' 1 0 0 -o (s
-o

10

e s.
(D

.g .s IJ

g -0.

010

0.001
baffic(erlangs) Offered
service system(exponential Figure 12.19 Blocking probabilityof singleserverloss/delay times).

(a) Outputchannelloading (b) Service time (c) Probability delaywith an infinite queue of (d) Probability delaywith a queue length20 ATM cells of of (e) Average for timeswith aninfinite queue service time in queue exponential (f; Averagetime in queuefor exponentialservicetimeswith a finite queueof 20 (g) Average service times(infinitequeue) time in queue constant for times) (h) Probability cell loss(assuming service of exponential

566

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

Solution (a)An ATM cell consists of48 bytesofpayloadand5 bytesofoverhead. Thus,rhe * offeredloadto thechannel (18 x 7.25kbpsx 0.4) (53/4g)/64 kbps= 0.9 erlangs. (b) The service time of a cell is 53 x g/64kbps= 6.625msec. (c) Theprobabilityof delayfrom Equation12.24is 0.9. (d) Theprobabilityof delayfrom Equarion12.37 0.g9. is (e) The average queuing delayfrom Equation12.26 59.6msec. is (0 Theaverage queuing delayfrom Equation12.34 5g.2msec. is (S)The average queuing delayfrom Equationl?.29 is 29.gmsec. (h) Theprobabilityof cell lossfrom Equation12.39is 0.012. Theresults Example12.17illustrare of several imporrflnt points.First,(c) and(d) indicate theprobability delayin a finite-queue that of system smaller is thanthatof an infinite-queue system-becau$e sometraffic is rejected. with a reasonably sized queue effecton the delayprobabilityis small.similarly, a comparison (e) the of and (f) illustrates the average that queuing delayin a reasonably sizedqueue not much is differentthanthatof an infinite queue. discussed As earlier, thereis a significant difference between average the delayof a system with exponentially distributed service timesasopposed constant to service times.Beforeassuming a consrant that service time analysis shouldbe used,the average delaymustbe compared the delaybe_ to tweenardvalsof voicecells.The durationof a speech segment carriedin the ATM cellsof Example12.17 bederermined 4g xgl72s0= 53 msec. can as Theaverage delay of a constant service timeanalysis (29.8msec) indicates cellsfrom a particular that source usuallyserviced are beforea subsequent arrivalfrom the$ame source. cerbut tainly not always. Equation12.34 used determine average If is to the delay,the5g.2_ msecresultindicates that, on average, arriving cell from a source an encounters a previous cell from the same$ource. Thusthe assumption independent of arrivalsis marginal.To be safe,a cell losscalculation assuming exponential service timesaccountsforcorrelatedarrivals.The cell lossprobabilityof l.zvo is marginalfrom a voicequalitypointof view.Noticethatthisvalueof cell lossrelates theCBR gateto way (AALI adapration layer),whichis presumably only significant the source cell of loss. The solutionto example problem12.17necessarily useda simplemodelfor the traffic andthequeue. thorough A analysis anATM or packet-switching of networkis muchmorecomplicated. Factors mustbe considered the switchingnodear_ that are chitectures queue and imprementation (e.g.,shared queues versus dedicated queues;, server disciplines (e.g.,priorities),cell discard algorithms, admission call conholal_ gorithms, traffic statistics. and Some these of issues covered references are in [16-lg]. 12.4.4 Tandem eueues All ofthe equations provided previous in sections delaysystem for analysis havedealt with theperformance a singlequeue. manyapplications service of In a request undergoesseveral stages ofprocessing, oneofwhich involves each queuing. Thusit is often

REFEHENcES 5S7 Locrl rrrlvrlr

Arrinh lrom pr|Yiodt qu6lC

Output quctre

queues. Figure12.20 Tandem in with a numberof queues series. of to the desirable analyze performance a system requests that as of a Figure 12.20depicts series queues receive, inputs,locallygenerated with tandem of Two principalexamples applications and outputsfrom other queues. switching networks. systems storc-and-forward and queue$ dataprocessing are in successful derivingforin theoryhavenot beengenerally Researchers queuing Often, simulationiS usedtOanalyzea of mulasfor the performance tandemqueues. queues like arisingin systems store-and-forof complexarrangement interdependent of that aspects a network'sophas ward networhs. Simulation the advantage special The model. in eration-like routingandflow control-can beincluded thesimulation and,often,lessvisibility into the deare of main disadvantages simulation expen$e parameters' perforrnance variousdesign on pendence system of queuingproblemthat hasbeensolved[19] is for randominputsand one tandem The holdingtimesfor all queues. solutionof this sysexponential) random(negative with purelyrandomarrivals In on temis based thefollowingtheorem: a delaysystem is at holdingtimes,the instants whichcallsterminate alsoa exponential andnegative distribution. negative exponential systemhavestaThe significanceof this theoremis that outputsfrom an IvI/IvIA.{ process onestage in tisticalproperties areidenticalto its inputs.Thusa queuing that can and Stage, all gueues be anain doesnot affect the arrival process a subsequent has with N servers exponentially Specifically, a delay$ystem if lyzedindependently. servicetime is f., distributedinterarrival times with average1/1,,and if the average distributedintercompletion to according exponentially callsleaveeachofthe servers l/LN. timeswith average justified only queues be rigorously can of analysis tandem Althoughindependent in is for purely randomarrivalsand servicetimes,independence often assumed other be should exthe in however, systems question Beforeusingsuchassumptions, cases. if closelyto determine the stateof one queuecan influencethe operationof amined queue the system. in another

REFERENCES Wiley'New and Theory ltsApplications, An to I W. Feller, Introduction Probability York.1968.

2 A. A. Collins and R. D. Pederson,Telecommunicatians-a Timefor Innovation,Metle Collins Foundation, Dallas, TX, 1973.

568

rRAFFtc ANALysts

3 R. syski, Introduction congesfion to Theoryin Telephone,sysfems, oliver andBoyd, London. 1965. 4 Technical Staff,Bell Telephone Laboratories, Engineering Operations and inthe Bell System, Westem Electric,Indianapolis, lg7?. 5 'Determination of the Number of Circuits in Automatic and Semi-Automatic operation,"ccITT Recommendarion 520,orangeBook,vor. II.2, r976,p.zrr. E. 6 c. J. weinstein, "Fractional speech Loss and ralker Activity Model for packet switchedspeech," IEEE Transactions communications on Technology. Aug. I 97g,pp. t253-1256. 7 H. Miedema and M. schachtman,"TASI eualiry-Effect of speech Detection and Interpolation," SystemTechnical Bell Joumal,July 1962, l4i5_1473. pp. '-Voice-Activated-Swirch I G. Szarvasand H. Suyderhoud, Performance Criteria," Comsat Technical Review, SpringI g80,pp. I Sl *177. 9 S. S. Katz, "ImprovedNetworkAdministationhocessUtilizing End-to-End Service Considerations," IntemationalTeletraffic Conference, lg7g, "Alternate 10 R. Dayem, Routing High Blockingcommunications in Networks.,, National Telecommunications Conference, lg7g,pp. 2g.4. _2g.4.6, I l l P. R. Boorstyn H. Frank,"Large*scale and NetworkTopological optimization," rEEE Transactions Communicaflrrzs, lg77, pp, Zg_47 on Jan. . 12 R. I. wilkinson, 'Theories for Ton rraffic Engineering u.s.A.,- Beil in system Technical Journal,Mar. 1956. 13 "calculation of theNumberof circuits in a Groupcarrying overflow Traff,rc,"ccITT Recommendation E.52r, orangeBoak,vol. 2, No. 2, Geneva, switzerrand, 2rg. p. 14 J. A. Morrison,"Analysisof some overflow hoblems with Bell system eueueing,,' Technical Joumal,Oct.1980, 1427-1462. pp. 15 Telephone Tragic Theory,Tables, and charts, siemens Alctiengesellschaft, Munich, t970. "The Knockout 16 Y.-s. Yeh' M. G. Hruchyj,and A. s. Acampora, switch: A simple, Modular Architecture for High-perfonnancepacket switching,,, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas Communications, in Oct.l9g7, pp. ll74_llg3. 17 K. sriram,T. G. Lyons,andr.-T. wang, "Anomaries Dueto DelayandLossin AAL2 Packet voice systems: Performance ModelsandMethods Mitigati on,,' of IEEEroumal on Selected Areasin Cornmunitations, I g99,W, 4_17. Jan, 18 K. Sriram and y. T. yang, ..Voice over ATM Using AALZ and Bit Dropping: Perfbrmanceand call Admission control," IEEE Joumal on selected Areas in Communications, 1999, 18-28. Jan. pp. 19 L. Kleiruock and R. Gail, eueueing sysferns, problems and solutions,wiley, New York. 1996,

PROBLEMS l2.l A central-office-to-PBX group funk contains circuits. four Ifthe average call duration 3 minand busy-hour is the offered hafficintensity 2 erlangs, is deter_
mine each of the followine:

PHOBLEMS 569

(a) Busy-hour callingrate (b) Probability thattwo arrivalsoccurlessthan I secapart operation a (c) Blockingprobabilityassuming lost callscleared (d) Amountof losttraffic fixed-order selec(e) Proportion time the fourthcircuit is in use(assuming of tion) office, to concentrator a central 12.2 A Tl line is usedto cany traffic from a remote suppofrat0.SVo system can How many l0 CCS subscribers the concentrator Asanalysis' to analysis a finite source an blocking.Compare infinite source sume blockedcallscleared. busy-hour traffic load 20 of officesexperience erlangs average Two switching the 24 a them.Assume singleTI line provides directtrunksbetween between switch? to traffic over{lows a tandem offices.How muchbusy-hour has A PBX with 200 stations five trunksto the public network'What is the callsper 8-hr is blockingprobabilityif eachstation involvedin threeexternal the of duration 2 min percall?Assume average workingday with an average duringthe day (no busyhour)andblockedcallsreturn callingrateis constant traffic? Whatis tlreofferedload?Whatis thedemand with random retries. center for input-output(VO) portsareneeded a computer How manydial-up eachu$er Assume probability limit of 57o? with a blocking to support users 40 of duration 30 min. If three $ession four averages callsperdaywith anaverage grade service theremaining for of all remainconnected day,whatis the u$srs 37 users? trunksin of A 24-channel trunk groupis dividedinto two Sroups 12 one-way at eachdirection.(A one-waytrunk is onethat canonly be seized one end.) blocking?How at support O-SVI of How manyerlangs traffic canthis system if manyerlangs be supported all 24 trunksaretwo-waytrunks?(Thatis, can at everytrunk canbe seized eitherend.) havebeen Erlang(E) statistics The following 10 A.M. to 11 A.M. busy-hour what is theoverallblocking interoffice trunk group. observed a 3z-channel on busyhourif day-toprobability? Whatis theblockingprobabilityfor thesame are together? dayflucfuations averaged Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 30E 19E 22E' 19E' 20E

12.3 12.4

12.5

12.6

12.7

trunk groupindicatethatduron 12.8 Traffic measurements a PBX-to-central-office utilized.If thereareeight hour of the day the trunk$are807o ing the busiest blockedcalls in the group,what is the blockingprobability,assuming trunks manytrunksmustbe addedto achievea maximumblockdo not retum?How ing probabilityof SVo? retries. blockedcallsreturnwith random Problem12.8assuming tz.9 Repeat with a community is A 12,10 smallcommunitywith 400 subscribers to be serviced 0.1 originates erlangof subscriber that dial office switch.Assume the average are that of traffic. Also assume 20Vo the originations local (intracommunity)

570

TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

callsandthat 807o transitcallsto tlreserving are centraloffice.How manyerlangs trafficareoffered thecommunity-dial-office-to-central-office of to g1nk group? How manyfrunksareneeded 0.5vo for blockingof thehansittraffic? 12'11 For the comrnunity Problem12.10determine numberof concentrator of the channels required iflocal callsarenot switched locallybut aremerelyconcentratedinto pair-gain $ystems switched thecentraloffice. and at 12.12 Repeat hoblems 12.10and 12.l I if g0%of rheoriginations inrracommu_ are nity calls andZOVa transitcalls. are u.13 A groupof eightremote farm houses serviced four lines.If eachof the are by eightfamiliesutilizestheirtelephones I0zo of thebusyhour,compare for the blockingprobabilities thefollowingconfigurations: of (a) Fourpartylineswith two srations line per (b) An 8-to-4concentration sy$tem 12.14 A PBX provides queuing automatic backfor access outgoing and calr to wATS lines.If therearez0 requests hourfor thewATs lines,andif theaverage per call is 3 min in length,how manyWATS linesareneeded providederays to of lessthan I hr for 90Zo therequests? of f2.15 A call processor 507o its timeavailable servicing has of for requests. each If requestrequires msecof processing 50 time, whatarrivalratecanbe supported if only I 7oof theservice requests delayed morethanI sec? are by Assume that processor time is slicedinto iOO-msec time slots.(Thatis, 500 msecareallo_ catedto call processing then500 msecto overhead and functions..l 12'16 A groupof 100sources offersmessages exponentially with diskibuted lengths to a 1200-bps Theaverage line. message lengthis 200bits,including overhead, andeachsource generates mesrlage one every20 sec. Access theline is con_ to trolledby message-switching concentration an infinite queue. with Determine thefollowing: (a) Probability entering queue of rhe (b) Average queuing delayfor all arrivals (c) Probability beingin thequeue morethan I sec of for (d) Utilizationof thetransmission link 12.17 An airlinecompany usesan automatic distributorto service call re$ervations andticketpurchases. Assume thatthe processing time of eachinquiry is randomtydistributed with a 40-sec average. Also assume if customers pur that are on hold for more than2 min, they hangup and cail anotherairrine.If eachof 200inquiries hourproduces worthof sales, average, g30 per on whatis theop_ timum numberof reservationists? Assume eachreservationist coststhe company$20/hr(includingoverhead). 12'18 A radio station talk showsolicitsthelisteningpublicfor cornments the inon eptne$$ government assume will bea topicalsubject thelife of this of (I this for book).Assume each that callertalksfor a random lengthof time with an averageduration I min. (Eithertheshowis unpopular thepublichasgivenup of or

PRoBLEMS 571 on the govemment.) How many incoming lines must the radio station have to keep the idle time below 5% if the call arrival rate is 3 calls/min? 12.19 RepeatExample I 2' 17 for a queuelength L = 40' (Although a rigorous solution requires calculation of a ZQ-termsummation, only fhe first few terms are significant.)

A APPENDX

OF DERIVATION EQUATIONS
3.2 EOUATION NOISE POWER: A.1 QUANTIZING to is of v function a noise sampled assumed beuniform; density Theprobability

p(n)=iq lO

<iq l+ -iq<n
otherwise

as valueof noisePoweris determined or The average expected

noir* euantization po*"rJf

* [n1jrt

=[#)n
4.1 EQUATION A.2 NRz LINEGODE: ,tt) =

[t
{O

t rs + 7 t
other'wise

rUo))=j 71t1e-i'ntdt

574

AppENDtx A

=[i'Jt"'-"'
- e-i$T/z)

=671'in(a44) (aT/2) Note: FQw)is thespecfumof a singlepurse; gnl isthepowerspectral rF(7co)z density of a random purse train assuming positiveandnegative pulses equaltylikery are andoccurindependently.

4.3

DlclTAL BIpHASE: FtcURE 4.19

^r=l:,
-lT<t<O

o< t < l r

otherwise

(t/z)r

F(7'to)= !

"-*dr-

....

_(t/?\T

J **i*dt
0

=[*)"

_ rl( /2laT_ s-iTrz)ar * 11

=[.,,')'*'[T)
A.4 FBAME ACQUISITION TIME OF SINGLE.BITFRAMECODE: EOUATION 4.10 Framing established successively is by examining bit positionafteranother one until a sufficiently long framingpatternis detected. this derivationit is assumed In that the framingpattern alternates and0's. Furthermore, is assumed whenbeginning I's it that to testa particular positionfor ftaming,the valueof the first appearance bit is saved andcompared the second to appearance. Thusthe minimum time aorejectan invalid framingpositionis oneframetime. If we denote byp the probabilityof a I andby s I r _ p the probability that a 0 is receivedfirst, the average numberof ftamesrequiredto receive mismatch a is

4,10 EQUATION CODE: FRAME ACQUISITION OFSINGLE"BIT TIME FRAME Ao = (l) (probability of mismatch at end of first frame) + (2) (probability of mismatch at end of second frame) + (3) (probability of mismatch at end of third frame) . . .

575

= (1)4 (zxl * q)p+ (3Xl - q)(r- p)q + +(aX-il20-ilp+... l

= (1)4+ Q)pz+ (3)pqz {4)p3 + (5)p'q3+ . . q + =(q+2p?+ps\[I +(Z)ps+(3)pzqz(4)p3q3 . .] + +. = [7 - p + Zpz+ p(l-p)1(1 + pq + pzqz psqt+ . . .)' +

= l+p3 tr*P
1+p ='=-

r_pq

numberof framesbeforereceivinga ftrst, the expected Similarly,if a I is received is mismatch l+a At=T_fi numberof framesrequiredto detecta mismatchis The overall average A = q A o *p A 1 _I +Zpg 1- pq numberof If we assume randomstartingpoint in a framewith N bits, the average a is bits that mustbe testedbeforethe true framing bit is encountered time = (l /Ztl)(A. M + 1/2N Frame = 1 / z N ( A . N + 1 )b i t t i m e s

576

AppENDtx A

If I's and0'sareequally likely (p =q=l),A = 2 soframe time=Ap + t/2Nbittimes (Equation 4.10).

A.5 FRAMEACQUISITION TIME OF SINGLE.BITFRAN,IING CODE USINGA PARALLEL$EARGH:EQUAT|ON4.11 This framingalgorithmas$umes all bit positions a frameare simultaneously that in scanned theframingpattern. weassume analternating-bit for If that framecodeis used andthat I 's and0's in theinformation areequallylikely, th-e bits probabiliry a par_ rhat ticularinformation does produce framingviolationin n frames bit not a is

/rY o^=lil
The probabilitythat a framing violatidn iuJ u**n receivedin n or lessframes is I -p,' The probabilitythat all N - I informationbits in a frameproduce framing a violationin rzor lessframes is

o.=f,-fri]-'
A.6 FRAME ACQUISITION OF MULTIBIT TIME FRAME GODE: EQUATION 4.13
N= Iength of frame including framing code ,L = length of framing code p= G)L: probability of matching frame code with random data

(4.l r)

The expected number of frames examined before a particular frame position mismatchesthe frame code follows:

A = (OXl -p) + (l)p(t - p) + (Dpz( - P ) + " ' l : (l - p)p(I + Zp -t 3p?+ 4p3 . . . ) + = (1 -p)p(l +p + pz +p3 + . . .)? / 2 = ( r - p )lp' r \ | + ['-pJ _ P l-p

s.11 A.7 PATHFINDING EOUATION TIME:

577

(assuming The average numberof bits that passbeforethe frameposition is detected point andthetestfield is movedonebit positionwhena mismatch a randomstarting occurs) givenas is

r=ftruJraxnn*it
r.d/otzt'*t t ,, . =T:769-1''
(4.13)

4.13 Equation 4. to Equation withZ = I isnotidentical Equation l0 because 4.13 Iy'afe.. assumes alternating an code. 4.10 code whileEquation a fixedframe assumes

5.11 TIME:EQUATION A.7 PATHFINDING

Assume that all paths through a switch are independently busy with probability p. Let the probability that a path is not busy be denotedby q= | -p. The probabilityp; that exactly i paths are tested before an idle one is found is the probability that the first i - | arebusv and the ith is notr

P'= P(i-t)n The expected number of paths tested before an idle path is found is

* + ruo (1)a+ (Z)pq+ (3)pzq+. . . + (k)pk*Lq (k)pk

pathsk areunavailable. that the wherethelasttermrepresents expectation all possible as form for A is determined A closed + + A t = ( 1 * p X l + 2 p + 3 p 2 . . . + k p k - rk p k 1 = I + p + p z+ p j + , . . + p k - '

t-p '
=l: Po l-p

k( r \

[t

-oJ
(s.ll)

578

APpENDtx A

Figure A.l.

probabiliqr graphof No, 4 ESSfour_stage space switch.

A,8 LESS SPACE STAGE BLOCKING PROBABILITY5.21 The moststraightforward to calculate blockingprobabilityof thefour-stage way the space shucture shownin theprobabilitygraphof FigureA.I is to list all elementary, mutuallyexclusive probabilityterms, determine theirprobabilities occurrence, of and generate sumof those represent the that blocking. Because thereareeightlinks,which are.assumed be independently to busyor idle, therearezs = 256elementary terms. Rather thanlaboriously themall, theanalysis begreatlysimplified, list can with a risk oJmiscounting blockingterms, grouping termsaccording thenumber busy by the to of links-Thefollowingtableliststhegroups thecorrespondinf and numbers termsthat of blockanddo not block.
Number of BusyLinksI 0
1

Combinations (:)
1 I 28 56 70 56 28 B 1 256

Number That Block 0 0 2 16 50 52 2B I 1 157

Number Do Not that Block 1 I 26 40 20 4 0 0 0 99

2 3 4 5 6 7 I

Entriesin thelasttwo columnsaredetermined analyzingthetopologyof thenet_ by work. For example, whentwo links arebusy,onry2 of the2g combinations produce blocking( I and2 and7 and8).when threelinksarebusy,I 6 of thecombinations produceblocking.To determine remaining the enhiesin column3, it is easier deterto mine the numberof combinations that do not block and subtractfrom the total. For example, whenonly threelinks areidle, thereare4 of 56 combinations do not that block.using theentries column3, theblockingprobabilityis determined in as B = Zpz + l6p3 + S}pa + Sbps t Zgp6 + gp7 + pg q6 qs qa qt qz q wherep is theprobabiliry _ p is theprobabilitythatit is thata link is busyandq = | idle' All ofthe interstage links areequallyloaded because thereis no concentration or expansion the stages. in

B APPENDX

ENCODING/DECODING FOR ALGORITHMS PCM SEGMENTED

p255 CODE 8.1 EIGHT-BIT format use of The encoded representations p255 PCM codewords a sign-magnitude the polarityandtheremaining specify magnibits whereinI bit identifies sample the into partitioned a 3-bit segbits The tudeof thesample. 7 magnitude areconveniently ment identifier S and a 4-bit quantizingstepidentifier Q. Thus thebasic structureof is an 8-bit p255PCM codeword shownin FigureB.l. algorithms, is assumed, it of and In thefollowing descriptions encoding decoding that for convenience using integerrepresentations, analoginput signalsare scaled in and all Furthermore, amplitudes segmentidentifiers to amaximumamplitude 8159. of binaryrepresentations. actualenThe to usingconventional areassumed be encoded to however, complement codewords inthe systems, usedin T1 transmissiOn coders bit the crease densityof I's in a transmitted stream. 8.1.1 Algorithm 1: Direct Encodlng (Table 8.1) polar. Dttr = [o for uositivesamplevalues tty roalues sample ll for negative encoding the valuewith a magnitude.x, first stepin the magnitude Given a sample by are identifierS.Themajorsegments identified process to determine segment is the canbe and endpoints: 95, 223,479,991,2015,4063, 8159'Thus'S 31, the segment
I
v\-rJ\-1/--/

P Figure B.l.

Eight-bitp225PCM codeformat.

580

APFENDIXB

TABLE 8.1

Piecewlee Linear Approxlmation to FZSSCompoundlngd Quantization Endpoints SegmentCode S by Quantization Code Q

000 0
1

001
31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95

010 95 103 111 119 127 135 143 151 159 167 175 183 191 199 2Q7 215 223

011 223 239 255 271 287 303 319 335 351 367 383 399 415 431 447 463 479

100
479 5 11 543

101

110

111

3 5 7 I 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

s7s
607 639i 671' 703 735 767 799 831 863 89s 927 959 991

991 1055 1119 11 8 3 1347 131 1 1375 1439 1503 1567 1631 1695 1759 1823 1887 1951 2015

0 1 2 3 4
E

6 7 I I 10 11 12 13 14 15

asample values relerenced a are to Nogative yaly6 samples encoded sign-magnitud6 are in Iujl--scle oj 8159. formet a polarlty of 1. In actuel with bit transmission cod6s inverted in"reaietn" o"nsrty 1,swhen the alre to of low signalamplitude$ ncoded. are Anelogoutputsamples docoded th6 centerof the encodd ere as quantizationinterval.
Quantizationerror is i'he difference between the teconstructooout[ut vatu6 ancl th. origir-lal input sample value. ,!

determined the smallest as endpoint is greater that thanthe sample valuex. Here,s is equalto the smallest suchthat a x<64-T-33 a=0,I,...,7

After themajorsegment containing sample the valuehasbeen determined, parthe ticularquantization intervalwithin the major segment mustbe identified.As a first stepa residue is determined the difference r as between input amplitude the the and lowerendpoint the segment: of

S '=fi- (32.zs- S = 0, 2 , , . . . 7 33) = I

The valueof Q cannow be determined thequantization as intervalcontaining the residue Here,fl is equalto the smallest suchthat r. b

lzu*t r<[1zs+rxb+ l)

,5=0 S=1,2,...,"1

whereb = 0, l, . . . , 15.Noticethat this process identifiesquantization intervalsin segment = 0 ashavingupperendpoint$ l, 3, 5, . . . , 3t while theothersegments ^s at

8.1 EIGHT-EITp255CODE581

fhat endpoints aremultiplesof 4, 8, 16,32,64, 128,256 for S = 1, havequantization 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, respectively. into they arebinary encoded 3 and4 bits, reAfter,SandO havebeendetermined, a of spectively. concatenation S andO produces 7-bit word thatcanbe convenThe identifies this 0 as between and 127.In essence, integer iently represented an integer compressed signalamplitude. quantization intervals a of oneof the 128 polarityto an analog outthe proces$ involvesassigning designated Thedecoding = 0, l, ' ' . , 127'Using intrvaln put sample the midpointof the nth quantization at valueas outputsample a of thevalues S andQ directly,we candetermine discrete yn=(2Q+ 33X2r) 33 of the wheren is the integerobtainedby concatenating binary representations ,5and

a.

Example 8.1. produces following codeword: the of An inputsample +242

1 0,3, =ffi
outputbecomes The decoder t$=(2. 1+33X23)-33 :247

quantization from?39to 255. interval of is which themidpoint theforty-ninth A.1.2 Algorithm2: LinearCodeConversion
with characteristic p255 is for reason usinga p-law compounding The fundamental to can approximation be digitally converted and with which the segmented the ease the sectiondescribes basicalgorithmsthat implementthe from a uniform code.This 4p255PCM enthemeans implementing of Thefirst algorithmprovides conversions. followedby digitallogic to providethecomprescoderusinga 13-bituniformencoder function the how to implement decoder algorithm indicates Thesecond sionfunction. a code offirst expanding compressed into a 13-bitlinearcodeto beusedin generating theouQutsamples. as Justasin algorithm1, thepolaritybit P is determined values for positivesample 'o _ I0 values sample for negative 11

s82

APPENDIX B

The simplicity of converting from a linear code to a compressed code is most evident if the linear code is biasedby adding the value 33 ro the magnitudeof all samples.Notice that this bias shifts the encoding range from 0*gl5g ro 33-gl9z. The addition processcan be performed directly on the analog samplesbefare encoding or with digi_ tal logic after encoding. In either case,the generalform of all biased linear code patterns and the correspondingcompressed codesare as follows: p255EncodingTable Biased Linear Input Code 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 l w 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 w w x x y
0 0 0 l w x y z 0 0 l w x y z a 0 l w x y z a b 1 w x y z a b c w x y x y z y z a z a b a h c b c d c d e d e f z a a b b c c d d e e f f s g h

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 O l 1 0 0 0 1 1 O l 1

Compressed Code w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y

z z z z z z z z

From the foregoing table it can be seenthat all biased linear codeshave a leading I that indicatesthe value of the segmentnumber ,s.specifically, rhe value of s is equal to 7 minus the number of leading 0's before the I. The value of is directly available e as the 4 bits (w, x, y, z) immediately following the leading 1. All trailing bits (a-h) are merely ignored when generatinga compressed code. In reversefashion the following table indicateshow to generate abiased linearcode from a compressed code. An unbiasedoutput can be obtainedby subtracting33 from the biasedcode: p255DecodingTabte 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 l Compressed Code 0 w x y z 1 w x y z 0 w x y z 1 w x y z 0 w x y z 1 w x y z 0 w x y z 1 w x y z Biased Linear Qutput Code 0 0 0 0 l w x 0 0 0 1 w x y 0 0 1 wx y z 0 1 w x y 2 1 1 w x y 2 1 0 w x y z 1 0 0 x y z 1 0 0 0 y z 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w

0 0 0 0 0 1 w x

y z 1 z 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Both of these tables indicate that 13bitsof thelinearcodeareusedto represent the magnitude the signal.In chapter3 it is mentioned a p255 pcM coderhasan of that amplitude range equivalent l2 bits.Thediscrepancy to occurs because first quanthe tizationintervalhaslengthI while all others thefirst segment of lengthz. Thus in are theexhabit is needed only to specify first quantization the interval. Noticefurrher that theleastsignificant in thetables bit carries information is included no but only to facilitatetheinteger relationships. particular, leastsignificant in theencoding kr the bit tableis completely ignoredwhendetermining compressed (assuming the a code that

B.r EIGHT A-LAW Brr coDe

583

the Furthermore, leastsignificantbit in the output biasis added the analogsample). to zero by S. number It is a 0 for segment and is completely specified thesegment codes I for all othersegments. a Example 8.2. to a An input codeword of +242is biased produce valueof 275.The binaryrepreof sentation 275is 0000 I 000 I 00 1 1 (biasedlinearcode) code Hence tableS = 011andwxlz = fi)01, andthecompressed is from theencoding ffi (compressedcode)

the lintable,thiscompressed produces followingbiased code Usingthedecoding earoutputcode:

0000 1000 I 1000 (biasedlinearoutput)

The decimal repre$entation of the foregoing code is 280, which corresponds to an unbiasedoutput equal to +247.

8.2

EIGHT BIT A-LAW CODE

use bafor codes the same algorithms segmentedAlaw Thefollowingcompounding Onedifference doesoccur, presented thep255codes. for that sic procedures those a$ to involvesthe eliminationof a biasin the linearcodefor conversion and however, 4096as in occurs the useof theinteger code.Anotherdifference from a compressed If the maximumamplitudeof a samplein anAlaw representation. desired,the scale by can factorsfor thetwo systems bebroughtinto closeagreement doublingtheAJaw to scale 8192. Alaw codeis usually referredto as a As mentionedin Chapter3, the segmented segl3-segment codeowing to the exisknceof sevenpositiveand sevennegative near mentswith the two segment$ the origin beingcolinear.In the following descripfor tions,however,the first segment eachpolarity is dividedinto two pal'tsto produce segments. point of view permitsa codeformat This eightpositiveandeightnegative of codewordconsists a that is identicalto the p255 codeformat. Thus,a compressed level Q. identifierS and4 bits of quantizer signbit P followedby 3 bits of a segment 8.2.1 Algorlthm 1r Direct Encodlng The segment endpoints anA-law codeare32,64,128, 256, 5I2, l0Z.,2048, and of identifier ,5can be dex 4096.Thus for a samplewith magnitude the major segment a terminedasthe smalle$t suchthat

584

APPENDIX B

TABLE8.2 Segmented A-[aw EncodlngTable Ouantization Endpoints Segment by Code 001 0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 5,4 56 58 60 62 84 010 64 68 72. 76 80 84 BB 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120 1?4 128 011
128 136 144 152 160 168 176 184 Quantization Code

101 256 272 288 304 320 336 3s2 368 384 400 416 432 M8 464 480 496 512 512 544 576 608 640 672 704 736 768 800 832 864 896 928 960 992 1024

110

111

19e 200 208 216 224 232 240 248 256

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B I 10 11 12 13 14 15

Not6i Every oth6r bit is invertedfor tran8mi8slon.

x<32'2"

a = 0 ,l , . . . , 7

After S hasbeendetermined, residuer canbe obtainedas the , =[* lx- 16.2s S=0 S=1,2,...,7

The valueof B canthenbe determined the smallest suchthat as b

'.{#[..'i,

S=0 S=1,2,...,7

Justasin the case p255 coding,anAlaw magnitude be represented an infor can as tegern= 0, l, .. ',121 derivedfromtheconcatenations-bitsand4 p-bits.An of 3 outputmagnitude canthenbeexpressed as I

r S=0 [zB+ ,,=ltt,n+ 16f)

S=I,2,...,7

Exampla8.8. An inputsample +121 of produces following the codeword:

8.2 EIGHT A.LAW BIT CODE

585

ffi The decoder outputbecomes

=+46indecimal

= + )+e 2s(14 te |)
_ | tr,,

intervalfrom 120to 7M. whichis themidpointof thequantization 8.2.2 Algorithm 2: Linear Code Converslon Thefollowingtables indicate how to converta lZ-bit linearcodedirectlyinto a compressed.A-law the as code.The algorithmis basically same for the p255 conversion codedoesnot and exceptthatbiasingthe linearcodeis unnece$sary a first segment as havea leadingL Thusthesegment numberS bedetermined 7 minusthenumber can of leadingzerosasbefore.The p field dataareobtainedasthe 4 bits (wxyz) immedi= the when,S 0, in whichcase Q field is contained atelyfollowingtheleadingl, except 0's. in the4 bits following theseven leading
A.Law Encodlng Tabl Linear Code

Compressed Code x x y z a b c d y y z a b c d e z z a b c d e f a a b c d e f g 0 0 w x y z 0 0 1 w x y z 0 1 O w x y z 0 1 1 w x y z 1 O 0 w x y z 1 0 1 w x y z l l 0 w x y z l l l w x y z 0

0 0 0 0 O 0 O l

0 0 0 0 0 O l w

0 0 0 0 0 l w x

0 0 0 0 l w x y

0 0 0 1 w x y z

0 0 1 w x y z a

0 w 1 w w x x y y z z a a b b c

a The following table providesthe meansof generating linear codeworddirectly to from a compressed codeword. outputvalueconesponds themiddleof thequanThe by tization interval designated S and p. Table A-Law Decoding
Compressed Qode 0 0 0 0 1 1 ' 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 O 1 0 1 Linear Code Output w w x y z 1 0 0 x x y z 1 0 0 0 y z 1 y z 1 z l O 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z A 0 0 0 0 1 w w x y z 0 0 0 0 1 w x w x y z 0 0 0 1 w x y w x y z 0 0 1 w x y z f 1 O w x y z O 1 w x y z 1 1 1 w x y z 1 w x y z 1 0

586

AppENDtx B

Eachof these tables relates12bits of magnitude a linearcodeto a compressed in codewith 7 bitsof magnitude. Notice,however, theleastsignificant of theenthat bit coderis alwaysignored. Thustheencoder needs only 1l bitsof resolution all of its if outputs immediately are compressed.anysignal processing If (suchasadding sigtwo nalstogether) to takeplacebeforecompre$$ion, is however, extrabit is usefulin the reducing composite the quantization error. Example The previously used sample value Lzr is represented binary form as in 000001 11001. I Fromtheencoding = rable,S 010ande = I I 10.Thusthecompressed codeword is

ffi
using the decoding table,the linearourputcanbe determined 000001 l l0l0, as I whichis 122decimal.

APPENDX C

ANALYTIC FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

C.l PULSESPECTHA

presents f'requency pulsewaveforms This section the $pectra common of usedfor digipulses generated a source. are tal transmission. These square as Since spectra at the of pulses square haveinfinite frequency presented do not corthe here content, spectra respond pulseresponses theoutputofa channel to the at where pulseshapes havebeen by outputpulseresponses altered bandlimiting filters.In thenextsection channel are Thenthe necessary described. combinations input pulseshapes filter designs of and particular outputpulses considered. are to produce pulseshapes corresponding Thevarious frequency spectra presented Figand are in ureC.1.In derivingthespectra, following conditions assumptions made: the and were 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All pulses haveequalenergy. All systems signalat rutfrIlT. Thewaveform$ shownareusedto encode 1. a polarities usedfor a 0. are Opposite It is equallylikely for l's and0's to occurandto occurat random(complete independence).

C.2 CHANNELOUTPUTPUL$E RESPONSES Althougha digitaltransmission system be designed produce varietyof output to can a pulseresponses, mostcommon definedas is the
v--\0 | '/rc\r/ -

sin(nr,zl) cos(ant/7)
IEI/T I-(Zat/T)z

(c.l)

where1/Tis the signaling rateandcr, an excess i$ bandwidth factorbetween and 1. 0 Equation represents response a raised-cosine C.l the of chamel-so-called because thefrequency spectrum conesponding yrc(t)in Equation is to C.l

588

APPENDTx c

NRZ llnc code

-|r

tr

*3

:2

-l F (lr^rl -

fltl * llrl{+ r

Dlelul biphrre

,frt- r -tr<r<o __r 0(r{i?

r r pl*S*n' r Sr

| + D Oorrahtivr ficodhg

-3

-2

-1

rqr.,r=ffipII
_ t

| -Dcornhth'.

'ncodrns

l'

,
-3 -2 -l

l"r;-r
r ? 3

TE]_

t't:t:*'-r:1,**'o

F(r.l - tf;t .rnr trtt

| * pr Cotolrtiw Encodlng

fld ";
__ I ?

-F*'*-f
E*r*T

_l_ I

-3

-z

..r

r l*ot -t$rn t'n *n rfl

Figure C.1. Spectra common pulseshapes. of

C.2 GHANNELOUTPUTFULSEHE$PONSES 589

F,"(f) = I

, {o -* I - o ' ' 2T 1-o*rfl<1*o - '''2T 2T

=il'.*'[#-r*r]]

:"",'[# q#)
=Q otherwise

(c.2)

"raised Theoriginofthe apellation cosine"is apparent thethird line ofEquation in C,2, The parameter in Equations andC.2 is referred as an excess-bandwidth u C.l to parameter. o = 0, thespectrum in If defined Equation is exactlyequalto thetheoC.2 reticalrninimumbandwidthll2T for signalingrate llT. As fl increases from 0 to l, theexcess spectrum widthincreases 1(X)7o. to Raised-cosine specFa illusare channel tratedin FigureC.2 for several of values cr. systems typicallydesigned excess Practical are for bandwidths 307o morefor of or reasons. several First, "brick wall" filters needed produce infinite attenuation to the impliedby fl = 0 arephysically slopes unrealizable. Second, shownin FigureC.3, as pulseresponse smallvalues u,exhibitslargeamounts ringthe time-domain for of of ing. Slight errorsin the sample timescause significant degradations performance in interference. dueto intersymbol Third a slightdeviation thesignaling from the rate in designratealsoproduces significantintersymbolinterference. It mustbeemphasized Equation defines desired that C.2 the spectrum theoutput at (the ofthe channel inputto thedecision from circuit).Thusthedesired response results a combinationof the input pulsespectrum the channelfilter responses. Often, the and inputpulse$pectrum pulseof durationT: from a square arises

Y,"lfl

-1
lo=0

t
I

t +
-l

** "-.-+
.5

I I

0.

tr'igure spectrums variousvalues c. C.2. Raised-cosine of fbr

590

APPENDTx c
!*ltl .l tnputpura" Ouput puber

Normrlirrdtime I r/Tl Figure C.3. Raised-cosinepulse responses various values of s. for

= [t r,(r) lo

td<+r otherwise

(c.3)

The frequencyspectf,um corresponding x"(r) in Equationc.3 is the ,.sin(.r)/x" to spectrum referred asa "sine"function: also to

*"cn=I4ffi
= f sinc(n/T)

(c.4)

when thechannel input spectrrrm asdefined Equation is in c.4, thefilter function of a channel produce raised-cosine to a ouryutis determined as

H(n=ffi

(c.5)

The channel filter functionsimpliedin Equation areshownin Figurec.4 for c.5 thesame values fl, shown Figurec.2. Figurec.2 displays of in channel outputspectra while FigureC.4displays corresponding frequency-domain transfer functions the for channel.

Normrlirrdlugurrtyl.f TI f figure C.4. Channel filterresponses needed produce to raised-cosine outputs whenexcited by sin(4172)/(rn72) pulses.

C,2 CHANNELOUTPUTPULSEHESPoNSES 591

-'5 no-"Lr*u.rlv urr

Ftgure C.5. "Optimum" ffansmit receive functions raised-cosine and filter for response with s = 0,3and sin(ro72)/(coZl?) excitation. As mentioned Chapter the designof a smoothing in 3, filter in a digital voicedecodersometimes requires modification thatdefined Equation in a like C.5.In fhecase mentioned, ideal "flat" filter for reconstructing the speech from narrowimpulselike samples shouldbe modifiedby dividing the flat re$ponse the $pectrum the fiby of nite-widthsamples (Equation C.4).Whenthesamples narrower are thanthe signaling interval,the sin(x)/xresponse essentially acrossthe bandwidthof the filter. is flat However,whenthe samples madeto last for the entiredurationof the sampleinare terval,thefilter response shouldbe "peaked" compensate sin(x)/xroll-off. to for As discussed Chapter a channel in 6, filter functionis usuallypartitioned between "optimum" filter partitioningoccurs the transmitter the receiver. and The so-called when the receivefilter response the square is root of the desiredoutputresponse Y*(fl, andthetransmitfilter response whatever necessary han$form channel is is to the inputspectrum thecomplex (The into of conjugate thereceive filter response. output'ryecrilhen the trum of thetransmitter alsothesquare of thedesired root is channel response.) pulseof duration7, the'bptimum' filter functions definedas channel inputis a are H**(.f) = {I'"(,f)}r/2

(c.6) (c.7)

HwU)=#

Noticethat the transmitspectrum from HnE(f) in Equation is equal resulting C.7 to thesquare of thedesired root outputresponse, matterwhattheinputpulseshape no is. Hence, whenoptimumpartitioning used, transmitspectrum thereceiver the is and designareindependent thechannel of excitation. (Equations The transmitand receivefilter functionsfor square-wave excitations C.6 and C.7) arc shownin FigureC.5.* Noticethat the transmitfilter functionhas peakingat frequencies otherthandirect current.The implication for midbandattenuationis oneof thereasons "optimum"partitioning why maynot be optimumin a syspowerlimitations. tem with source
*This discussionassumes baseband transmission.The principles are easily extendedto carrier-based systems translstingthe filter functionsto the carrierfrequency. by

592

AppENDtx c

C.2.1 OptlmumFilterlng Minimum for ShiftKeylng As discussed chapter minimum in 6, (MSK)modulation berepreshiftkeyed can
sented as quadrature channel modulation with basebandexcitation defined as cosine pulse shapes:

.,,=f-[*J
ttts+T
otherwise Thetransform ofx"(r) is v , A =[zrJo s n x.ul f r ' ) |c-ffi / r

(c.8)

(c'e)

Whena raised-cosine ouQutresponse optimumfilter partitioning desired, and is theMSK filter functions are

H*"(f) =lYn(frlt/z

(c.10)

ro(f)=w

( c.ll)

Thetransmit spectrum thereceiver anoptimally and partitioned of MSK system are identical counterpartsanoptimally to in partitioned, offset-keyed 4-psKsystem! C.2.2 Partlal-Response Systems
As another digital hansmission system designexample, consider I + D partial-rea sponse system. desired The time response thechannel defined Equation of is in C.12 andthe associated frequency spectnrm Equation 13.Thepulseresponse a I + D in C. of partial-response channel shown FigureC.6.Noticethata singlepulsecontributes is in equallyto the response two successive at sample timesbut crosses zeroat all other sample times: 4 cos(nt/T\

Y,\I)= n|__eiffi
nlr fcos Y.ffi=i

(c.12)

nt+i
otherwise

(c.13)

Io

PULSE C.? cHANNELoUTPUT BESPoNSES 593

rI

-1 I
F---tnprt I putrr

I I

puls6Jrrlrl

-2.5

-r.6

t.5 2.5 Noffirlirid tiffi6 {tr?}

3.S

Figure C.6. Outputpulseof I + D partial-response channel. Optimum filter pafiitioning is again achievedwith a receive filter having an amplitude response equal to the squareroot ofthe desiredoutput respon$eY"(/). Ifthe channel is excited by squarepulsesof duration ?, as defined in Equation C.3, the optimum filter functions are

Hnx(fl=[Y"ff)]L/z

vls+ vts+

(c.r4)

H*(f) - Lv,(f)1"' X'fl

(c.r5)

where Xr(f) is defined in Equation C.4. The optimum filter functions defined in EquationsC.14 and C.l5 are shown in Figure C.7 along with the desiredoutput responseof the channel.Notice that, unlike the full-response(raised-cosine)systems,optimum partitioning of a partial-response system does not require peaking of the transmit filter.

-t

o.5 1 Normelitrdf ruqurncyl.f Tl

Figure C.7. Spectra of 1 + D PRS channel and "optimum" filter responsesfor sin(aT| 2)| (aT | 2) excitation.

594

APPENDIXC

c.3

ERROR RATEANALYSES: BASEBAND SYSTEMS

C.3.1 BinaryTransmission considerthe receiver modelof thedigital transmission system shownin Figurec.g. Thereceiver consists two parts:signalprocessing of circuitryanda datadetector (decisioncircuit).For thetimebeing,assume theoutputof thesignalprocessing that circuitproducesapulseof amplitude+vwhena istransmittedandapulseof I amplitude *v whena 0 is transmifted. obviously,the detector merelyexamines polarityof the its input at the sample timesdefinedby the sample clock.A decision erroroccursif noiseat the sample timeshasan amplitude greater thanv anda polarityopposite to thetransmitted pulse. Themostcommonly analyzed typeof noiseis assumed havea Gaussian norto or mal probabilitydistribution. Thustheprobabilityof enor ps canbe determined as

po = ^-l- l r-'tzo' dt - \txr o "v whereoz is therms noisepowerat thedetector. Usingtheenor function, ,
erf a=|l
l t z

(c.16)

.vr, e-r-dt ;

(c.r7)

Equation is sometimes C.16 rewritten as

P"=|(1-erfz)

(c.18)

= where.e v/"12o. Theerrorprobability canalsobe expressed termsof thecomPs in plimentaryerror function:

;t4#
Noire Figure C.8. Digital receiver model,

BATEANALY$ES: BASEBAND ERROB SYSTEMS 595

P"=ferfcz
where erfc4-1-erfz

(C.19)

{2o

In lieu of evaluating integralin EquationC.17or C.19 (which hasno closed the form solution), errorfunctions be approximated can the as

srfs g -.:F(e'vn;

p-z

(e>> l;

C.3.2 Multllevel Transmlssion The error rateof a multilevel baseband systemis easilydetermined an appropriate by reductionin theerrordistance. themaximumamplitudeis V, the errordistance beIf d tweenequallyspaced levelsat thedetector is
d=*

(c.21)

whereL is thenumberof levels.Adjustingthe errordistance of a binarysystem to V thatdefinedin Equation C.21provides errorrateof a multilevelsystem the as

""=['=;)F}.'{.t#)

(c.22)

wherethe factor (L * 1)/Z, reflectsfhe fact that interior signallevels arevulnerableto bothpositiveandnegative noiseandthefactor Illog2L arises because multilevel the produce system assumed becoded symbolerrors is errors(log2.L the to so single-bit is numberof bits per symbol). Equation C.22reveals that,with respect peaksignal-to-noise ratiosat thedetecto tor, L-leveltransmission incursa penaltyof 20log10(/- l) decibels. Vis increased If by a factorL - I, theerrorrateof thellevel system identical theenor rateof the is to for binarysystem [except thefactorslftogyL and(f - 1/L, whichtypicallyrepresent only a few tenths a decibell. of powerIE. To determine error Equation C.22relates errorrateto thepeaksignal the power,the average powerof an L-level system deterratewith respect average to is minedby averaging powerassociated thevarious pulseamplitude the with levels:

596

APFENDTx c

(Il)"",

.[#J 3L[*l
7 ? 2

. . F ]
(c.23)

'

=ffiT^Qi-t)?
wherethelevels

v (r- 1)} r_, {+t,+3,...,*

areassumed be equallylikely. to C.3.3 Energy.per-Blt-to-Noiee-Den$ity Railos The foregoingerror rate equations relatePBto the signalenergyat the sampletimes andthermsnoisepowerat thedetector. Whencomparing various digital modulation formats,multilevel systems particular,it is morerelevantto relateerror performin ance signalpowerandnoise to powerat theinputto thereceiver front of thesignal (in processing circuitry).As a first stepin developing errorrateequation an based sigon nal-to-noise ratiosat thereceiver input,thenoisepowerat thedetector determined. is Thevariance ofthe noiseo2 usedin theprevious equations exactlyequalto the is rmspowerthatwouldbemeasured thedetector theabsence a signal. at in of Thisnoise powercanbe determined analytically as

o": I lHffi(|No)t' df

= ND IHU)I' df J
0

(c.24)

=No'Brv

(c.2s)

where-.rNs the one-sided is noise power spectraldensity in watts per hertz and = Brv Jo=lH(fllz df is thenoise-equivalent bandwidth simplythenoisebandwidth or of thereceiver filter functionHll). In Equation c.?5, thenoisesource assumed be white.Thatis, a uniformspecis to tral density existsacross entirebandof interest. the This noisemay existin thetans-

C.3 EHHOR RATE BASEBAND ANALYSES: SYSTEMS 597

missionmediumitself,or it mayoccurin the "front-end"amplifierof thereceiver. If (ideal)frlter of bandwidth is measthe rms noisepowerpassing througha $quare B ured,a readingof (IV$(B)wattswould beobtained. represents bandwidth ThusB1y the filter that passes sameamountof noiseasthe receiverfilter of a perfectly square the nonsquare its amplitude in responsel. H(l) lH(f) may be decidedly provides compromise The receiver functionH(fl necessarily a between contwo flicting objectives. of First,it mustminimizethe amount noisepassed thedetector to (i.e.,minimizeEry). the Second, difference between values(+Vand *I4 must sample (Vld) shouldbe be maximized. Obviously, signal-to-noise at the detector the ratio to maximized minimizetheerrorprobability. classical A resultof digitalcommunication theorystates V/o is maximized that whenHIJ) is'?natched" thereceived to signal. Whenviewedin thetimedomain, "matched a filter" is implemented correlating by (multiplying) received (noise-free) the signal pulseshapes. with each thereceivable of The outputsof the correlators integratedacross signalinterval to determinethe are a overall average correlationduringthe interval.The integratorwith the maximumoutput indicates mostlikely symbolto havebeentr-ansmitted. the In mostsystems signals pulses havethesame all or but shape differ only in amplitudeandpolarity.Thusa singlematched filter canbe used. Detection merelyinvolves the frlteroutputto appropriate comparing matched levels. decision Theoutputof a single correlator andits integrator expressed is ft(r) as
T

V=)s(t)h(t)dt 0

= J ls(r)F dr
0

(c.26)

wheres(r)is the signalor pulseshape beingmeasured. Noticethat Vis, in essence, a of in measure theenergy the signaloverthe signaling interval7. Whenanalyzed thefrequency filterresponse in domain, amatched f(/) is thecomplex conjugate the channel pulsespectrum of S(f). Thus the matched filter output Y(/) canbe expressed thefrequency in domainas

YU)=H(f)'SU) = S.(fl . ,S(fl (C.zt1

Frequency-domain representations most convenient are when the transmitsignalis stictly bandlimited, implyingthat the durationof thepulsercsponse theoretically is In (e.g., unlimited. thiscase energy a pulse the in raised cosine) directlyproportional is

598

APPENDTx c

to the detectorvoltageat the optimumsampletime. Henceoptimumdetection is achieved merelysamplingthe outputof the receivefilter at the propertime. by Usingtherelationship Equation of C.25andrheparameterE5 represent to symbol energy, express binaryerrorrateEquation 9 as we the C.I P" = j erf(z)

(c.28)

wherez2= Es/(Nfiil. Notice that for a given system(fixed 81,,), error rate is dependent the only on the ratio of thesymbolenergyE5andthenoisedensityNs.This ratio is commonlyreferred to asa signal-to-noise although is not a signal-power-to-noise-power ratio, it measurement.Equationc.?8 is thepreferred form of theenor rateequation comparing for differentmodulation schemes. a binaryscheme, symbolenergy is equalto the In the Es per energy bit Es. As an example a specificsy$tem, of consider baseband a raised-cosine channel with optimumpartitioning. Theoutputspectrum the hansmitter the square of is root of theraised-cosine spectrum Y*(fl defined Equation in c.2. Thematched receiver filter alsohasa square of a raised-cosine root (Equation response C.6).Hence noise the bandwidthof the receivercanbe determined as

; BN=J tHU)t' df
0
(l+fl)/27

= ! tY*u)t df
0

2T

(independent u) of

(c.?9)

As defined in Equation c.l and shown in Figure c.3, the (normalized)peak sample value at the detector of a raised-cosinepulse is L Using unnormalizedpulses of amplifude Es, we can determinethe error rate of a binary (+Es, -Es) raised-cosine channel as

Pu = | erfc(z)

(c.30)

wheree2= (EslNg)f andZis theduration a signalinrerval. of AlthoughEquation C.30wasderived a raised-cosine for channel, is moregeneral it in thatit is applicable anybinarysystem to usingantipodal signaling. ThusEquation c.30 is plottedin Figure4.23asthebestperfonnance achievable *y digitalhansby

c.3 EHFORRATEANALYSES:BASEBANDSYSTEMS 5gg

missionsystem detecting pulseat a time.(Lowererrorrates possible one are whenredundantsignalsor enror-coffecting codesare used.) presented Equation The enor rateperformance in C.22 for multilevelsystems is based noisepower at the detector. long asthe signalbandwidthis identicalfor on As all systems, Equation C.22is valid sincethe noisebandwidth thereceiver indeis of pendent the numberof levels.Whenthe signaling of rateis held constant, however, thebit rateincreases with thenumberof levels.To compare multilevel systems the on basisof a given datarate,the signaling interval7 and,hence, noisebandwidths the mustbe adjusted accordingly. the If 7 is thesignaling intervalfor a two-levelsystem, signaling intervalI for an providingthe same /,-levelsystem datarateis determined as

Tr=TlogrL

(c.31)

Usingthenoise bandwidth a raised-cosine in Equation filter of C.29,we extend Equation C.22to multilevelsystems as

"=[,#)[#)-'*o
.
v/(L * L)

<r@rn

C.3?canbe simplifiedandpresented a morecustomary Equation in form by usingthe per per L relationship energy symbolEr= Ealog2 = IPTI, whereE6is theenergy that bit:

"=[,#J[tt)*'r.r
r=
(logrL)r/z(Eo\"

(c.33)

1-1

l1r I
\'0,/

Equation curves C.33is plottedin Figure4.26for 2, 4, 8, and 16levels. These representthe ideal relativeperformances multilevelbaseband of systems a constant at in datarate.Thebandwidthrequirements thehigher-levelsystems decrease proporof to log2L. tion

600

APPENDTx c

Equationc.33 and Figure4.26 represent performance multilevelsystems the of with respect E6lNp (commondataratebut differentbandwidths). to The following relationship be usedto determine can errorrates with respect signal-to-noise to ratiosat thedecision circuit (different datarares common but bandwidth): Slgp: siTal Powet nolsepower

_(E)(rogzL)(r/T) (No)0/2r)

=(2)(log2z)l# |
l-"0i

/ F \

(c.34)

wherell?Tpis theminimum"Nyquist"bandwidth the signal. of ThesNR obtained Equation in c.34 repre$ents ratioof signal the powerat thesample time to noiseat thedetector. This ratiois sometimes refenedto asa postdetection sNR because is the signal-to-noise at the outputofthe signalprocessing it ratio circuiffry. Somecommunications theorists predetection use signal-to-noise ratiosin determining elror rates.Sincepredetection SNRsare measured prior to bandlimiting the noise, noise a bandwidth mustbehypothesized establish finite noise to a power.commonly,a bit ratebandwidth l/7) or a Nyquistbandwidth ( (l/zT) is specified. latrer The specification produces SNRsidentical thatin Equation to C.34.Exceptions occurwith double-sideband modulation using coherent (e.g.,2-psK) wherethe demodulation predetection sNR is 3 dB higherthanthepostdetection sNR. (All signalpoweris coherent thedemodulator to carrierreference, only halfofthe noiseis .,coherent.") but C.3.4 Partlal-ResponseSystems Theenor rateequation a I + D partial-response for system obtained incorporatis by ing thefollowingmodifications a full-response to system: l. The error distance exacflyone-halfthe error distance of a corresponding is full-response (see system FigureC.6). 2. The noise bandwidthof the receiver(assuming $quare-rootpartitioning) is obtained integrating by IIsx of F4uation C.14:
| /27

B"=J cos MTdf

0

_ l nT

(c.35)

TRANSMISSION C.4 CARRIEF SYSTEMS 601 Thusthenoise bandwidth a 1 + D patial-respon$e of system 2 dB lowerthanthe is (full-response) of in noisebandwidth a raised-cosine obtained Equation system C.29. Sincetheerrordistance reduced 6 dB, partial-response is by filteringincursa netpenIn alty of 4 db-with respect unfilteredsignalpowerat the source. termsof channel to powers, panial-response system the incursa smallerpenaltyowing to greater spectrum truncationin the hansmitfilter. powers thetwo sy$tems beobtained integrating Thedifference channel in can of by powerspectra. square-root partitioning used,thecharurel channel If is the respective powerof the partial-response powerof the corresystem 2 dB belowthe channel is powersi$ exsponding full-response systems. this case, difference channel In in the actlyequalto thedifference noisebandwidths because receiver in the filter responses That is, integration channel spectra. ofchannelspectra arematched therespective to hasessentially in C.29andC.35. beenaccomplished Equations pafiilossin a transmitter considered, square-root truncation Whenspectrum is a is tionedpartial-re$ponse system only 2 dB worsethanthat of a corresponding fullless response system. course, partial-response system requires bandwidth than Of the rateequation a square-root the full-response the of $ystem. completeness, erTor For partitioned + D partial-response I system is

"=['#Jf-r)-'r-t.r

(c.36)

/2(logz per where = (rE/4)(Eb/No)t L)trzrrt - 1)andE6is theenergy bit on thechan{ nel. from Equation C.36is identical Equation to C.33except thefactorrd4resulting for powerof thelower errordistance, lower noisebandwidth, the lower channel the and thepartial-re$ponse system.

C.4 CARRIERTRAN$MISSION $YSTEMS C.4.1 Filter Design Except a few relatively systems, digitallymoduuncommon frequency-modulated for latedcarriersystems be designed analyzed and with baseband-equivalent can channels.Carrier-based the filters to bandpass filters arederivedby kanslating baseband is at The filters centered the carrierfrequency. outputpulseresponse the channel of the composite the baseband-equivalent of Thuspulseshaping determined by filters. by signals themodulated or Partitioncanbe achieved filtering thebaseband signals. of thechannel application. all cases comIn the ing filter functionis dependent the on positechannel response identicalto that definedin Equation for raised-cosine C.2 is channels Equation or C.13for partial-response systems.

602

APPENDIX c

Q.4.2 Error BateAnatysis

Error rate analysesof basebandsystemscan be direcfly applied to carrier $ysremsunder one important condition: Coherentmodulation and demodulationmust be used. For example,coherentdemodulation of a 2-pSK signal y(r) = cos[fitf + Q(I)] involves implementing the following equations;

+ Q(r)] cos(rrlr)] 2 S(t)= lowpass{cos[rol = lowpass{ * [(cosQ(r)cos(Dr sin S(r)sin rryl2cosrof] = lowpass{cos $(rxl + cosrrlr) sinS(r)sin 2cor} = cosS(r)

_ J r for Q(t)= 6
[-r

for S(t)= 7s

(c.37)

Notice that coherentdemodulationinvolves multiplying the received signal by a local carrier that is exactly in phasewith the respectiveincoming signal.Hence coherentdemodulation is closely related to matched filter detection as presentedin Equations c.26 and c.27. To complere optimum detection of a digitally modulated signal, the baseband equivalent of the receiver filter function must also be matchedto the carrier envelope: cos Q(r). When coherent demodulation (also called coherent detection) is used,the error rate performanceis identical to the analogousbasebandsystem.Hence the error rate of a coherently detectedz-psK system is provided in Equation c.19 or

c.28.

The correspondence coherentdemodulation to matchedfilter detection is illusof trated in Figure c.9. For convenience,digital biphase (diphase) is compared to an NRZ basebandsignal. The basic principle also applies to sine wave carriersat any frequency-The important point to notice in Figure C.9 is that the output of the coherent demodulator (or equivalently, the matched filter) is identical to the NRZ sisnal. Fur-

I t l t l o l r l o l r l r-l t-l Dffi I-l

Mlxcr (defitodulfiorl

T,H|[lf'-"-lJ+ f f i
hodrm l-r t-t _-r Figure C.9.

|
I

Coherent demodulation (detection) of digital biphase signal.

THANSMtsstoN c.4 cARRIEB sysrEMS 603 powerdensity thermore, noise the comingoutof thecoherent demodulator identical is (Positive-weighted system. to thenoisepowerdensityof thebaseband white noiseis statistically differentthannegative-weighted no whitenoise.) FigureC.9 demonstrates coherently that demodulated carrier-based signalsproratiosat the detector baseband as systems, ducethe samesignal-to-noise the despite fact that (double-sideband) carriersystems requiretwiceasmuchbandwidth. Coherent demodulation noisebandwidttr leadsto a receiver equalto the baseband-equivalent noisebandwidth because of only one-half the noisepowerin thecarriersignalband(Noisein the carriersignalbandwidth width is passed the coherent by demodulator. that is out of phase reference ffanslated twice the caris with respect thecoherent to to rier frequencyand thereforeeliminatedby the low-passfilter, sin ot 'cos o)f = I sin 2rot.) C.4.3 QAM Error Rates The error rateequationof a coherentlydetected QAM systemis identicalto the error rate of the conesponding systemappliedindividually to each multilevelbaseband quadrature of is channel. Thusthe eror performance a 16-QAM system providedin Equation demodulation coherent causes C.33for I = 4 levels.In a QAM system onehalf of thenoisepowerin the carriersignalbandwidthto showup at the/-channeldetectorand one-halfshowsup at the Q-channel detector. course, total signal Of the poweris dividedin two sothesignal-to-noise at theindividualdetectors idenis ratio ticalto thecarier signal-to-noise (i.e.,predetection is equal postdetection ratio SNR to SNR).Theerrorrateperformance QAM systems plottedin Figure6.20in terms is of ratios,useEquation of E/Ns. To relatethoseresults signal-to-noise to C.34usingL asthe numberof levelson eachquadrafure channel. C.4.4 PSK Error Rates The errorrateof a multilevelPSK system derived is mosteasilyby usingquadrature channel representations thesignals. example, for For FigureC.10displays regions the of decision errorsfor a repre$entative signalphase an 8-PSKsignal.Thereceived in phase quadrature signals signalis processed two orthogonal by detectors produce to Y{t) and Yp(t)in Equations 6.10and6.11,respectively. If thetransmitted phase rd8 (corresponding datavalues error is to 011),a decision results noisecauses if Ig(0 to go positiveat the sample time [yo(t) is positivedownwardto represent p (sine)channel laggingthe1(cosine) the as channell. normalThe -Ia(t) to izederrordistance sin (n/8).A decision if is erroralsoresults noisecauses -nl4. This lattercondition berepY{t), indicating phase greater exceed the is than can resentedas a negative value for the hansformed signal Y3(t)=O.lOiYBft) + A.7O7Y6[I). of signal vector is ontoa -nl4 basis fHere,Y6(f) aprojection thereceived (see Figure6.l3)1.Examination FigureC.l0 reveals theerrordistance this for of that yB(f)is identical the second typeof erroris alsosin (d8). Sincethe noisevariance to

604

APPENDIX c
Feglon 2 whero 0lO ir dstsctod

Rcgion I nlrcre lll hdstsrsd

FigureC.10. Regions decision for 8-pSK of error signal ldg (01I ). at noisevariance r{f) (by virtue of the 0.707multipliers),both typesof errorsare of equallylikely. In general terms, the error distanceof a psK system with N phasesis v' sir{n/M, wherev is the signalamplitude a derector (i.e.,the radiusof a psK at signalconstellation). detection A erroroccurs noiseof theproper if polarityis present at theoutputof eitherof two phase detectors. detection A error,however, assumed is to produce only a single-bit error.Thegeneral expression thetheoretical for errorrate for PSKmodulation now determined modifyingEquation is by C.22as

"":['chJ*'oo
where
sin(n/MV r/Zo

(c.38)

The signal amplitude V can be expressedas

v=frorros, r [+)"'
and the rms noise voltage o as

(c.3e)

"=[",[,+)'"

(c.40)

c.4 CARRIER TRANSMISSIoN SYSTEMS 605

for noisein a Nyquist bandwidth. Combining Equations PSK errorrate$ energyper to C.38,C.39,andC.40relates bit to noisedensityon thechannel:

""=['=lo)w'r
/rr\ ..^ (a ,1 " lOt z= sin ; '/lttosz /2| + | |

(c.41)

l.toj

EquationC.4l is plottedin Figure6.16 for PSK systems with variousnumbers of phases.- determine To errorrateswith respect signal-power-to-noise-power to ratios, usethefollowing: (N> 2) sNR=t"-,"h1J

(c.42)

For 2-P$K systems, errorratesas specifiedin EquationC,38 or C.41 shouldbe divided by 2 because the only onephase detectoris needed it produces and errorsfor onepolarity of noiseonly.

APPENDIX D

TRAFFIC TABLES
A B TableD.l is a tableof maximum offeredloads for variousblockingprobabilities are with lost andnumber servers Theblockingprobabilities for infinite $ources of N. (Erlang-B, callscleared Equation10.8). TableD.2 is a tableof maximum A blockingprobabilities offeredloads for various of B, number servers andfinite number sources TheofferedloadA is deterof N, M. The no minedasMp, wherep is theaverage source activityassuming callsarecleared. from Equation12.13. blockingprobabilityfor finite sources determined is from Telephone Traffic Theory,TaNote: The following tableswereobtained Munich, 1970. Aktiengesellschaft, hles,and Charts,Siemens
TABLED.l Maxlmum OfieredLoadVersusBand M MB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I
o

0.01 0.0s .0001 .0005 ,014 .032 .087 .1s2 .23s .362 ,452 .649 .728 1.05 1.42 1.83 2.26 2.72 3.21 3"71 4.24 4.78 5.34 s.91 6.50 7,09 7.70 .9S6 1.39 1.83 2.30 2.80

0.1 .001 .046 .194 .439 .762 1.15 1.58 ?.0S 2.56 3.09

0.5 ,00s .105 .340 .701 1,13 1.62 2.16 2.73 3.33 3.96

1.0 .010 .1s3 ,45s ,869 1.36 1.91 2.50 3.13 3,78 4.46 .020 .223 .602 1.09 1.66 2.28 2.94 3.60 4.34 5.08 .053 .381 .899 1.62 2.22 2.96 3.74 4.54 5.37 6.22

10 .11'l .595 1.27 2.05 2.BB

3.76 4.67 5.60 6.55 7.51

15 .176 ,796 1.60 2.s0 3.45 4.44 s.46 6.50 7.s5 8.62 9.69 10.8 11,9 13.0 14.1 15.2 16.3 17.4 18,5 19.6

20 .250 1.00 1.93 2.9S 4.01 5.11 6.23 7.37 8.52 9.68 10.9 12.0 13.2 14.4 15,6 16.S 18,0 19.2 20.4 2 1. 6

30 .429 1.45 2.63 3.89 5.10 6.51 7,86 9,21 10,6 12.O 13.3 14.7 16.1 17.5 1B.g 20,3 21.7 23.1 ?4.5 25.9

40 .667 2.00 3.48 $.42 6,60 8.19 9.80 11.4 13.0 14.7 16.3 18.0 19.6 21.2 22.9 24.5 26.2 27.8 29,5 31:2

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

8.49 9.47 4.45 4.83 5.96 6.61 7.40 8.83 1 0 . 5 5.03 5.45 6.66 7.35 8.20 9.73 1 1 . 5 s.63 6.08 7.38 8.11 9.01 1 0 , 6 1 2 . 5

3.33 3.65 4.61 5,16 5.84 7.08 s.88 4.23 5.28 s.88 6.61 7,95

6.25 6.88 7.52 8.17 8.S3

6.7? 7.38 8.05 8.72 9,41

8.10 8.83 9.58 10,3 11. 1

8.88 9.65 10.4 11.2 12.0

9.83 10.7 11.5 1e.3 13.2

11.5 12.5 13.4 14.3 15.2

13,5 14.5 15.5 16.6 17.6

608

APPENDIx D

TABLED.1 (Continued) NIB 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 0.01 0.05 8.32 9.50 8.95 10,2 9.58 10.9 10.2 11.6 10.9 1?,3 11.5 1?.2 12.9 13.6 14.2 14.9 15.6 16.3 17.0 17.8 18.5 19.2 19,9 20.6 21.4 22.1 22.8 23.6 24.3 25.1 ?5.8 26.6 27.3 28.1 28.9 29,6 30.4 31.2 31,9 32.7 33.5 34.3 3s.1 35.8 36.6 37.4 38.2 39.0 39.8 40.6 13,0 13.7 14.4 15.1 15.9 16,6 17.3 18.1 18,8 19.6 ?0,3 21.1 21.9 22.6 23.4 24.2 25.0 25.7 26.5 27.3 28.1 28.9 29.7 30.5 31.3 32.1 3?,9 33.7 34.5 35.3 36.1 36.9 37.8 38.6 39.4 40.2 41,0 41.9 42.7 43.5 0.1 10.1 10.8 11.5 12.2 13.0 13.7 14.4 15.2 15.9 16.7 17.4 18.2 19.0 19.7 20,5 21.3 2e.1 22.s 23.7 24.4 25.2 26.0 26.8 27.6 28.4 29.3 30.1 30.9 31.7 32.s 33.3 34.2 35.0 3s.8 36.6 97.5 38.3 39,1 40.0 40.8 41.6 42.5 43.3 44.2 45,0 0.5 11,9 12.6 13.4 14.2 15.0 15.8 16.6 17.4 18.2 19.0 19,9 20.7 21,5 22.3 23.2 24.0 24.8 25.7 26.s 27.4 28.2 29.1 29.9 30.8 31.7 32.5 33.4 34.2 35.1 36.0 36.9 37.7 38.6 39.5 40.4 41.2 42.1 43.0 43.9 44.8 45.6 46.s 47.4 48.3 49.2 1.0 12.8 13.7 14.5 1s.3 16.1 17.0 17.8 18.6 19.5 20.3 21.2 22.0 22.9 23.8 24.6 25.5 26.4 27.3 28.1 29.0 29.9 30.8 31.7 32.s 33.4 34.3 35.2 36,1 37.O 37.9 38.8 39,7 40.6 41.5 42.4 43.3 M.2 45.1 46.0 46.9 47.9 48.8 49.7 50.6 51.5 2 14.0 14.9 15.8 16,6 17.5 18.4 19.3 20.2 21.0 21.9 22.8 23J 24.6 25.5 26.4 27.3 28.3 29.2 30.1 31.0 31.9 32.S 33.8 U.7 3s.6 36.s 37.5 38.4 39.3 40.3 41.2 42j 43.1 44.0 44.s 45.9 46.8 47.8 48.7 49.6 50.6 51.s 52.5 53,4 54.4 5 16.2 17.1 18.1 19.0 20.0 20.9 21.9 22.9 ?3,8 24.8 2S.8 26.7 277 28.7 29.7 30,7 31.6 32.6 33,6 34.6 3s.6 36.6 37.6 38.6 39.6 40.5 41.5 42.5 43.s M.5 45.5 46,s 47.5 48.5 49.s 50.5 51.5 52.6 53.6 54,6 55.6 56.6 57.6 58.6 59.6 10 187 19.7 aQJ 21.8 22.8 23.9 e4,9 26.0 27.1 28.1 2s.2 30.2 31.3 s2.4 33.4 34.s 35.6 36.6 s7.7 38.8 39.9 40.9 42.0 43.1 44.2 45.2 46.3 47.4 48.s 49.6 50.6 51.7 52.8 53.9 s5.0 56.1 57.1 58,2 59.3 60.4 61,5 62.6 63.7 64,8 65.8 15 20.8 ?1.9 23.0 24.2 ?5,3 26.4 27.6 28.7 29.9 31.0 32.1 33.3 U.4 35.6 s6J 37.9 39.0 4Q.2 41.3 42.5 43.6 44.8 4s.9 47.1 48.2 49.4 50,6 51.7 52.9 s4.O 55.2 56.3 57.5 58.7 59.8 61.0 62,1 63.3 64.5 65,6 66.8 68.0 69,1 70.3 71.4 20 22.8 24j 25,3 26.5 277 28.9 30.2 31.4 32.6 33,8 3s.1 36.3 s7.5 38.8 40.0 41.2 42.4 4s7 44.9 46.1 47.4 48.6 49.9 51.1 s2.3 53.6 s4.8 56.0 57.3 s8.s 59.7 61.0 62.2 63.5 64.7 65.9 67J 68.4 69.7 70.9 72j 7s.4 74.6 75.s 77.1 30 27.9 ?a.7 30.1 31,6 33.0 34.4 35.8 97.2 38.6 40.0 41.s 42.9 44.9 45.7 47.1 48.6 50.0 51.4 52.8 54.2 55,7 57j s8.5 59.S 61.3 62.8 64.2 65.6 67.0 68.5 69.9 71.3 72J 74.2 7s.6 77.O 78.4 79.8 81.3 827 84.1 8s.s 87.0 88.4 89.8 40 32.8 34.5 36.1 37.8 39.4 41.1 42.8 44.4 46.1 47.7 49.4 51.1 52.7 54.4 56.0 57.7 5e.4 61.0 62.7 64.4 66.0 67.7 6e.3 71.0 727 74.3 76.0 77.7 7s.3 81.o 82J 84.3 86.0 87,6 89.3 91.0 92.6 94.3 96.0 97,6 99.3 101. 103. 104. 106.

APPENDIXD

609

TAELED.l (Gontlnuedl ME 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 89 84 8s 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 s7 98 99 100 0.01 0.0s 41.4 42.2 43.0 43.8 44.6 45.4 46,e 47.0 47.8 48,6 49.4 50.2 s1.1 51.9 52.7 s3.5 54.3 55.1 56.0 s6.8 57.6 58.4 s9,3 60.'1 60.9 61.8 62,6 69.4 64,2 65.1 65.9 66.8 67.6 68.4 69.3 44.4 48.2 46.0 46,8 47.7 48.5 49.4 50.2 51.0 51.9 52,7 53.6 54.4 55,3 56.1 5S.9 s7,8 58.6 59,5 60.4 61.2 6e.1 62.9 63.8 fr.6 65.s 66.3 67.2 68.1 68.9 69.8 70.7 71.5 72.4 73.2 0.1 45.8 46.7 47.6 48.4 49.2 50.1 50.9 s1.8 52.7 53.6 s4.4 55.2 s6,1 56.9 57.8 58.7 59.5 60.4 61.3 62.1 63,0 63.9 M.7 65,6 66.5 67.4 68,2 69.1 70.0 70,9 71.7 72.6 73.5 74.4 75.2 0.5 50.1 51.0 51.9 52.8 53.7 54.6 55.5 56.4 57.3, 58.2 59.1 60.0 60.9 61.8 62,7 63.6 64.5 65.4 66.3 67.2 68.1 69.0 69.9 70.8 71.8 72.7 73.6 74.5 75.4 76.3 77.2 78.2 79.1 80.0 S0.9 1.0 52.4 53.4 54.3 s5,2 s6.1 57.0 58.0 58.9 59.8 60.7 61,7 62.6 63.5 64,4 65.4 66.3 67.2 68.2 69.1 70.0 70.9 71.9 72.8 73.7 74.7 75.6 76.6 77.5 78.4 79.4 S0.3 81.2 82.2 83.1 84.1 55.3 56.3 57.2 58.2 59.1 60.1 61.0 62.0 62.9 69.9 64.9 65.8 66,8 67.7 68.7 69.6 70.6 71.6 72.5 73.5 74,5 75.4 76.4 77.3 78,3 79.3 80.2 81.2 82.2 83.1 84.1 85.1 86.0 87.0 88.0 60.6 61.6 62.6 63.7 64.7 65.7 66.7 ts7.7 68"7 69.7 70.8 71.8 72.8 73.8 74.8 75.8 76.9 77.9 78.9 79,9 80.9 82.0 83,0 84.0 8s.0 86.0 87.1 88.1 89,1 90.1 91.1 92.2 93.2 94.2 95.2 10 66.9 68.0 69.1 7Q.2 71.3 7?.4 73.5 74.6 75.6 76.7 77,8 78.9 80.0 81,1 82.2 83.3 S4.4 85.5 86.6 87.7 88.8 89.9 91.0 92.1 93.1 94.2 95.3 96,4 97.5 98.6 99.7 101. 102. 103. 104.
15

20 78.3 79.6 80.8 82.1 83.3 84,6 8s.B 87.0 88.3 89.5 90.8 92.0 93.3 94.5 95.7 97.O S8,2 99.5 101. 102. 103. 104. 106, 107. 108. 109, 111, 112. 11 3 . 114.

30 91.2 92.7 94.1 95.5 96.9 98.4 99.8 101, 103. 104. 10s. 107. 108. 110. 111. 113. 114. 115. 117, 118. 120. 121., 123. 124. 126. 127. 128. 130. 131. 133.

40 108, 109. 111. 113. 114, 116. 118. 119. 121. 123. 124. 126, 128. 129. 131. 133" 134. 136, 138. 139. 141 , 143. 144. 146, 148, 149. 151. 1s3. 154. 156, 158. 1$9. 161. 163. 164.

72.6 73.8 74.9 76.1 77.3 78.4 79.6 80.S 81.9 83,1 84.2 85.4 86.6 87.7 88.9 90.1 91.2 92.4 93.6 94.7 9s.9 97.1 S8.2 99,4 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106.

108. 116. 134. 1 0 9 . 1 1 7 . 135. 110. 118. 137. 1 1 1 . 1 1 9 " 138. '11?. 121 140. .

a/Vis the nufibef of servers. Th6 numericalcolumn hedingsindicateblocklngprobability(%).

610

APPENDIXD

TABLED.2 MaxlmumOfferedLoadVersusB, A|,and Flnite $ourceellla

N

M 2 '' r t ' 4 3 5 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 5 6 7 8 9 10 r5 6 7 I 10 12 15 20 7 I I 10 15 20 30 8 9 10 15 2Q 30

0.5 1 . 0 10 0002 ,0010 .0020 ,0100 .0200 .0400 .100 .202 .0002 .0008 ,001s .0075 ,0151 .0303 .077 .1s9 .0001 ,0007 .0013 ,0067 .0134 .0270 ,069 .143 . 0 0 0 1. 0 0 0 6 . 0 0 1 3 . 0 0 6 3 . 0 1 2 6 . 0 2 5 4 . 0 6 5 3 6 .1 .030 .023 .021 .019 .018 .067 .0s2 .046 .043 .041 .095 .074 .065 .061 .058 .212 .167 ,149 .139 .133 .300 .238 .213 .200 .191 .425 .342 .308 .289 .277 .678 .s60 .510 .482 .464

.01

0.1

15

20 .417 .341 .312 .298

30 .6ss .559 .s19 .498

.307 .246 .224 .213

.980 1.23 1.47 1.s7 .832 1.07 1.30 1.78 .787 .gs7 1.22 1.70 .731 .955 1.18 1,65 .707 .928 1.1s 1.6? .186 .317 .400 .685 .864 1.09 1.s0 1.95 2.31 2,65 3.35 .148 .254 .322 ,561 .715 .918 1.30 ,t.72 2.OB 2.42 3.13 .131 .227 .288 .505 .648 .837 1.20 1.62 1.97 2,g1 3.02 j22 .211 .268 .473 .609 .790 1.14, 1.5s 1.90 2.24 2.e5 .116 .201 .255 .452 .583 .759 1.10 1.51 1.85 2.19 2.90 ,111 .194 .246 .437 .s65 .737 1.Q7 1.47 1.82 2.16 2.86 .108 .1S8 .240 .426 ,551 .720 1.05 1.45 1.79 2.13 2.84 .100 j74 .222 .396 .514 .67s ,994 1.38 1.72 2,06 2.76 .500 .748 .889 1.33 1.59 1.89 2.24 2.98 3.43 3,86 4.76 .408 .617 .737 1.12 1.36 1.64 2.15 2.71 3.16 s.6o 4.51 .365 .554 .665 1.02 1.24 1.52 2.01 2.56 3.02 3.46 4.38 .340 .517 .621 .963 1.17 1.44 1.9? 2.47 2.93 3.37 4.30 .323 .492 .592 .922 1.13 1.39 1.86 2.4't 2.87 3.31 4.?4 .310 .4't4 .571 .892 1.09 1,35 1.82 2.36 2.82 g.27 4.20 .280 .429 .518 .816 1.00 1.25 1.71 2.24 2.7Q 3.14 4.08 .9s1 1.31 1.51 2.08 2.40 2]7 3,39 4.Q4 4.58 5.09,6.17 .794 1.11 1.28 1.80 2.10 2.45 s.o7 s.7s 4.28 4.80 5.91 .7161,00 1.16 1.66 1.94 2.29 2.90 3,56 4j2 4.65 5.77 .668 .940 1.04 1.56 1.84 2.18 2.78 3.45 4.01 4.55 5.68 .695 .896 1,09 1.50 1.77 2.11 2.71 3.s7 3.94 4.48 s.6.1 .592 .,839 .979 1.42 1.68 2.01 2,60 9.27 3.84 4.38 5.52 ,556 .791 ,924 1.35 1.60 1.92 2.51 3.18 3.74 4.2g 5.44 .525 ,748 .876 1.28 1.53 1.84 2.42 3.09 3.66 4.21 5.37 1.51 1.97 2.21 2.90 3.26 3.69 4.38 5.12 5.73 6.32 7.59 1.28 1.70 1.91 2.55 2.90 3.32 4.o2 4.78 5.41 6,02 7.g2 1.17 1.55 1.76 2.37 2.71 3.12 3.82 4.59 5.24 5.S5 7.17 1.09 1.46 1.6s 2.25 2.58 2.98 3.69 4.47 s.12 5.74 7.O7 .926 1.2s 1,43 1.97 2.29 2.68 3.38 4.17 4.84 s.48 6,84 .865 1.17 1.34 1.87 2j7 2.56 g.A6 4.OS 4.72 S.i7 E:74 .8131.10 1.27 1.77 2.O7 2.45 3.15 3.94 4.62 s.28 6.66 2,15 2.70 2.98 3,76 4j7 4.63 5.39 6.20 6.89 7.56 9.01 1.8s 2.36 2.62 3.36 3.7s 4.22 s.00 5.8s 6.56 7.25 8.74 1.70 2j7 2.42 3.13 3.52 3.99 4.78 5.64 6.97 7.07 8.s8 1.39 1.80 2.02 2.68 3.05 3.51 4.31 5.21 5.97 6.70 8.2s 1.28 1,67 1.88 2.52 2.88 3.33 4J4 s.Os s.81 6.s6 8.13 1.19 1.56 1.76 2.38 2.74 3,18 3.99 4.90 5,68 8.44 8.03

APPENDTx D

611

TABLED.2 (Continuedl

,v

M I 10 11 12 15 20 30 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 20 30 11 12 13 14 15 16 1B 2a 25 30 12 13 14 1s 16 17 18 20 2s 30 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 25 30

.01 2.85 2.49 2.25 2.16 1,93 1.76 1.63 3.59 3.18 2.94 2.78 2.66 2.50 2.39 2.31 2j2 4.38 3,91 3.63 3.45 3.31 3.20 3.04 2.93 2.75 2.65 s.19 4,68 4.37 4.15 3.99 3.86 3.76 3.60 3.36 3.32 6.03 5.47 5.13 4.88 4.7Q 4.56 4.34 4.03 3.85

.05 3.48 3,08 2.85 2.70 2.43 2.24 2.08 4.30 3.84 3.57 3,39 3.26 3.08 2.95 2.87 2.64 5.15 4.64 4.34 4.13 3.98 3.86 3.68 3,56 3.36 3,25 6.01 5.46 5.13 4.90 4.72 4.s9 4.48 4.31 4.04 3.90 6.90 6,31 5.95 5.69 s.50 5.35 5,'t2 4.77 4.s8

0.1 3.80 3.37 3.14 2.97 2.70 2A9 2.32 4.84 4.17 3.89 3.71 3.57 3.38 3.25 3.15 2.91 5.52 5.00 4.6S 4.47 4.32 4.19 4.01 3.88 3,68 3.56 6.41 5.85 5.51 5.27 5.09 4.95 4.84 4.66 4.39 4.24 7.31 6.72 6.35 6.09 5.90 s.74 5.51 5.16 4.96

0.5 4.65 4.20 3.94 3.77 3.46 3.23 3.03 5.57 5.O7 4.75 4.s9 4.44 4.33 4.09 3.99 3,73 6.49 s.97 5.65 5,43 5.27 s.14 4,95 4.81 4.s9 4.47 7.44 6,88 6.54 6.30 8.12 5.98 5.86 5.68 5.40 s.24 8.39 7.80 7.44 7.18 6.9S 6.83 6.60 6.24 6,04

t.0 5.09 4.64 4.38 4.20 3.89 3.65 3.45 6.03 5.54 5.26 5.06 4.91 4.70 4,56 4.46 4.19 6,98 8.47 6.16 5.94 5,78 5.6s s.46 5.32 5.10 4.98 7,95 7.40 7.O7 6.84 6.66 6.52 6,41 6.23 5.95 5.79 8.92 8.35 8.00 7.75 7.56 7.41 7.18 6,83 6.63 5.59 5.14 4.89 4.17 4.40 4.16 3.95 6.56 6,09 5.81 s.61 5.41 5.27 5.13 5.02 4.76 7.54 7.04 6.74 6.54 6.38 6.2s 6.07 5.93 5,72 s.59 8.53 8.01 7.69 7.47 7.30 7.17 7.06 6.88 6.62 6.46 6,41 6.00 5.76 5,59 5.29 5,06 4.86

10 7.30 6.92 6.71 6.56 6.29 6.07 5.89

15 8,05 7.71 7.51 7.37 7.13 6.93 6.77

20

30

8.80 10.4 8,48 10.2 8.2S 9.99 8.17 9.88 7.94 9.69 7.76 9.s4 7.61 9.41

7.44 8.39 7.OO 8.01 6,75 7.78 6.57 7.62 6.43 7,50 6.34 7.33 6.11 7.21 6.02 7.13 5,77 6.90 8.47 8.02 7.75 7,56 7.41 7.30 7.13 7.O1 6.81 6.69

9.22 10.0 11.9 8.87 5.72 1' 1.6 8.66 9.52 11.4 8.51 9.39 11.3 8.41 9.2S' |1.2 8.25 9.15 11.1 8.15 9.06 11.0 8.07 8.99 11.0 7.87 8.81 10.8 13.3 13.0 12.8 12.7 12.6 12.6 12.s 12.4 12.3 12.2 14.7 14.4 14.2 14.1 14.0 14.0 13.9 13.8 13.7 13.6

10

9.49 10.4 11.3 9.09 10,0 11.0 8"86 9.81 10.8 8.69 9:66 10'6 8.56 9.55 10.5 8.46 9.46 10.4 8.31 9.33 10,3 8,21 9.23 10.2 8.04 9,08 10.1 7.93 8.99 10.0 12.s 12,2 12.0 11.9 11.7 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.3 11.2

11

9.s0 10.6 11.6 9,04 10.2 11.2 8.76 9,94 11.0 8.56 9.77 10.8 8.40 9.63 10.7 8.28 9.s3 10.6 8.18 9,44 10.5 8.03 9.31 10,4 7.79 9.10 10.2 7.64 8.98 10,1

12

9,52 10.s 11.7 B.9B10.1 11.3 8.65 9.77 11.O 8.42 9.56 10,8 8.24 9.40 10.7 8.09 9.27 10.6 7.87 9.08 10.4 7.54 8.78 10,2 7.35 8.61 10.0

12.7 13.8 16.1 12.4 13.4 1s,8 '12.1 13,2 15.7 12.0 13.1 15.5 11.8 13.0 15,5 11.8 12.9 15.4 11.6 1e.8 1s,3 11.4 12.6 15.1 11,3 12.5 1s.0

the

numericalcolumn headingsindlcateblockingprobability(%).

GLOSSARY
lines. line 2BlQ. Four-level codeusedin ISDN basicrateaccess of 99Vo theenergy a signal' of containing 997oPowerbandwidth.Bandwidth dialing. Speed Abbreviateddiating. ,See point by Accesstandem. "switching systemwithin a LATA used as an access long-distance carriers." only that Add-drop multiplexer (ADM). Networkelement accesses a portionof a point extractandinsertlocal traffic at an intermediate higherlevel digital signalto of a route. Added-channelframing. TDM framing format utilizing an additionalchannelwith purposeof defining frame for channels the express the samerate as the message boundaries. Added-digit framing. TDM framingformatutilizing anadditionalbit in everyftame purpose definingframe of for repetitivesequence the express with a prescribed boundaries. Advanced mobile phone service (AMPS). Analog cellular mobile telephone standard NorJhAmerica. of +V, signalwith values 0' -y. A Alternate mark inversion(AMI) signal.Three-level with altemating (logic 0) is encoded V. A mark (logic 1) is encoded with 0 space Also refered dutycyclepulses. of values +Vand-t/, whichale nonnallyonly 507o to asa bipolarsignal. Alternate mark inversion violation. In AMI coding, the occunenceof two polarity.Also refenedto asa bipolarviolation. successive markswith the same by signalcaused nonuniform Amplitude distortion. Distortionof a transmission passband as attenuation a functionof frequency. of Amplitude modulation(AM). Modulationof the amplitude a carrierwavewith of signal. the amplitude a baseband so of binarysignals thatthe symbolfor a Antipodal signaling. Technique encoding I is theexactnegative the symbolfor a 0. Antipodal signalingprovidesoptimum of ratio. in errorperformance termsof the signal-to-noise 613

614

GLoSSAFY

Asynchronousnetwork. A networkin which the clocksof the transmission links andswitchingsystems not synchronized eachother. are to Asynchronoustransfer mode (ATM). packet-switched methodof time division multiplexing(labeled multiplexing) utilizing fixed packet (cell) sizes 53 bytes. of Asynchronoustransmission.Mode of communication characterized start-stop by transmissions with undefined time intervals between transmissions. Each transmission burstgenerally contains singleword or byteof information. a Automatic call distributor (ACD). switching sy$temusedto evenly distribute incoming calls to a number of stationson a first-come,first-servedbasis. Applications includeoperator assistance airlinereservations. and Automatic number identification (ANr). process identifyingandforwardinga of callingnumber networkcall conffolservices. to Automatic repeat request (ARo. Error correctionprocess involving the use of redundant checkbits to detectcomrptedblocksof dataand triggerrequests for retransmission the same. of Availability. (l) With respect switchingsystems: numberof outletsavailable to the from a particular inlet.(2) with respect equipment general: percentage to in the of time theequipment providingacceptable is service. Balancedcode. Line codewith equailyoccurringpositiveand negative energyro preclude dc component thefrequency a in spectrum. Baseband.Literally, the frequencyband of an unmodulated signal. A baseband signalis an information-bearing signalthat is eithertransmittea is or usedto as modulate carier. a Baud rate. unit of signalingspeed (symbols second). binary signaling per For the datarateis the same the baudrate.For multileveltransmission datarateis as the equalto thebaudratetimeslog2(L),where is thenumber levels. L of Bipolar coding. ,See Altematemarkinversion. Bis. secondversion.Ter meansthree.For example,v.27bis and v.27ter are the second third versions theV.27 standard, and of respectively. Bit leaking. Process convertingbyte-sizedtiming adjustments of. into multiple bit-sized fractional or bit-sized timing adjustments. Blockedcallscleared(BCC). Service discipline whichunserviceable in requests are rejected thesystem by withoutservice. Also calledlosrcallscleared (LCC). Blockedcalls held (BcH). servicediscipline which unserviceable in requesm sray "in thesystem" withoutbeingserviced havinga portionof theirdesired but service time elapse until service begins. Also calledlosrcallsheld (LCH). Blocking- Inabilityof a callingpartyto be connected a calledparrybecause to either all circuitsarebusyor thereis internal(matching toss)blockingwithin a switch matrix. Bridged tap. Extrapair of wiresconnected shuntto a maincablepair.The extra in pairis normallyopencircuited maybeused a futuretimeto connect main but at the

GLOSSAFY 615

but taps Shor.t-bridged do not affectvoicefrequencysignals pair to a newcustomer. canbe extremelydetrimentalto higherftequencydigital signals. Building integratedtiming supply (BITS)- Mastertiming supplyfor all equipment in a building. of Busy hour. The 60-minuteperiod of a day (and sometimes a weet) in which the is highest. offeredtraffic load average for responsible negotiating Call admissioncontrol (CAC). ATM controlprocess dependent the traffic loads on parameters new connections for quality-of-service of the networkat the time. Call congestion.Blockingprobabilityof a trunk group. for callsintended to system reroute of a Call forwarding. Process signaling switching a particularnumberto someothernumberon a temporarybasis. of Call waiting. Process insertinga shorttoneinto the voicepathof an activeuser informing the userthat anothercall is waiting to be connected. Catling number identiticafion (CM). Service whereby a telephonenetwork (or with incomingringing' provides identityof a callingnumber person) the detection(CSMA/CD). Accessprotocol Carrier sensemultiple accesdcollision of flustny to detectthe presence for a commonbus or radio link in which sources facility is idle. If anothersource a carrier and then begin transmittingwhen the begins transmitting during a period of time correspondingto the maximum transmission cease and transmission delay,acollisionis detected all actiyenodes for a randomarrount of time. technique Carrierlessamplituddphase(CAP) modutation. QAM implementation followedby signalwaveforms (DSP)generation filteredquadrature of usingdirect signal. for DSPsummation thecomposite per as of CCS. Measure traffic intensityexpressed so manyhundredcall seconds CCS= I edang. hour;36 the that Cell delay variation (CDV). An ATM QoSparameter specifies maximum delaythrougha network' rangeofcell propagation cell transfer delay (cTD). An ATM QoS parameterspecifying the average from its sourceto its destination. propagation time for a cell to be transferred Central office. Public network switchingoffice (and particularlythe switching Also referredto as an lines areconnected. machinewithin it) to which subscriber any end office or class5 office. In a more generalsen$e, switch in the public referredto asa centraloffice. networkis sometimes carrierto an Centrex service. Privateswitchingserviceprovidedby a local exchange centraloffice switch. and organizationutilizing hardware softwarepartitionsof a first-level digital signalof the the CEPT-|. Term usedto designate 2.048-Mbps (More often referredto a$an EI signal') fTU-T digital hierarchy. for channels each signaling signaling(CAS). Use of $eparate Channel-associated from the may be separate individual signalingchannels channel. The message

616

GLoSSARY

message (as channels in El) or derived within themessage channels themselves (as in Tl). channel bank. Equipmentthat convertsmultiple analoginterfacesto and from a time-division-multiplexed digitalbit stream analog oneDSI or 30 analog (24 io to oneEl). Channel banksarealsousedfor FDM applications. channel service unit (csu)- Equipmentinstalledon customerpremises the at interfaceto phonecompanylines to terminatea DDS or Tl ciicuit to provide networkprotection diagnostic and capabilities. Also calleda customer service unit. circuit Emulation service (cEs). An ATM servicein which constant-bit-rare virtualcircuitsuseAALI adaptation emulate end-to-end to an physical circuit. Circuit switching. The principleof establishing end-to-end an connecrion between usersof a network. The associated facilities are dedicated the particular to connection heldfor theduration thecall. and of clear-channelcapability.Ability to providea transparenr 64-kbps channel through a North American network(usingBSZSandcommon-channel signaling). clock. Time base usedto controlthe transfer digitalinformation. of C'message weighing. Selective atlenuation voiceband of noisein accordance wifh the subjectiveeffects as a function of frequency (noise weighting filter characteristic in NorthAmerica). used codec(coder-decoder). Integrated circuit providing analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion voicesignals. of coded mark lnversion (cMr). Two-levelline codein which a binary 0 is coded with a positivelevel and an equal-magnitude negative level for half a unit time intervaleach. binaryI is coded A with a full-periodpositiveor negative levelin an alternating manner maintain balance. to dc coherent demodulation. Demodulation using a carier reference that is synchronized frequency phase thecarrierused themodulation in and to in process. common-channelsignaling. use of a separate channeldedicated tran$port to of signaling information pertaining a multiplenumberof message to channels. community dial office (cDo). small, normallyunanended switchingsystem is that usedin smallcommunities is controlled and from a rarger centrar o}fice. companding. Process compressing signalat the source expanding of a and it at the destinationto maintain a given end-to-enddynamic range whiie reducing the dynamicrangebetween compressor-expander. the concentration. Process switching somenumber of lighfly used channels of or sources ontoa smaller number moreheavilyusedchannels. of Conferencecall. Call in which threeor morestations interconnected a manner are in that allows all parriesto talk andbe heardby all otherparties. connection admissioncontrol (cAc). An ATM functionthatdetermines whether a vifiual circuit (vc) connection request should accepted rejected. be or constant (or continuous)bit rate (cBR). An ATM classof service that supports transmission a continuous rate. of data

GLOSSARY 617

modulated carrierwith no or Constantenvelope.A (frequency phase) the carrieramplitude. Controlled stip. Slip involving the repetitionor deletionof an integralnumberof TDM frames. so arranged that an input array of crosspoints Crossbar switch. Rectangular input$ can be switchedto any output to connected a row of crosspoint outputs. to connected a columnof crosspoint from onecircuitinto another' signaltransfer Crosstalk. Unwanted Custom Local Area Signaling Services(CLASS). Signalingservicefor analog call' telephone between first two ringsof anincoming the linesprovided telephone are by enabled CLASS services Caller ID, Call Return,Call Principalfeatures Dialing' PriorityRinging,andRepeat Call Preferued Forwarding, Screening, network). point of view of a packet (from the message Datagram. Singlepacket telephone DataphoneDigital Service(DDS). Serviceoffering of common-carder kbps. at providing channels 2.4,4.8,9.6,56,or 1544 digital companies relativeto I mW' dBm. Powerlevel in decibels in weighting expressed decibels dBrnC. Power level of noise with C-message noisepoweris -90 dBm = 10-l?W. noise. Reference relativeto reference dBrnC0. Noise power measuredin dBmC but referencedto the eero-level level point. transmission involvingthe useof technique Decision feedbackequalization(DF'E).Equalization that are responses a receiver in channel simulated to values produce deftcteddata to receivedsignal Samples cancel channel from subsequent then subtracted distortion. by signal continuously an for Deltamodulation.Technique digitallyencoding analog signal Theanalog only thepolarityof thesignalslope. and measuring transmitting of as approximation theinput' is reconstructed a staircase traffic. (offered traffic not includingretries.) Demandtraffic. First attempt Desynchronizer. Circuitry that extractsa tributary digital signalfrom a composite, of clock frequency thetributary. the higherlevel signalandderives source Digitat advanced mobile phone service (D-AMPS), Digital mobile telephone of standard North America,alsoknownastS-I36 TDMA. of the Digital circuit muttiplication {DCM). Process increasing numberof voice compression the link on carried a digitaltransmission through useof speech signals removalor both. or silence multipledigitalsignals for Digitsl loop carrier (DLC). A TDM system transporting lines. to andfrom multiplesubscriber PCM samplevaluesfor the putposeof pad. Digitat circuit that changes Digitat signal. analog (attenuating) powerlevelof theencoded the adjusting by (DBS)system developed satellite system(DSS). Directbroadcast Digital satetlite Corporation. Electronics Hughes

618

GLOSSAHY

Digital speechinterpolation (DSI). Dieital equivalenr rASI whereindigital of speech signals monitored connected a hansmission are and to channel only when voiceactivityis present form of DCM). (a Digital video broadcasting(DvB) group. European digitat rv standard TV, for audio,anddata.DvB canbe broadcast satellite terrestrial via or systems. Direct broadcastsatellite(DBS)- One-way broadcast TV service from a sarellite to a small l8-in. dishantenna. Direct inward dialing (D.rD). process a publictelephone of networkprovidingpBX extension numbers with incomingcalls. Double-sideband modulation. Modulationtechnique which a baseband in signal with no dc energydirectly modurates carrier to produceboth upper and lower a sidebands no carrierenergy. but Dual'tone multifrequency (DTMF) signaling. Generic name for pu$h-button telephone signaling equivalenr theBell Sysrem's to TOUCH_TONE. Dynamic rflnge. Rangeof power levels(minimumto maximum)achievabre by a signalor specified equipment for operation. E&M lead signaling. Interfacebetweena switchingsystemand a transmission system utilizingpairsofwires for signaling areseparate that from thevoicepairs. outgoing controlsignals from eachfacility arecardedby respective M-leadsto E-leads theotherfacility. of Echo canceler.Devicethatremoves talkerechoin the returnbranchof a four-wire circuit by subtracting delayed a versionof the signalhansmitted the forward in path. Echosuppressor.Devicethatis activated voiceenergy onepathof a four-wire by in circuit to inserta high amountof signallossin the otherpathior the purpose of blockinganecho. Echo. Reflectedand delayedsignal.common sources echo in the telephone of networkareelectrical reflections four-wireto two-wireconversions acoustic at and reflections with speakerphones. Edge switch. An ATM switch providing gareway interfaces to non-ATM communication links. Elastic store. First-in,first-out databuffer that accepts dataunderconftol of one clockandoutputs dataundercontrolof another clock. Electronic automatic exchange(EAx). Designationof stored-program control switching machines developed cenerarrelephoneandErectronic*s. by Electronic switching system (ESs). Designation of stored-program conhol switching machines developed AT&T. by End office.class5 switching office.Arsoreferred asa centraloffice. to Envelopedelay. Derivativeof channelphaseresponse with respect frequency. to Ideally, the phaseresponse should be linear, indicating ttrat att frequencies are delayed equally.

GLOSSAHY 619

Envelopedetector. Methodof detectingamplitudemodulationby trackingonly the peakvalues a carrierwave. of with fixed or distortions for of Equalization. Practice compensating transmission circuitry. adaptive of Erlang. Measureof traffic intensity.Basically,a measure the utilization of a (e.g.,the average number busycircuitsin a kunk group,or theratio of of resource time an individualcircuitis busy). at Error second.A l-sec intervalcontaining leastI bit error. purposes that for defined administrative area Exchange area. Contiguous of service countryside the an typicatlycomprises enriretownor city andincludes immediate areamay have one end office or many end offices An and suburbs. exchange offices. interconnected trunksandtandem by of ontoa largernumber output of inputchannels Expansion. Switchingof a number channels. diagnostic Extended superframe format (ESF). A Tl framing format that embeds datalink into the8-kbpsDSI framingchannel. and capabilities a facility link (FS). An (ESF)transmission failuredefinedas 10 consecutive Failed seconds errored seconds. severely or from onechannel circuit energycoupled Far-end crosstalk(FEXT). Unwanted link. at anothercircuit andappearing the far endof the transmission into Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI). High-bandwidthfiber transmission networks. local for system interconnecting area for discipline a queue. FIFO. First-in,first-outservice for Flow control (in data network). Procedure controlling the rate of transferof packets from onenodeto another. officeto a from oneswitching of circuit (FX). Extension service Foreignexchange office, by subscriber normallyserviced a differentswitching Forward error correction (FEC). Error correction techniquewith sufficient errorswithoutretransmission. into redundancy embedded thesignalfor correcting channelsfor each direction of Four-wire circuit- Circuit using two separate is involved, each direction of transmission.When wireline transmission pair is by transmission provided a separate of wires. clippedin a TASI or DSI system of that loss. Fraction speech Sets Fractionalspeech begin. whentalk spurts are all because channels in use and of Frame aliSnment. Identification thebeginning endof a TDM frameusinga pattern, framing daia time slots in a TDM format in which the positionof Frame. Set of consecutive signal' to time slotscanbe identifiedby reference a framealignment individual the Frequencydiversity. In radio systems useOfoneor moreback'uptransmitters, (multipath)fadingatmospheric to channels, receivers protectagainst and

620

cLossAny

Frequencydivisionmuttiplex (FDM). Partitioning bandwidth a rransmission the of link into separate channels lesserbandwidttr of into which separate signalsare inserted extracted. and Frequencymodulation (FM). Moduration process that variesthe frequency a of carriersignalin accordance a baseband with information signal. n'requencyshift keying ff'sK). Digital modutationtechnique which in data are represented discrete by frequencies. n'ricative. speechsoundproduced with continuous flow throughone or more air vocaltractrestrictions cause turbulence to air (friction).Example fricativesounds ares,f, t, x, orj, Full'duplex. Transmission two directionssimultaneously in (also referredto as simplya duplexoperation). Gateway network element (GNE). A soNET node with an interface to unsynchronized tributarysignals. Gaussian noise. Background noisewith a uniformfrequency spectrum across band a of interestand havingamplitudesamplevaluesthit foliow a normal(gaussian) probabilitydistribution. Glare. simultaneous seizureof both endsof a two-way trunk by two switching machines trying to setup two separate connections. Global positioning system(Gps). Global satellitenavigationsystem commonry usedby telecommunications sy$tems a time and friquency synchronization as source. Half'duplex transmission.Transmission bothdirections only in one in but direction at a time. HDB3. Modified AMI (bipolar)line codein which stringsof four 0,s areencoded with an AMI violationin thelastbit. Head'of-line hlocking. Blocking of cells or packets a FIFO queue in because the nextenffry cannot serviced be while otherentries thequeue in couldbe serviced. Highway. A TDM pathinsidea digital (TDM) switching machine. Hook flash. Momentarydepression the switchhookto alert of afl operatoror equipment, not solong asto be interpreted a disconnect. but as Hot standby. Redundant equipment kept in an operational mode as backupfor primaryequipment. usually,automatic switchingiothestandby equipment occurs whentheprimaryequipment fails. Huffman coding. processof assigningvariabreJength digitar codewordsto a message whereinthe length of a codewordis inverselyproportional set to the probabilityof occurrence respective of messages. Thus a freiuentty hansmitted message requires fewerbits thanthe average rength all messages.' of Hybrid fiber coax(HFc). cable terevision distribution system involvingrheuseof fiber in the feederportion of the networkfrom a head-end fiber nodes to followed by coaxdrop$to residences neighborhoods. in

GLossAHY 621 Hybrid. Device used to connecta two-wire, bidirectionalcircuit to a four-wire circuit. of intervals speech' duringsilence Idle channelnoise. Noiseoccurring link transmission when inserted a synchronous into Idle character. Controlcharacter thereis no informationto be sent' spike of noise that is much larger than randomly Impulse noise. Short-duration (Gaussian) noise. disnibuted within the samechanneland band of Inband signaling. Signalingtran$mitted toaffic. frequencies for message used (IDN). Network in which digital TDM transmission Integrated digital network matrices. into links aredirectlyinterfaced digitalTDM switching Integrated servicesdigitat network (ISDN). Integrateddigital network in which and channel one ofa with directaccess signaling interfaces provided are subscriber channels. or moredigital64-kbps Intercept. Processof diverting a caII from an intendedstation to an operatoror recorded announcement. International Telecommunications Union (ITU). International standards ITU-T)the that organization subsumed CCITT in Marchof 1993(renamed set Internet. Connected of networksusingTCP/IP suite. by systemcaused a in Intersymbol interterence (ISD. Interference a transmission the out onesignalinginternalbeingspread andoverlapping sampletime symbolin signalinterval. of a symbolin another Jitter. Short-termvariationsof the significantinstant$of a digital signalfrom their to ideal positionsin time. Short-termvariationsare often defined to correspond above10He. frequencies group that defineshow Joint photographic experts group (JPEG). ISO standards still to compress pictures. the Justifrcation (pulsestuffing). hocess of adapting rateof digital signalby adding bits non-information-carrying at a sourceinterfaceandextractingthe samebits at interface. a destination (pulse-stuffing) used synchronize to rate Justificationratio. Ratioof thejustifrcation justificationrateallowedby a higher a hibutarysignalto the maximumpossible level multiplex format. (A justification ratio of { implies one-third of the rate adjustrnentopportunitiesare null bits and two-thirds of the opportunitiesare fributarydatabits.) that switching system allowsusers premises telephone Key system. Small,customer lines (andreceivedial tonefrom a cenffaloffice). to directly selecttelephone LAN Emulation. An ATM serviceoffering that emulatesEthernetor token ring LANs. Line administration. SeeLoad balancing.

622

GLossARy

Line code. Setof electrical optical)waveforms (or chosen represent for the to data purpose transmission. of Load balancing. Adjustingthe assignment very activecustomer of linesso that all groupsof customer lines in a multistage switchreceiveapproximately same the amount traffic. of Loading coils. Lumped-element inductors inserted periodicpointsin cablepairs at to flattenouttheirvoicefrequency response. Althoughloading coilsimprovevoice frequency ffansmission, severely they attenuate higherfrequJncies required as for digitaltransmission. Local access transport area (LATA). serviceareaof a local exchange and carrier (localoperating company). Longitudinal current. Electrical current passing alonga pair of wiresin a common direction.Contrast Metalliccurrent. Loop start. Off-hook signalingprotocolinvolving theflow of dc current between the tip andthering of a subscriber loop. Loop timing. Synchronizing hansmit timing of a bidirectional the link to the received timing of the same link. Lost calls cleared(alsolosssystem).Modeof operation whichblocked in callsare rejectedby the networkandmay or may not return. Lost catls held. Mode of operation holdsblockedcall requesrs that until a channel becomes available. portionof a call thatgetsblockedis lost. The Mfil networkmultiprexing equipment usingbit stuffing {ltiplexer. Asynchronous for 28 individual1.544-Mbps Dsl signals createa1/..ii6-lvrbpsns3 signal. to Main distrlbuting frame (MDF). Framework usedto crossconnect ourside plant cablepairs to centraloffice switching equipment.The MDF providesprotection andtestaccess theoutside to plantcablepairs. Management lnformation base(MrB), coilectionof software definedobjects that canbe accessed a networkrnanagement via protocol(e.g.,sNMp or TMN). Master clock. Particularlyaccurate stablefrequencysourcefrom and which various nodesin a networkextracttheir operatingfrequency(clock). Master frame. set of consecutive TDM framesthat areidentifiedby a masterframe alignment signal(MAS). Matching loss. Blockingwithin a mulristage switchmahix resultingfrom at least onelink in all suirable pathsthroughthematrixbeingbusy. Maximum time interval error (MTrE). Largesttime interval error occurring in all possible measurement intervals lengths within a measurement of periodT. Message switching. practiceof transporting complete messages from a $ource a to destination in non-real time and without interaction between source and destination, usua.lly a store-and-forward in fashion. Messageunit accounting. Activity-based billing as opposed flat-ratebilling, to whichis independent ofusage.

GLOSSARY 623

directions a wire pair asa resultof in Metallic current. Currentflowing in opposite alongthe pair. ContrastLongitudinalcurrent' a differencesignalpropagating Minimum shift keying (MSK). Digital frequencyshift modulation wherein the of magnitude a frequencyshift is theminimum amountrequiredto producea 180" shift in a symbolinterval. of phase A Modem. Contractionof the termsmodulationand demodulation. deviceusedto "voicelike"datasignals transmission telephone lines.A modem over generate for "dataset"in olderBell System terminology. to is referred asa applications' method for used interoffice Multifrequency (MF) signaling, Signaling tonesto encode10 digits andfive special MF signaling usestwo of six possible auxiliarysignals. signalfollowstwo phenomenon whicha singletransmit in Multipath. Transmission pathsto a receiverwith differing delays. or moreseparate signalfor of Muttiplexing. Process combiningmultiple signalsinto a composite over facilities. transmission coilrmon a for Mutually synchronized network. Technique synchronizing networkin which all nodes derive their operating frequency as the average of their own of and free-rUnning clock frequency thefrequencies somenumberof othernodes in thenetwork. in energycoupledfrom a ffansmitter one Near-endcrosstalk(NEXT). Unwanted location(nearend). of circuit at the same circuitinto a receiver another Network element (NE). Internal node of a SONET network whoseintetfacesare signals theSONEThierarchy. of a is Network management.Network management the function of supervising maximumutilization of the networkunderall networkto ensure communications and, when necessary, requiresmonitoring,measuring, conditions.Supervision actionto control the flow of traffic. capable using of Next generationdigital loop carrier (NGDLC). A DLC system to links SONETtransmission andprovidingbasiccompliance theBellcoreGR 303 standard. Nonblocking. Switchingnetworkthat alwayshasa freepathfrom anyidle incoming trunk or line to any idle outgoingkunk or line. Nonreturn to zero (NRZ). Line code that switches directly from one level to of Eachlevel is heldfor the duration a signalinterval. another. to raterequired extractall informationin an Nyqulst rate. (1) Minimum sampling analogwaveform.The Nyquist rate is equalto twice the bandwidthof the signal rate B, (2) with a bandwidth the maximum channel beingsampled. In a baseband (28) that pulsescanbe transmitted without intersymbolinterference. seryiceor in use. receiveris requesting Off hook. Stateor conditionthat a telephone or of a telephone line. acfivestatus signalto indicate Also a supervisory Offered traffic. Amount of traffic carried by a systemassumingthe systemhas doesnot block or delayanycalls. and inJinitecapacity therefore

624

clossAny

On hook. Inactivestatus a telephone line. of or One-waytrunk. Trunk circuitthatcanbe seized only oneend. at Open systems interconnection(OSI). Communications protocolreference model introduced ISo consisting seven by of layers(physical, link, network,transport, presentation, session, application). out'of-band signaling. signaling technique thar u$esthe samepath as message traffic but a portion of the channelbandwidthaboveor below that usedfor voice. Pair-gain system. subscriber transmissionsystem that serves a number of subscribers a smaller with number wire pairsusingconcentration, of multiplexing, or both. Parity. Process addinga redundant to a group of informationbits to maintain of bit eitherodd or evennumbers l's in the composite of groupof bits. A parity error results an oddnumberof l's is detected if whenevenparityis transmitted vice or versa. Partial-response signallng (pRS). use of controlledintersymbolinterference to increase signaling in a givenbandwidth. the rate Permanentvirtual circuit (pvc). virtual circuit(x.25), virtualconnection (Frame Relay), or vinual channel connection(ATM) that emulatesa leased-line connection, Personalcommunicstions system(pcs). Digiral mobile cellular telephone sysrem operating l9fi)-MHz frequency in bands North America(1g50-1910 in MHz for mobileto base starion1930-lgg0 MHz for basesrarion mobile). to Per-trunk signaling. Method of signaling in which rhe conrrol information pertaining a pafricularcall is transmitted to over the samecircuit (channel) that carries call. the Phasedistortion. Signaldistortionresultingfrom nonuniform delayoffrequencies within thepassband. Phase reversalkeying(PRK). specialcase phase of shiftkeyinginvolvingonly two phases l80o apart. Phase shift keying (PSK). Formof digitalmodulation uses distinctphases that Zn to represent bits ofinformationin eachsignalinterval. n Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (pDH), Designation of the original digital multiplexing hierarchy utilizing free-running clocks at all leiels of the multiplexing hierarchy. Pleslochronous. Method of network synchronizationinvolving the use of independent (unsynchronized highly accurate) but clocksat thesame nominalrate. Pointer burst. In soNET, the occurrence multiple pointerjustificationevents of (PJEs) onepolaritywithin the time constant a desynchronizer of of circuit. Pointer justiflcation event (pJE). changein a pointervalueto accommodate phase drift.

GLOSSARY

625

Polar signaling. Two-level line coding for binary datausing balanced(symmetric) levels. positiveandnegative of Powerspectraldensity. Distribution signalpowerasa functionof frequency. Primary referencesource (PRS). Top level (Stratum1) clock sourcewith an of+l v lfl-tt. accuracy rings for Priority ringing. Feature incomingcall discriminationin which a telephone phone set numbers, for ringingpattern callsfrom a select of with a special Private branch exchange(PBX). Switchingequipmentused by a companyor and to switching access thepublicnetwork. organization providein-house to message taffic from onefransmission of Protection switching. Practice transferring in link link to a spafetransmission whenthe formeris degraded somefashionor upgrades. te$tsor equipment for maintenance facilitiesin suppotlof a particularservice Provisioning. Allocatingor deallocating (tuminga seryice or off;. on offering by filter recommended CCIfi. Noise-weighting weighting. Psophometric analog a Pulseamplitude modulation (PAM). hocess of representing continuous of are The samples. amplitudes thesamples of waveformwitha series discrete-time andthereforeanalogin nature. continuous into PAM samples discrete of Pulsecodemodulation (PCM). Process converting by levelsrepresented digitalcodewords. Pulsestuffing. SeeJustification. signalingon each channelmodulafionusing partial-response QPRS. Quadrature channel. amplitudemodulationof Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Independent usingthe samecarrierfrequency. two orthogonalchannels by the Quantlzation noise. Differencebetween discretesamplevaluerepresented a digital codeandthe original analogsamplevalue. typeof pulse channel with a particular channel. Digital transmission Raised-cosine timesof adjacent at the sample that no response produces intersymbolinterference "raised is from theform ofthe cosine" derived intervals. designation The signaling (l + cosine cosine or squared). frequency spectrum analytical ATM switch input stage a multiple-stage of a Recirculation. Passing cell backto an blockingin an because encountered it be whenthecell wouldotherwise discarded outputstage. Reframing time. Amount of time it takes to detect and synchronizeto a frame signal. alignment Regeneration. Process of recognizing and restoring a digital signal before perturbafions the signalaccumulate the point that bit elrors occur' to of and Regenerativerepeater. Device usedto detect,amplify, reshaPe, retransmita digital bit stream.

626

GLossAFty

Return loss. Difference decibels in between reflected incident and energy a signal at reflection point. Ringback. Signaling tonereturned switching by equipment a callerindicating to that a calledpartytelephone beingalerted is (ringing). Ringing voltage. Low-frequency signalusedto activate ringerof a telephone ac the (typically,a20-Hzsignalat 90 V rms). Robbedbit signaling.NorthAmerican practice usingtheleastsignifrcant pCM bit of of everysixthframefor channel-associated signaling. Router. Store-and-forward packet-switching element that processes packetheaders anddetermines appropriate an outputrink for each packet usingroutingtabres and routingprotocols. severelyerrored seconds (sES). An (ESF)transmission performance link measure definedastheoccurrence 320or moreerrored of seconds. Sidetone.Portionof a talker'ssignalthatis purposely backto theearpiece that fed so thetalkerhears or her own speech. his signaling. Exchange electricalinformation(otherrhanby speech) of specifically concemed with the establishment controlof connections manasement and and in a communication network. simple network managementprotocol (sNMp). standardprotocolfor perforrning networkmanagement functions (created theIntemetcommunity). by Simplextransmission.Mode of operation involving transmission onedirection in only. singing. Audibleoscillation a telephone of circuitcaused a netamount gainin by of a four-wire$egment thecircuit. of Singlemodefiber. Fiberthatis narrowenough preclude to ffansmission anoptical of signalalongmorethanonepath. single-frequency (sF') signating. Methodof conveying dial-pulse supervision and signals from oneendof a trunk or line to the otherusingthepresence absence or of a singlespecified frequency. 2600-Hz A toneis commonlyused. slip. Deletionor repetitionof datain a datasffeamcaused an over{lowor by an underflow of an elastic store due to variations in the write and read rates. A controlled is a deletionor repetition an entireframeof datasotheposition slip of of theframingbits is undisturbed. Slopeoverload. Saturation oftherangeofdifference signalsinadifferential encoder caused a signalwith a large, by rapidchange amplirude, in soNET island. collection of one or more soNET GNEs and NEs that createa continuous SONETpathfor a digital signal. spacediversity. In radiosystems, useof two receiving the antennas possibly and two separate receiversto provide protection against atmosphere-induced signal attenuation (fading).

GLOSSARY 62f

in Spaceexpansion. Use of more centerstages a multistageswitch than there are array. from a last-stage arrayor outputs inputsto a first-stage banks. T1 Spanline. Repeatered line from endto endbut not includingchannel an code to represent often*calledtelephone Speeddiating. Use of a short address in The commoncontrolcomputer a PBX or endoffice providingsucha number. the seryicehanslates shortcodeinto the desirednumber. Spread spectrum. Processof distributing an information-bearingsignal acrossa of bandwidth thesignal. that bandwidth is muchwiderthantheinherent are Star network. Networkwith a singlenodeto which all othernodes connected' capacity kansmission Statisticalmultiplexor ($tat-mux). Multiplexerthat assigns the tributary is actively transmitting to a tributary only when the source of information. (SXS)switch. Elecffomechanical usingstep-by-step switchingsystem Step-by-step as progressively up a connection eachdigit is dialed. set switchelements to switching. Stored-programcontrol (SPC). Computer-controlled on of Stratum clock. Definition of free-runaccuracy a clock depending stratumlevel network. in synchronization ratio. Stuff Rstio. SeeJustification or to control Supervisory signal. Signal used to indicate the statusof a on equipment theline. wide-area Switchedmultimegabit data service(SMDS). Public,packet-switched carriers. offeredby common service datacommunications restswhenit is not handset Switchhook. Hook or buttonsuponwhich a telephone beingused. Symbolrate. SeeBaudrate. Synchronizer.Circuitry that insertsa nibutary digital signal into a higher level justification(pulsestuffing)in theproce$$. multiplexed signalandperforms nodesoperateat Synchronousnetwork. Network in which the clocks of separate rates. identical signal in transmission.Mode of digital transmission which discrete Synchronous (symbols) transmitted a fixed andcontinuous rate. at are elements Synchronous. Mode of operationin which two or more pieces of equipmentof the rate at networkperformtheir operation$ preci$ely same for anindefiniteamount of time. The rateof operationis derivedby distributionof a timing reference. process integrates that networklayer(layer3) Tag switching. Fastpacket-switching (layer 2) switching to simplify address and protocol routing and data link layer processing. Talker echo. Ponion of a talker's voicethat is retumedto thetalker andheardby the on to talker. The amountof annoyance a talker is dependent both the amountof signal. of thereturning delayandthe amplitude

628

cLos$ARy

Tandemoflice. In general, intermediate any switchusedto establish connection. a In specific terminology, tandem a officeis a switchusedto interconnect offices end in an exchange area. TASI. Time assignment speech interpolation, practice concentrating group the of a of voicesignals ontoa sma]ler groupof channels dynamically by switching activl voicesignals idle channels. to Ternary coding. use of all states a three-level of codeto sendmorethan I bit of informationin a singlesymbol.This is in contrast bipolarcoding,which uses to three levels, but only one of two in any particularinterval. one methodof interfacingbinary datato a ternaryline codeis to encode bits with threeternarv 4 (483T). symbols Tie line. Dedicated circuitconnecting privatebranch two exchanges. Time compression multiplex. Transmitting in two directions on a single transmission link using altematingdirections of transmission ("ping-pong" transmission). Time congestion.Ratio of time that all facilitiesof a sy$tem busy(congesred). are Time congestion refersto the status the system doesnot necessarily of and imply thatblockingoccurs. Time deviation (TDEV). Square of thetime variance root (TVAR). Time division multiplexing (TDM). sharinga rransmission amongmultiple link usersby assigning time intervalsto individualusersduringwhich they havethe entirebandwidth a system. of Time expansion.Useof moretime slotson internallinks of a switchthanexist on external links. Time interval error (TrE). variation in time delay of a given signalrelative to an idealtiming signalovera particular time period. Time variance (TVAR). Measure the expected of time variationof a signalas a functionof time separation. Traffic carried. Amount of raffic canied (by a group of circuits or a group of switches) duringany periodis the sum of the holding timesexpressed hours in

(cclrr).

Trafric engineering.Networkmanagement activitythat analyzes average peak and traffic loadsto determine how to designor reconfigurea networkto maximizethe traffic capacity of the network and to ensurean acceptable value of blocking probability. Traflic flow. Amount of traffic (in erlangs or ccs) carried or offered to a transmission or switching link sy$tem. Transhybrid loss. Amountof isolation(in decibels) between andrerurnparhs go on thefour-wiresideof a four-wireto two-wirehybrid. Transmission levelpoint (TLP). specification, decibels, thesignal in of ar tr)ower a point in a transmission systemrelative to the power of the samesignal at a (hypothetical) transmission zero levelpoint (0_TLp).

GLOSSARY 629

to FDM voicesignals TDM that Transmultiplexer(transmux). Equipment convefls voicesignals vice versa. and equalizerutilizing a tappeddelay line and Transversal equalieer. Time-domain weightingcoefficientsat eachof the tapsto removeintersymbolinterference. indicating messages connection setup Traveling classmark. Codethataccompanies provisions maybe desired' that of request any special and thenature the service systems. between switching two Circuitor channel Trunk. at Two-wny trunk. Trunk circuitthatcanbe seized eitherendof thecircuit. Two-wire circuit. Circuit consistingof a single pair of wires and capableof in directions. carryingtwo signals opposite simultaneously and Binaryline codeusingsinglepolaritypulses zerovoltagefor thetwo Unipolar. codinglevels. pulsepositions a specif,ied at in Unit interval (UI). Nominaldifference timebetween datarate. Unspecifiedbit rate (UBR). Classof serviceof ATM without specificquality referredto as"besteffort" service. assurances sometimes User datagram protocol (UDP). An Internet protocol without network delivery (I-ost or erroredpacketsarenot retransmitted.) guarantees. as of Variablebit rate(VBR). Classof service ATM with qualityassurances long as and average peakdatarates' to the sourceadheres preestablished of Vector quantization. Choosing one codeword representative one discrete waveformhasthe waveformof a set of discretewaveformssuchthat the selected of bestmatchto a segment thesignalbeingencoded. transmissionthat Vestigiat sideband transmission.Form of single-sideband a small amountof carrierenergyand includesa vestigeof the deletedsideband networkthroughwhich all packets circuit. Paththrougha packet-switched Virtual "connection" flow. associated a particular with Waiting time jitter. Timing jitter causedby waiting for a timing adjustment arises' opportunitybeyondthe time whenthe needfor an adjustment of a digital signalfrom their instants Wander. Long-termvariationsof thesignif,rcant less of oscillations frequency longtermimpliesphase idealpositions time,where in for point (typically l0 Hz) that is specified each thanor equalto a demarcation interfacerate. to Wavelengthdivisionmultiplexing (WDM). Useof multipleopticalwavelengths multipleopticalsignals. carry in a across bandof interest which spectrum White noise. Noisewith a flat frequency or takenat twicethebandwidth lower havezerocorrelation. samples (WATS). Service thatpermitscustomers services Wide area telecommunications calls long-distance to make(OUTWATS)or receive(INWATS or 800 Service) andto havethembilled on a bulk basisratherthanindividually. packet-switched networks. protocolstandard accessing for X.25. International

PROBLEMS TO ANSWERS SELECTED

mWC 1.1 2000pWC, 2(10)-6 1.3 500pwC 1.5 250pW at -3 dB TLP 3.r l kHz,2 kHz, 3 kHz 3.2 2.43dB degradation 3.4 49.4Mbps 3.6 38.5dB 3.8 0/110/0110 3.10 23.5dB 3.14 (a) 13;(b) 33 (c) Quantization Sample Noise 30.2 .2

123.2 -2336.4 8080.9

-.8 .4 .9

NoisePower .04 .64 .16 .81

SQR(dB\ 43.6 43.7 75.3 79.1

(b) 1.76dB 3.17 (a)3 dB by 3.19 SQRincreases 20.6dB 1, I 1, l, 3,21 0/l I 0/000 0/I 10/000 1/110/000 and I /110/000 (noninverted) 4.1 37.5bits 4.3 1.76dB frametime = .097seconds. 4.5 (a) Average (b) Maximumaverage time = 0.193seconds. reframe 4.7 141bits 4.9 94 ms (b) 3.78dB 4.ll (a) 1.99dB (c) 18 (b) 19 4.15 (a) 81 631

632

ANSwERSToSELEcTEDpHoBLEMS

4.17 +l (a) (b) (c) l+D l-D l-D2 -3 |, -4 +l

a

-1

0
a

+4 0

+2

+ 2 + 4 +2

+ 0 +4

6 -

0 6 -6

250 (a)621 (a).11 (b) .2s (a)55,296 (a)4l (b) 10,828 (a) Total number memory of bits = 48,0fi). (b) Complexity 1504. = 5.11 900bits (a) .5 dB degradation NewBERis l(10)-8 1600 Hz (a) lTVoof peaksignalpower. (b) 15.3dB reduced errordistance. (a) 7.14dB advantage 32-QAM. 6.7 for (b) 4.78dB advantage 32-QAM. for 6.9 1l.2 dB degradation eruor in distance 6.11 1.5(161*r 6.13 3 d B 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.5 7.1 195Bits if thereceiver knowsthenominaldatarate. 370Bits to accommodate peak+o-peak shifts. 7.3 +1.3UI with 99%probability 7.5 5.37(10)-5 misframeVsec (onceevery5.2hoursT 7.7 ?5.6dB relativeto I UP 7.9 l.ZVo g1 7.11 (a) TIE = +4.736 (b) MTIE = 44.7?i61JI. .188 dB/km l6 km Al" at 1300nm is 5 timeslargerthanAl, ar 1550nm. (a)2m for mBlP (b) m + I for mBlC (a) MinimumDSl rate= 1.542 Mbps. (b) MaximumDSI rate- 1.546 Mbps. 8.11 (a)Minimumrate= 44.712 Mbps. (b) Maximumrate= 44.784 Mbps. 8.13 68.7psec 8.1 8-3 8.5 8.1 8.9

5.1 5.2 s.3 5.5 s.7 5.9

ANSWERSTOSELEoTEDPHOBLEMS 633

9.1 9.3 9.5 9,7

6500kbps. I1.4kbps Channel output= +7; channel output= +9 I 2 SIR= 12dB

10.1 (a) 2.5kbits/message (b) 100bits/message 10.3 Totalnumberof bits is 86 bits. f0-5 (a) 0.aa5 by ft) delayis increased 30 milliseconds 11,f 1250 meters 11.3 56 to 62.67 kbps (e) .453 l2.l (a)40 calls/hour (b) .989 (c)9.5Vo (d) .19E 12.3 t.4E 12,5 (a) 15ports(14 portswith finite source analysis) (b) B = 97o 12.7 (a)2.2Vo (b) rEo 12.8 (a) B = 307a (b) add6 channels 12.10 (a) At *.it = 32 E. (b) 46 circuitsrequired B < .57o. for 12.13 (a)B = lOVo (b) B = .787o 12,14 2 WATS lines 12.16(a)83.3Vo (b).833 sec (c)30.6Vo (d).833

INDEX
Abandoned calls,48 Abbreviated dialing, 16, 17 Access 12 tandem, powerconhol(ATFC),323 transmitter Adaptive (AMPS),53,70, Advanced mobilephoneservice 437-454 Research Advanced Agency(ARPA/ Projects ARPANET),456,468,473 Aliasing,95,96 pagiflg,444 Alphanumeric NationalStandards American Institute{ANSI),4, 22t,f,81 Analogbridge,86 interfaces,47,62,63,87 Analog ,132,2'10 Analogradio,6,63-65,85, 189,284,303,320, 383 Asynchronous mode(ATM), 3, 154,204, transfer 208,310,331,,159*504, 540,564-568 layers(AALs),484-493,566,568 adaption available rate,475,476 bit calladmissioncontrol,479,489 cell discarding,489,566 cellloss,480,489 cell packing,487 cell transfer delay,476 circuitemulation,485,487 bit constant rste,415,484 qualityof service (QoS),476,484 switching,477,484,564 synchronous rcsidual time stamps, 485 taffrc shaping,489 unspecified rate,475, 416 bit variable bitrate, 475,476,484,487 virtualpathconnections, 477 (ACD),76,226,555,570 call Automatic distributor Automaticgain conbol (AGC), 120,506 (AM), 12 number Automatic identification protection Automatic 210,322,411 switching, Automaticrepeatrequest(ARQ), 170, 459 estimation, Backward 120,136,146 Badframemasking,440 prnduct (BDP),388,390, Bandwidth distance 393,406,435 Banyan network,482,483,494 restoration, Baseline 172 Batcher, E.,483,493 K. Battery,35,47,272, 511 184, Baud,54, 185,309,326,502 Bell, Alexander craham,6, 383 V. Benes, E.,483,493 Bemoullian,542 Binomialprobability disribution,527 Bipolarviolation,175-178,193-199,214,215 Bit insertion. 168 Bit leaking,428 Blocking blockedcallsclemed,523,530,569 Clos,232 Jacobaeus, 238,239. 273,274,525 t,eegraph, 155,221,234-239,2ffi,262, ?0, 271,274,525 probability,16,17,25,217,234-275,376, 481-570 BORSCHT, 272 47, Bragggratings,403 Bridgedtap,88, 185,316,495,497 ,507,515 Bridgingclips,267 Bursterrored 204 second, Busyhour,234,241,265,522, 540,569,57O Busytone,42, 43,374,380 Byte stuffing, 409,415,416 Cablemodems, l, 512 5l

635

636

INDEX Conferencing, n2,214 bridge,87, l40' 2'72, 273 digiral,87 Congestion theory, 265, 52Q,547 Constant envelope, 291,301,309,314,Ml 288, Constant holdingtimes, 528,529 Constant service times, 489,554-566 Constraint length,2O5, 2W, 223 phones Cordless

Cable TV, 65,387,5l I, 516 Call congestion, 541 Call distribution, 226 Call forwarding, 18 16, CalItracing,16 Call trarsfer,18 Callwaiting, l8 16, Catrtier recovery, 282,297,335,350 28, CCIR (InternationalRadioConsultative Committee),4,320 CCS(hundred seconds), 522,569 call 521, Cellulardigitalpacket data(CDPD),288,453,454 Cellulargeographic service area(CGSA),53 Centrallimit theo,rem. 447 Central office terminal(COT),508,510 Centralizedattendant, I I Centrex, 18,50 17, Channelbanks analog A5.26 LsE,29 LMX.28 digital Dl, 107-1 2t0, 211,222,4tr 14, DlA,59 D2, 109,110,156,187_189.223 D3, 103,109,tl4, 156,160,212,220,222. 4ll D,l, 109,212.4r3 D5, 109. 178.215 Circuitswitching, 269,4#, 475, 480,5I 9, 520, 3, s39 Class service. of 473,476 Clearchannel capability, 178,496 Clipping,25, 40, 540,541,545,541 Clockrecovery, 297 60, Clos,Charles, 232,273,482 C-message weighting, 41,99, 114 35, Coaxial cable, 26-30,16t*176 18, Codeblocking,379 Codedivisionmultipleaccess (CDMA), 151,365. M5-454 Coherent modulation, 283,291.297,321 Coin telephone, 508 Compact disc,9l,92 Companding, 37,91,106-128, 317 AJaw, 115,116,130,132,154,155, 272 instantaneous, I l6 nearlyinstantaneous, l2l 159,160,174,272 F255,109-114, syllabic, ll6 Competitive localexchange canier(CLEC),12 Compressed voice,I 51, 154, ,484,487,494 478 ConcenEation,24

crz, 133
DECT. I33 Crossconnect switches, 52, 218, 226,U5, 46, 265-26e,362. 492.510 Crosstalk, 34,293,495 CSMA/CD,453 Customer service (CSU),215 unit Cutoutfraction, 546 Datagrams, 467,468 465, DATAPAC,465 Dataphone (DDS),63,168,268. digitalservice 456 Dataundervoice(DW), 64 DATRAN,456 dBrnC/dBmC0,36, 42,72, 101 dc balance, l8l, 395,399.500 dc restoration, 172,ll3,396, 502,514 dc wander, 172-194,396, 398,502 Decision feedback, 173,317,328 Decorrelation,262, 482 Degraded minute,2O4 Delaysystems, 519,522,539,552^562 Delayvariation, 413,474 Demandtraffrc, 537, 569 Desynchronization, 426, 427 Differential detection,298 Differential encoding,I 83 Diffractive grating,40I DiffServ.473 Digitalcellular, 54,81,84,91,93,133,141, 3, 151, 153, 277-288, 329,437488 codedi vision multiple access, , 365 444l5l , 452 global systemfor mobile communications, 148,157,288,441454 Noflh American digitalcellular,l5l, 437 Digital circuitmultiplication (DCM), tU, l3.L, 133, 141,540,546 Digital loop carrier(DLC),67, 121,26i,269. 507r509 integrated digitalloop carrier(IDLC),63,267, 508.509. 517 next generation digital loop carrier (NGDIf), 509,510

607
subscriber loop carier (SLC), 62 subscriber multiplex(SLM), 62, l2l loop (UDLC), digitalloopcarier system universal 267.507.508 Digitalpad,514 Digital phones,504 3, Digitalradio, 53,64-85,169,204,278-333, 382,406,456,515 multipleaccess Digital sense with collisiondetection (DSMA/CD),453 (DSPJ,40, Digital signalprocessing 82-88, 130138, r49,165, 267, 330, 271,1W,315, 4?9, 504.506. sr3 (DSI), 124 interpolation Digital speech (DVB), 33, 69,205,316, Digital videobroadcast
JJI

(DBS),33 Directbruadcast satellite Directinwarddial (DID),48 Directprogressive control,I 3, 45,483 (DSS), 33,496,516 Ditectsatellite service Distortion 23, amplitude, 37,60, 132,165, 328,506 delay,389 foldover,95, 105,134 harmonic,55, 132 phase, 55, 164, 37, 328,506 quantization, 57 Diversity aflgle,327 ftequency, l, 32, 326 3 space, 32,328 Doppler,337,119 (DTMF),43-49,83, 153 Dualtonemultifrequency Dynamicpowerconfrol,5I5 Dynamicrange,I03, I 14,304,349 Eb/No,192 Echo,23, 39-55,78-87,120,154,270-273, 34, 41 437,441, 8, 500-502, 13 5 cancellation, 40,46,51,82,154, 1, 273, 27 39, 437 ,44t,502 listenet.39 suppression, 40,46,55,82 39, Elasticstorcs,339 Electxomechaflical switching,13 (ElA), 4, 438, Industries Elecnonic Association 445,450 Elechonic serialnumbers, 1 45 (91 Emergency calling l), 12,511 Encryption, 74, 81, l4l, 169, 73, 350,451,5I2 Bngset 542 distribution, specialized Enhanced mobileradio(ESMR),453 Envelope delay,38,54 Envelopedetection,282,297

55, 3M, 315,317, Equalization, 82, 164,173, 328,437 ,495,507,5 13 amplitude equaliz-ation, 507 315, domain,507 frequency phase, 165,507 quantieed feedback, 173 A. Erlang, K., 454,521-563 Erlang'sdelayfonnula,556,563 Erlang'slossformula,531,54I Erlang'ssecond formula,556 Enor contol, 45, 80,204,376, 440-47 4 convolutional coding,205,207 ,221, 440,443 correction, 19, 138,154,17 195,204,354, 1 5, 423453 cyclic redundancy check(CRC),79,198,204, 213-216,223,331,440,443,460,470 203,1tr;0, 41 detection, forward error corrcction,2O4, 506 (RS),205,207 Reed-Solomon ,223, 453,506 Erroredseconds. 216 20/'. Error free second, 204 Telecommunication European Institute Standards (Ersl), 69,316,331,44I, 509 area, Exchange 9-77,1OB Exchange CarriersStandards Association (ECSA),4,406, s01 distribution, Exponential 525,528,567 Exponentialholding times, 528., 529, 567 service Exponential times,489,554,555,559, 560,562,564-566 (ESF), 199,212-216, 223 Extended superframe Fa*imile, 46, 54, 80,92,132,r41, 152,350 Fade margin, 323,325,326,328,448,515 31, Fa<les, 30-32, l2l, 201,210,X22-329,444-449 Failedseconds 216 sfate. Fastfouriertansform(FFI), 315,316,506,507 FCCmask,321 Feeder, 69,226,265,270,325,387,5 10 22, Fiber dispersion,3S9 dispersion shiftedsinglemode(DS-SMF), 390, 393.4?,5 (FDDI),398,434 datainterface distributed fiber channel, 399 in theloop (FITI"),510 multimode, 385,387,388,389,401,4M, 435 to thehome(FTTH),386,5l I , 5 l2 to thecurb(FTTC),510,512 FT Series 401,433 G, FT3C,388,401,433 Filter partitioning, 8, 320 31 Flag, 169,469,494

638
Flow conhol,43,376-379,4fu-470, 476,489, 561.567 Foreign (FX), 17,46,267,508 exchange Formantfrequencies, 127 Forward estimation, 120,121,136,146 Fractional speech loss,546,547 Framealignmentsignal(FAS), 213 Frame relay,466,472 Ftamerelayaccess device(mAD),472 Frarning added digit,210 bitenors, m3,216 byte,215,364 lossoi 203,209,210.485 statistical.209 unique code,214 line Frequency agility,444 Frequency hoppinE,444, 445,M8 justification, Frcquency 414,415 Fricatives.123 Full width half magnitude (FWHM), 3,gZ,Ns Gaussian,90, I 9l, 202,2O3, I 222,286,333,344, 47 Geostationary satellites, 451,516 338, Glare,47,48,379 Global positioningsystem(CPS),365, i66, 372, 373 GR-303,509, 5t0 Grade service, of 234,241,252,256,258,377, 457,466,536, 558.569 554, &ading,227 Grooming, 267,510 Guard time,85,86,438,442 Hierarchical network, 8, 5l, 52, 535 6, High definitionTV (HDTV),490,507,515 High leveldatalink conffol(IIDLC), 169,214, 449,470,472,494 Hookflash,43 Hybrid,22, 23, 38, 40,4'1,54, 93, 148,151, 2702t2 Hybridfiber coax(HFC),5l I , 512 Impedance matching, 23,,10, 271 Incumbentlocal exchange carrier, 12 Lrfinitesource, 525,531-569 Infbrmationcapacity,506 Information density, 278-288,3 10-317,441 85, INMARSAT,33, I48 Instituteof ElectricalandElectronicEngineers (rEEE),4 Integrated sewicesdigital networkflSDN), l, 456,474-516 (BRI),69,173,185,214, basic interface rate 316.495-510 broadband integratedservices digital network (BrsDN),474 D channel. 189.496-503 L430.499.516 I.,l4l,503 I.451,503 NTI/I.IT2.498.499 primaryrateinterface (PRI),46,69,496 so3 Q.9?1, Q.922,472 Q,931,503 S interface.498.500 S/T basicrate interface,2 I 4 S/T interface. 499.501 TElrrEz,498 U interface.50l. 502 Intelligent network,49, 70 INTEL$AT,32 Interexchange carrier(IXC), 10, 12,406 Interference adjacent channel, 288,317-320,448 cochannel.329 (EMI), 280, 393 electromagnetic intersymbol, 60,74,98,163-188, 54, 288 multipath,322 mutual,43,,14, 84,85 80, narrowband.317,495 krtemationalmobile equipment identity (IMEI), 444 Internationalmobile subscriber identity (MSI), 444 IntemationalStandards (ISO), 5 Organization InternationalTelecommunication Union (IIU), 4, 4l Intemet, l,61, 141, U\453-515 access, 1,453, 504,515 Engineering TaskForce(IETF),473 protocol(IP),204,473, 474,49D-494 provider(ISP),61, U,l,5M service telephony(IP telephony), 473 TCP/IF.473 protocol (UDP) 473 userdatagram Iridium.45l.516 Jitter 38, 176,210, 324.337-358 rnapping,359 measurements, 342 phase, 343,344,358,417 removing,359 systematic, 338 waitingtime,339,358-360,3M, 416 Justification, 351,360,419, 343, 510,528

INDEX Kendall, C.,555 D.

639

tokenpassing ring, 218,485 183,485 802.3, Laserdisc,341 802.5,218 Li ghtningprotec tron,272 842.6,119 Limitedavailability, 76, 227 5?, local exchange canier (LEC), 10,406, Line administration, 241 16, 487,509 Line codeviolation,214,5m Local microwavedistributionservice(LMDS), Linecoding, 81, l6l-174, 190,282 80, 496,515 2BlQ,220,502,516 Local multipoint communications systems (AMI), 1,74-178,337, markinversion altemate (LMCS),515 499.502.517 Longitudinalcurrcnt,2 I space inversion,499 alternate Loop timing,340,346 antipodal, 193,283,291 ,298,333 519, Losssystems, 553, 554,561 172*198,223 bipolar, Lost callscleared, 523,531-569 (BNZS),176-181 binaryN-zerosubstitution Lost callsheld,539,54,0 8325, 176,177,222 Loudesttalker, 273 B6Z3, 177 178,1.80,222 , Low earthorbit satellite,451, 516 B8ZS,168,178 (CMI), 183,184,395markinversion coded Ml2 multiplexer, 354,356-359,361,429 61, 433 398,407, Manual swirchbosxds, 12 levelencoding, conelative 185-188 Matchingloss,265 (diphase),81-1 84,337,396, digitalbiphase 1 Maximumaverage frametine,2l1, 214,222 4m Maximumlikelihood,I 75, 184,207,312 185,188 duobinary, Maximumtime intervalenor (MTIE), 367-373, high density bipolar3 (HDB3), 177 382 Manchester coding,183,337,395-398,400, 535 Mesh,6-8,52, 494 Message 376, sequencing, 503 mBlC, 400,433,435 Message 455462, 552,559 switching, mBlP.399,435 Message accounting, unit 16 mBnB,396,399 Metalliccurent, 2l 3848.399 Mobileassisted handoff (MAHO),440 4858.398 Mobile telephone swirchingoffrce (MTSO), 52, 5868, 398,399,405 53 6888.398 Modems 8Bl0B.399 v.32,40 (NM), 172,l8l-193, 223, non-retum-to-zero v.33,315 219 -288, 298,305,392-396,425,435 v.34,88,279,303,315, 331,495, 513,5r4, panial 165, 198,288, response, 185-187, 3055L'7 3il.320 v.90, 55, 153,279,495,5 514,5 17 13, (RZ), 174,188,389-396,405, return-to-uero Moduletion 425 analog temary,lEO amplitude, 94, 98, 279-283,297,301, ?6, (PST), pairselected 179-181, 195 305 483T, tg0,Z22 doublesideband, 94 unbalanced. 171.399 (FI\4), 221,n7,284, 331, frequency 30, l7l, 193,195,282 unipolar, 387,453 procedure (LAPB), 469,503 Link access balanced index.280.286 l,oadingcoils,23,28,17,54,60, 88, 190,.195, linear,280 507 phase,284,286 Lccal access transport (LATA), 10, 12 and area (PAM),94-98, 107,158, pulseamplitude Localaxea networla(LANs),471-473, 485,498 queued M6,274,513,514 distributed dualbus(DQDB),219 (LANE),485 singlesideband, 85 emulation ethemet, 183,453,485 suppressed carrier, 297, 322

640
Modulation (Cantinued) digital carrierless amplitude and phase (CAP), 280,

309.504 phasefrequencyshift keying continuous (CPFSK),285 (DMT), 316,317,504, discrete multi-tone 507 frequencyshift keying (FSK), 284-286 gaussian minimumshiftkeying(GMSK), 286,330,44r, 453 minimumshift keying(MSK), 285,286, 308,309,315,330,331 multilevelcoded(MLCM), 315 ott/off keying, 282 orthogonalfrequencydivision multiplexing (OFDM),316 phase reversal keying(PRK),283-290 phase shiftkeying(PSK),283-302,438,441 quadrature (eAM), 88,288,301amplitude 328 quadrature partial response signaling (QPRS),310,3il trellis,207,312,314 MPEGIA{PEGz,490 Multichannelmultipoint distributionservice (MMDS),496, 515 Multiframe alignmentsignal,2 I 3 Multipath,30-32, 53, I2l, 322-329,437,444449 Multiplexing frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM), 26* 86, 207,216, 303,317, 402,437453, 5t7 . guardbands,44S hierarchy,27, 28 mastergroup, 63 28, supergroup,28 time division,58,444,461 analog,74 asynchronous, 208,351,461 5S, hierarchy, 74,351 loop,216-218 ring,216 (statmux), 461-463,552 statistical 208, synchronous, 58,2O8, 3, 352,420,46I Multiprotocol label switching(MPLS), 491 Netloss, 34,39,41,42,82,271,384 Network cofltrol point (NCP), 50 Networkcontol protocol(NCP),473 Networkmanagement, 376,377,407,411, 43, 413.477 520 -

Noise background, 47-153, 445 1 Gaussian, 191, 202,222,333,3M 190, idle channel, 81, 102-120,273 72, impulse, 35,55,60,80, 190,203 modepartition, 392 quantization noise,35,99-l19, 128,135,I38. 1 5 91 6 0 , 3 1 7 . 5 1 3 , thennalnoise,35, 3U' 333 whitenoise, 35.99.190 Noisebandwidth, l9l, 192,298-320 Noisefigure,29, 324,3?5 Noisepower,36-42 Nordic mobile telephone (NMT), 54, 437 Normal distribution. I 9l Nyquistsampling rate,94,99, 149,159*165, 305, 326 Offeredload, 244, 265, 377, 529-569 Offset keying, 305 Opensystems (OSI),5, 498,5 17 interconnection Openwire, 18 Overflowtraffic,519.548-553 protection,272 Overvoltage Packet switching, 208,456472, 490,519, 552566 Paging, 4a+,451,516 49, Pairisolation,185 Parity, 199,409 photonicloop, 401 Passive Pathfinding,U2-24 Peakcell rate,475-490 Performance monitoring, l7 l-182, 195,I 99, 79, 2rs,2r6,376.400. 509 Permanent virhralcircuits, 4#,466, 491 Petsonal access communications (PACS), system 133 Personal communication (PCS), system 444,450 Personal handyphone (pHS),133 system Phase locked loop(PLL),336-343,381,428,485 Phonemes,92 Pickup, 18,385 Pilot,28,79,315, 5M Pitch,123,l4l 139,144-149 Plainold telephone (POTS), service 54,495,506, 507.510.512 splithr,506 Pointof presence (POP),10, 12 Poisson, 203,526,527,529,531, 541,550. 540, 551 Poweramplifiers, ?84,291,318,319 30, Precoding,I 86 Primaryreference clock (PRC),485

641
(PRS),186,187,311, himary rcference source 3't0,372,427 506 , (PBX), 16,17,4'l-49 Private branch exchange Privatemobile radio,452 Prcb(delay),556 delay,33,451 Propagation hotection switching,404 Provisioning, 267 (PRS),506 Pseudo sequence random Psophomeric,35, 99 (PCM)modem,153,513, Pulse codemodulation 515 96, Pulse*haping, 307,308 78, Pulsestuffing, 351-364,461 multiplexing, 293 Quadrature signalrepresentations, 290 Quadrature 458, Queueing, 488, 520,552,555,567 delays, 458,465,558,564 finite,561 tandem,566 M/D/l,559 MA{/I, 555,556,559 MA,I/N.555.562,567 MA.4INI*|L.562 Radiocommon carrier(RCC),52 availability, Radiosystem 322 Rainattenuation,30, 321-323, 32, 515 cosine, Raised 319 refies, 537,538,569 Random Rayleigh fading,389 Reedtelays,I 6, 35 329,387,388,401 Refraction, Reframe time,209,222,355 59, Regeneration, 60,74-Bl, 98, l l 1, 167*176 Reis,PhiIIip,l, 69 Remoteconcentr s, 227 ator provisioning, 10 Remote 5 Remote 24, switching, 62, 509 terminal,508 Remote Repeater 30,65,190,195, spacing, 323,388-406 Residual error,136,138 Returning traffic,538 Ringback, 42,43,374 Ringingvoltage, 47,48 43, 376,463,4& Routing, alternate, 13,379 besteffort,4?3 crankback,51 dynamic,463,4M fixed path,463 packels,463 satellite, 26,32,54,75,86, 148-154 Molniya,32 Westar,33 81, Scrambling, 170, 322,396,410,425 Seaplow,404 generation Second cordless 133 telephones, Segregation,26T numbers,470 Sequence controlpoint(SCP),50 Service errored Severely seconds, 6 21 Shannon's theorcm,513 (SMS),444 Shortmessage service 39 Sidetone, 13, Signaling, 14,42-88, I 84-331,500 A andB bits,212,216 associated, channel 213 comrnon 18,43-53,75, 109,153, channel, [l 8, 214,377-380,421,496 E&M.47.49 ground start(GS),48 loop start(LS),47, 48, 508 pertuk,43 bit, robbed 109,178, 216,514 wink,48 (SS7), 52 system 50, Signaling tones,153,314 Signaling (MF),43,49,83,88,153 multifrequency (SF),43, 49,83, 153,212, singlefrequency 216,222,336,391 sin(.r)/x, 298 162,ll2, 28Q, Singing, 38,39,4I, 120,154, 27o,nl 34, Skyphone, 69, 148,157 33, Slips,216,341-350, 362 buffer,420 349,485 controlled, rate, 349,350 Slope 135, overload, 136,l4l Soft handoff.450 Sourcecoderestriction, I 68 expansion Space ,235-262, 525 switching, 257 Space 67, Span line,59,60, 181, 215 Spanswitching,431 Specialized mobileradio(SMR),453 127, Spectogram, 14 284, spreading, 291,386,445,446, Spectrum 448,451 compres Speech sion,124,437,441,49 pauses, 80,8l, 102,120,122,124,170 Speech 34, recognition,46, Speech 86,93, 147 Speech storage,9l Splices, 387,390,404,405 88, Spreadspectrum 445, 448,450 , 217,5lO Starnetwork,

642
Statistical equilibrium, 531,537 program Stored control($PC),16,,14,49, 51, 225,24 Stuffingratios,360,429 Submarine cables, 384,403,540 NLl. 398.434 TransPacific.400 Subscriber identitymodule(SIM),M, 451 Subscriber loops analog, interfaces, line 272,5M digitar, 87, 185, 75, 204,27o,456,495,49'1, 503,516 asymmetric digital subscriber (ADSL), line 3 10,316,317,331,495, 503-516 interfaces,5I0 vDsL.507.510 XDSL,503,507,509 Superframe, 211, 215,419,502 212, Supervision, 272 47, Supervisory audiotone($AT),439 Swirched multimegabit (SMDS),4&4 dataservice Switched viilual circuit(SVC), 46/.,470,487 Swirches, network class 56 3, class 6, 12 4, class (endoffice),9-87, 5 121,225,226,Mt, . 262,270,379, 380,502,508,5?5 crossbar, I3-16,49,66 DMS,16,66,272,274 electronic (ESS),16,49,52, switching system _27 65,7 L, 225,233,259 4, 502 No. 1, 16,65,225,233 No. 101.273 No. lA. l6 N o . 2 ,1 6 N o . 3 .1 6 No. 4, I 6, 49-7l, 225,259,262,273,366, 381 No.5, 16,272,274.502 No. 5 EAX, 16 EWSD,260,273 stcp-by*step, 13-55, 225, 244, 483 toll,6,9,10,67,236 Switching, time division,246 analog,246,252 digital, 67,226,238, ,253,340, 66, U7 548 rnemory switch,248,478-480 network, 210,335, 85, 351,362,485 isochronous,67 I mutual,36?.364 networkmaster,362 plesiochronous, 363,370,381 362, stratum. 370*373.382 Synchronous link protocol(SDLC),469 data Synchronous (SDH),5, 352, digitalhierarchy 4Q6,407,434 Synchronous opticalnetwork(SONET), 3,5,52, 78, lM, 219,M9, 269,352,373,396,405_ 4ll asynchronous mapping,419, 420 concatenation, 269,408 267, gatewaynetworkelement(GNE), 426-428 line overhead, Q414, 425 41 pathoverhead, 410425, 478 pointer adjustments, I 5, 426, 427 4 pointer burst,428 rings,52, 219,405,429 bidirectional swirched (BLSR),431,432 line unidirectional switched (lJpSR), path 429, 435 section overhead, 410,411,425 payload synchronous (SPE), 3, 414 envelope 41 fransport overhead, 4O8-410, 415 virtual tributary (VT), 417,429 Synchronous transmission, 67 I System availability, 322,326,403 gain,323,405 System -178, 2lO, 215,222, T-carrier, 63, 132,167 59, 268,335,337,340 El, 59, 177, 213,359,382,40'_41t, 421,435, t 484.497.510 82, 330,354,359,407.413 H, t84, 407,423.436.478 repeaters, 62, I I l, 358 60, TI48. 181 Ttc,56,60, 185 T l D . 5 6 .1 8 8 Tlc, 185 T2,56,60,6t, 67,69, 169,177,220 T3.56 T4,56 T4M, 169,t70,2l9 Tl committee,4 TI,4, 5, 56-67,84,91,t08, I I I, 132, 156, t67_ 174 Tagswitching,49I Talker echo.39 Tandem clockrecovery, 338' Tandem switching, I, 12,66,67,226,236,237, 8, 370. 535.569 Telephoto,54

sTs.255
TSSSST,262 TSSST.260.261 TST,255*260,275, 348,48Q, 482 Synchronization, 89,221,331,3#-381.427 85, clock,I I l, 209-211,335, 374.513 351, frame,59,209,214,347 hieraxchical, 374

643
Television 29, distribution, 33,54 Tic lines,L7 ,46, U0,268, 553 Time assignment interpolation (TASI), 25, speech 124,540-547,568 Time compression multiplex(TCM),207,280, 312-314,502,516 Timeconge$tion, 542,563 541, (TDMA), 86, 89, Time divisionmultipleaccess 154,438-452,512 Time expansion, 259,261,26?,482 258, Timeintervalerror(TIE), 359,367,369,382 -254, 269, (TSI), l'18, 249 Time slotintetchmge 275,348 (TVAR), 367 369,370 Time variance , Tip andring,48,499, 508 6, Toll network, 9-34, 49,60-69,108,ll3, 271 Traffic intensity 241,521-561 , Transmission levelpoint (TLP), 41,42,7Z 33, Transpondcr, 286 filters,328 Transvemal Trunkdirectionalization, 379 radio,452 Trunked TYMNET.465.468 U.S.Independent Telephone Association (usITA),4, 366,370 (USTA),4 U.S.Telephone Association Unit interval(UI), 343,344,361 ,382 coordinated Universal time,372 v5,419,422,509,5r7 Vectorquantization, 150 Via netloss(VNL),39,41,82 Video,77,2Q4,2'17 ,474-515 ,387 Virtual circuit,464-469,477 ,487,491 Viterbidetectors, 175,184,195,I 98, 201,220, 3l 2. 33I. 454 data, Voiceband 38,40,55,83,98, 124,132,140, r4tt,161,167, 265, 350,485,51I 277,303, Voicecoding (ADM), 136,I40, deltamodulation adrlptive 156.429.510 difTercntial adaptive PCM (ADPCM),1321 4 01 5 3 - 1 5 6 , 2 1 5 , predictive adaptive coding(APC), 136,138, r49,151,157 analysis synthesis, and 92 channel vocoder, 141-14 modulation, 69,9l, 93, 133-136, delta 62, r4t.153.2M diff'erentialpulsecodemodulation(DPCM), 9 3 ,I 2 7 - 1 3 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 3 easilydigitallylinearizable coding(EDL), 108, 110,27?. formuntvocoder. 141.144 predictive Iinear coding, 138,141*158,487 92, algebraic codeexcited(ACELP),154,155, 487 codeexcited(CELP),150-1 58 (MPLPC),147-149,151 multipulse pulseexcited(pelp),I 47 codeexcited(QCELP),l5l,449 Qualcomm residual excited(RELP),147,149,151.158 vectorsumexcited(VSELP),151,I 58,439, 453 pulsecodemodulation (PCM),71, 88-l14, 128,136,140,159 prediction gain,I 36 138,139,142 subband, vocodem,93, 123,I27,141-153 102, c.704.213 G.7ll.154 G.12t,t32,133, 154 G.722, 140,154,157 15 ,? G.723. 155,494 154, G.723.r,154, 155,494 c.726. 154.155 G.727,155 154.155 G.728. G;729, r54,155,158, 487 l G . 8 t . 3 6 33 8 1 . G,821.2M.216 Voice messaging, 92, I 32 91, quality,80,99, 113, Voice 102, 133,146, 151, 443,547 broadcast, 15l communications, 152 l5l, (DAM), I47, acceptability measure djagnostic 151 rhymetest(DRT). 147,l5l diagnostic (MOS),133,l5l mean score opinion signal-to-quantizing (SQR),I02-1 15, ratio 1 5 91 6 0 . 5 1 3 . synthetic, l5l,154 151-155 toll.132. (VCO),285, 336Voltagecontrolled oscillator 343,485 WATS, 17,380,553, -570 (WDM), 26, Wavelength divisionmultiplexing 385-405.434.415 C. Weinstein, J.,546, 568 Wire gauge changes,497 x.25.469-472. 503 Zero bit insertion, 169,469 Zerobytetime slot interchange, 178 Zerolosstransmission, 270

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